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At the beginning of the twentieth century, East Sussex County decided it needed to build an additional hospital because the existing Hayward Health Asylum was becoming overcrowded. Consequently, they created a large psychiatric hospital called Hellingly Hospital, named due to its proximity to the village of Hellingly.
The hospital was built on a 400-acre estate that the Sussex County authorities acquired for £16,000 from the Earl of Chichester.
The architect of the hospital was George Thomas Hine, who specialized in building asylums. The design of the hospital was one of the most advanced of the time.
Construction on his project began in 1898 and total construction costs amounted to £353,400. The official opening took place in July 1903.
The huge complex was designed to cater to every need and as well as central and administrative blocks it also included a recreation hall, shops, kitchens, a power station, a dental office, a hairdressing salon, and a chapel.
Interestingly, the hospital maintained its own electric tramway known as Hellingly Hospital Railways. The hospital’s railway was connected to the main railway station in Hellingly and from there it transported coal that was needed to sustain the boilers and power plant.
Two separate blocks were built so that men and women could be housed separately on-site. Near the men’s chambers on the west side were workshops, a boiler room, a water tower, and a maintenance department, and male patients worked in all of them. Laundries, a sewing room, and homes for nurses were built next to the women’s wards on the east side.
The hospital management also decided to build an extra annex called Park House for children who were considered “mentally defective.”
In an isolated position in the forest, northwest of the main complex, was a building that housed patients with infectious diseases. It was hoped that these contagious diseases could be treated in an isolated spot that would prevent the spread of infection to other patients.
The electric tram stopped taking passenger traffic in 1930 and then the railway track itself was removed in 1959 when the hospital started to use oil instead of coal to heat its boilers.
By the end of the 20th century, the number of patients was gradually decreasing. Despite Hellingly being chosen as one of the five mental hospitals in the southeast to accommodate a medium secure unit, the main hospital ended up being emptied and closed down in 1994.
After the site was abandoned, the complex suffered from arson attacks, vandalism, and theft. However, the secure unit, named Ashen Hill, continued to operate until 2012.
The former hospital soon became a favorite spot for urban researchers and street artists. Over time, the ceilings began to collapse and the windows were partly knocked out.
Eventually, plans for the demolition of the abandoned hospital were brought up and the decision was made to build a residential complex in its place. In mid-2010, some demolition work had already been carried out, but some buildings were left in place.
At the moment, a new medium secure unit known as The Hellingly Center (which opened the year that Ashen Hill closed) is still running and there are plans to open more units alongside the residential housing being built.
The photos below were taken by photographer Ben Garratt who has been photographing and videoing oval track racing events since 2007. You can find a lot of different photos from some abandoned places on his Flickr account which were taken for illustration purposes only.
In addition, all his photos are available in various sizes and prints can be obtained by contacting Ben Garratt via his Facebook page.
Another Article From Us: Abandoned Masonic Temple of Santa Cruz de Tenerife, Spain
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At the beginning of the twentieth century, East Sussex County decided it needed to build an additional hospital because the existing Hayward Health Asylum was becoming overcrowded. Consequently, they created a large psychiatric hospital called Hellingly Hospital, named due to its proximity to the village of Hellingly.
The hospital was built on a 400-acre estate that the Sussex County authorities acquired for £16,000 from the Earl of Chichester.
The architect of the hospital was George Thomas Hine, who specialized in building asylums. The design of the hospital was one of the most advanced of the time.
Construction on his project began in 1898 and total construction costs amounted to £353,400. The official opening took place in July 1903.
The huge complex was designed to cater to every need and as well as central and administrative blocks it also included a recreation hall, shops, kitchens, a power station, a dental office, a hairdressing salon, and a chapel.
Interestingly, the hospital maintained its own electric tramway known as Hellingly Hospital Railways. The hospital’s railway was connected to the main railway station in Hellingly and from there it transported coal that was needed to sustain the boilers and power plant.
Two separate blocks were built so that men and women could be housed separately on-site. Near the men’s chambers on the west side were workshops, a boiler room, a water tower, and a maintenance department, and male patients worked in all of them. Laundries, a sewing room, and homes for nurses were built next to the women’s wards on the east side.
The hospital management also decided to build an extra annex called Park House for children who were considered “mentally defective.”
In an isolated position in the forest, northwest of the main complex, was a building that housed patients with infectious diseases. It was hoped that these contagious diseases could be treated in an isolated spot that would prevent the spread of infection to other patients.
The electric tram stopped taking passenger traffic in 1930 and then the railway track itself was removed in 1959 when the hospital started to use oil instead of coal to heat its boilers.
By the end of the 20th century, the number of patients was gradually decreasing. Despite Hellingly being chosen as one of the five mental hospitals in the southeast to accommodate a medium secure unit, the main hospital ended up being emptied and closed down in 1994.
After the site was abandoned, the complex suffered from arson attacks, vandalism, and theft. However, the secure unit, named Ashen Hill, continued to operate until 2012.
The former hospital soon became a favorite spot for urban researchers and street artists. Over time, the ceilings began to collapse and the windows were partly knocked out.
Eventually, plans for the demolition of the abandoned hospital were brought up and the decision was made to build a residential complex in its place. In mid-2010, some demolition work had already been carried out, but some buildings were left in place.
At the moment, a new medium secure unit known as The Hellingly Center (which opened the year that Ashen Hill closed) is still running and there are plans to open more units alongside the residential housing being built.
The photos below were taken by photographer Ben Garratt who has been photographing and videoing oval track racing events since 2007. You can find a lot of different photos from some abandoned places on his Flickr account which were taken for illustration purposes only.
In addition, all his photos are available in various sizes and prints can be obtained by contacting Ben Garratt via his Facebook page.
Another Article From Us: Abandoned Masonic Temple of Santa Cruz de Tenerife, Spain
| 777
|
ENGLISH
| 1
|
The Canadian Dollar is the official currency in Canada and is recognized as the legal tender of the country. The Canadian Dollar is made up of 100 units known as cents. The currency was introduced into circulation in Canada in the late 19th century and replaced the Canadian Pound. Canada had a long history of other forms of currency before the Canadian Dollar’s introduction.
The 17th Century (1600-1699)
In the 17th century, early Canadian inhabitants used beaver pelts as the medium of exchange. Besides, the beaver pelts and other items were also recognized as the legal tender such as moose skins and wheat. By the mid-17th century, strings made of shell beads as well beaded belts which are collectively referred to as wampum was adopted as the legal tender in the colony of New England. The wampum also existed in different denominations and eight white beads were equivalent to four purple beads which were also equal to one penny. Wampum was highly valued as the making of the beaded items was a complex undertaking (a 5000-bead belt took up to 119 days to complete). Card money was first issued on June 8th, 1685 and another issuance taking only three months later. The Card money currency was printed on playing cards. However, this form of currency was criticized as the card money was prone to counterfeit and fraud.
The 18th Century (1700-1799)
The 18th Century saw the introduction of coinage with the first copper coins being issued in 1722. However, these coins were not popular with merchants who instead encouraged their clients to use the traditional forms of currency and allowed their customers to purchase items based on their respective credit standing. In early 1729, the colonial government was granted permission to reintroduce card money after making a formal request to the King of France.
The 19th Century (1800-1899)
The Montreal Bank was established in 1817 and soon after it was established the first issue of bank notes in Canada was availed in circulation. The bank notes were well received by the general public and were accepted as the primary mode of payment in Canada. The other leading banks in Canada issued bank notes after witnessing the reception of the bank notes issued by the Montreal Bank. The Canadian Pound was introduced as the official currency in Canada in 1841. However, the currency was fractional and so the colonies saw the need to establish a decimalized currency with most preferring to base the new decimalized currency on the US Dollar. The Canadian Dollar was introduced in 1858 and was initially used in the colonies of New Brunswick, Nova Scotia, and Canada which had in 1867 formed a federation known as the Dominion of Canada which had established a gold standard in 1854. The Canadian Dollar was later formally recognized as the official currency in Canada in April, 1871 after the Parliament of Canada passed the Uniform Currency Act.
The 20th Century (1900-1999)
In the early 1900s, Canada and the rest of world were embroiled in the First and Second World Wars which were detrimental to the economy of the country. Canada had temporarily abandoned the gold standard in 1914 during the First World War and later abolished the gold standard indefinitely in 1933.
The 21st Century (2000-present)
In 2002, the value of the Canadian Dollar was exchanging at US$ 0.6198, while the first banknotes made of polymer were issued in November 2011.
Which Bank First Released Canadian Banknotes?
The Montreal Bank was established in 1817 and soon after it was established the first issue of bank notes in Canada was availed in circulation. The bank notes were well received by the general public and were accepted as the primary mode of payment in Canada. The other leading banks in Canada issued bank notes after witnessing the reception of the bank notes issued by the Montreal Bank.
About the Author
Benjamin Elisha Sawe holds a Bachelor of Arts in Economics and Statistics and an MBA in Strategic Management. He is a frequent World Atlas contributor.
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The Canadian Dollar is the official currency in Canada and is recognized as the legal tender of the country. The Canadian Dollar is made up of 100 units known as cents. The currency was introduced into circulation in Canada in the late 19th century and replaced the Canadian Pound. Canada had a long history of other forms of currency before the Canadian Dollar’s introduction.
The 17th Century (1600-1699)
In the 17th century, early Canadian inhabitants used beaver pelts as the medium of exchange. Besides, the beaver pelts and other items were also recognized as the legal tender such as moose skins and wheat. By the mid-17th century, strings made of shell beads as well beaded belts which are collectively referred to as wampum was adopted as the legal tender in the colony of New England. The wampum also existed in different denominations and eight white beads were equivalent to four purple beads which were also equal to one penny. Wampum was highly valued as the making of the beaded items was a complex undertaking (a 5000-bead belt took up to 119 days to complete). Card money was first issued on June 8th, 1685 and another issuance taking only three months later. The Card money currency was printed on playing cards. However, this form of currency was criticized as the card money was prone to counterfeit and fraud.
The 18th Century (1700-1799)
The 18th Century saw the introduction of coinage with the first copper coins being issued in 1722. However, these coins were not popular with merchants who instead encouraged their clients to use the traditional forms of currency and allowed their customers to purchase items based on their respective credit standing. In early 1729, the colonial government was granted permission to reintroduce card money after making a formal request to the King of France.
The 19th Century (1800-1899)
The Montreal Bank was established in 1817 and soon after it was established the first issue of bank notes in Canada was availed in circulation. The bank notes were well received by the general public and were accepted as the primary mode of payment in Canada. The other leading banks in Canada issued bank notes after witnessing the reception of the bank notes issued by the Montreal Bank. The Canadian Pound was introduced as the official currency in Canada in 1841. However, the currency was fractional and so the colonies saw the need to establish a decimalized currency with most preferring to base the new decimalized currency on the US Dollar. The Canadian Dollar was introduced in 1858 and was initially used in the colonies of New Brunswick, Nova Scotia, and Canada which had in 1867 formed a federation known as the Dominion of Canada which had established a gold standard in 1854. The Canadian Dollar was later formally recognized as the official currency in Canada in April, 1871 after the Parliament of Canada passed the Uniform Currency Act.
The 20th Century (1900-1999)
In the early 1900s, Canada and the rest of world were embroiled in the First and Second World Wars which were detrimental to the economy of the country. Canada had temporarily abandoned the gold standard in 1914 during the First World War and later abolished the gold standard indefinitely in 1933.
The 21st Century (2000-present)
In 2002, the value of the Canadian Dollar was exchanging at US$ 0.6198, while the first banknotes made of polymer were issued in November 2011.
Which Bank First Released Canadian Banknotes?
The Montreal Bank was established in 1817 and soon after it was established the first issue of bank notes in Canada was availed in circulation. The bank notes were well received by the general public and were accepted as the primary mode of payment in Canada. The other leading banks in Canada issued bank notes after witnessing the reception of the bank notes issued by the Montreal Bank.
About the Author
Benjamin Elisha Sawe holds a Bachelor of Arts in Economics and Statistics and an MBA in Strategic Management. He is a frequent World Atlas contributor.
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ENGLISH
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English free settlers
English free settlers were people that chose to go to Australia. They were not forced to go there, as the convicts were. The English free settlers went to Australia between the late 18th century and the early 19th century. When the English free settlers got to Australia, they landed in the southern part of the continent. That was the only colony created by the free settlers.
The English free settlers went to Australia to be free. They wanted to make money as well. They also wanted to explore Australia. Most of them were families who wanted a better life with their children. Some people called the English Free settlers "pilgrims". In the early years of the colony, very few settlers came to Australia. Free settlers had to fund their own transport and were usually quite wealthy. The few who made the journey to Australia did so mostly to make their fortune. They were often given large land grants and convicts to work for them.
References[change | change source]
- Australia, Tourism (7 February 2019). "Australia's Art, Music and Culture - Tourism Australia". www.australia.com.
english free settlers
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English free settlers
English free settlers were people that chose to go to Australia. They were not forced to go there, as the convicts were. The English free settlers went to Australia between the late 18th century and the early 19th century. When the English free settlers got to Australia, they landed in the southern part of the continent. That was the only colony created by the free settlers.
The English free settlers went to Australia to be free. They wanted to make money as well. They also wanted to explore Australia. Most of them were families who wanted a better life with their children. Some people called the English Free settlers "pilgrims". In the early years of the colony, very few settlers came to Australia. Free settlers had to fund their own transport and were usually quite wealthy. The few who made the journey to Australia did so mostly to make their fortune. They were often given large land grants and convicts to work for them.
References[change | change source]
- Australia, Tourism (7 February 2019). "Australia's Art, Music and Culture - Tourism Australia". www.australia.com.
english free settlers
| 238
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ENGLISH
| 1
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A little more than a century ago, western society became fascinated by the possibility that spirits of the dead could communicate with the living. Young women calling themselves mediums promised to summon ghosts of lost relatives via séances, during which spirits would demonstrate their presence by shaking a table or ringing a bell. Many people became convinced that the mediums’ powers were real.
Meredith Reddy (PhD 2015) thinks of those mediums as artists, or performers. Her doctoral research in art history looked at old photographs, such as the one at left, to investigate how mediums were able to baffle even the scientists who tried to document the séances. She speculates that the women used a variety of tricks, including secret assistants. The mediums also required séances to be conducted in total darkness, which made it difficult for cameras to record what was occurring. “The scientists would use flashlights, but it was a game of cat and mouse,” says Reddy.
By bringing artificial intelligence into chemistry, Prof. Aspuru-Guzik aims to vastly shrink the time it takes to develop new drugs – and almost everything else
|
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https://magazine.utoronto.ca/people/alumni-donors/the-medium-and-her-message-art-student-meredith-reddy-looks-at-seances-as-performances/
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s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251776516.99/warc/CC-MAIN-20200128060946-20200128090946-00399.warc.gz
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en
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] | 1
|
A little more than a century ago, western society became fascinated by the possibility that spirits of the dead could communicate with the living. Young women calling themselves mediums promised to summon ghosts of lost relatives via séances, during which spirits would demonstrate their presence by shaking a table or ringing a bell. Many people became convinced that the mediums’ powers were real.
Meredith Reddy (PhD 2015) thinks of those mediums as artists, or performers. Her doctoral research in art history looked at old photographs, such as the one at left, to investigate how mediums were able to baffle even the scientists who tried to document the séances. She speculates that the women used a variety of tricks, including secret assistants. The mediums also required séances to be conducted in total darkness, which made it difficult for cameras to record what was occurring. “The scientists would use flashlights, but it was a game of cat and mouse,” says Reddy.
By bringing artificial intelligence into chemistry, Prof. Aspuru-Guzik aims to vastly shrink the time it takes to develop new drugs – and almost everything else
| 227
|
ENGLISH
| 1
|
We started by talking about eating healthy and why it is important. We sorted different food items into things that were healthy and gave our body nutrients and things that were not healthy and only for special treats and occasions. This activity always brings out cute preschool stories... "my dad always sneaks cookies", etc. I LOVE it! We spent time looking through cooking magazines and creating collages of healthy foods to eat. Cutting magazines and creating collages is a great easy way for kids to practice those fine motor skills while always making a beautiful end product they can be proud of. We also talked about the different food groups and watercolored pictures of them just for fun as an art choice. This week we sang "Apples and Bananas" and practiced the letter Hh for Healthy.
We moved on to taking care of our teeth and why it is important. The kiddos were so interested in learning about teeth and were even more excited when I introduced the teeth brushing chart to take home. At the beginning of each class we sang a song about brushing our teeth and then acted out the important steps using our imagination. Our favorite part was pretending to spit in the sink! Our sensory activity was a teeth brushing station where everyone got to practice squeezing a little toothpaste onto their brush and brush the tops and sides of pretend teeth. This was SO much fun and our classroom smelled like toothpaste for weeks. We played a few rounds of roll and count, a great game where you roll the dice... count... and then paint the tooth with the corresponding numeral. This game is wonderful for practicing accurate counting and number recognition. Finally we learned that everyone has 20 baby teeth which you loose as you get older. We recreated a mouth full of teeth using mini marshmallows. This was another great counting activity. Of course we reviewed the letter Tt for teeth.
Finally we learned about the importance of exercise and how it makes your muscles strong. We read a book which talked about muscles in our body and how important they are to us. We played a fun game where we rolled an exercise die and turned over a number card to see how many of those exercises we had to do as a class. This was so much fun and they wanted to keep playing and playing and playing... which I did not being pregnant! Great practice for counting and number recognition though so we went for it. We also spent some time brainstorming different ways to exercise and then did some writing of our own. We drew a picture of our favorite way to exercise and I wrote down what their pictures said. Drawings that tell a story or answer a question are the first steps of writing and the kids were very excited to share their work. Of course we talked about the letter Xx and even made an exercising person out of the letter!
I was not the best at remembering to take pictures this theme... pregnant brain setting in... but hopefully you get the idea.
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] | 1
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We started by talking about eating healthy and why it is important. We sorted different food items into things that were healthy and gave our body nutrients and things that were not healthy and only for special treats and occasions. This activity always brings out cute preschool stories... "my dad always sneaks cookies", etc. I LOVE it! We spent time looking through cooking magazines and creating collages of healthy foods to eat. Cutting magazines and creating collages is a great easy way for kids to practice those fine motor skills while always making a beautiful end product they can be proud of. We also talked about the different food groups and watercolored pictures of them just for fun as an art choice. This week we sang "Apples and Bananas" and practiced the letter Hh for Healthy.
We moved on to taking care of our teeth and why it is important. The kiddos were so interested in learning about teeth and were even more excited when I introduced the teeth brushing chart to take home. At the beginning of each class we sang a song about brushing our teeth and then acted out the important steps using our imagination. Our favorite part was pretending to spit in the sink! Our sensory activity was a teeth brushing station where everyone got to practice squeezing a little toothpaste onto their brush and brush the tops and sides of pretend teeth. This was SO much fun and our classroom smelled like toothpaste for weeks. We played a few rounds of roll and count, a great game where you roll the dice... count... and then paint the tooth with the corresponding numeral. This game is wonderful for practicing accurate counting and number recognition. Finally we learned that everyone has 20 baby teeth which you loose as you get older. We recreated a mouth full of teeth using mini marshmallows. This was another great counting activity. Of course we reviewed the letter Tt for teeth.
Finally we learned about the importance of exercise and how it makes your muscles strong. We read a book which talked about muscles in our body and how important they are to us. We played a fun game where we rolled an exercise die and turned over a number card to see how many of those exercises we had to do as a class. This was so much fun and they wanted to keep playing and playing and playing... which I did not being pregnant! Great practice for counting and number recognition though so we went for it. We also spent some time brainstorming different ways to exercise and then did some writing of our own. We drew a picture of our favorite way to exercise and I wrote down what their pictures said. Drawings that tell a story or answer a question are the first steps of writing and the kids were very excited to share their work. Of course we talked about the letter Xx and even made an exercising person out of the letter!
I was not the best at remembering to take pictures this theme... pregnant brain setting in... but hopefully you get the idea.
| 588
|
ENGLISH
| 1
|
Essay about The Colonization Of African Americans
The history of Africa was changed forever by colonialization and the possibility of this country gaining back its peace and moving beyond the periphery would be very difficult. When the Europeans entered Africa they exploited Africa for all of its resources and imposed their style of European civilization on the African people. They stablished country borders, stripped them of their rich resources, and forced tribes to merge together. Creating a war that is now amongst the African countries themselves. Their political system now fights with ethnical issues, poor economic development, and limited manufacturing. It is because of these issues Africa struggles with political stability, social chaos and an economic crisis that relates back to the colonization era.
The British and French had essentially lived by different systems of ethnic European power that still had competition between each other. Both of these systems had wider areas control yet they had completely different systems of ethnic stratification. Europeans had imposed territorial boundaries throughout Africa in 1885 that divided many groups. Colonies were built under a direct or indirect rule of countries colonizing the colonies. The levels of governments were controlled by the colonial masters in the direct rule as opposed to the indirect rule where governors and council advisors were appointed through colonial’s countries. If there were leaders who resisted the colonization,…
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|
Essay about The Colonization Of African Americans
The history of Africa was changed forever by colonialization and the possibility of this country gaining back its peace and moving beyond the periphery would be very difficult. When the Europeans entered Africa they exploited Africa for all of its resources and imposed their style of European civilization on the African people. They stablished country borders, stripped them of their rich resources, and forced tribes to merge together. Creating a war that is now amongst the African countries themselves. Their political system now fights with ethnical issues, poor economic development, and limited manufacturing. It is because of these issues Africa struggles with political stability, social chaos and an economic crisis that relates back to the colonization era.
The British and French had essentially lived by different systems of ethnic European power that still had competition between each other. Both of these systems had wider areas control yet they had completely different systems of ethnic stratification. Europeans had imposed territorial boundaries throughout Africa in 1885 that divided many groups. Colonies were built under a direct or indirect rule of countries colonizing the colonies. The levels of governments were controlled by the colonial masters in the direct rule as opposed to the indirect rule where governors and council advisors were appointed through colonial’s countries. If there were leaders who resisted the colonization,…
| 259
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ENGLISH
| 1
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The Tortoise and the Hare
Resources needed: Clear space and a copy of the story below.
Introduction: Ask the children do they know the story of the tortoise and the hare. Tell them you are going to tell them the story but instead of just sitting and listening they are going to participate in the story. Tell them that they are going to listen out for the following words and they have to do the action associated with that word when they hear it in the story. The teacher should explain any words that the children might not understand such as boastful – boast is telling everyone how good you are at everything. The teacher should go through the different words and their movement. If there are too many words for the age group the teacher can omit some of them. Once the teacher has gone through the words and the actions, she then shouts out words randomly to see if everyone knows the action. The children find their own space in the room so they can move freely and then the story can begin.
Boast/boastful/boasting – stand up straight and puff out chest
Woods – children make themselves into trees.
Animals – each child choose a different animal found in the woods and move like that animal.
Hare – make bunny ears with your hands.
Fast – children move as fast as they can
Run/ran – run on the spot
Tortoise – children bend over as if they have something heavy on their back.
Slow/slowly – children move in slow motion around the room.
Once upon a time there was a very boastful hare who lived in a woods with lots of other animals. He was always boasting about how fast he could run. He boasted “I’m the fastest animal in the woods. No one can run as fast as me.” The other animals were tired of listening to him. One day the tortoise said to the hare “Hare, you are so boastful. I challenge you to race.” Hare laughed and said “Tortoise, you will never beat me. You are too slow and steady.” They decided whoever got to the other side of the woods the fastest was the winner. All the other animals in the woods came to watch the race. The hare ran as fast as he could through the woods. After a while he thought to himself “I’m so fast that slow tortoise will never beat me. I think I will take a quick nap.” Soon, he fell asleep. The tortoise walked slowly through the woods. He passed the sleeping hare. The animals watched the tortoise near the finishing line. The animals cheered loudly. The hare woke up and ran as fast as he could through the woods to the finishing line but it was too late. The slow tortoise had won the race. All the animals in the wood congratulated the tortoise. The hare had to remind himself that he shouldn’t boast about his fast pace because slow and steady won the race.
Closure: Do you think the hare was boastful after the race? Why not? What lesson did we learn from the story? Now I want you to be your chosen animal again. Everyone line up we are going to have a race but you must move in slow motion.
For more movement stories, click here.
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The Tortoise and the Hare
Resources needed: Clear space and a copy of the story below.
Introduction: Ask the children do they know the story of the tortoise and the hare. Tell them you are going to tell them the story but instead of just sitting and listening they are going to participate in the story. Tell them that they are going to listen out for the following words and they have to do the action associated with that word when they hear it in the story. The teacher should explain any words that the children might not understand such as boastful – boast is telling everyone how good you are at everything. The teacher should go through the different words and their movement. If there are too many words for the age group the teacher can omit some of them. Once the teacher has gone through the words and the actions, she then shouts out words randomly to see if everyone knows the action. The children find their own space in the room so they can move freely and then the story can begin.
Boast/boastful/boasting – stand up straight and puff out chest
Woods – children make themselves into trees.
Animals – each child choose a different animal found in the woods and move like that animal.
Hare – make bunny ears with your hands.
Fast – children move as fast as they can
Run/ran – run on the spot
Tortoise – children bend over as if they have something heavy on their back.
Slow/slowly – children move in slow motion around the room.
Once upon a time there was a very boastful hare who lived in a woods with lots of other animals. He was always boasting about how fast he could run. He boasted “I’m the fastest animal in the woods. No one can run as fast as me.” The other animals were tired of listening to him. One day the tortoise said to the hare “Hare, you are so boastful. I challenge you to race.” Hare laughed and said “Tortoise, you will never beat me. You are too slow and steady.” They decided whoever got to the other side of the woods the fastest was the winner. All the other animals in the woods came to watch the race. The hare ran as fast as he could through the woods. After a while he thought to himself “I’m so fast that slow tortoise will never beat me. I think I will take a quick nap.” Soon, he fell asleep. The tortoise walked slowly through the woods. He passed the sleeping hare. The animals watched the tortoise near the finishing line. The animals cheered loudly. The hare woke up and ran as fast as he could through the woods to the finishing line but it was too late. The slow tortoise had won the race. All the animals in the wood congratulated the tortoise. The hare had to remind himself that he shouldn’t boast about his fast pace because slow and steady won the race.
Closure: Do you think the hare was boastful after the race? Why not? What lesson did we learn from the story? Now I want you to be your chosen animal again. Everyone line up we are going to have a race but you must move in slow motion.
For more movement stories, click here.
| 689
|
ENGLISH
| 1
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John Balliol was the king of Scotland from November 17, 1292-1296. He was selected from twelve or fourteen candidates as King of Scots by Edward I of England, following the death of the Maid of Norway in 1290. Edward then treated Scotland as a vassal state, and humiliated his appointee. John finally stood up for himself and his nation and set up the first international treaty of alliance, the Auld Alliance, between Scotland, Norway and France. In response Edward invaded Scotland, brutally commencing the Wars of Scottish Independence.
Edward defeated John and forced him to abdicate, placing Scotland under the administration of English officials. John was imprisoned in the Tower of London at first but eventually released on condition that he took up exile in France. This left Scotland without a monarch for ten years, until the ascension of Robert the Bruce in 1306.
King John was known as Toom Tabard (Empty Jacket, ie. Puppet). His dates are not known with certainty: he was born either about 1240 or in 1249/50. He died between March 4, 1313 and January 4, 1314.
|List of British monarchs||
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] | 4
|
John Balliol was the king of Scotland from November 17, 1292-1296. He was selected from twelve or fourteen candidates as King of Scots by Edward I of England, following the death of the Maid of Norway in 1290. Edward then treated Scotland as a vassal state, and humiliated his appointee. John finally stood up for himself and his nation and set up the first international treaty of alliance, the Auld Alliance, between Scotland, Norway and France. In response Edward invaded Scotland, brutally commencing the Wars of Scottish Independence.
Edward defeated John and forced him to abdicate, placing Scotland under the administration of English officials. John was imprisoned in the Tower of London at first but eventually released on condition that he took up exile in France. This left Scotland without a monarch for ten years, until the ascension of Robert the Bruce in 1306.
King John was known as Toom Tabard (Empty Jacket, ie. Puppet). His dates are not known with certainty: he was born either about 1240 or in 1249/50. He died between March 4, 1313 and January 4, 1314.
|List of British monarchs||
| 266
|
ENGLISH
| 1
|
Common Idioms and Phrases: Meanings and Origins
What Is An Idiom?
An idiom is a word or, more commonly, a phrase in which the figurative meaning is different than the literal meaning of the grouping of words. There are approximately 25,000 idioms in the English language alone.
For example, there is a common saying in English. You've probably heard it. If I were to say, "Fred kicked the bucket," what would you think?
Now, you could take this literally, in that Fred actually walked up to and kicked a bucket in his path. However, those familiar with the English language would not take this sentence literally, knowing that this is a common saying or idiom that conveys a different meaning implying that a person has died.
This idiom has a rather dark origin. It came from a reference to someone hanging himself by standing on a bucket and then kicking it away, thus "kicking the bucket."
It is interesting to note that while there are different idioms for each individual language, many languages have equivalent idioms found in their respective languages.
For instance, the phrase "kick the bucket" in English which implies, as we've discussed, that someone has died, can be translated into a phrase that means the equivalent in Ukranian, "to cut the oak" (as in, building a coffin); in German, "to look at the radishes from underneath;" or in Swedish, "to take the sign down," and so on.
Most of us use idioms every day and yet many of us don't know how these same phrases originated. It's very interesting to learn the origins behind the phrases and how they came into existence. As you learn about idioms, you also learn about history, geography and culture. Idioms are usually derived from local culture and customs in each individual language.
So, lets explore some common idioms and phrases and take a look at the meanings and origins behind them.
As an idiom, a loophole is defined as a way of getting out of something or escaping a difficulty, especially finding a legal technicality that allows someone to evade compliance.
Where did this term originate from?
A loophole, in the middle ages, was a small slit-like opening in a castle wall that men would fire their bows or musketeers through. The only openings in a seemingly impenetrable wall were these slits which a child or small adult could squeeze through. Thus, a loophole is a small opening, or "out," in a seemingly airtight law, which only the clever few can use.
This is a very common idiom. We use the term "red tape" to denote anything that may delay or hold us up, whatever the process may be. It also refers to a lot of unnecessary bureaucracy or paperwork.
This term originated from the fact that legal and official documents were tied up or bound with red tape since the 16th century. By doing so, it was often difficult to access them. Hence, the term "red tape."
"Break a Leg!"
How many times have we heard someone shout, "Break a leg!" to someone going onstage? This is a phrase that seems to be counter intuitive. Certainly, you don't want someone to actually break their leg onstage. Where did such a saying come into existence?
The phrase was first recorded in print in the early 1900s.
Eric Partridge in his Dictionary of Catchphrases suggests that the term originated as a translation of a similar expression used by German actors: Hals- und Beinbruch (literally, "a broken neck and a broken leg.") The German phrase traces back to early aviators, possibly during World War I, spreading gradually to the German stage and then to British and American theaters.
Why would people twist a wish for dreadful injury into one for good luck? It is suggested that it is a reverse psychology of sorts. Popular folklore down through the ages has been full of warnings against wishing your friends good luck. To do so is was thought superstitiously to tempt evil spirits or demons to do your friend harm. Instead, they would wish their friend bad fortune.
There is also evidence that some have pointed to the stage directions for the opening night of the reconstructed Globe Theater in London which supposedly called for two actors to swing dramatically from a balcony down to the stage on ropes. One of the actors slipped and, you guessed it, broke his leg.
However, this has not been substantiated.
In either case, it has become a common and accepted expression of good luck.
Piece of Cake
We've all heard this one. "Oh, don't worry. That's a piece of cake!" We know this signifies something that is easy, managed with no difficulties. We can do it with our eyes closed.
Where did this idiom originate?
This one's almost self explanatory. What's easier than eating a piece of cake?
The first reference to this was in the 1930s, when American poet Ogden Nash, who wrote Primrose Path, was quoted as saying, "Life's a piece of cake." This sweet idiom has stuck around ever since.
"it's Raining Cats and Dogs!"
Now, this is an interesting one.
This must sound like a very odd expression to someone just hearing it for the first time. There are a lot of things we have seen falling from the sky, but cats and dogs aren't one of them. One has to wonder, how did this expression come about?
It's quite simple, really. It originated in England in the 1500's, when houses had thatched roofs. A thatch roof consisted of straw piled high, with no wood underneath. In cold, foggy England this was sometimes the only place for an animal to get warm. Cats, other small animals and the occasional dog would wind up on the roofs.
When it rained really hard, some of the animals would slip off the roof and wash up in the gutters on the street. Hence, the saying, "It's raining cats and dogs" ended up referring to a particularly heavy rain. Kind of gruesome, isn't it?
"Graveyard Shift", "Dead Ringer" and "Saved By The Bell"
Has someone ever informed you that they are working the graveyard shift? Perhaps you have also heard someone refer to a person as a dead ringer? What about when you hear someone say, "Ahhh, saved by the bell!" What do these phrases have in common? These phrases have a very creepy origin, indeed!
For this, too, we go back to England. If you look at a map, you'll see that England is rather small. Therefore, they started running out of places to bury people. What they did in order to solve this problem was to dig up the existing coffins out of the ground and take the bones to a bone house. They would then reuse the grave.
Sounds like a simple enough solution. However, this practice turned up a very eerie and creepy discovery. An average of about one in twenty five coffins that were dug up to be reused were found with horrific scratch marks on the inside, indicating that somehow people were being buried alive!
This obviously was an unsettling find. In order to avoid this happening in the future, they started placing a string on the wrist of the corpse before it went into the coffin. This string would lead through the coffin, and up through the ground and was tied to a bell on the ground. This way, it was thought, if a corpse was indeed not a corpse and still alive, they could ring the bell (or be a dead ringer) and have a chance to be dug up if they were still alive, and thus, saved by the bell. Someone would have to sit outside all night working the graveyard shift and listen for these bells.
In fact, there was so much hype about this for awhile that there were quite an array of devices invented so that the undead could escape their coffins in case they buried prematurely. Some of them were rather simple with spring loaded coffin lids that would open at the slightest movement inside. Others were much more complex in nature even using electrical switches, early dry cells and buzzers.
For clarification purposes, there has been no actual documented case of any person ringing the bell and thus being saved. It must also be pointed out that this explanation is a bit of a controversy. Some disclaim this theory, saying that while the practice of reusing existing coffins did exist, it was a lot less common than reported.
It has been said that the term "graveyard shift" simply came from nautical origins when a person had the night shift on a vessel at sea and that the shift was named such for the extreme quietness and loneliness of the shift.
It has also been reported that the term ringer simply refers to an old devious practice regarding horse racing and betting in which a proven racehorse similar in looks was switched out for an old nag with a bad record in a race securing a long shot bet. A dead ringer referred to an animal that you could not tell apart from the original without closer inspection.
Whatever the case, it is certainly interesting to ponder over. The truth most likely lies somewhere in between, as is the case most of the time.
It is interesting to note that, regarding the origins of "dead ringer," between 1843 and 1913 there was a lot of time and effort put into patenting designs for escape mechanisms built within coffins. Whether this was due more to superstitions or because of actual evidence of people being buried alive, we will probably never know .
Maybe all these theories are true, to one degree or another. As is the case with language in general, perhaps these stories, too, change and evolve over time, encompassing more than one meaning or origin. This is what makes etymology, the study of the history and origin of words along with tracing their developments and meanings, so interesting.
Minding Your P's & Q's
This is a phrase we hear a lot when adults are speaking to children. This is a term that has come to signify that you are taking care, watching what you are doing, getting it right. The origins on this idiom are actually rather simple.
This one dates back to a time when local taverns, pubs and bars served up their patrons drinks by the quart and by the pint. Bar maids had to keep an eye on the customers and keep the drinks coming. They had to pay special attention to who was drinking pints and who was drinking quarts, thus the term came to be known, "minding your p's and q's."
An Arm and a Leg
"That's going to cost you an arm and a leg!"
This is a common phrase that means simply it's going to cost to the point of sacrifice. It's going to hurt. The price is high.
Where did such a phrase come into existence?
If we step back in time to George Washington's day, we would not see any cameras. For a portrait to be produced, it had to be painted or sculpted.
If you notice old pictures, you will notice something interesting. The paintings may consist of just a person's face. At other times, a person is portrayed with one arm behind their back or both arms may be visible. Interestingly enough, portraits were not charged by the number of people who appeared in the picture, but rather by the number of limbs that were painted.
If they wanted a cheaper painting, then it would "cost them an arm and a leg." Artists knew it took more time and effort since arms, hands and legs were more difficult to paint.
If someone is said to give us the cold shoulder, this means that they are disregarding, dismissing or otherwise ignoring us and treating us with disrespect. We are not welcome in their presence.
The origin of the term has been disputed over the years. However, one viable theory is that it came from serving an unwanted guest a cold shoulder of mutton that had been sitting out for awhile, as opposed to a nice hot meal like the rest of the guests.
Another theory is that it came from keeping one's back, or at least a shoulder, in between yourself and the unwanted person. In either case, it shows disdain and disregard and the message is clear.
Mind Your Own Bee's Wax
Now, honestly, many may think that this is simply a coined phrase mimicking the more common and literal phrase, "mind your own business."
However, it turns out this has a more defined origin. Apparently, in the days before Stridex and Clearasil, ladies would use a thin layer of bee's wax to smooth their complexion where they had severe acne.
There were actually several phrases that came from this practice. If a lady looked too long or stared at another lady's face, they might say, "Mind your own bee's wax!" If the woman were to smile, it might crack the veneer of bee's wax on her face, thus the phrase, "crack a smile." Also, the phrase "losing face" came from when a girl would sit too close to the fire and the bee's wax would melt.
No wonder the Southern belles are always fanning themselves in those old pictures. On those long hot summer days, their faces could literally melt off!
Gossip is a single word defined as something that is said between two or more people, usually derogatory in nature, about someone else.
Although gossip is just one word, it is actually derived from more than one word. Before TV, phones and other media, politicians of old had to depend on feedback to find out what was important to people in their jurisdiction. They did this by sending their assistants out to the local taverns and pubs where most of the people hung out. They would sip some ale, listen to people's conversations, thus learning what was on people's minds and what their concerns were.
They basically were told to "go sip some ale", thus the term "gossip" was coined.
A big wig is generally thought of nowadays to be a person of high repute, a wheeler and dealer, someone prominent.
Back in early days, men and women used to only take baths twice a year (as bad as that sounds). Women would cover their hair so it didn't get as dirty. Men would shave their heads and wear wigs. They couldn't wash their wigs, however, so they would hollow out a loaf of bread, place the wig inside and bake it. This would kill any lice or bugs in the wig. The wig would come out big and fluffy due to the moisture and heat inside the loaf of bread. This is how the term "big wig" came into existence.
Also interesting to note is that the term "to pull the wool over someone's eyes", which we know means trying to fool someone, came into existence because it was referencing pulling a man's wig over his eyes, in effect, blinding him to what you did not want him to see.
Straight from the Horse's Mouth
When we hear someone say, "I heard it straight from the horse's mouth," we know what they mean. It's truth. You cannot contest it. Although being an odd phrase, since horses obviously don't talk, we understand that it means it is something you cannot deny, it's actual fact.
The truth is, horses have always been a prized commodity down through the ages. There were a lot of dishonest people who would try to sell less than quality horses to potential buyers. They would also lie about a horse's age. However, anyone who knew anything about horses knew that you could tell the age by examining the size and shape of the teeth, literally getting the truth straight from the horse's mouth. This is how the phrase later came to mean getting the literal truth.
Heard It Through the Grapevine
This phrase has come to reference something that is heard, unofficially, or indirectly.
This phrase originated at the turn of the century when the telegraph was getting off the ground. Important information was transmitted across country using the telegraph system. The system required thousands of miles of wire to be installed and this wire was held in place several feet above the ground with poles at equal intervals. People thought the wires and poles looked like the strings used to train vines so the telegraph lines became known as "the grapevine".
People then started referring to hearing things "through the grapevine".
Cold Enough to Freeze the Balls off a Brass Monkey
Sailing ships, including war ships and freighters, carried cannons. Cannons fire round iron balls. It was important to keep a steady supply of cannon balls, ready at a moment's notice. However, they were not easy to secure on a moving ship.
The would stack the balls in a square based pyramid with one ball on top resting on four resting on nine, and so on. They would stack the cannon balls in supplies of 30 this way. They would then make a metal plate of iron (called a monkey) with 16 round indentations to hold the cannon balls on the bottom layer.
There was only one problem. Since the balls and the plate were both made of iron and the ship was a very moist environment, the balls would easily rust to the plate, making them difficult to move.
In order to solve this problem, they made them instead out of brass.
However, they didn't realize that brass does not have the same properties that iron does. As it is chilled, it contracts more and it contracts faster. When the temperature dropped too far, the brass indentations would shrink so much that the iron cannon balls would come right off the monkey.
Thus, it was quite literally, 'Cold enough to freeze the balls off a brass monkey.'
More Interesting Origins
If you like this article, you might also like Famous Misquotes:The Best Lines That Were Never Said. We have all heard the famous quotes. "Beam Me Up, Scotty!" "Let them eat cake!" "The British are coming! The British are coming!"
What do all of these famous quotes have in common? The fact that they were never said at all! To find out more, read the article above.
You might also enjoy learning the fascinating origins behind some simple every day words by reading the article Everyday Etymology: Interesting Origins of Ten Common Words That Might Surprise You.
The Study of Language Is A Lot Of Fun
There are interesting words and phrases all around us. Finding out their origins can prove to be entertaining and quite enjoyable. Even a simple dictionary can reveal volumes.
For instance, the word "welcome", which literally came from a meaning of a willed comer. They were invited and therefore willed to come.
Did you know that the commonly used expression "ok" or "okay" came from an abbreviation meaning "all correct?" The word "scapegoat" came from referencing that in the Bible a goat was symbolically given the sins of the people.
There are a lot of idioms and words out there that have interesting meanings and origins. The next time you hear an interesting term or phrase, do some research and find out where it came from. You may be surprised what you find out.
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Beauty is all around us. All you have to do is look.
Questions & Answers
What is the origin of 'The British are coming. The British are coming'?
This is not an idiom. This is a supposed quote from Paul Revere in the history of the pre-United States era. Paul Revere is said to have galloped his horse at midnight through Concord, MA, warning of the coming British Invasion, proving himself hero and solidifying himself as a historical figure. Interestingly enough, however, this was another infamous misquote. You should see my other article, World Famous Misquotes.
The truth is that Paul Revere did manage to warn about the British invasion, but he never made the infamous midnight ride and he never made it to Concord. It was actually Samuel Prescott who made it to Concord to warn of the British invasion, as he, Paul Revere and William Dawes had been detained by a British patrol.
Samuel Prescott was the first to escape and rode to Concord, warning of the coming invasion. Dawes was the second to escape, although the account is that he became lost in the dark and never made it to Concord. Revere was released, but did not have a horse and walked back to Lexington instead, where the battle had already just began. He did, however, warn the rest of Lexington of what was happening.
So, how did Paul Revere become famous for a ride he never took and become a hero for something he never did?
Credit the poet Wadsworth for that. He wrote the poem "Midnight Ride" in 1860, and almost infamously, rewrote history.Helpful 1
What is the origin of the phrase, “on the cheap?”
I have heard this is a rather newly coined phrase, simply manipulating the meaning of phrases already in existence simply by changing out some words.Helpful 12
Where does the expression "he wears his heart on his sleeve" come from?
Although the expression first appeared in William Shakespeare's play "Othello", the saying originated in medieval times. In the King's Court, if a knight was jousting in order to defend the honor of a woman, it was customary for him to wear a handkerchief in her colors around his arm to show his loyalty to her.Helpful 11
What is the origin of 'on the house'?
What I heard was that in England of old, the original pubs were literally large houses. This proved convenient for travelers who wished to get drunk or people who were too drunk to go home.
Thus, the owner could refer to his establishment as a house.
The phrase "on the house" originated when people would have spent so much money at the pub or house, and the money was so far ahead that the pub owner could afford to give you a round for free or in some instances, a room for the night. Thus, 'on the house' was born.Helpful 7
Where does the expression 'bored stiff' come from? Was it used in the 18th century?
I've heard variations on this, but the most common was a hyperbole-type explanation, referring to someone (talking) being so uninteresting and long-winded that the person listening literally dies (goes stiff) before the person stops or notices. As for when it originated, I'm not sure. But it certainly sounds like something that could come from the 18th century.Helpful 5
© 2013 JoyLevine
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Common Idioms and Phrases: Meanings and Origins
What Is An Idiom?
An idiom is a word or, more commonly, a phrase in which the figurative meaning is different than the literal meaning of the grouping of words. There are approximately 25,000 idioms in the English language alone.
For example, there is a common saying in English. You've probably heard it. If I were to say, "Fred kicked the bucket," what would you think?
Now, you could take this literally, in that Fred actually walked up to and kicked a bucket in his path. However, those familiar with the English language would not take this sentence literally, knowing that this is a common saying or idiom that conveys a different meaning implying that a person has died.
This idiom has a rather dark origin. It came from a reference to someone hanging himself by standing on a bucket and then kicking it away, thus "kicking the bucket."
It is interesting to note that while there are different idioms for each individual language, many languages have equivalent idioms found in their respective languages.
For instance, the phrase "kick the bucket" in English which implies, as we've discussed, that someone has died, can be translated into a phrase that means the equivalent in Ukranian, "to cut the oak" (as in, building a coffin); in German, "to look at the radishes from underneath;" or in Swedish, "to take the sign down," and so on.
Most of us use idioms every day and yet many of us don't know how these same phrases originated. It's very interesting to learn the origins behind the phrases and how they came into existence. As you learn about idioms, you also learn about history, geography and culture. Idioms are usually derived from local culture and customs in each individual language.
So, lets explore some common idioms and phrases and take a look at the meanings and origins behind them.
As an idiom, a loophole is defined as a way of getting out of something or escaping a difficulty, especially finding a legal technicality that allows someone to evade compliance.
Where did this term originate from?
A loophole, in the middle ages, was a small slit-like opening in a castle wall that men would fire their bows or musketeers through. The only openings in a seemingly impenetrable wall were these slits which a child or small adult could squeeze through. Thus, a loophole is a small opening, or "out," in a seemingly airtight law, which only the clever few can use.
This is a very common idiom. We use the term "red tape" to denote anything that may delay or hold us up, whatever the process may be. It also refers to a lot of unnecessary bureaucracy or paperwork.
This term originated from the fact that legal and official documents were tied up or bound with red tape since the 16th century. By doing so, it was often difficult to access them. Hence, the term "red tape."
"Break a Leg!"
How many times have we heard someone shout, "Break a leg!" to someone going onstage? This is a phrase that seems to be counter intuitive. Certainly, you don't want someone to actually break their leg onstage. Where did such a saying come into existence?
The phrase was first recorded in print in the early 1900s.
Eric Partridge in his Dictionary of Catchphrases suggests that the term originated as a translation of a similar expression used by German actors: Hals- und Beinbruch (literally, "a broken neck and a broken leg.") The German phrase traces back to early aviators, possibly during World War I, spreading gradually to the German stage and then to British and American theaters.
Why would people twist a wish for dreadful injury into one for good luck? It is suggested that it is a reverse psychology of sorts. Popular folklore down through the ages has been full of warnings against wishing your friends good luck. To do so is was thought superstitiously to tempt evil spirits or demons to do your friend harm. Instead, they would wish their friend bad fortune.
There is also evidence that some have pointed to the stage directions for the opening night of the reconstructed Globe Theater in London which supposedly called for two actors to swing dramatically from a balcony down to the stage on ropes. One of the actors slipped and, you guessed it, broke his leg.
However, this has not been substantiated.
In either case, it has become a common and accepted expression of good luck.
Piece of Cake
We've all heard this one. "Oh, don't worry. That's a piece of cake!" We know this signifies something that is easy, managed with no difficulties. We can do it with our eyes closed.
Where did this idiom originate?
This one's almost self explanatory. What's easier than eating a piece of cake?
The first reference to this was in the 1930s, when American poet Ogden Nash, who wrote Primrose Path, was quoted as saying, "Life's a piece of cake." This sweet idiom has stuck around ever since.
"it's Raining Cats and Dogs!"
Now, this is an interesting one.
This must sound like a very odd expression to someone just hearing it for the first time. There are a lot of things we have seen falling from the sky, but cats and dogs aren't one of them. One has to wonder, how did this expression come about?
It's quite simple, really. It originated in England in the 1500's, when houses had thatched roofs. A thatch roof consisted of straw piled high, with no wood underneath. In cold, foggy England this was sometimes the only place for an animal to get warm. Cats, other small animals and the occasional dog would wind up on the roofs.
When it rained really hard, some of the animals would slip off the roof and wash up in the gutters on the street. Hence, the saying, "It's raining cats and dogs" ended up referring to a particularly heavy rain. Kind of gruesome, isn't it?
"Graveyard Shift", "Dead Ringer" and "Saved By The Bell"
Has someone ever informed you that they are working the graveyard shift? Perhaps you have also heard someone refer to a person as a dead ringer? What about when you hear someone say, "Ahhh, saved by the bell!" What do these phrases have in common? These phrases have a very creepy origin, indeed!
For this, too, we go back to England. If you look at a map, you'll see that England is rather small. Therefore, they started running out of places to bury people. What they did in order to solve this problem was to dig up the existing coffins out of the ground and take the bones to a bone house. They would then reuse the grave.
Sounds like a simple enough solution. However, this practice turned up a very eerie and creepy discovery. An average of about one in twenty five coffins that were dug up to be reused were found with horrific scratch marks on the inside, indicating that somehow people were being buried alive!
This obviously was an unsettling find. In order to avoid this happening in the future, they started placing a string on the wrist of the corpse before it went into the coffin. This string would lead through the coffin, and up through the ground and was tied to a bell on the ground. This way, it was thought, if a corpse was indeed not a corpse and still alive, they could ring the bell (or be a dead ringer) and have a chance to be dug up if they were still alive, and thus, saved by the bell. Someone would have to sit outside all night working the graveyard shift and listen for these bells.
In fact, there was so much hype about this for awhile that there were quite an array of devices invented so that the undead could escape their coffins in case they buried prematurely. Some of them were rather simple with spring loaded coffin lids that would open at the slightest movement inside. Others were much more complex in nature even using electrical switches, early dry cells and buzzers.
For clarification purposes, there has been no actual documented case of any person ringing the bell and thus being saved. It must also be pointed out that this explanation is a bit of a controversy. Some disclaim this theory, saying that while the practice of reusing existing coffins did exist, it was a lot less common than reported.
It has been said that the term "graveyard shift" simply came from nautical origins when a person had the night shift on a vessel at sea and that the shift was named such for the extreme quietness and loneliness of the shift.
It has also been reported that the term ringer simply refers to an old devious practice regarding horse racing and betting in which a proven racehorse similar in looks was switched out for an old nag with a bad record in a race securing a long shot bet. A dead ringer referred to an animal that you could not tell apart from the original without closer inspection.
Whatever the case, it is certainly interesting to ponder over. The truth most likely lies somewhere in between, as is the case most of the time.
It is interesting to note that, regarding the origins of "dead ringer," between 1843 and 1913 there was a lot of time and effort put into patenting designs for escape mechanisms built within coffins. Whether this was due more to superstitions or because of actual evidence of people being buried alive, we will probably never know .
Maybe all these theories are true, to one degree or another. As is the case with language in general, perhaps these stories, too, change and evolve over time, encompassing more than one meaning or origin. This is what makes etymology, the study of the history and origin of words along with tracing their developments and meanings, so interesting.
Minding Your P's & Q's
This is a phrase we hear a lot when adults are speaking to children. This is a term that has come to signify that you are taking care, watching what you are doing, getting it right. The origins on this idiom are actually rather simple.
This one dates back to a time when local taverns, pubs and bars served up their patrons drinks by the quart and by the pint. Bar maids had to keep an eye on the customers and keep the drinks coming. They had to pay special attention to who was drinking pints and who was drinking quarts, thus the term came to be known, "minding your p's and q's."
An Arm and a Leg
"That's going to cost you an arm and a leg!"
This is a common phrase that means simply it's going to cost to the point of sacrifice. It's going to hurt. The price is high.
Where did such a phrase come into existence?
If we step back in time to George Washington's day, we would not see any cameras. For a portrait to be produced, it had to be painted or sculpted.
If you notice old pictures, you will notice something interesting. The paintings may consist of just a person's face. At other times, a person is portrayed with one arm behind their back or both arms may be visible. Interestingly enough, portraits were not charged by the number of people who appeared in the picture, but rather by the number of limbs that were painted.
If they wanted a cheaper painting, then it would "cost them an arm and a leg." Artists knew it took more time and effort since arms, hands and legs were more difficult to paint.
If someone is said to give us the cold shoulder, this means that they are disregarding, dismissing or otherwise ignoring us and treating us with disrespect. We are not welcome in their presence.
The origin of the term has been disputed over the years. However, one viable theory is that it came from serving an unwanted guest a cold shoulder of mutton that had been sitting out for awhile, as opposed to a nice hot meal like the rest of the guests.
Another theory is that it came from keeping one's back, or at least a shoulder, in between yourself and the unwanted person. In either case, it shows disdain and disregard and the message is clear.
Mind Your Own Bee's Wax
Now, honestly, many may think that this is simply a coined phrase mimicking the more common and literal phrase, "mind your own business."
However, it turns out this has a more defined origin. Apparently, in the days before Stridex and Clearasil, ladies would use a thin layer of bee's wax to smooth their complexion where they had severe acne.
There were actually several phrases that came from this practice. If a lady looked too long or stared at another lady's face, they might say, "Mind your own bee's wax!" If the woman were to smile, it might crack the veneer of bee's wax on her face, thus the phrase, "crack a smile." Also, the phrase "losing face" came from when a girl would sit too close to the fire and the bee's wax would melt.
No wonder the Southern belles are always fanning themselves in those old pictures. On those long hot summer days, their faces could literally melt off!
Gossip is a single word defined as something that is said between two or more people, usually derogatory in nature, about someone else.
Although gossip is just one word, it is actually derived from more than one word. Before TV, phones and other media, politicians of old had to depend on feedback to find out what was important to people in their jurisdiction. They did this by sending their assistants out to the local taverns and pubs where most of the people hung out. They would sip some ale, listen to people's conversations, thus learning what was on people's minds and what their concerns were.
They basically were told to "go sip some ale", thus the term "gossip" was coined.
A big wig is generally thought of nowadays to be a person of high repute, a wheeler and dealer, someone prominent.
Back in early days, men and women used to only take baths twice a year (as bad as that sounds). Women would cover their hair so it didn't get as dirty. Men would shave their heads and wear wigs. They couldn't wash their wigs, however, so they would hollow out a loaf of bread, place the wig inside and bake it. This would kill any lice or bugs in the wig. The wig would come out big and fluffy due to the moisture and heat inside the loaf of bread. This is how the term "big wig" came into existence.
Also interesting to note is that the term "to pull the wool over someone's eyes", which we know means trying to fool someone, came into existence because it was referencing pulling a man's wig over his eyes, in effect, blinding him to what you did not want him to see.
Straight from the Horse's Mouth
When we hear someone say, "I heard it straight from the horse's mouth," we know what they mean. It's truth. You cannot contest it. Although being an odd phrase, since horses obviously don't talk, we understand that it means it is something you cannot deny, it's actual fact.
The truth is, horses have always been a prized commodity down through the ages. There were a lot of dishonest people who would try to sell less than quality horses to potential buyers. They would also lie about a horse's age. However, anyone who knew anything about horses knew that you could tell the age by examining the size and shape of the teeth, literally getting the truth straight from the horse's mouth. This is how the phrase later came to mean getting the literal truth.
Heard It Through the Grapevine
This phrase has come to reference something that is heard, unofficially, or indirectly.
This phrase originated at the turn of the century when the telegraph was getting off the ground. Important information was transmitted across country using the telegraph system. The system required thousands of miles of wire to be installed and this wire was held in place several feet above the ground with poles at equal intervals. People thought the wires and poles looked like the strings used to train vines so the telegraph lines became known as "the grapevine".
People then started referring to hearing things "through the grapevine".
Cold Enough to Freeze the Balls off a Brass Monkey
Sailing ships, including war ships and freighters, carried cannons. Cannons fire round iron balls. It was important to keep a steady supply of cannon balls, ready at a moment's notice. However, they were not easy to secure on a moving ship.
The would stack the balls in a square based pyramid with one ball on top resting on four resting on nine, and so on. They would stack the cannon balls in supplies of 30 this way. They would then make a metal plate of iron (called a monkey) with 16 round indentations to hold the cannon balls on the bottom layer.
There was only one problem. Since the balls and the plate were both made of iron and the ship was a very moist environment, the balls would easily rust to the plate, making them difficult to move.
In order to solve this problem, they made them instead out of brass.
However, they didn't realize that brass does not have the same properties that iron does. As it is chilled, it contracts more and it contracts faster. When the temperature dropped too far, the brass indentations would shrink so much that the iron cannon balls would come right off the monkey.
Thus, it was quite literally, 'Cold enough to freeze the balls off a brass monkey.'
More Interesting Origins
If you like this article, you might also like Famous Misquotes:The Best Lines That Were Never Said. We have all heard the famous quotes. "Beam Me Up, Scotty!" "Let them eat cake!" "The British are coming! The British are coming!"
What do all of these famous quotes have in common? The fact that they were never said at all! To find out more, read the article above.
You might also enjoy learning the fascinating origins behind some simple every day words by reading the article Everyday Etymology: Interesting Origins of Ten Common Words That Might Surprise You.
The Study of Language Is A Lot Of Fun
There are interesting words and phrases all around us. Finding out their origins can prove to be entertaining and quite enjoyable. Even a simple dictionary can reveal volumes.
For instance, the word "welcome", which literally came from a meaning of a willed comer. They were invited and therefore willed to come.
Did you know that the commonly used expression "ok" or "okay" came from an abbreviation meaning "all correct?" The word "scapegoat" came from referencing that in the Bible a goat was symbolically given the sins of the people.
There are a lot of idioms and words out there that have interesting meanings and origins. The next time you hear an interesting term or phrase, do some research and find out where it came from. You may be surprised what you find out.
Calling all Wildlife and Nature Enthusiasts!
Are you an avid outdoors enthusiast? Do you enjoy seeing candid photos of wildlife in everyday situations? Then please follow the link below to the website Ofwaterfallsandtrails.net.
For videos of nature, marine, and ocean life, please follow the links Hiking in Norway and Holy Mackerel.
- Holy Mackerel - Fishing for Kings in Florida - YouTube
It's all about those Kings! Florida fishing gets "reel" when you hook those Kings!
- Hiking in Norway - #wildhorses
Norway Travel... near Folgefonna Glacier, west approach, Eggedal trail.
- Ofwaterfallsandtrails Wildlife and Nature Blog
Beauty is all around us. All you have to do is look.
Questions & Answers
What is the origin of 'The British are coming. The British are coming'?
This is not an idiom. This is a supposed quote from Paul Revere in the history of the pre-United States era. Paul Revere is said to have galloped his horse at midnight through Concord, MA, warning of the coming British Invasion, proving himself hero and solidifying himself as a historical figure. Interestingly enough, however, this was another infamous misquote. You should see my other article, World Famous Misquotes.
The truth is that Paul Revere did manage to warn about the British invasion, but he never made the infamous midnight ride and he never made it to Concord. It was actually Samuel Prescott who made it to Concord to warn of the British invasion, as he, Paul Revere and William Dawes had been detained by a British patrol.
Samuel Prescott was the first to escape and rode to Concord, warning of the coming invasion. Dawes was the second to escape, although the account is that he became lost in the dark and never made it to Concord. Revere was released, but did not have a horse and walked back to Lexington instead, where the battle had already just began. He did, however, warn the rest of Lexington of what was happening.
So, how did Paul Revere become famous for a ride he never took and become a hero for something he never did?
Credit the poet Wadsworth for that. He wrote the poem "Midnight Ride" in 1860, and almost infamously, rewrote history.Helpful 1
What is the origin of the phrase, “on the cheap?”
I have heard this is a rather newly coined phrase, simply manipulating the meaning of phrases already in existence simply by changing out some words.Helpful 12
Where does the expression "he wears his heart on his sleeve" come from?
Although the expression first appeared in William Shakespeare's play "Othello", the saying originated in medieval times. In the King's Court, if a knight was jousting in order to defend the honor of a woman, it was customary for him to wear a handkerchief in her colors around his arm to show his loyalty to her.Helpful 11
What is the origin of 'on the house'?
What I heard was that in England of old, the original pubs were literally large houses. This proved convenient for travelers who wished to get drunk or people who were too drunk to go home.
Thus, the owner could refer to his establishment as a house.
The phrase "on the house" originated when people would have spent so much money at the pub or house, and the money was so far ahead that the pub owner could afford to give you a round for free or in some instances, a room for the night. Thus, 'on the house' was born.Helpful 7
Where does the expression 'bored stiff' come from? Was it used in the 18th century?
I've heard variations on this, but the most common was a hyperbole-type explanation, referring to someone (talking) being so uninteresting and long-winded that the person listening literally dies (goes stiff) before the person stops or notices. As for when it originated, I'm not sure. But it certainly sounds like something that could come from the 18th century.Helpful 5
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In many pieces of literature authors discuss human potential. In the novel Of Mice And Men, John Steinbeck Illustrates human potential and its effects on Lennie Crooks and George. Steinbeck suggests humans have the natural potential to seek happiness although the potential can be fatal or harmful. Although Lennie does not have the potential to be smart, Lennie has the potential to be a hard worker. However, Lennie s strength did not work with him and the result was fatal. Lennie is an extremely large man who had the strength of a bull.
With the use of his strength, e was great worker but did not understand how strong he was. George explains Lennie s strength by: “that big bastard can put up more grain alone than most pairs can”( Steinbeck 34). Through his size and his enormous amount of strength Lennie could out work the other men of the ranch by himself. Through the use of Lennie s strength he became a great worker who knew nothing more than to work. Lennie uses his potential to work hard, but does not understand how strong he is. Without George, Lennie does not understand what to do. Lennie gets frightened and uses his strength to hold on to objects.Order now
Lennie is just like a child. He will do what ever George tells him to: “Curely was flopping like a fish on a line, and his closed fist was lost in Lennie s hand. George slapped in the face again and again and still Lennie held on(63). Through Lennie s actions we can see that Lennie is very similar to a child. Lennie s first instinct when he is scared is to hold on. Just as a little kid holds on to its mom or dad when they become frightened, Lennie holds on to objects. Because of Lennie s low intelligence to understand his strength, he becomes frightened and kills
Curley s wife and as a result, she ends up being killed by is potential: “She took Lennie s hand and put it on her head And then she cried angrily. Lennie s fingers closed on her hair and hung on. He shook her and her body flopped like a fish. And then she was still”(91). Lennie did not understand his strength and became frightened, and once again just like just like a little child he held on. But he ended up breaking Curley s wife neck. As a result of his actions Lennie ended up dead. Lennie had an extremely great potential to use his strength and become a great worker.
However his difficulty to understand his trength lead to his death. Unlike Lennie Crooks potential is his knowledge, and Crooks has the ability to use his knowledge to, try to escape the problems he has on the ranch. However Crooks falls back into a 1930s attitude and chooses to neglect his knowledge. Crooks also uses his knowledge to express his ideas and feelings to Lennie. “Books ain t no good. A guy needs somebody to be near him A guy goes nuts if ain t got nobody”. (72) Crooks is proving that he is a very knowledgeable man When around others he may chooses to use his knowledge to express his ideas and become a stronger influence.
Crooks uses his wisdom to express his ideas and feelings and leave a very strong impact. Crooks has the likelihood to use his knowledge, but how he uses his wisdom will determine his fate. “I said s pose George don t come back no more. S pose he took a powder and just ain t coming back. What ll you do then? He won t do it Lennie cried. He ll come back tonight —”(71). Crooks is using his knowledge as a power trip on Lennie who does not understand what Crooks is saying. Crooks is doing this because he has never had a chance to use his knowledge in such way before, but is really abusing it. Crooks chooses to use his knowledge around Lennie.
But when a higher authority is around Crooks chooses to ignore it for his own safety. “Listen nigger, said, (y)ou know what I can do to you if you open your trap? Crooks seemed to grow smaller, and he pressed himself against the wall. Yes ma am, and his voice was toneless”(80). When a higher authority is present Crooks chooses to ignore his knowledge because he is scared to speak out for fear of losing his job. Despite Crooks, knowledge he chooses to ignore it around higher authority, this ending up in a 1930 s attitude with his knowledge going to waste. Unlike Lennie or Crooks George has the potential to be his own boss.
If George does not work hard enough his potential to be his own boss will be lost and his dream will be crushed. George has always wanted to be his own boss. When he sees that the potential is there, George tries to act on it. George says: “We d just go there, we wouldn t ask nobody if we could “(61). George would love to be his own boss and do his own thing, mainly because George would not have to take orders from any one. To accomplish being his own boss, George tries to save his money so that he can buy the ranch: “If me an Lennie work one onth an don t spen nothing, well have a hundred bucks” (60).
To fulfill his potential to be his own boss, George says he will save his money and not spend any. If George can accomplish this he will be his own boss. When Lennie breaks Curley s wife s neck, George realizes that the potential to be his own boss is lost. Candy says: ” You an me can get that little place, can t we George? Candy dropped his head and looked down at the hay. He knew”(94). Now that Lennie has broken Curley s wife s neck, George realizes that his possibility of being his own boss is gone. Without Lennie, George feels here is no hope.
As a result the potential to be his own boss is lost. George has a great potential to be his own boss, but with the death of Lennie, George loses hope. George has chosen his fate to be a worker and not to be his own boss. In his novel, Of Mice And Men, John Steinbeck illustrates to us that all humans have the potential to do well, but how they use their potential will determine their fate. Lennie, Crooks and George all have one thing on their mind: to accomplish their potential and make it reality. If they do not use their potential It can a source of pain and an unfulfilled dream.
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In many pieces of literature authors discuss human potential. In the novel Of Mice And Men, John Steinbeck Illustrates human potential and its effects on Lennie Crooks and George. Steinbeck suggests humans have the natural potential to seek happiness although the potential can be fatal or harmful. Although Lennie does not have the potential to be smart, Lennie has the potential to be a hard worker. However, Lennie s strength did not work with him and the result was fatal. Lennie is an extremely large man who had the strength of a bull.
With the use of his strength, e was great worker but did not understand how strong he was. George explains Lennie s strength by: “that big bastard can put up more grain alone than most pairs can”( Steinbeck 34). Through his size and his enormous amount of strength Lennie could out work the other men of the ranch by himself. Through the use of Lennie s strength he became a great worker who knew nothing more than to work. Lennie uses his potential to work hard, but does not understand how strong he is. Without George, Lennie does not understand what to do. Lennie gets frightened and uses his strength to hold on to objects.Order now
Lennie is just like a child. He will do what ever George tells him to: “Curely was flopping like a fish on a line, and his closed fist was lost in Lennie s hand. George slapped in the face again and again and still Lennie held on(63). Through Lennie s actions we can see that Lennie is very similar to a child. Lennie s first instinct when he is scared is to hold on. Just as a little kid holds on to its mom or dad when they become frightened, Lennie holds on to objects. Because of Lennie s low intelligence to understand his strength, he becomes frightened and kills
Curley s wife and as a result, she ends up being killed by is potential: “She took Lennie s hand and put it on her head And then she cried angrily. Lennie s fingers closed on her hair and hung on. He shook her and her body flopped like a fish. And then she was still”(91). Lennie did not understand his strength and became frightened, and once again just like just like a little child he held on. But he ended up breaking Curley s wife neck. As a result of his actions Lennie ended up dead. Lennie had an extremely great potential to use his strength and become a great worker.
However his difficulty to understand his trength lead to his death. Unlike Lennie Crooks potential is his knowledge, and Crooks has the ability to use his knowledge to, try to escape the problems he has on the ranch. However Crooks falls back into a 1930s attitude and chooses to neglect his knowledge. Crooks also uses his knowledge to express his ideas and feelings to Lennie. “Books ain t no good. A guy needs somebody to be near him A guy goes nuts if ain t got nobody”. (72) Crooks is proving that he is a very knowledgeable man When around others he may chooses to use his knowledge to express his ideas and become a stronger influence.
Crooks uses his wisdom to express his ideas and feelings and leave a very strong impact. Crooks has the likelihood to use his knowledge, but how he uses his wisdom will determine his fate. “I said s pose George don t come back no more. S pose he took a powder and just ain t coming back. What ll you do then? He won t do it Lennie cried. He ll come back tonight —”(71). Crooks is using his knowledge as a power trip on Lennie who does not understand what Crooks is saying. Crooks is doing this because he has never had a chance to use his knowledge in such way before, but is really abusing it. Crooks chooses to use his knowledge around Lennie.
But when a higher authority is around Crooks chooses to ignore it for his own safety. “Listen nigger, said, (y)ou know what I can do to you if you open your trap? Crooks seemed to grow smaller, and he pressed himself against the wall. Yes ma am, and his voice was toneless”(80). When a higher authority is present Crooks chooses to ignore his knowledge because he is scared to speak out for fear of losing his job. Despite Crooks, knowledge he chooses to ignore it around higher authority, this ending up in a 1930 s attitude with his knowledge going to waste. Unlike Lennie or Crooks George has the potential to be his own boss.
If George does not work hard enough his potential to be his own boss will be lost and his dream will be crushed. George has always wanted to be his own boss. When he sees that the potential is there, George tries to act on it. George says: “We d just go there, we wouldn t ask nobody if we could “(61). George would love to be his own boss and do his own thing, mainly because George would not have to take orders from any one. To accomplish being his own boss, George tries to save his money so that he can buy the ranch: “If me an Lennie work one onth an don t spen nothing, well have a hundred bucks” (60).
To fulfill his potential to be his own boss, George says he will save his money and not spend any. If George can accomplish this he will be his own boss. When Lennie breaks Curley s wife s neck, George realizes that the potential to be his own boss is lost. Candy says: ” You an me can get that little place, can t we George? Candy dropped his head and looked down at the hay. He knew”(94). Now that Lennie has broken Curley s wife s neck, George realizes that his possibility of being his own boss is gone. Without Lennie, George feels here is no hope.
As a result the potential to be his own boss is lost. George has a great potential to be his own boss, but with the death of Lennie, George loses hope. George has chosen his fate to be a worker and not to be his own boss. In his novel, Of Mice And Men, John Steinbeck illustrates to us that all humans have the potential to do well, but how they use their potential will determine their fate. Lennie, Crooks and George all have one thing on their mind: to accomplish their potential and make it reality. If they do not use their potential It can a source of pain and an unfulfilled dream.
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The x-class was a series of submarines built by the Royal Navy during the Second World War. These tiny submarines only displaced 30 tonnes of water when submerged, were 15.55 metres (51ft) long, and carried a crew of 4 (commander, navigator, engineer and diver). There were designed to be towed to the target area by a full-sized “mother” submarine. The X-craft would then be detached and infiltrate the target, laying down two side charges, each containing 2 tonnes of amatol. They would then make their escape and rendezvous with the “mother” submarine to be towed home. The first attack was launched against the German battleship Bismarck. Six X-craft were designated for the operation, but two were lost to accidents en route, and a third suffered mechanical problems. The fourth X-craft was believed to have been sunk by German fire during the attack. The remaining two managed to lay their charges and seriously damage the Bismarck. Other X-craft played an important role with regards to the D-day landings. One surveyed the invasion beaches beforehand and collected soil samples, and two others acted as lightships during D-day itself to guide landing craft to the correct beaches.
Developed as a so-called vengeance weapon in order to strike back at London, as Allied bomber fleets pounded German cities to rubble, the V-3 cannon was capable to delivering a 140kg (1310lb) shell to a range of more than 161 km (100 miles). The secret to this enormous range was a number of side channels attached to the 460ft (140m) barrel. These channels each contained an electrically fired propellant charge which helped to accelerate the finned shell to a muzzle velocity of 1500m/s (4920 feet per second). Hitler was most impressed by the prototype, and ordered 25 of them to be built at a site at Mimoyecques, in France. However, this site was heavily bombed by Allied bombers, which forced the Germans to abandon it. Two shorter-barreled versions (164ft) were later built and used against Luxemburg, where they fired a total of 183 shells, only managing to kill 10 civilians and injure 35. Shortly afterwards, both guns were captured by American troops.8
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|
The x-class was a series of submarines built by the Royal Navy during the Second World War. These tiny submarines only displaced 30 tonnes of water when submerged, were 15.55 metres (51ft) long, and carried a crew of 4 (commander, navigator, engineer and diver). There were designed to be towed to the target area by a full-sized “mother” submarine. The X-craft would then be detached and infiltrate the target, laying down two side charges, each containing 2 tonnes of amatol. They would then make their escape and rendezvous with the “mother” submarine to be towed home. The first attack was launched against the German battleship Bismarck. Six X-craft were designated for the operation, but two were lost to accidents en route, and a third suffered mechanical problems. The fourth X-craft was believed to have been sunk by German fire during the attack. The remaining two managed to lay their charges and seriously damage the Bismarck. Other X-craft played an important role with regards to the D-day landings. One surveyed the invasion beaches beforehand and collected soil samples, and two others acted as lightships during D-day itself to guide landing craft to the correct beaches.
Developed as a so-called vengeance weapon in order to strike back at London, as Allied bomber fleets pounded German cities to rubble, the V-3 cannon was capable to delivering a 140kg (1310lb) shell to a range of more than 161 km (100 miles). The secret to this enormous range was a number of side channels attached to the 460ft (140m) barrel. These channels each contained an electrically fired propellant charge which helped to accelerate the finned shell to a muzzle velocity of 1500m/s (4920 feet per second). Hitler was most impressed by the prototype, and ordered 25 of them to be built at a site at Mimoyecques, in France. However, this site was heavily bombed by Allied bombers, which forced the Germans to abandon it. Two shorter-barreled versions (164ft) were later built and used against Luxemburg, where they fired a total of 183 shells, only managing to kill 10 civilians and injure 35. Shortly afterwards, both guns were captured by American troops.8
| 503
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ENGLISH
| 1
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Since November 2019 strong fires burning in Australia. Now the fires have spread all over. 2,000 homes have been destroyed and people were evacuated to safe houses. Many Australian cities have been completely wiped out. On 31st December 2019, while we were all celebrating the New Year dangerous fires were burning all over Australia. Due to the strong fires, a thick blanket of smoke has engulfed the cities of Melbourne and Sydney. This smoke is extremely dangerous. The sky which is usually blue in colour had turned orange due to the fires. The Australian Army, Navy and fire fighters rescued as many people as they could via boats. Inspite of the fires, fire fighters worked very hard to rescue people. The Air Force airlifted many citizens as well. Earlier, it did rain in Australia but the rains weren’t strong enough to douse the strong flames. People weren’t satisfied and wanted more rainfall. 24 people have lost their lives. The fire has burnt more than 50,000 sq. km. of land. At the University of Sydney Ecologists – people who study the environment, animals, etc believe over 48 crore birds and animals have lost their lives. Koala Bears are found only in Australia and no where else in the world. More than 8,000 Koala bears have died till now. They are not found anywhere in the world but they are dying now. Due to climate change and deforestation in Australia, the number of Koala Bears has been decreasing. Inspite of the efforts, the fires have almost caused these beautiful animals to become extinct. What is the cause for these fires in Australia? Well this is not a normal fire. It is called a ‘Bushfire’. A fire can be easily started by adding fuel to leaves, wood, branches, etc. But here no fuel was added, then how did the fire spread so fast? There are 3 reasons. 1. A lightning strike could cause the fire. 2. An unstubbed cigarette could have caused the fire. 3. Sparks from a bonfire on a cold night could cause the fire as well. Any one of these can cause a fire. Secondly in Australia, strong winds keep the fire burning and help it spread faster. Currently the temperatures are around 40-50 degrees celsius. The extreme temperature due to the fire and the strong winds have kept the flames burning and increased the temperature all over and shows no signs of stopping. Another reason is the, Eucalyptus, which is found mainly in Australia. These trees are very tall and its leaves contain a lot of oil. Its oil is used for steam inhalation or to apply on the body during a cough. There are more than 700 types of Eucalyptus trees in Australia. Since the leaves of this tree have a lot of oil, it easily caught on fire and spread all over. Celebrities and people all over the world are shocked by the devastation in Australia. People have lost their homes, some are dead and there is a lot of destruction. This is why many have decided to help by giving donations to Australians.
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CC-MAIN-2020-05
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https://travelmanual.info/dangerous-fires-all-over-australia/
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s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251773463.72/warc/CC-MAIN-20200128030221-20200128060221-00102.warc.gz
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Since November 2019 strong fires burning in Australia. Now the fires have spread all over. 2,000 homes have been destroyed and people were evacuated to safe houses. Many Australian cities have been completely wiped out. On 31st December 2019, while we were all celebrating the New Year dangerous fires were burning all over Australia. Due to the strong fires, a thick blanket of smoke has engulfed the cities of Melbourne and Sydney. This smoke is extremely dangerous. The sky which is usually blue in colour had turned orange due to the fires. The Australian Army, Navy and fire fighters rescued as many people as they could via boats. Inspite of the fires, fire fighters worked very hard to rescue people. The Air Force airlifted many citizens as well. Earlier, it did rain in Australia but the rains weren’t strong enough to douse the strong flames. People weren’t satisfied and wanted more rainfall. 24 people have lost their lives. The fire has burnt more than 50,000 sq. km. of land. At the University of Sydney Ecologists – people who study the environment, animals, etc believe over 48 crore birds and animals have lost their lives. Koala Bears are found only in Australia and no where else in the world. More than 8,000 Koala bears have died till now. They are not found anywhere in the world but they are dying now. Due to climate change and deforestation in Australia, the number of Koala Bears has been decreasing. Inspite of the efforts, the fires have almost caused these beautiful animals to become extinct. What is the cause for these fires in Australia? Well this is not a normal fire. It is called a ‘Bushfire’. A fire can be easily started by adding fuel to leaves, wood, branches, etc. But here no fuel was added, then how did the fire spread so fast? There are 3 reasons. 1. A lightning strike could cause the fire. 2. An unstubbed cigarette could have caused the fire. 3. Sparks from a bonfire on a cold night could cause the fire as well. Any one of these can cause a fire. Secondly in Australia, strong winds keep the fire burning and help it spread faster. Currently the temperatures are around 40-50 degrees celsius. The extreme temperature due to the fire and the strong winds have kept the flames burning and increased the temperature all over and shows no signs of stopping. Another reason is the, Eucalyptus, which is found mainly in Australia. These trees are very tall and its leaves contain a lot of oil. Its oil is used for steam inhalation or to apply on the body during a cough. There are more than 700 types of Eucalyptus trees in Australia. Since the leaves of this tree have a lot of oil, it easily caught on fire and spread all over. Celebrities and people all over the world are shocked by the devastation in Australia. People have lost their homes, some are dead and there is a lot of destruction. This is why many have decided to help by giving donations to Australians.
| 654
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ENGLISH
| 1
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Originally published October 2013.
John Norton was born in Scotland in 1765 to a Cherokee father and a Scottish mother. He joined the British army and was shipped with his regiment to North America in 1785 and was stationed at Fort Niagara. He started examining his native heritage and began to learn the Mohawk language, eventually deserting the army in 1787. He spent some time teaching school for Mohawk children and eventually became a fur trader and an interpreter for the British Indian Department. His language skills were such that he even translated the Gospel of John into the Mohawk language and 2000 copies were printed in a combined Mohawk and English edition through the Society of Friends. The Mohawk Nation adopted him and appointed him and made him a diplomat and War Chief in 1799.
When war broke out in 1812 he raised a few hundred Six Nations and Delaware men to fight with Major General Sir Isaak Brock and defend the Niagara frontier from the Americans. On October 13th, 1812, he and 100 warriors are said to have played a key role in repelling an American invasion at Queenston Heights. He outflanked the enemy and pinned them down until a British advance could sweep the Americans from the heights. For his efforts, the British appointed him to the rank of Captain of the Confederated Indians. Through his leadership and generosity he continued to recruit increasing numbers of warriors to the British side of the war and was given a commission as a brevet major in the British Army.
One of his significant contributions to history was to write The Journal of Major John Norton which is considered an invaluable resource on the history of the native involvement in the War of 1812 as well as his first hand account of living with the Cherokee in about 1809-1810 at the end of their golden age prior to the Trail of Tears.
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] | 4
|
Originally published October 2013.
John Norton was born in Scotland in 1765 to a Cherokee father and a Scottish mother. He joined the British army and was shipped with his regiment to North America in 1785 and was stationed at Fort Niagara. He started examining his native heritage and began to learn the Mohawk language, eventually deserting the army in 1787. He spent some time teaching school for Mohawk children and eventually became a fur trader and an interpreter for the British Indian Department. His language skills were such that he even translated the Gospel of John into the Mohawk language and 2000 copies were printed in a combined Mohawk and English edition through the Society of Friends. The Mohawk Nation adopted him and appointed him and made him a diplomat and War Chief in 1799.
When war broke out in 1812 he raised a few hundred Six Nations and Delaware men to fight with Major General Sir Isaak Brock and defend the Niagara frontier from the Americans. On October 13th, 1812, he and 100 warriors are said to have played a key role in repelling an American invasion at Queenston Heights. He outflanked the enemy and pinned them down until a British advance could sweep the Americans from the heights. For his efforts, the British appointed him to the rank of Captain of the Confederated Indians. Through his leadership and generosity he continued to recruit increasing numbers of warriors to the British side of the war and was given a commission as a brevet major in the British Army.
One of his significant contributions to history was to write The Journal of Major John Norton which is considered an invaluable resource on the history of the native involvement in the War of 1812 as well as his first hand account of living with the Cherokee in about 1809-1810 at the end of their golden age prior to the Trail of Tears.
| 403
|
ENGLISH
| 1
|
Henry Wadsworth Longfellow was born in Portland, Maine in February of 1807. He was the second of eight children born to Stephen Longfellow, a lawyer, and his wife Zilpah. Longfellow’s ancestors had come to the United States from England in the early 1600s. They settled in New England and were among the original Mayflower Pilgrims. Longfellow was directly related to the first child born in the Plymouth, Elizabeth Alden Peabody.
When he was only six years old, Longfellow attended Portland Academy. He was considered to be an exemplary student, particularly excelling in Latin. It was his mother who stimulated in him his first literary passions. She encouraged his engagement with reading, while his father had grander, more professional plans for his son. Longfellow published his first poem in November of 1870 when he was only thirteen years old. It was called, ‘The Battle of Lovell’s Pond.’
Three years later the young poet began attending Bowdoin College in New Brunswick, Maine. It was through this institution that Longfellow met and befriended fellow writer Nathaniel Hawthorne who would be a lifelong friend. By his senior year at the school he knew that he wanted to become a writer. He submitted poetry to a variety pf publication and was successful in publishing more than thirty poems from 1824 to 1825 when he graduated.
Longfellow was a proficient student of languages, and after he graduated was offered a position at Bedowin College. Before accepting or declining the offer he traveled at his own expense throughout Europe where he refined his language skills further. He spent time in France, Spain, Italy, Germany and England. He returned to the United States in August of 1829. His travels were productive and he was able to learn four languages that would benefit him in his new professorial role. He initially decided to decline the offer but after the trustees of the school increased his proposed salary, he accepted.
Throughout the early 1830s he spent much of his time translating textbooks and publishing translations of poetry. He also wrote a travel book titled, ‘Outre-Mer: A Pilgrimage Beyond the Sea.’ In 1831 Longfellow was married to a childhood friend, Mary Storer Potter and over the next two years he continued to publish non-fiction and fiction pieces of prose. In another turn of fortune, Longfellow was offered a professorship at Harvard University. The one stipulation to the offer was that he spend more time traveling learning Dutch, German and the Scandinavian languages.
While traveling throughout Europe, his wife Mary suffers a miscarriage and was unable to recover. She died several weeks later, in November of 1835. She would continue to feature in his poetry long after her death. In 1836 he finished his trip and took up his position at Harvard.
The next three years were full of successes for the writer. He published his first collection of poetry ‘Voices of the Night’ in 1839 as well as his prose romance work, ‘Hyperion.’ Longfellow was a well-loved professor, and prominent member of the literary scene. Around this same time he met Frances Appleton, whom he soon began courting. The intended relationship did not immediately go well as Frances was uninterested in marriage.
The works of 1839 were followed by ‘Ballads and Other Poems’ in 1841. A number of these poems, such as ‘Wreck of the Hesperus’ immediately became popular. Longfellow took yet another trip to Europe in 1842 and published ‘Poems on Slavery’ as well as ‘The Spanish Student: A Play in Three Acts,’ over the next two years.
After having courted Frances Appleton for seven years, she finally agreed to marry him. They were immediately married and together had six children. In the late 1840s Longfellow started receiving a substantial income from his writing and in the 1850s he retired from Harvard.
Longfellow’s good luck did not last though and in 1861, on a particularly hot day, Frances was subject to a horrible accident. Her dress caught fire and she was badly burned. She died the next morning with her husband by her side. Longfellow was also burnt in the incident and would take to wearing a beard, to hide his scars, for the rest of his life. The writer was never the same after her death and turned to drugs to treat his depression.
Longfellow’s next writing project was a translation of Dante’s ‘Divine Comedy,’ which was published in 1867. The book was printed a number of times and his yearly income continued to increase. In 1874 he sold one of his poems for $3,000, the highest price ever paid for a single piece of poetry.
In March of 1882 Longfellow’s health began to decline. He was in intense pain for several days before his death on March 24th 1882. It was later discovered that he was suffering from peritonitis, or an inflammation of the lining of the abdomen. He is buried alongside both his wives in Mount Auburn Cemetery in Cambridge, Massachusetts.
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Henry Wadsworth Longfellow was born in Portland, Maine in February of 1807. He was the second of eight children born to Stephen Longfellow, a lawyer, and his wife Zilpah. Longfellow’s ancestors had come to the United States from England in the early 1600s. They settled in New England and were among the original Mayflower Pilgrims. Longfellow was directly related to the first child born in the Plymouth, Elizabeth Alden Peabody.
When he was only six years old, Longfellow attended Portland Academy. He was considered to be an exemplary student, particularly excelling in Latin. It was his mother who stimulated in him his first literary passions. She encouraged his engagement with reading, while his father had grander, more professional plans for his son. Longfellow published his first poem in November of 1870 when he was only thirteen years old. It was called, ‘The Battle of Lovell’s Pond.’
Three years later the young poet began attending Bowdoin College in New Brunswick, Maine. It was through this institution that Longfellow met and befriended fellow writer Nathaniel Hawthorne who would be a lifelong friend. By his senior year at the school he knew that he wanted to become a writer. He submitted poetry to a variety pf publication and was successful in publishing more than thirty poems from 1824 to 1825 when he graduated.
Longfellow was a proficient student of languages, and after he graduated was offered a position at Bedowin College. Before accepting or declining the offer he traveled at his own expense throughout Europe where he refined his language skills further. He spent time in France, Spain, Italy, Germany and England. He returned to the United States in August of 1829. His travels were productive and he was able to learn four languages that would benefit him in his new professorial role. He initially decided to decline the offer but after the trustees of the school increased his proposed salary, he accepted.
Throughout the early 1830s he spent much of his time translating textbooks and publishing translations of poetry. He also wrote a travel book titled, ‘Outre-Mer: A Pilgrimage Beyond the Sea.’ In 1831 Longfellow was married to a childhood friend, Mary Storer Potter and over the next two years he continued to publish non-fiction and fiction pieces of prose. In another turn of fortune, Longfellow was offered a professorship at Harvard University. The one stipulation to the offer was that he spend more time traveling learning Dutch, German and the Scandinavian languages.
While traveling throughout Europe, his wife Mary suffers a miscarriage and was unable to recover. She died several weeks later, in November of 1835. She would continue to feature in his poetry long after her death. In 1836 he finished his trip and took up his position at Harvard.
The next three years were full of successes for the writer. He published his first collection of poetry ‘Voices of the Night’ in 1839 as well as his prose romance work, ‘Hyperion.’ Longfellow was a well-loved professor, and prominent member of the literary scene. Around this same time he met Frances Appleton, whom he soon began courting. The intended relationship did not immediately go well as Frances was uninterested in marriage.
The works of 1839 were followed by ‘Ballads and Other Poems’ in 1841. A number of these poems, such as ‘Wreck of the Hesperus’ immediately became popular. Longfellow took yet another trip to Europe in 1842 and published ‘Poems on Slavery’ as well as ‘The Spanish Student: A Play in Three Acts,’ over the next two years.
After having courted Frances Appleton for seven years, she finally agreed to marry him. They were immediately married and together had six children. In the late 1840s Longfellow started receiving a substantial income from his writing and in the 1850s he retired from Harvard.
Longfellow’s good luck did not last though and in 1861, on a particularly hot day, Frances was subject to a horrible accident. Her dress caught fire and she was badly burned. She died the next morning with her husband by her side. Longfellow was also burnt in the incident and would take to wearing a beard, to hide his scars, for the rest of his life. The writer was never the same after her death and turned to drugs to treat his depression.
Longfellow’s next writing project was a translation of Dante’s ‘Divine Comedy,’ which was published in 1867. The book was printed a number of times and his yearly income continued to increase. In 1874 he sold one of his poems for $3,000, the highest price ever paid for a single piece of poetry.
In March of 1882 Longfellow’s health began to decline. He was in intense pain for several days before his death on March 24th 1882. It was later discovered that he was suffering from peritonitis, or an inflammation of the lining of the abdomen. He is buried alongside both his wives in Mount Auburn Cemetery in Cambridge, Massachusetts.
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We all know Henry Ford as the founder of Ford Motors. Go through this Henry Ford Timeline to know about his life and achievements.
Henry Ford was the founder of the Ford Motor Company and one of the richest and most famous people on Earth. His timeline runs from 1863 to 1947. His zeal for mechanics stayed with him all his life and made him an automobile industry icon.
1863: On the 30th of July, Henry Ford was born on a farm in Springwells Township, near Dearborn, Michigan.
1879: Henry Ford took his first job at the Michigan Car Company. The company located in Detroit dealt in manufacturing of railroad-cars.
1880: Ford worked as a machine apprentice and began work of a watch repairman in a shop in Detroit during extra hours.
1882: Ford worked on steam-driven farm machinery in the Dearborn area. Later, Westinghouse employed him to operate their steam engines.
1884-85: He attended a business school in Detroit.
1888: Ford married Clara Bryant.
1892: On account of a job in Edison Illuminating Company, Ford migrated to Detroit, accompanied by his wife.
1893: Clara gave birth to little Edsel. Ford was promoted to the post of a Chief Engineer and was in a position to concentrate on his experiments.
1896: Since 1893, Ford had begun to experiment on his home-built internal combustion engines. In 1896, he succeeded in demonstrating his experiment by running his first car called Ford Quadricyle. He drove it on the streets of Detroit for the first time on June 4,1896. He was introduced to Thomas Edison in the same year.
1899: Ford, backed by some investors established the Detroit Automobile Company on August 5. Unfortunately, the plan failed and the company had to be dissolved in 1901.
1901: Ford was left jobless. He moved his family to his father’s place.
1903: Ford, partnered by some other investors, formed the Ford Company with a capital of $28,000.
1908: Model T was introduced. The car model had many structural changes like the steering wheel being on the left side and the use of semi-elliptic springs in the car suspension. The car was affordable to the masses and easy to drive.
1913: Around the 1st of April, mass production of Ford’s moving assembly line began. He is regarded as the Father of modern Assembly Lines.
1914: Henry Ford gave a good salary rise to his workers. This move attracted all the expertise of Detroit to work for him. He called this the wage motive.
1918: On the request of President Woodrow Wilson, Ford stood as a candidate of peace and backed the proposed League of Nations. In December 1918, his son Edsel descended him as the President of the Ford Motor Company.
Model T of 1923
By 1920, the popularity of Ford’s car was on the peak. Publicity made the car all the more popular, and it began to be seen almost everywhere. Almost every American knew how to drive Model T. However, by the mid 1920s, increasing competition had a negative impact on Model T’s popularity.
1926: The droop in the sales of Model T prompted Henry to make a new model. He made the body design of his new model, his son’s prerogative. The result was the introduction of Model A in 1927, which was a success.
Model A (1930)
The Universal Credit Corporation owned by Ford emerged as a major car financing organization in 1930. By 1932, Ford was producing one third of world’s automobiles.
Model B V8 (1932)
Ford Deluxe (1937)
In July 1938, Ford was awarded the Grand Cross of the German Eagle, which happens to be the highest medal awarded by Nazi Germany to foreigners.
De Luxe Ford (1939)
1943: Edsel died. Henry Ford had to assume control of the company.
1945: In September, owing to his ill health, Ford gave over the presidency to his grandson Henry Ford II.
1947: On April 7, Henry Ford died of cerebral hemorrhage. He was 83. He was buried in the Ford Cemetery of Detroit.
Ford in Aviation
A notable milestone on the timeline of Henry Ford is his entry into the aviation industry. Ford 4AT Trimotor was one of his very successful aircraft. Ford’s remarkable contribution to the aviation industry brought him an honor from the Smithsonian Institution. His Model T was announced at the most influential car of the 20th century and was given the Car of the Century (COTC) Award in December 1999.
Ford aimed at the economic independence of the United States. He wanted to manufacture a vehicle from scratch, without depending on foreign trade. He believed in peace. He fostered the concepts of global expansion of the company and international trade. Ford’s work represented the distinctive American nature and culture.
Henry Ford is regarded as the Car Entrepreneur of the Century and finds a place on the Gallup’s List of Widely Admired People of the 20th Century, published in 1999. The year 1947 marked the end of his timeline but he continues to live in the hearts of many, as the man who brought a revolution in the automobile industry.
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We all know Henry Ford as the founder of Ford Motors. Go through this Henry Ford Timeline to know about his life and achievements.
Henry Ford was the founder of the Ford Motor Company and one of the richest and most famous people on Earth. His timeline runs from 1863 to 1947. His zeal for mechanics stayed with him all his life and made him an automobile industry icon.
1863: On the 30th of July, Henry Ford was born on a farm in Springwells Township, near Dearborn, Michigan.
1879: Henry Ford took his first job at the Michigan Car Company. The company located in Detroit dealt in manufacturing of railroad-cars.
1880: Ford worked as a machine apprentice and began work of a watch repairman in a shop in Detroit during extra hours.
1882: Ford worked on steam-driven farm machinery in the Dearborn area. Later, Westinghouse employed him to operate their steam engines.
1884-85: He attended a business school in Detroit.
1888: Ford married Clara Bryant.
1892: On account of a job in Edison Illuminating Company, Ford migrated to Detroit, accompanied by his wife.
1893: Clara gave birth to little Edsel. Ford was promoted to the post of a Chief Engineer and was in a position to concentrate on his experiments.
1896: Since 1893, Ford had begun to experiment on his home-built internal combustion engines. In 1896, he succeeded in demonstrating his experiment by running his first car called Ford Quadricyle. He drove it on the streets of Detroit for the first time on June 4,1896. He was introduced to Thomas Edison in the same year.
1899: Ford, backed by some investors established the Detroit Automobile Company on August 5. Unfortunately, the plan failed and the company had to be dissolved in 1901.
1901: Ford was left jobless. He moved his family to his father’s place.
1903: Ford, partnered by some other investors, formed the Ford Company with a capital of $28,000.
1908: Model T was introduced. The car model had many structural changes like the steering wheel being on the left side and the use of semi-elliptic springs in the car suspension. The car was affordable to the masses and easy to drive.
1913: Around the 1st of April, mass production of Ford’s moving assembly line began. He is regarded as the Father of modern Assembly Lines.
1914: Henry Ford gave a good salary rise to his workers. This move attracted all the expertise of Detroit to work for him. He called this the wage motive.
1918: On the request of President Woodrow Wilson, Ford stood as a candidate of peace and backed the proposed League of Nations. In December 1918, his son Edsel descended him as the President of the Ford Motor Company.
Model T of 1923
By 1920, the popularity of Ford’s car was on the peak. Publicity made the car all the more popular, and it began to be seen almost everywhere. Almost every American knew how to drive Model T. However, by the mid 1920s, increasing competition had a negative impact on Model T’s popularity.
1926: The droop in the sales of Model T prompted Henry to make a new model. He made the body design of his new model, his son’s prerogative. The result was the introduction of Model A in 1927, which was a success.
Model A (1930)
The Universal Credit Corporation owned by Ford emerged as a major car financing organization in 1930. By 1932, Ford was producing one third of world’s automobiles.
Model B V8 (1932)
Ford Deluxe (1937)
In July 1938, Ford was awarded the Grand Cross of the German Eagle, which happens to be the highest medal awarded by Nazi Germany to foreigners.
De Luxe Ford (1939)
1943: Edsel died. Henry Ford had to assume control of the company.
1945: In September, owing to his ill health, Ford gave over the presidency to his grandson Henry Ford II.
1947: On April 7, Henry Ford died of cerebral hemorrhage. He was 83. He was buried in the Ford Cemetery of Detroit.
Ford in Aviation
A notable milestone on the timeline of Henry Ford is his entry into the aviation industry. Ford 4AT Trimotor was one of his very successful aircraft. Ford’s remarkable contribution to the aviation industry brought him an honor from the Smithsonian Institution. His Model T was announced at the most influential car of the 20th century and was given the Car of the Century (COTC) Award in December 1999.
Ford aimed at the economic independence of the United States. He wanted to manufacture a vehicle from scratch, without depending on foreign trade. He believed in peace. He fostered the concepts of global expansion of the company and international trade. Ford’s work represented the distinctive American nature and culture.
Henry Ford is regarded as the Car Entrepreneur of the Century and finds a place on the Gallup’s List of Widely Admired People of the 20th Century, published in 1999. The year 1947 marked the end of his timeline but he continues to live in the hearts of many, as the man who brought a revolution in the automobile industry.
| 1,189
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ENGLISH
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How did the impact of the brown vs. Topeka case make progress in the struggle of civil rights?
how much progress did it make in the struggle for civil rights for black Americans in the years 1945-1962?
Will pick most detailed answer as best!
Thank you in advance.
- Anonymous8 years agoFavorite Answer
In 1896, in the case of Plessy v. Ferguson, the United States Supreme Court ruled that a state could require segregation of the races in public facilities so long as equal provision was made for both races. The Court confirmed this doctrine in the subsequent cases of Cumming v. County Board of Education (1900), Berea College v. Kentucky (1908), and Gong Lum v. Rice (1925).
In 1938, in Missouri ex rel. Gaines v. Canada, the State of Missour operated a law school to which only white students could be admitted. When a black student applied for admission, the state declined to admit him, but offered to pay for his tuition at an out-of-state law school that admitted blacks. The United States Supreme Court ruled that this was unacceptable, and that Missouri had to fulfill its duties under the Equal Protection Clause within the state. Thus, Missouri either had to admit him to the white school or build a separate school for blacks within its borders. The student, Lloyd Gaines, disappeared and was never seen again, and foul play is suspected. In any event, the principle of "separate but equal" was intact, even after this decision.
World War II ended in 1945, and there were many returning veterans, black and white, who were entitled to educational benefits under the GI Bill, and consequently, a huge demand on educational services. Obviously, if you were black, and you lived in a state where the college or university was limited to white people, your GI education benefits were not much use to you. There was tremendous pressure for change.
In point of fact, many facilities for black people, where they even existed, were not equal. In the Sipuel decision and in the Sweatt v. Painter decision (ca. 1950), the Supreme Court held that separate schools for graduate and professional students (e.g. law schools) were not acceptable, particularly if they had only recently been created. These decisions predated Brown by a few years. The basic rule of "separate but equal" remained in force however.
Brown v. Board of Education, decided in 1954, involved elementary school education. Linda Brown, the black student, sought admission to the school nearest her residence (which was limited to white students), and objected to being bused to the school for black students, which was further away. Under the doctrine of "separate but equal," however, she would have had a hard time, because, as the lower court found, the schools were substantially equal, and while black students were able to ride the bus to school, there was no bus service available for white children, who had to walk to school.
The United States Supreme Court, reversing about 60 years of its own precedents, and without any change in the relevant text of the U.S. Constitution, held, in the Brown case, that separate schools were inherently unequal. Naturally, this came as a great surprise to a lot of people, and there was resistance. In a later phase of the Brown decision, decided in 1955, the Court softened the blow somewhat, by saying that desegregation did not have to occur immediately, but only with "all deliberate speed." That stiffened the resistance of the segregationists, and the Brown decision was not fully implemented until about 1970.
So, what progress did Brown make in the struggle for civil rights? It reversed the principle of separate but equal (which I think was wrong, both morally, and because the Constitution should be construed in a color blind manner), but it created tremendous havoc in our society. When we consider the state and level of education among black students versus white students, and their respective levels of achievement, now that it has been almost 60 years since, we have to wonder just what it accomplished as a practical matter. But Brown did correct what I believe to be a misinterpretation of the Constitution.
The point that we need to keep in mind is that the federal judiciary bears a huge portion of the blame for race relations in this country, because for nearly 60 years, it thought segregation was just fine, and then, out of the blue, changed its mind and turned society upside down.
- lady_catseyesLv 68 years ago
I see you seem to have a theme for your questions. Sorry, you only get one, which I've already answered. You'll have to do the rest of your homework the old fashioned way: by doing the work yourself.
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How did the impact of the brown vs. Topeka case make progress in the struggle of civil rights?
how much progress did it make in the struggle for civil rights for black Americans in the years 1945-1962?
Will pick most detailed answer as best!
Thank you in advance.
- Anonymous8 years agoFavorite Answer
In 1896, in the case of Plessy v. Ferguson, the United States Supreme Court ruled that a state could require segregation of the races in public facilities so long as equal provision was made for both races. The Court confirmed this doctrine in the subsequent cases of Cumming v. County Board of Education (1900), Berea College v. Kentucky (1908), and Gong Lum v. Rice (1925).
In 1938, in Missouri ex rel. Gaines v. Canada, the State of Missour operated a law school to which only white students could be admitted. When a black student applied for admission, the state declined to admit him, but offered to pay for his tuition at an out-of-state law school that admitted blacks. The United States Supreme Court ruled that this was unacceptable, and that Missouri had to fulfill its duties under the Equal Protection Clause within the state. Thus, Missouri either had to admit him to the white school or build a separate school for blacks within its borders. The student, Lloyd Gaines, disappeared and was never seen again, and foul play is suspected. In any event, the principle of "separate but equal" was intact, even after this decision.
World War II ended in 1945, and there were many returning veterans, black and white, who were entitled to educational benefits under the GI Bill, and consequently, a huge demand on educational services. Obviously, if you were black, and you lived in a state where the college or university was limited to white people, your GI education benefits were not much use to you. There was tremendous pressure for change.
In point of fact, many facilities for black people, where they even existed, were not equal. In the Sipuel decision and in the Sweatt v. Painter decision (ca. 1950), the Supreme Court held that separate schools for graduate and professional students (e.g. law schools) were not acceptable, particularly if they had only recently been created. These decisions predated Brown by a few years. The basic rule of "separate but equal" remained in force however.
Brown v. Board of Education, decided in 1954, involved elementary school education. Linda Brown, the black student, sought admission to the school nearest her residence (which was limited to white students), and objected to being bused to the school for black students, which was further away. Under the doctrine of "separate but equal," however, she would have had a hard time, because, as the lower court found, the schools were substantially equal, and while black students were able to ride the bus to school, there was no bus service available for white children, who had to walk to school.
The United States Supreme Court, reversing about 60 years of its own precedents, and without any change in the relevant text of the U.S. Constitution, held, in the Brown case, that separate schools were inherently unequal. Naturally, this came as a great surprise to a lot of people, and there was resistance. In a later phase of the Brown decision, decided in 1955, the Court softened the blow somewhat, by saying that desegregation did not have to occur immediately, but only with "all deliberate speed." That stiffened the resistance of the segregationists, and the Brown decision was not fully implemented until about 1970.
So, what progress did Brown make in the struggle for civil rights? It reversed the principle of separate but equal (which I think was wrong, both morally, and because the Constitution should be construed in a color blind manner), but it created tremendous havoc in our society. When we consider the state and level of education among black students versus white students, and their respective levels of achievement, now that it has been almost 60 years since, we have to wonder just what it accomplished as a practical matter. But Brown did correct what I believe to be a misinterpretation of the Constitution.
The point that we need to keep in mind is that the federal judiciary bears a huge portion of the blame for race relations in this country, because for nearly 60 years, it thought segregation was just fine, and then, out of the blue, changed its mind and turned society upside down.
- lady_catseyesLv 68 years ago
I see you seem to have a theme for your questions. Sorry, you only get one, which I've already answered. You'll have to do the rest of your homework the old fashioned way: by doing the work yourself.
| 1,011
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ENGLISH
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George Fox (July 1624 – 13 January 1691) was an English Dissenter, who was a founder of the Religious Society of Friends, commonly known as the Quakers or Friends. The son of a Leicestershire weaver, he lived in times of social upheaval and war. He rebelled against the religious and political authorities by proposing an unusual, uncompromising approach to the Christian faith. He travelled throughout Britain as a dissenting preacher, often being persecuted by the disapproving authorities. In 1669, he married Margaret Fell, widow of a wealthy supporter, Thomas Fell; she was a leading Friend. His ministry expanded and he made tours of North America and the Low Countries. He was arrested and jailed numerous times for his beliefs. He spent his final decade working in London to organize the expanding Quaker movement. Despite disdain from some Anglicans and Puritans, he was viewed with respect by the Quaker convert William Penn and the Lord Protector, Oliver Cromwell.
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George Fox (July 1624 – 13 January 1691) was an English Dissenter, who was a founder of the Religious Society of Friends, commonly known as the Quakers or Friends. The son of a Leicestershire weaver, he lived in times of social upheaval and war. He rebelled against the religious and political authorities by proposing an unusual, uncompromising approach to the Christian faith. He travelled throughout Britain as a dissenting preacher, often being persecuted by the disapproving authorities. In 1669, he married Margaret Fell, widow of a wealthy supporter, Thomas Fell; she was a leading Friend. His ministry expanded and he made tours of North America and the Low Countries. He was arrested and jailed numerous times for his beliefs. He spent his final decade working in London to organize the expanding Quaker movement. Despite disdain from some Anglicans and Puritans, he was viewed with respect by the Quaker convert William Penn and the Lord Protector, Oliver Cromwell.
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ENGLISH
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Women have played a big role throughout history, but this role has ranged between leadership and subordination. We have seen their role in the myth (Ishtar), but this role was devalued after the growing domination of men. We also saw them in power as queen Zenobia, but this role in leadership fade away and they became subordinate during the era of decline, when males dominated all the key areas of society. This applies to women at all times and places since ancient times, where their role has fluctuated up and down as mentioned above.
The women of the Euphrates are not separated from this historical context of the women role in general, however, the women of Deir Ezzor province have played leading roles, perhaps due to the deep roots of this civilized region, as it has been ruled by many successive civilizations, or maybe due to the nature of their society, which is made up of a mixture of bedouin and urban population, and maybe, the nature of the region’s agricultural economy has played the most prominent role in forming the women leading qualities despite the tribalism prevailing in the Deir Ezzor society, which gives an initial impression that it is a male society, but we find that each tribe has a branch in the name of a woman like (Hadla, Sabha, Saada..), all of them are names of women who have left their mark on society, this, if anything, indicates that these tribes are proud of their women pioneers in the countryside and city, for example, we hear in the region the popular expression “he is his sister’s brother” to indicate the man’s skill and courage.
The people of the city have been known for taking pride of the gallantry of “Batta’s brothers”, which brings back the memory of (Batta al-Haj Kaddour), one of the women of Deir Ezzor who stood against the French colonizers, and inspired her countrymen in fighting. We also cannot forget (Fatima al-Jathmour) who was arrested by the French for blowing red peppers in the eyes of their soldiers as they were chasing rebels. In addition to many other brave women in the countryside and the city, whether in the past or in the present time. Deir Ezzor’s women’s role was not limited to this aspect of struggle against occupiers but also to other aspects, and in addition to being housewives, they worked with men in agriculture, and their participation in this field is more than 50 per cent. They grow and harvest crops, in addition to taking care of livestock, working in dairy industry, and preparing supplies for winter like tomato paste, dried vegetables, bulgur and so on, moreover, they weave carpets and work in other professions, getting economic return that helps their families and gives them some economic independence.
Since the 1940s, the rural women have not been absent from education. Girls from different parts of Deir Ezzor countryside have been going to school and graduating as teachers, such as the teacher (Omiya Al-Basri) from Al-Mayadeen city, and many other girls who had the opportunity to complete their education and move to the capital, such as the novelist Dr. (Maya al-Rahbi).
In Deir Ezzor community, the countryside in particular, the proportion of educated women has increased, reaching very high numbers over the past two decades, and in the city, since long ago, the women of Deir Ezzor have been working in the fields of education the (Khoja) such as (Fatima Khanem) from Armenian origin. They also worked in medicine (herbal medicine, and al-Kashasha), in beauty care field such as the professions of (Sammada and Hafafah) and in midwifery, as well as in weaving rugs and carpets, spinning and weaving wool. They also worked as tailors, embroiderers, and makers of abayas (the folkloric symbol of the women of the region.)
Through all these professions, women played a big role in building their families and society. They moved towards education and achieved great success, in this field we can name “Aida Azzawi”, the first female doctor to graduate from western Germany, and “Lamiaa al-Jawhari”, the first female doctor to graduate from Damascus University and specialize in France, and we can’t ignore the pioneer of education, the first teacher “Labiba Hosni Al-Dakhil” and the first lawyer “Zahra al-Hafiz”.
The women of Deir Ezzor and its countryside have also excelled in literature and art, such as the writer “Shatha Barghout”, the first woman to release a collection of stories in the eastern region in 1994, and the first woman in the region to become a member of the Arab Writers Union in 1997, in addition to the sisters “Mandil” and the poet “Tamadhor al-Muwah”, and the painter “Itab Huraib” and many others.
In all that we have mentioned, The glorious women of Deir Ezzor have showed excellence in all fields, which proves the popular saying of the province’s people about the women of this region: “the women of Deir Ezzor are sisters of men”.
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Women have played a big role throughout history, but this role has ranged between leadership and subordination. We have seen their role in the myth (Ishtar), but this role was devalued after the growing domination of men. We also saw them in power as queen Zenobia, but this role in leadership fade away and they became subordinate during the era of decline, when males dominated all the key areas of society. This applies to women at all times and places since ancient times, where their role has fluctuated up and down as mentioned above.
The women of the Euphrates are not separated from this historical context of the women role in general, however, the women of Deir Ezzor province have played leading roles, perhaps due to the deep roots of this civilized region, as it has been ruled by many successive civilizations, or maybe due to the nature of their society, which is made up of a mixture of bedouin and urban population, and maybe, the nature of the region’s agricultural economy has played the most prominent role in forming the women leading qualities despite the tribalism prevailing in the Deir Ezzor society, which gives an initial impression that it is a male society, but we find that each tribe has a branch in the name of a woman like (Hadla, Sabha, Saada..), all of them are names of women who have left their mark on society, this, if anything, indicates that these tribes are proud of their women pioneers in the countryside and city, for example, we hear in the region the popular expression “he is his sister’s brother” to indicate the man’s skill and courage.
The people of the city have been known for taking pride of the gallantry of “Batta’s brothers”, which brings back the memory of (Batta al-Haj Kaddour), one of the women of Deir Ezzor who stood against the French colonizers, and inspired her countrymen in fighting. We also cannot forget (Fatima al-Jathmour) who was arrested by the French for blowing red peppers in the eyes of their soldiers as they were chasing rebels. In addition to many other brave women in the countryside and the city, whether in the past or in the present time. Deir Ezzor’s women’s role was not limited to this aspect of struggle against occupiers but also to other aspects, and in addition to being housewives, they worked with men in agriculture, and their participation in this field is more than 50 per cent. They grow and harvest crops, in addition to taking care of livestock, working in dairy industry, and preparing supplies for winter like tomato paste, dried vegetables, bulgur and so on, moreover, they weave carpets and work in other professions, getting economic return that helps their families and gives them some economic independence.
Since the 1940s, the rural women have not been absent from education. Girls from different parts of Deir Ezzor countryside have been going to school and graduating as teachers, such as the teacher (Omiya Al-Basri) from Al-Mayadeen city, and many other girls who had the opportunity to complete their education and move to the capital, such as the novelist Dr. (Maya al-Rahbi).
In Deir Ezzor community, the countryside in particular, the proportion of educated women has increased, reaching very high numbers over the past two decades, and in the city, since long ago, the women of Deir Ezzor have been working in the fields of education the (Khoja) such as (Fatima Khanem) from Armenian origin. They also worked in medicine (herbal medicine, and al-Kashasha), in beauty care field such as the professions of (Sammada and Hafafah) and in midwifery, as well as in weaving rugs and carpets, spinning and weaving wool. They also worked as tailors, embroiderers, and makers of abayas (the folkloric symbol of the women of the region.)
Through all these professions, women played a big role in building their families and society. They moved towards education and achieved great success, in this field we can name “Aida Azzawi”, the first female doctor to graduate from western Germany, and “Lamiaa al-Jawhari”, the first female doctor to graduate from Damascus University and specialize in France, and we can’t ignore the pioneer of education, the first teacher “Labiba Hosni Al-Dakhil” and the first lawyer “Zahra al-Hafiz”.
The women of Deir Ezzor and its countryside have also excelled in literature and art, such as the writer “Shatha Barghout”, the first woman to release a collection of stories in the eastern region in 1994, and the first woman in the region to become a member of the Arab Writers Union in 1997, in addition to the sisters “Mandil” and the poet “Tamadhor al-Muwah”, and the painter “Itab Huraib” and many others.
In all that we have mentioned, The glorious women of Deir Ezzor have showed excellence in all fields, which proves the popular saying of the province’s people about the women of this region: “the women of Deir Ezzor are sisters of men”.
| 1,100
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ENGLISH
| 1
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Tuesday was March 7th, 2017. It was the anniversary of a very important day. On this day, 52 years ago (in 1965), a group of people went off to march from Selma, Alabama, to Montgomery, Alabama. These people wanted to peacefully protest the laws that prevented African Americans from being able to vote. When they reached the Edmund Pettus Bridge, however, they were unable to continue. Police had stationed themselves there, and were ready to attack. They beat the marchers with clubs and released toxic gas into the air. The marchers were forced to evacuate.
These courageous marchers refused to give up. On March 21st, 1965, Dr. Martin Luther King, who had not been at the original march, lead another march from Selma to Montgomery. This time, accompanied by soldiers sent by President Lyndon B. Johnson, the march was successful. The marchers went from Selma to Montgomery in 4 days. By the end of the march, 25,000 people had joined. Just 5 months later, President Lyndon B. Johnson signed the Voting Rights Act of 1965, granting African Americans the right to vote.
As we reflected on this day in class, we were awed at the bravery of the people who took part in the Civil Rights Movement. One 14 year old girl decided not to go to the march, but her friend told her, “If you walk away now, you’ll let your fears guide you and rule you forever.” She then went through with the march, but was beaten by the police. When the 2nd march occurred, however, she decided to take part in it. She is just one of the examples of the many inspiring people to have taken part in the Civil Rights Movement, even when they were putting themselves at risk.
Talking about Selma also caused our class to reflect on how far the United States has come in terms of racial justice. One student commented, “On that day in 1965, people were getting attacked by the police just because of the color of their skin. Today, just 52 years later, people of all races in the United States work together and go to school together. It’s amazing how far we’ve come.” Zoe Holmes, a sixth grade student also taking part in the discussion said, “I remember my grandmother showed me a photo of her marching with Dr. King. She was there at that time, making a difference.” We were all amazed at Zoe’s story. Her grandmother had contributed to making a big change. The story inspired us to make changes of our own. The success of the Civil Rights Movement is an inspiring example of how hard work and collaboration can make a big difference. The class discussion was not only about remembrance of our past, but also about hope for our future.
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Tuesday was March 7th, 2017. It was the anniversary of a very important day. On this day, 52 years ago (in 1965), a group of people went off to march from Selma, Alabama, to Montgomery, Alabama. These people wanted to peacefully protest the laws that prevented African Americans from being able to vote. When they reached the Edmund Pettus Bridge, however, they were unable to continue. Police had stationed themselves there, and were ready to attack. They beat the marchers with clubs and released toxic gas into the air. The marchers were forced to evacuate.
These courageous marchers refused to give up. On March 21st, 1965, Dr. Martin Luther King, who had not been at the original march, lead another march from Selma to Montgomery. This time, accompanied by soldiers sent by President Lyndon B. Johnson, the march was successful. The marchers went from Selma to Montgomery in 4 days. By the end of the march, 25,000 people had joined. Just 5 months later, President Lyndon B. Johnson signed the Voting Rights Act of 1965, granting African Americans the right to vote.
As we reflected on this day in class, we were awed at the bravery of the people who took part in the Civil Rights Movement. One 14 year old girl decided not to go to the march, but her friend told her, “If you walk away now, you’ll let your fears guide you and rule you forever.” She then went through with the march, but was beaten by the police. When the 2nd march occurred, however, she decided to take part in it. She is just one of the examples of the many inspiring people to have taken part in the Civil Rights Movement, even when they were putting themselves at risk.
Talking about Selma also caused our class to reflect on how far the United States has come in terms of racial justice. One student commented, “On that day in 1965, people were getting attacked by the police just because of the color of their skin. Today, just 52 years later, people of all races in the United States work together and go to school together. It’s amazing how far we’ve come.” Zoe Holmes, a sixth grade student also taking part in the discussion said, “I remember my grandmother showed me a photo of her marching with Dr. King. She was there at that time, making a difference.” We were all amazed at Zoe’s story. Her grandmother had contributed to making a big change. The story inspired us to make changes of our own. The success of the Civil Rights Movement is an inspiring example of how hard work and collaboration can make a big difference. The class discussion was not only about remembrance of our past, but also about hope for our future.
| 597
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ENGLISH
| 1
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Arriving in Fort Pueblo, these members also came across other members of their faith, these having come from parts of Mississippi, Alabama and Tennessee. This group of pioneers, largely known as the Mississippi Saints left their homes and headed west to join the rest of the church when they learned the main body was forced from their homes in Illinois after the murders of the church's founder and prophet, Joseph Smith and his brother Hyrum. The Mississippi Saints had planned on joining the main body under Brigham Young along the Platte River near Fort Laramie. However, upon arriving at this spot, they learned that weather, illness and being stopped by the US Army (which interruption was made for the purpose of organizing the Mormon Battalion), the main body was stopped along the Missouri River. Needing a place to stay as they wait for the main body, especially as winter approached, these southern Mormons were guided to Fort Pueblo. Among this body were a few African-Americans, many already members, or whom would later join. Together, the Mississippi Saints and the detachment of the Mormon Battalion stayed for the winter before the former joined Brigham Young and became the first to into the Salt Lake Valley, while the latter continued their march west and joined the Battalion in California.
The winter encampment of both the Mormon Battalion and the Mississippi Saints played key roles in establishing a LDS presence in Colorado and helping in the opening and expanding of emigrant trails to the west coast.
This 1946 monument was made possible by The State Historical Society of Colorado and members of the LDS church in Colorado. This location is actually the second location for the monument. The original location was in an area deemed poor and inconspicuous, whereas this new and permanent location was declared by the State Historical Society as the spot where the detachment made their camp. It was moved in 1993 and rededicated during a big Pueblo Pioneer Days celebration.
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Arriving in Fort Pueblo, these members also came across other members of their faith, these having come from parts of Mississippi, Alabama and Tennessee. This group of pioneers, largely known as the Mississippi Saints left their homes and headed west to join the rest of the church when they learned the main body was forced from their homes in Illinois after the murders of the church's founder and prophet, Joseph Smith and his brother Hyrum. The Mississippi Saints had planned on joining the main body under Brigham Young along the Platte River near Fort Laramie. However, upon arriving at this spot, they learned that weather, illness and being stopped by the US Army (which interruption was made for the purpose of organizing the Mormon Battalion), the main body was stopped along the Missouri River. Needing a place to stay as they wait for the main body, especially as winter approached, these southern Mormons were guided to Fort Pueblo. Among this body were a few African-Americans, many already members, or whom would later join. Together, the Mississippi Saints and the detachment of the Mormon Battalion stayed for the winter before the former joined Brigham Young and became the first to into the Salt Lake Valley, while the latter continued their march west and joined the Battalion in California.
The winter encampment of both the Mormon Battalion and the Mississippi Saints played key roles in establishing a LDS presence in Colorado and helping in the opening and expanding of emigrant trails to the west coast.
This 1946 monument was made possible by The State Historical Society of Colorado and members of the LDS church in Colorado. This location is actually the second location for the monument. The original location was in an area deemed poor and inconspicuous, whereas this new and permanent location was declared by the State Historical Society as the spot where the detachment made their camp. It was moved in 1993 and rededicated during a big Pueblo Pioneer Days celebration.
| 387
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ENGLISH
| 1
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The first mention of a celebration on 25 December was in AD 336, at the end of the reign of Emperor Constantine, who ruled the empire between AD 306 and AD 337.
Constantine is credited with being the first Roman Emperor to embrace Christianity and monotheism – the worship of one god – over the Ancient Roman tradition of worshipping many gods, who all served specific purposes in the live of Ancient Romans.
The move to a belief in one god in charge of all aspects of human life was phased in gradually, with the old gods still playing a role in the lives of Ancient Romans.
There were celebrations in the empire which took place in December – including Saturnalia, which was dedicated to Saturn, the god of agriculture and time. The festival started out as one single day of celebration, but by the later years of the Roman Empire (31-131 BC), it was extended and became a festival that began on 17 December and lasted for one week – ending on what Christians now know as Christmas Eve, 24 December.
After the murder of Julius Caesar, his great nephew, Octavian – who became Emperor Augustus (27 BC–AD 14) – decided to shorten the festival to just three days because it was affecting the working week of Ancient Romans.
The festival had also become not just confined to people’s homes, but became more public, with people dressing up in their finest clothes, including clothing made with gold threads to add bling to the proceedings. Now we decorate our homes in gold and bright colours – and dress up in red and green and our best gold threads, just as the Ancient Romans did!
In Rome, there was also a celebration at the Temple of Saturn, comprising public feasting. Saturn’s sister-wife Ops had also become involved in the celebrations, with 17 December being dedicated to her.
There was public drunkenness recorded in the writings of the time – and a general atmosphere of merriment on the streets during the holiday. In Ancient Rome, there would be games played in the streets – and public gambling was allowed.
It is easy to see how Saturnalia – which marked the winter solstice – morphed into what we now know as Christmas, which many complain is now becoming less a time for family and marking a religious festival and more a good excuse to dress up, get drunk and have a good time!
The Roman Empire and Jesus
It is thought that Emperor Constantine’s mother Helena – who was Greek – embraced and promoted Christianity and helped spread it throughout the Roman Empire.
It is therefore ironic that it was the Romans who had put Jesus to death – not the Jews, as some believe erroneously. Jesus was a Jew who posed a threat to the power of Rome with his teachings about one god rather than a whole panoply of gods, as was widely believed and promoted in the Roman Empire.
Emperor Julius Caesar had been murdered by his fellow senators for trying to establish his legacy as a living god in perpetuity, so the Roman Empire was extremely sensitive to anyone who challenged the idea of the emperor and senate as the ultimate power. The many gods the Romans believed in fought among themselves for power – establishing one divine being to rule over heaven and earth as Christianity did was extremely threatening to the empire’s authority.
Constantine was born in AD 275, centuries after the death of Jesus, who was estimated to be 33 years’ old when he was crucified on the orders of Pontius Pilate, the governor of Judaea.
Judaea was a province of the Roman Empire during the rule of Emperor Tiberius, who succeeded Emperor Augustus in AD 14. A famous quote attributed to Tiberius is, “It is the duty of a good shepherd to shear his sheep, not to skin them” – coincidentally, the idea of Jesus being the Good Shepherd who sacrifices his life for his flock of believers is a common image in Christianity.
Anno Domini (AD) marks the year Jesus was born, so he was born under the reign of Emperor Augustus and died in around AD 33, under the reign of Emperor Tiberius.
Emperor Constantine’s conversion to Christianity
It is thought Constantine’s conversion to Christianity occurred after a vision when he was battling his greatest rival Maxentius in AD 312.
Constantine was a worshipper of many gods, but especially the sun god Sol. While en route to fight Maxentius, he reached the River Tiber and saw an image of the cross against the sun and the words in hoc signo vinces – “in this sign you will triumph”. It is this vision that converted him to Christianity – and led to him returning goods and land seized from Christians and promoting religious equality throughout the Roman Empire. A basilica in the Forum begun by Maxentius in AD 308 was completed by Constantine after he defeated him at the Battle of Milvian Bridge in AD 312.
Constantine was baptised a Christian on his deathbed in AD 337, leaving a Christian legacy to the former lands of the Roman Empire – and perhaps the beginning of what Christians now know as Christmas.
So this year, eat, drink and be merry – but perhaps raise a glass to Emperor Constantine who helped bequeath us the Christmas celebrations we have today!
Read a Chronology of Jesus on Wikipedia
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The first mention of a celebration on 25 December was in AD 336, at the end of the reign of Emperor Constantine, who ruled the empire between AD 306 and AD 337.
Constantine is credited with being the first Roman Emperor to embrace Christianity and monotheism – the worship of one god – over the Ancient Roman tradition of worshipping many gods, who all served specific purposes in the live of Ancient Romans.
The move to a belief in one god in charge of all aspects of human life was phased in gradually, with the old gods still playing a role in the lives of Ancient Romans.
There were celebrations in the empire which took place in December – including Saturnalia, which was dedicated to Saturn, the god of agriculture and time. The festival started out as one single day of celebration, but by the later years of the Roman Empire (31-131 BC), it was extended and became a festival that began on 17 December and lasted for one week – ending on what Christians now know as Christmas Eve, 24 December.
After the murder of Julius Caesar, his great nephew, Octavian – who became Emperor Augustus (27 BC–AD 14) – decided to shorten the festival to just three days because it was affecting the working week of Ancient Romans.
The festival had also become not just confined to people’s homes, but became more public, with people dressing up in their finest clothes, including clothing made with gold threads to add bling to the proceedings. Now we decorate our homes in gold and bright colours – and dress up in red and green and our best gold threads, just as the Ancient Romans did!
In Rome, there was also a celebration at the Temple of Saturn, comprising public feasting. Saturn’s sister-wife Ops had also become involved in the celebrations, with 17 December being dedicated to her.
There was public drunkenness recorded in the writings of the time – and a general atmosphere of merriment on the streets during the holiday. In Ancient Rome, there would be games played in the streets – and public gambling was allowed.
It is easy to see how Saturnalia – which marked the winter solstice – morphed into what we now know as Christmas, which many complain is now becoming less a time for family and marking a religious festival and more a good excuse to dress up, get drunk and have a good time!
The Roman Empire and Jesus
It is thought that Emperor Constantine’s mother Helena – who was Greek – embraced and promoted Christianity and helped spread it throughout the Roman Empire.
It is therefore ironic that it was the Romans who had put Jesus to death – not the Jews, as some believe erroneously. Jesus was a Jew who posed a threat to the power of Rome with his teachings about one god rather than a whole panoply of gods, as was widely believed and promoted in the Roman Empire.
Emperor Julius Caesar had been murdered by his fellow senators for trying to establish his legacy as a living god in perpetuity, so the Roman Empire was extremely sensitive to anyone who challenged the idea of the emperor and senate as the ultimate power. The many gods the Romans believed in fought among themselves for power – establishing one divine being to rule over heaven and earth as Christianity did was extremely threatening to the empire’s authority.
Constantine was born in AD 275, centuries after the death of Jesus, who was estimated to be 33 years’ old when he was crucified on the orders of Pontius Pilate, the governor of Judaea.
Judaea was a province of the Roman Empire during the rule of Emperor Tiberius, who succeeded Emperor Augustus in AD 14. A famous quote attributed to Tiberius is, “It is the duty of a good shepherd to shear his sheep, not to skin them” – coincidentally, the idea of Jesus being the Good Shepherd who sacrifices his life for his flock of believers is a common image in Christianity.
Anno Domini (AD) marks the year Jesus was born, so he was born under the reign of Emperor Augustus and died in around AD 33, under the reign of Emperor Tiberius.
Emperor Constantine’s conversion to Christianity
It is thought Constantine’s conversion to Christianity occurred after a vision when he was battling his greatest rival Maxentius in AD 312.
Constantine was a worshipper of many gods, but especially the sun god Sol. While en route to fight Maxentius, he reached the River Tiber and saw an image of the cross against the sun and the words in hoc signo vinces – “in this sign you will triumph”. It is this vision that converted him to Christianity – and led to him returning goods and land seized from Christians and promoting religious equality throughout the Roman Empire. A basilica in the Forum begun by Maxentius in AD 308 was completed by Constantine after he defeated him at the Battle of Milvian Bridge in AD 312.
Constantine was baptised a Christian on his deathbed in AD 337, leaving a Christian legacy to the former lands of the Roman Empire – and perhaps the beginning of what Christians now know as Christmas.
So this year, eat, drink and be merry – but perhaps raise a glass to Emperor Constantine who helped bequeath us the Christmas celebrations we have today!
Read a Chronology of Jesus on Wikipedia
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The Battle of Peleliu was one of the bloodiest and most deadly conflicts in the Pacific Theatre and claimed more than 12,000 lives, which is more than nine-hundred men for every square kilometre of this small island.
It has long been a favourite trope of popular culture, the Japanese soldier resisting the enemy for years following the end of the War oblivious to his nation’s surrender.
However, like many myths this one is rooted in fact.
The battle was expected to last just four days, but the Japanese defences were so intractable that it took US forces two months to take the territory.
The American Major General William Rupertus was the Commander leading the 1st Marine Division. The main goal was to win the airstrip on the island, but apart from this Peleliu appeared to have little strategic value in the Pacific theatre.
The Battle caused controversy at home for the US due to the high rate of attrition, the casualty rate far exceeding any other amphibious operation of the Pacific War.
The American forces had codenamed the operation ‘Stalemate’ and that was exactly what it looked like, despite the US forces heavily outnumbering those of the Japanese Imperial military.
The Japanese commander had been ordered not to surrender the island at any cost and managed to keep the US Marines at bay for some seventy-three days.
The Japanese commander finally capitulated and took his own life in a ritual suicide.
Keiji Nagai was one of just thirty-four Japanese survivors of the Battle of Peleliu. Together with his comrades he hid inside a vast network of tunnels, stealing supplies from the US occupying forces to survive.
None of them had any contact with the Imperial Army and so had no idea that their Emperor had surrendered in August 1945.
The soldiers survived undetected for nearly two years and were only motivated to hand themselves in when one of their number found a discarded American magazine.
With a photograph of Japanese politicians and generals signing documents, watched by a group of high ranking American military leaders.
One of the thirty-four men holding outs had enough understanding of the English language to be able to translate the caption and so discover the truth.
Defeat was hard for them to stomach and Nagai later said in an interview that he did not want to use the word ‘surrender’ when they finally emerged from their boltholes deep inside the island’s cave system.
He said he retained too much military pride to simply give himself up to the Americans twenty months after the end of the War.
After his repatriation Nagai returned to his home province where he married and settled down and spent his civilian working life making confectionery, rarely talking about his wartime experiences.
It was only in the last few years, when he was formerly identified as the last surviving soldier from the Battle of Peleliu, that he began to open up about his experiences.
In the Spring of 2015 Nagai met Emperor Akihito and Empress Michiko at the Imperial Palace in Tokyo before their official visit to the island to pay their respects to the fallen.
The Emperor had thanked the old soldier, who had enlisted in 1940 and was initially sent to Manchuria, for his long service to the nation.
NHK interviewed Nagai for a television show broadcast on the day of the Imperial visit.
He described the bombardment by the US Navy prior to the Marines landing on the island, watching his comrades fall and the islands complex defences erode under the onslaught.
Another Article From Us: Divers Use WW2 Equipment To Return A Crew Member To USS Arizona
When he was asked whether Japan needed to change Japan’s pacifist constitution, which has been under review by politicians who would like to see the country’s military position ‘normalised’ he was dismissive, saying there was ‘no need’.
Nagai died in November 2019 aged ninety-eight.
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The Battle of Peleliu was one of the bloodiest and most deadly conflicts in the Pacific Theatre and claimed more than 12,000 lives, which is more than nine-hundred men for every square kilometre of this small island.
It has long been a favourite trope of popular culture, the Japanese soldier resisting the enemy for years following the end of the War oblivious to his nation’s surrender.
However, like many myths this one is rooted in fact.
The battle was expected to last just four days, but the Japanese defences were so intractable that it took US forces two months to take the territory.
The American Major General William Rupertus was the Commander leading the 1st Marine Division. The main goal was to win the airstrip on the island, but apart from this Peleliu appeared to have little strategic value in the Pacific theatre.
The Battle caused controversy at home for the US due to the high rate of attrition, the casualty rate far exceeding any other amphibious operation of the Pacific War.
The American forces had codenamed the operation ‘Stalemate’ and that was exactly what it looked like, despite the US forces heavily outnumbering those of the Japanese Imperial military.
The Japanese commander had been ordered not to surrender the island at any cost and managed to keep the US Marines at bay for some seventy-three days.
The Japanese commander finally capitulated and took his own life in a ritual suicide.
Keiji Nagai was one of just thirty-four Japanese survivors of the Battle of Peleliu. Together with his comrades he hid inside a vast network of tunnels, stealing supplies from the US occupying forces to survive.
None of them had any contact with the Imperial Army and so had no idea that their Emperor had surrendered in August 1945.
The soldiers survived undetected for nearly two years and were only motivated to hand themselves in when one of their number found a discarded American magazine.
With a photograph of Japanese politicians and generals signing documents, watched by a group of high ranking American military leaders.
One of the thirty-four men holding outs had enough understanding of the English language to be able to translate the caption and so discover the truth.
Defeat was hard for them to stomach and Nagai later said in an interview that he did not want to use the word ‘surrender’ when they finally emerged from their boltholes deep inside the island’s cave system.
He said he retained too much military pride to simply give himself up to the Americans twenty months after the end of the War.
After his repatriation Nagai returned to his home province where he married and settled down and spent his civilian working life making confectionery, rarely talking about his wartime experiences.
It was only in the last few years, when he was formerly identified as the last surviving soldier from the Battle of Peleliu, that he began to open up about his experiences.
In the Spring of 2015 Nagai met Emperor Akihito and Empress Michiko at the Imperial Palace in Tokyo before their official visit to the island to pay their respects to the fallen.
The Emperor had thanked the old soldier, who had enlisted in 1940 and was initially sent to Manchuria, for his long service to the nation.
NHK interviewed Nagai for a television show broadcast on the day of the Imperial visit.
He described the bombardment by the US Navy prior to the Marines landing on the island, watching his comrades fall and the islands complex defences erode under the onslaught.
Another Article From Us: Divers Use WW2 Equipment To Return A Crew Member To USS Arizona
When he was asked whether Japan needed to change Japan’s pacifist constitution, which has been under review by politicians who would like to see the country’s military position ‘normalised’ he was dismissive, saying there was ‘no need’.
Nagai died in November 2019 aged ninety-eight.
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World War II was the deadliest event in human history. It varied from previousconflicts by the fact that civilians were singled out as military targets. The morale of civilians is just as important as the soldiers. The introduction of the bomber would change the way wars would be fought. In the beginning of the war the idea of unselective bombing was accepted in the military by many countries. After World War II historians were able to analyze the effects of the bombings. Since then, many people were left to question if such attacks on civilians were acceptable morally and of its effectiveness. In more recent years, the question of German civilians being victims of the bombing war has stirred even more controversy in the historical community. To understand why historians are still debating the necessity of the Allied bombing campaign, one must understand the history of air power and strategic bombing leading up to the allied destruction of Germany.The bombing campaign of the Allies had been debated by historians since the end of the war. Many books and movies about World War II are justified because it was the most important event of the 20th century, and one of the most major events in human history. Many portions of the war were controversial, but the most highly debated remains the bombing campaigns. I chose to research the bombing of Germany because there are so many different opinions by historians. It is safe to assume that without the bombing campaign, victory would have been extremely difficult. Many historians believed that aerial bombing would effectively stop war production and destroy military targets. Although thebombing of German cities damaged war production and slowed down the German war machine,it failed to bring the German economy to a halt. The fact that German production remained highuntil 1944 showed that it takes indiscriminate round the clock bombing of cities to slow theGerman economy down enough to begin to see results, even then, production never came tocomplete standstill. The bombing of German cities was highly ineffective in breaking German morale as well.This part backfired as Germans became more and more enraged and fought harder to repair theirfactories and industry in the face of Allied attacks. This was a lesson that should have beenlearned by the Allies, especially the British, during the Battle of Britain. The Germans remainedvery defiant until the bitter end because they knew they faced Allied occupation if they gave into the unconditional surrender that was demanded by the Allies. They knew that the Allies weretrying to break their will to fight which is what fueled their anger and their will to resist more,even as the attacks intensified.Although the strategic bombing doctrine did not live up to its prewar expectations, it wasstill a deciding factor in the Allied victory in Europe. The German army was forced to divertmuch needed planes, anti-aircraft guns, and soldiers to the air war over Europe. If the Allies hadnot conducted the bombing campaign, these resources could have been used on the Eastern Frontagainst the Soviet Union, which by 1942 the outcome was still in question. Because the Allieswere not ready to open up a second front on the ground in Europe in 1942, they were able toopen one up in the sky, which took some pressure off of the Soviet Union until the invasion ofNormandy in 1944.The morality of the bombing campaign is not as clear as the effectiveness. Theintentional bombing of civilians is obviously tragic. When civilians get caught in the cross fireof warfare, bullets and bombs do not distinguish between those willing participants or those whoopposed the regime. It is certainly most tragic when the casualties of the bombings were kids,who were impartial to the war and the politics of their government. However, what authors likeGrayling, Friedrich, Bess, and others neglect to write about, are the horrible atrocities committedby the Nazis. Twenty million Soviets, ten million Jews and other unwanted peoples, and70hundreds of thousands of Allied soldiers were killed as a result of Nazi Germany and the war itstarted.Firestorms were inhumane acts of war, but strategic bombing was a new weapon of warand when a nation has a new weapon during wartime it uses it. There were no set rules to followfor strategic bombing, so the Allied commanders had to make the best decisions they could andhope the decisions they made were the right ones. If Nazi Germany had the means to conductaerial bombings on the same scale that the Allies did, it would not have hesitated to use thebombers to wage warfare on an unimaginable scale. World War II presented cruelty andbarbarity on a level never thought possible. If the United States and Britain did not use theweapons they had at their disposal, the war could have lasted longer or turned in the favor of theAxis. When confronted with evil, one must do whatever is necessary to defeat that evil andinsure that it never happens again.The question of Germans as victims is a touchy subject with no definitive answer. Afterreading The Fire it was difficult not to feel sympathy for the German civilians caught in themidst of war. As badly as I feel for the German people who withstood the bombings, I stillcannot consider them “victims” of the Allied bombing campaign or Soviet reprisals. Thesurvivors of concentration camps or atrocities on the Eastern front are victims because they weremurdered for being born Jewish or Slavic. The German civilians who were bombed orexperienced Soviet reprisals are casualties of war, not victims, because their fate was an outcomeof a war their nation started.The Allies did not go into the bombing campaign with the intention of systematicallydestroying the entire race of Germanic people. The goal established by the Allies was to destroythe Germans capability to wage war and by 1945 that goal was accomplished. While manyGermans died during bombings, that was an unfortunate but understood side effect of total war.The experience of the bombed was no doubt a terrifying experience. The mass rapes committedby the Soviet Union in Germany were an awful consequence of being conquered as well.However, Hitler and his high-ranking Nazis went into the war with the intention of murdering allthe Jews in Europe. Many German people basked in the glory of their early victoriesand it was only after the tides of war had turned against them that their attitudes began to change.In another sense, Germans are victims. They are victims of circumstance. The Britishand French forced the German government into signing the humiliating Treaty of Versaillesfollowing World War I. This led to a collapse of the German social, political, and economicstructure throughout the 1920s. With the country in turmoil, the Nazis came to power and begansolving the problems that plagued Germany for years. The people of Germany were vulnerableand the Nazis were able to make Germany great again. Out of sheer desperation, the people ofGermany blindly followed a government that had helped them out when nobody else would. Itwas this obedience that would ultimately lead to disastrous consequences for the people ofGermany.As the years pass on, the way we remember past events takes on a new perspective.Perhaps one-day Germans can be viewed as victims and World War II will be a reminder of thelast great conflict the world has ever seen. With veterans and survivors of the air war dying offquickly, it is important to remember the sacrifices they made and the experiences they endured.Historians need to keep arguing the importance of the air war and questioning the effectiveness, morality, and victimization. It’s these arguments that keep the memories of World War II alivein hope that history won’t repeat itself.
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World War II was the deadliest event in human history. It varied from previousconflicts by the fact that civilians were singled out as military targets. The morale of civilians is just as important as the soldiers. The introduction of the bomber would change the way wars would be fought. In the beginning of the war the idea of unselective bombing was accepted in the military by many countries. After World War II historians were able to analyze the effects of the bombings. Since then, many people were left to question if such attacks on civilians were acceptable morally and of its effectiveness. In more recent years, the question of German civilians being victims of the bombing war has stirred even more controversy in the historical community. To understand why historians are still debating the necessity of the Allied bombing campaign, one must understand the history of air power and strategic bombing leading up to the allied destruction of Germany.The bombing campaign of the Allies had been debated by historians since the end of the war. Many books and movies about World War II are justified because it was the most important event of the 20th century, and one of the most major events in human history. Many portions of the war were controversial, but the most highly debated remains the bombing campaigns. I chose to research the bombing of Germany because there are so many different opinions by historians. It is safe to assume that without the bombing campaign, victory would have been extremely difficult. Many historians believed that aerial bombing would effectively stop war production and destroy military targets. Although thebombing of German cities damaged war production and slowed down the German war machine,it failed to bring the German economy to a halt. The fact that German production remained highuntil 1944 showed that it takes indiscriminate round the clock bombing of cities to slow theGerman economy down enough to begin to see results, even then, production never came tocomplete standstill. The bombing of German cities was highly ineffective in breaking German morale as well.This part backfired as Germans became more and more enraged and fought harder to repair theirfactories and industry in the face of Allied attacks. This was a lesson that should have beenlearned by the Allies, especially the British, during the Battle of Britain. The Germans remainedvery defiant until the bitter end because they knew they faced Allied occupation if they gave into the unconditional surrender that was demanded by the Allies. They knew that the Allies weretrying to break their will to fight which is what fueled their anger and their will to resist more,even as the attacks intensified.Although the strategic bombing doctrine did not live up to its prewar expectations, it wasstill a deciding factor in the Allied victory in Europe. The German army was forced to divertmuch needed planes, anti-aircraft guns, and soldiers to the air war over Europe. If the Allies hadnot conducted the bombing campaign, these resources could have been used on the Eastern Frontagainst the Soviet Union, which by 1942 the outcome was still in question. Because the Allieswere not ready to open up a second front on the ground in Europe in 1942, they were able toopen one up in the sky, which took some pressure off of the Soviet Union until the invasion ofNormandy in 1944.The morality of the bombing campaign is not as clear as the effectiveness. Theintentional bombing of civilians is obviously tragic. When civilians get caught in the cross fireof warfare, bullets and bombs do not distinguish between those willing participants or those whoopposed the regime. It is certainly most tragic when the casualties of the bombings were kids,who were impartial to the war and the politics of their government. However, what authors likeGrayling, Friedrich, Bess, and others neglect to write about, are the horrible atrocities committedby the Nazis. Twenty million Soviets, ten million Jews and other unwanted peoples, and70hundreds of thousands of Allied soldiers were killed as a result of Nazi Germany and the war itstarted.Firestorms were inhumane acts of war, but strategic bombing was a new weapon of warand when a nation has a new weapon during wartime it uses it. There were no set rules to followfor strategic bombing, so the Allied commanders had to make the best decisions they could andhope the decisions they made were the right ones. If Nazi Germany had the means to conductaerial bombings on the same scale that the Allies did, it would not have hesitated to use thebombers to wage warfare on an unimaginable scale. World War II presented cruelty andbarbarity on a level never thought possible. If the United States and Britain did not use theweapons they had at their disposal, the war could have lasted longer or turned in the favor of theAxis. When confronted with evil, one must do whatever is necessary to defeat that evil andinsure that it never happens again.The question of Germans as victims is a touchy subject with no definitive answer. Afterreading The Fire it was difficult not to feel sympathy for the German civilians caught in themidst of war. As badly as I feel for the German people who withstood the bombings, I stillcannot consider them “victims” of the Allied bombing campaign or Soviet reprisals. Thesurvivors of concentration camps or atrocities on the Eastern front are victims because they weremurdered for being born Jewish or Slavic. The German civilians who were bombed orexperienced Soviet reprisals are casualties of war, not victims, because their fate was an outcomeof a war their nation started.The Allies did not go into the bombing campaign with the intention of systematicallydestroying the entire race of Germanic people. The goal established by the Allies was to destroythe Germans capability to wage war and by 1945 that goal was accomplished. While manyGermans died during bombings, that was an unfortunate but understood side effect of total war.The experience of the bombed was no doubt a terrifying experience. The mass rapes committedby the Soviet Union in Germany were an awful consequence of being conquered as well.However, Hitler and his high-ranking Nazis went into the war with the intention of murdering allthe Jews in Europe. Many German people basked in the glory of their early victoriesand it was only after the tides of war had turned against them that their attitudes began to change.In another sense, Germans are victims. They are victims of circumstance. The Britishand French forced the German government into signing the humiliating Treaty of Versaillesfollowing World War I. This led to a collapse of the German social, political, and economicstructure throughout the 1920s. With the country in turmoil, the Nazis came to power and begansolving the problems that plagued Germany for years. The people of Germany were vulnerableand the Nazis were able to make Germany great again. Out of sheer desperation, the people ofGermany blindly followed a government that had helped them out when nobody else would. Itwas this obedience that would ultimately lead to disastrous consequences for the people ofGermany.As the years pass on, the way we remember past events takes on a new perspective.Perhaps one-day Germans can be viewed as victims and World War II will be a reminder of thelast great conflict the world has ever seen. With veterans and survivors of the air war dying offquickly, it is important to remember the sacrifices they made and the experiences they endured.Historians need to keep arguing the importance of the air war and questioning the effectiveness, morality, and victimization. It’s these arguments that keep the memories of World War II alivein hope that history won’t repeat itself.
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kidzsearch.com > wiki Explore:images videos games
Cantor’s parents were Danish of pure Jewish descent. His father was Protestant. He was a rich merchant. His mother was Roman Catholic. She was very artistic. When his father became ill in 1856 the family moved to Frankfurt. Georg went to private schools and then to gymnasien in Darmstadt and Wiesbaden. He soon showed that he was brilliant at maths. His father wanted him to be an engineer but Georg persuaded him to let him study mathematics. He spent a short time studying at the University of Zürich, but soon went to Berlin where he studied physics, philosophy and mathematics. He was very influenced by the teaching of Weierstrass, Kummer and Kronecker, who were later to become his enemies. He wrote a doctoral thesis in which he said that asking questions was more important than finding the answers. He was talking about a problem that Carl Friedrich Gauss had left unanswered.
Cantor taught for a time at a girls’ school in Berlin, then he became a lecturer in Halle where he remained for the rest of his life. He became full professor there in 1879. Cantor worked on the theory of numbers and then on trigonometric series, starting with ideas that had been developed by Bernhard Riemann on complex variables. He sent a paper on algebraic numbers to be published in Crelle's Journal, but Kronecker was against it. However, Dedekind supported Cantor, and eventually the article was published. This article showed that Cantor was a great mathematician.
When his father died in 1863 he had enough money to build a house for his wife and five children.
Cantor thought that infinite numbers really existed, and used ideas from ancient and medieval philosophy to prove his point. Kronecker disagreed with him. He thought that only integers existed. Kronecker said that “God made integers and all the rest is the work of man”. Kronecker stopped Cantor from being offered a professorship in Berlin, a position he ought to have had since he was one of the greatest mathematicians in the world. Cantor stayed at Halle and continued to work into his old age, although he often suffered from fits of depression. He often lost his temper, but he was also a very kind man. He always gave encouragement to young mathematicians with new ideas. He did not want them to suffer like he had because of older mathematicians who felt threatened by new ideas. A lot of Cantor’s work led eventually to what is called “new mathematics” in schools today.
- Men of Mathematics by E.T. Bell, Pelican, London 1953 vol.2 p.619
- The New Encyclopedia Britannica 1986, ISBN 0-85229-434-4 vol 2 p.819
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kidzsearch.com > wiki Explore:images videos games
Cantor’s parents were Danish of pure Jewish descent. His father was Protestant. He was a rich merchant. His mother was Roman Catholic. She was very artistic. When his father became ill in 1856 the family moved to Frankfurt. Georg went to private schools and then to gymnasien in Darmstadt and Wiesbaden. He soon showed that he was brilliant at maths. His father wanted him to be an engineer but Georg persuaded him to let him study mathematics. He spent a short time studying at the University of Zürich, but soon went to Berlin where he studied physics, philosophy and mathematics. He was very influenced by the teaching of Weierstrass, Kummer and Kronecker, who were later to become his enemies. He wrote a doctoral thesis in which he said that asking questions was more important than finding the answers. He was talking about a problem that Carl Friedrich Gauss had left unanswered.
Cantor taught for a time at a girls’ school in Berlin, then he became a lecturer in Halle where he remained for the rest of his life. He became full professor there in 1879. Cantor worked on the theory of numbers and then on trigonometric series, starting with ideas that had been developed by Bernhard Riemann on complex variables. He sent a paper on algebraic numbers to be published in Crelle's Journal, but Kronecker was against it. However, Dedekind supported Cantor, and eventually the article was published. This article showed that Cantor was a great mathematician.
When his father died in 1863 he had enough money to build a house for his wife and five children.
Cantor thought that infinite numbers really existed, and used ideas from ancient and medieval philosophy to prove his point. Kronecker disagreed with him. He thought that only integers existed. Kronecker said that “God made integers and all the rest is the work of man”. Kronecker stopped Cantor from being offered a professorship in Berlin, a position he ought to have had since he was one of the greatest mathematicians in the world. Cantor stayed at Halle and continued to work into his old age, although he often suffered from fits of depression. He often lost his temper, but he was also a very kind man. He always gave encouragement to young mathematicians with new ideas. He did not want them to suffer like he had because of older mathematicians who felt threatened by new ideas. A lot of Cantor’s work led eventually to what is called “new mathematics” in schools today.
- Men of Mathematics by E.T. Bell, Pelican, London 1953 vol.2 p.619
- The New Encyclopedia Britannica 1986, ISBN 0-85229-434-4 vol 2 p.819
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History/English facts for class.?
Student is to research the life of African-Americans in the 1950's. List ten facts that would make life hard for this group during this decade.
List 5 reasons that the northern cities were experiencing a housing crisis for this group of Americans.
Please, Anyone that can help.
- 6 years agoFavorite Answer
the web page (below) provides:
Social Conditions for African Americans in the U.S. During the 1950s
The 1950s were a difficult time for African Americans in the United States. Despite their growth and their contribution to the nation as a whole, particularly during World War II, Black people were frequently the subjects of discrimination and outright violence. However, several significant developments in the Civil Rights Movement took place during this decade, paving the way for the equal rights granted in the 1960s.
During the 1950s, African Americans faced economic discrimination. As Black veterans returned home from World War II to claim their piece of the "American Dream," they were restricted from moving into the newly emerging suburbs. Forced to live in cramped, urban neighborhoods, many African-American adults were unable to find suitable employment. Even candidates who were qualified for well-paying jobs faced discrimination during the hiring process and had to settle for menial work.
As African Americans encountered discrimination, it became clear that there was a need for an organized political movement that would ensure the rights of Black people in the U.S. Organized groups held protests nationwide in the 1950s, particularly in places where racism was strongly entrenched, such as the American South. African Americans were widely restricted from voting by illegal acts, such as reading tests and poll taxes. In 1955, Rosa Parks, a seamstress who also served as secretary for the NAACP's Montgomery, Alabama, chapter, was arrested for refusing to give up her seat on a bus to a white man. This led to the Montgomery Bus Boycott, which led to racial integration of the buses and also introduced Southern preacher Martin Luther King, Jr., to the national stage. King would become a prominent figure in the growing civil rights movement for the next decade.
In the 1950s, public buildings in many parts of the U.S. were segregated by race. This rule also applied in some medical establishments, such as hospitals and physicians' offices. Black patients regularly received inferior medical care. In 1952, a report by the Women's Committee to End Discrimination in the Medical Services established a link between hospital segregation and higher mortality rates of black patients. These practices may have contributed to a gap in life expectancy between blacks and whites that persisted into the 1960s.
Many public schools and colleges were segregated by race at the beginning of the 1950s. African-American children generally attended low-quality schools within black neighborhoods and received a marginal education. In 1954, the Supreme Court made a landmark decision in Brown v. Board of Education, ruling that school segregation was unconstitutional. It took years for this decision to affect local school boards, but the Brown v. Board decision was a pivotal event in the ongoing civil rights movement.
see web page for Related
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History/English facts for class.?
Student is to research the life of African-Americans in the 1950's. List ten facts that would make life hard for this group during this decade.
List 5 reasons that the northern cities were experiencing a housing crisis for this group of Americans.
Please, Anyone that can help.
- 6 years agoFavorite Answer
the web page (below) provides:
Social Conditions for African Americans in the U.S. During the 1950s
The 1950s were a difficult time for African Americans in the United States. Despite their growth and their contribution to the nation as a whole, particularly during World War II, Black people were frequently the subjects of discrimination and outright violence. However, several significant developments in the Civil Rights Movement took place during this decade, paving the way for the equal rights granted in the 1960s.
During the 1950s, African Americans faced economic discrimination. As Black veterans returned home from World War II to claim their piece of the "American Dream," they were restricted from moving into the newly emerging suburbs. Forced to live in cramped, urban neighborhoods, many African-American adults were unable to find suitable employment. Even candidates who were qualified for well-paying jobs faced discrimination during the hiring process and had to settle for menial work.
As African Americans encountered discrimination, it became clear that there was a need for an organized political movement that would ensure the rights of Black people in the U.S. Organized groups held protests nationwide in the 1950s, particularly in places where racism was strongly entrenched, such as the American South. African Americans were widely restricted from voting by illegal acts, such as reading tests and poll taxes. In 1955, Rosa Parks, a seamstress who also served as secretary for the NAACP's Montgomery, Alabama, chapter, was arrested for refusing to give up her seat on a bus to a white man. This led to the Montgomery Bus Boycott, which led to racial integration of the buses and also introduced Southern preacher Martin Luther King, Jr., to the national stage. King would become a prominent figure in the growing civil rights movement for the next decade.
In the 1950s, public buildings in many parts of the U.S. were segregated by race. This rule also applied in some medical establishments, such as hospitals and physicians' offices. Black patients regularly received inferior medical care. In 1952, a report by the Women's Committee to End Discrimination in the Medical Services established a link between hospital segregation and higher mortality rates of black patients. These practices may have contributed to a gap in life expectancy between blacks and whites that persisted into the 1960s.
Many public schools and colleges were segregated by race at the beginning of the 1950s. African-American children generally attended low-quality schools within black neighborhoods and received a marginal education. In 1954, the Supreme Court made a landmark decision in Brown v. Board of Education, ruling that school segregation was unconstitutional. It took years for this decision to affect local school boards, but the Brown v. Board decision was a pivotal event in the ongoing civil rights movement.
see web page for Related
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Thoreau, who had a great appreciation for old trees, apparently was well-acquainted with the Hapgood chestnut. We have yet to find a mention of it in Thoreau’s writings, but Emerson wrote in his journal on 6 August 1849 that he and Thoreau had walked to Acton the day before and had visited a big chestnut tree on Strawberry Hill. That jaunt was apparently not Thoreau’s only visit. According to local historians, townspeople referred to the tree as “Thoreau’s Chestnut” because of his habit of stopping there. Thoreau was definitely back on the Hapgood land to do surveying in 1853; his woodlot survey is held at Concord Public Library. Fletcher’s History tells us that Thoreau visited the old chestnut tree with his sister and measured the trunk at twenty-two feet in circumference.
The Thoreau siblings’ visit must have been before May, 1862 when Thoreau died. The tree continued to grow and, no doubt, attracted more visitors. In his 1890 History, Fletcher wrote:
“The interior of the tree is hollow. The cavity is circular, sixty inches in diameter and twenty-five feet in height, through which one may look and see the sky beyond. An opening has recently been cut at the bottom and entrance can be easily made. There are worse places for a night’s lodging. A good crop of chestnuts is yearly produced by its living branches. The town should get possession of this luscious tablet of the bygones and see that no ruthless axe take it too soon from the eyes of the present generation.”
Our photograph matches Fletcher’s description of a large tree, hollow inside, with an opening at the bottom and a hole up high, through which one could presumably see the sky. The fact that Fletcher wrote that an opening had been cut at the bottom “recently” might indicate that the picture was taken in the late 1880s-1890, but it is possible that a gap had existed previously and simply had been enlarged. Our picture shows three people observing the tree; we have not been able to prove their identities.
Despite the tree’s local fame, its end seems to have been unrecorded in town reports and the local newspaper. The chestnut may have succumbed to a “ruthless axe” or to the devasting effect of the chestnut blight in the early twentieth century.
The chestnut blight, a fungus that destroys the trees above ground and makes it impossible for young trees to mature, was discovered in New York in 1904. Believed to have been imported on nursery stock, it started spreading, reaching Massachusetts some years later. We searched the Concord Enterprise for news of local chestnuts. At first, the few mentions of chestnuts involved “normal” activity and concerns. For example, in 1907, West Acton lumber dealer Arthur Blanchard sent his portable sawmill operation to South Sudbury to harvest two lots of chestnut that he had purchased. (Jan. 2, 1907, p. 1) That fall, Arthur M. Whitcomb was making barrels with chestnut staves in the old overall shop in West Acton. (Sept. 18, 1907, p.5) In October 1911, Maynard landowners were complaining that young trespassers, senselessly shooting at small birds, were damaging chestnut trees; “the terrible abuse which the trees are subjected to are simply ruining them and very soon there will be few decent chestnut trees about here if a stop is not put to this practice.” (Oct. 25, 1911, p. 3) The landowners were, possibly accidentally, quite prescient; spores of the blight-causing fungus found entry through wounds in chestnut trees’ bark.
The Boston Herald (Jan. 21, 1912, Sunday Magazine, p. 1) reported on the spread of the chestnut fungus and the experience of other states. At that point, the blight had started to show up in Massachusetts, particularly on the Connecticut border. Historically, the chestnut had been admired by and useful to the people in its range, providing wood products, abundant nuts in the fall, and shade. By the time the blight was discovered, chestnut trees, naturally rot-resistant, were the primary local source of telephone poles and railroad ties. They were also used by furniture makers, carpenters, and tanneries (an important Massachusetts industry). Ecologically, the loss of the chestnut was even worse, as it was also a major source of food for wildlife. (For more information about the blight, see a Report by the Forest Service.)
Despite the ecological and economic damage caused by the fungus, there was little mention of it in Acton sources as the blight spread. The town’s annual Tree Warden reports made no mention of the loss of chestnuts or of the blight during the whole 1904-1940 period. This could be because farmers, fruit growers, and landowners were coping with the arrival of brown-tailed and gypsy moths, San Jose Scale, and the elm leaf beetle. It could also be that most of Acton’s American chestnuts had already been cut down.
Turning back to the Concord Enterprise for news of local chestnuts, we learned that they did not all go at once. In November, 1916, children headed out from the West Acton Baptist church “chestnutting” in the towns of Boxboro, Harvard and Stow. The report was that they were not very successful in their hunt, but they had a good time playing hide and seek. (Nov. 1, 1916, p. 10) In December of that year, the Enterprise started mentioning the blight in general terms. (Dec. 20, 1916, p.2) Two months later, it was noted that people were “cutting down the forests at a fearful rate” and that disease and insect pests, including the chestnut blight, were causing great harm. (Feb. 21, 1917, p. 2) In April, 1917, the paper discussed the white pine blister rust that appeared set to destroy the pine forests, an extremely alarming prospect for Massachusetts, though it was believed that the rust could be stopped much more easily than chestnut blight. (April 18, 1917, p. 7)
In 1919, the local paper reported that farther west in Massachusetts, a town was so hard-hit that townspeople believed that all the “old spread” chestnuts would be gone within three years. (March 19, 1919, p. 4) On Oct. 22, 1919, the Enterprise finally commented directly on the fate of local chestnuts, saying that the blight seemed to be destroying them and that there was no known way to combat it. (p. 2)
As the destruction of chestnut trees began to seem inevitable, experts urged landowners to cut down the trees before they were too far deteriorated to be of economic use. We do not know if that was the fate of Thoreau’s Chestnut or not. We do know that its owner Benjamin Hapgood died in 1920, and his farm was auctioned off in 1923. An ad for the auction advertised, among many other items, a “lot of Chestnut 2x4 and 2x6.” Where the lumber came from, we have no way of knowing. (Enterprise, Nov. 14, 1923, p. 1)
Whatever happened to Thoreau’s Chestnut, it is clear that only a few recorded memories are left. If you have pictures or stories about it, or if you can help us to confirm the identify of the people and the tree in our picture, we would love to hear from you. Please contact us.
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Thoreau, who had a great appreciation for old trees, apparently was well-acquainted with the Hapgood chestnut. We have yet to find a mention of it in Thoreau’s writings, but Emerson wrote in his journal on 6 August 1849 that he and Thoreau had walked to Acton the day before and had visited a big chestnut tree on Strawberry Hill. That jaunt was apparently not Thoreau’s only visit. According to local historians, townspeople referred to the tree as “Thoreau’s Chestnut” because of his habit of stopping there. Thoreau was definitely back on the Hapgood land to do surveying in 1853; his woodlot survey is held at Concord Public Library. Fletcher’s History tells us that Thoreau visited the old chestnut tree with his sister and measured the trunk at twenty-two feet in circumference.
The Thoreau siblings’ visit must have been before May, 1862 when Thoreau died. The tree continued to grow and, no doubt, attracted more visitors. In his 1890 History, Fletcher wrote:
“The interior of the tree is hollow. The cavity is circular, sixty inches in diameter and twenty-five feet in height, through which one may look and see the sky beyond. An opening has recently been cut at the bottom and entrance can be easily made. There are worse places for a night’s lodging. A good crop of chestnuts is yearly produced by its living branches. The town should get possession of this luscious tablet of the bygones and see that no ruthless axe take it too soon from the eyes of the present generation.”
Our photograph matches Fletcher’s description of a large tree, hollow inside, with an opening at the bottom and a hole up high, through which one could presumably see the sky. The fact that Fletcher wrote that an opening had been cut at the bottom “recently” might indicate that the picture was taken in the late 1880s-1890, but it is possible that a gap had existed previously and simply had been enlarged. Our picture shows three people observing the tree; we have not been able to prove their identities.
Despite the tree’s local fame, its end seems to have been unrecorded in town reports and the local newspaper. The chestnut may have succumbed to a “ruthless axe” or to the devasting effect of the chestnut blight in the early twentieth century.
The chestnut blight, a fungus that destroys the trees above ground and makes it impossible for young trees to mature, was discovered in New York in 1904. Believed to have been imported on nursery stock, it started spreading, reaching Massachusetts some years later. We searched the Concord Enterprise for news of local chestnuts. At first, the few mentions of chestnuts involved “normal” activity and concerns. For example, in 1907, West Acton lumber dealer Arthur Blanchard sent his portable sawmill operation to South Sudbury to harvest two lots of chestnut that he had purchased. (Jan. 2, 1907, p. 1) That fall, Arthur M. Whitcomb was making barrels with chestnut staves in the old overall shop in West Acton. (Sept. 18, 1907, p.5) In October 1911, Maynard landowners were complaining that young trespassers, senselessly shooting at small birds, were damaging chestnut trees; “the terrible abuse which the trees are subjected to are simply ruining them and very soon there will be few decent chestnut trees about here if a stop is not put to this practice.” (Oct. 25, 1911, p. 3) The landowners were, possibly accidentally, quite prescient; spores of the blight-causing fungus found entry through wounds in chestnut trees’ bark.
The Boston Herald (Jan. 21, 1912, Sunday Magazine, p. 1) reported on the spread of the chestnut fungus and the experience of other states. At that point, the blight had started to show up in Massachusetts, particularly on the Connecticut border. Historically, the chestnut had been admired by and useful to the people in its range, providing wood products, abundant nuts in the fall, and shade. By the time the blight was discovered, chestnut trees, naturally rot-resistant, were the primary local source of telephone poles and railroad ties. They were also used by furniture makers, carpenters, and tanneries (an important Massachusetts industry). Ecologically, the loss of the chestnut was even worse, as it was also a major source of food for wildlife. (For more information about the blight, see a Report by the Forest Service.)
Despite the ecological and economic damage caused by the fungus, there was little mention of it in Acton sources as the blight spread. The town’s annual Tree Warden reports made no mention of the loss of chestnuts or of the blight during the whole 1904-1940 period. This could be because farmers, fruit growers, and landowners were coping with the arrival of brown-tailed and gypsy moths, San Jose Scale, and the elm leaf beetle. It could also be that most of Acton’s American chestnuts had already been cut down.
Turning back to the Concord Enterprise for news of local chestnuts, we learned that they did not all go at once. In November, 1916, children headed out from the West Acton Baptist church “chestnutting” in the towns of Boxboro, Harvard and Stow. The report was that they were not very successful in their hunt, but they had a good time playing hide and seek. (Nov. 1, 1916, p. 10) In December of that year, the Enterprise started mentioning the blight in general terms. (Dec. 20, 1916, p.2) Two months later, it was noted that people were “cutting down the forests at a fearful rate” and that disease and insect pests, including the chestnut blight, were causing great harm. (Feb. 21, 1917, p. 2) In April, 1917, the paper discussed the white pine blister rust that appeared set to destroy the pine forests, an extremely alarming prospect for Massachusetts, though it was believed that the rust could be stopped much more easily than chestnut blight. (April 18, 1917, p. 7)
In 1919, the local paper reported that farther west in Massachusetts, a town was so hard-hit that townspeople believed that all the “old spread” chestnuts would be gone within three years. (March 19, 1919, p. 4) On Oct. 22, 1919, the Enterprise finally commented directly on the fate of local chestnuts, saying that the blight seemed to be destroying them and that there was no known way to combat it. (p. 2)
As the destruction of chestnut trees began to seem inevitable, experts urged landowners to cut down the trees before they were too far deteriorated to be of economic use. We do not know if that was the fate of Thoreau’s Chestnut or not. We do know that its owner Benjamin Hapgood died in 1920, and his farm was auctioned off in 1923. An ad for the auction advertised, among many other items, a “lot of Chestnut 2x4 and 2x6.” Where the lumber came from, we have no way of knowing. (Enterprise, Nov. 14, 1923, p. 1)
Whatever happened to Thoreau’s Chestnut, it is clear that only a few recorded memories are left. If you have pictures or stories about it, or if you can help us to confirm the identify of the people and the tree in our picture, we would love to hear from you. Please contact us.
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ENGLISH
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Cars today are very common but about 200 years ago they were thought to be just some kind of crazy invention. The origin of the automobile can be traced back to Europe, but it became a major form of transportation in the United States. Most European cars were hand made, and they were very expensive so not that many people could afford to buy the cars.
Nicolas Joseph Cugnot a French military engineer built the first steam car or a self propelled vehicle in 1769. One was designed to carry passengers, while the other was a three-wheeled steam tractor for hauling very heavy artillery.
In 1801 and 1803 another inventor Richard Trevithick of the United Kingdom demonstrated four-wheeled steam propelled vehicles to carry passengers. Unfortunately, he lacked the money to continue his work in the United States.
In 1805 an inventor named Oliver Evans demonstrated a steam operated dredge, which was mounted on a boat. He built the dredge to deepen and clean the Philadelphia waterfront. Evans put wheels on the boat and drove it. This machine weighed about 18 tons.
During the 1860's another American inventor Sylvester H. Roper developed a much smaller steam operated vehicle. This vehicle looked similar to present day vehicles. This attracted a lot of public attention and was even displayed in a circus.
Steam cars had many disadvantages. In the beginning, it took a very long time for the fire to heat the boiler. This was bad because you would have to wait around a long time and by the time it heated up you could have walked to the place you wanted to go. The inventors solved that problem, but many others remained. The steam engines had to be small to be practical for cars, so they had to be high pressured engines to produce the required power. However, such engines cost much to build and maintain.
Numerous attempts in the United Kingdom to promote the use and development of steam cars failed because of the competition from railroad and stagecoach companies. Early steam cars damaged roads and sometimes even blew up. They also made a terrible noise, dirtied the air, smoked, and frightened horses (which were the main mode of transportation at the time).
In 1865 the Red Flag Law ended further development of automobiles in the United Kingdom for about thirty years. Under this law the few steam cars could not go any faster than four miles an hour in the country, and two miles per hour in town. Also to warn of its approach, a signalman had to walk ahead of the vehicle, by swinging a red flag by day and red lantern by night. And the steam powered car gradually disappeared. In 1924, the Stanley brother's (the brothers who made the famous Stanley Steamer Company) company one of the last steam car manufacturers went bankrupt.
The electric car was first invented around 1891. William Morrison built the first successful American electric cars. They were powered by batteries from under. The seat they were quiet and easy to operate thus they quickly became popular.
But the batteries limited to how far they could go. Few electric cars could travel faster than twenty miles per hour and the batteries had to be recharged every 50 miles.
The gasoline car the automobile as we know it today resulted from the development of the internal combustion engine Jean Joseph Etienne Lenoir a Belgian living in France, patented the first commercially successful internal combustion engine in 1860. It burned coke oven gas(a gas that was usually used to heat ovens) and was noisy and inefficient. He still sold several hundred engines, which powered printing presses, lathes, and water pumps. He also installed one in a crude motorcar.
In 1885 Gottlieb Daimler and Karl Benz, two Germans working separately developed the first successful 4 stroke gasoline engine. Their engines led to the development of the engines used in cars today. Many early European manufacturers turned out cars based on Daimler's and Benz's work and patents. In 1891 a French company Panhard et Levassor created a basic design that remained largely unchanged for nearly 100 years.
The firm placed a Daimler engine in to the front of the car and used a revolving chain to transfer powers into the rear wheels. Most cars had a front engine and rear wheel drive until the mid 1980's when the front wheel drive became popular. A French rubber making firm Michelin, introduced the first tires filled with compressed air for use on cars in 1895 Michelin developed such pneumatic tires under license from a British manufacturer of bicycle tires.
Many people believe that the automobile became a practical means of transportation because of, first, the invention of the internal combustion engine and, second the development of the pneumatic tire. The birth of the automobile industry occurred in 1885, the year that Dailmer and Benz built their successful gasoline engines, until 1900 Europe led the world in automobile development and production.
Many present day European car companies began in the late 1800's. For example, Peugeot, a French firm started to make automobiles in 1890. Another French company Renault began producing cars in 1898. Fiat of Italy dates from, 1899. France and Germany became the first large production centers.
The Duryea brother, Charles E and J Frank, built the first successful gasoline car in the United States. They drove the car on the streets of Springfield, Mass, in the years 1893 and 1894. The brothers founded the Duryea Motor Company, the first U.S firm.
The United States took the lead in car making form Europe because it had a larger potential market. In 1910, the United States population was 92 million people, compared, with about 65 million people in Germany, 41 million people in Britain, and 34 million people in France. Americans also enjoyed a higher income, and so more of them could afford to buy cars.
The discovery of huge oil fields in eastern Texas in 1901 helped to contribute to the rapid growth of the U.S Auto industry. The discovery caused a sharp drop in the price of gasoline, and plentiful, cheap fuel made cars relatively inexpensive to operate. Another factor aiding the U.S. auto industry was the application of mass-production techniques to the manufacture of automobiles.
Prior to 1900, carmakers had used skilled workers to assemble each automobile, but American manufacturers had been using mass-production techniques since the mid-1800's to make such products as firearms and farm equipment, and it was inevitable that they would apply this process to car making.
Once established, mass production brought the price of U.S. cars down to a level that many people could afford. By the early 1900's, a buyer in the United States could choose among a variety of cars costing less than $1,000, while elegant European models, most of which were still handcrafted, sold for more than $2,000 in U.S. dollars.
The history of cars has been through trial and error mostly and now cars are the most used transportation in the world. What at first was thought to be a just a crazy invention but now it is something almost everyone in the world has or uses today. Today the cars that we have pollute the environment around us and many people have noticed that and now the electric cars are making a comeback. We are not sure what the future of cars will be like but we will probably make some kind of car that will be user friendly, safe, reliable, and wont pollute the environment.
I like cars a lot and I liked doing a research paper on this. I'm surprised that there were so many inventions that were failures had much to do with cars today and that today's cars were based on these old steam cars that were very bad. I hope to see that the cars in the future will be better than the ones that we have that pollute the environment and also ones that are safer.
These problems have been partially solved like using electric cars instead of using gas powered cars. And we have antilock brakes to stop faster but this won't save you if you drive off a cliff. But in the future I'm positive that we will make some kind of car that doesn't need tires it will hover above the ground and that way we wont run over small little animals that are everywhere on the street dead.
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Cars today are very common but about 200 years ago they were thought to be just some kind of crazy invention. The origin of the automobile can be traced back to Europe, but it became a major form of transportation in the United States. Most European cars were hand made, and they were very expensive so not that many people could afford to buy the cars.
Nicolas Joseph Cugnot a French military engineer built the first steam car or a self propelled vehicle in 1769. One was designed to carry passengers, while the other was a three-wheeled steam tractor for hauling very heavy artillery.
In 1801 and 1803 another inventor Richard Trevithick of the United Kingdom demonstrated four-wheeled steam propelled vehicles to carry passengers. Unfortunately, he lacked the money to continue his work in the United States.
In 1805 an inventor named Oliver Evans demonstrated a steam operated dredge, which was mounted on a boat. He built the dredge to deepen and clean the Philadelphia waterfront. Evans put wheels on the boat and drove it. This machine weighed about 18 tons.
During the 1860's another American inventor Sylvester H. Roper developed a much smaller steam operated vehicle. This vehicle looked similar to present day vehicles. This attracted a lot of public attention and was even displayed in a circus.
Steam cars had many disadvantages. In the beginning, it took a very long time for the fire to heat the boiler. This was bad because you would have to wait around a long time and by the time it heated up you could have walked to the place you wanted to go. The inventors solved that problem, but many others remained. The steam engines had to be small to be practical for cars, so they had to be high pressured engines to produce the required power. However, such engines cost much to build and maintain.
Numerous attempts in the United Kingdom to promote the use and development of steam cars failed because of the competition from railroad and stagecoach companies. Early steam cars damaged roads and sometimes even blew up. They also made a terrible noise, dirtied the air, smoked, and frightened horses (which were the main mode of transportation at the time).
In 1865 the Red Flag Law ended further development of automobiles in the United Kingdom for about thirty years. Under this law the few steam cars could not go any faster than four miles an hour in the country, and two miles per hour in town. Also to warn of its approach, a signalman had to walk ahead of the vehicle, by swinging a red flag by day and red lantern by night. And the steam powered car gradually disappeared. In 1924, the Stanley brother's (the brothers who made the famous Stanley Steamer Company) company one of the last steam car manufacturers went bankrupt.
The electric car was first invented around 1891. William Morrison built the first successful American electric cars. They were powered by batteries from under. The seat they were quiet and easy to operate thus they quickly became popular.
But the batteries limited to how far they could go. Few electric cars could travel faster than twenty miles per hour and the batteries had to be recharged every 50 miles.
The gasoline car the automobile as we know it today resulted from the development of the internal combustion engine Jean Joseph Etienne Lenoir a Belgian living in France, patented the first commercially successful internal combustion engine in 1860. It burned coke oven gas(a gas that was usually used to heat ovens) and was noisy and inefficient. He still sold several hundred engines, which powered printing presses, lathes, and water pumps. He also installed one in a crude motorcar.
In 1885 Gottlieb Daimler and Karl Benz, two Germans working separately developed the first successful 4 stroke gasoline engine. Their engines led to the development of the engines used in cars today. Many early European manufacturers turned out cars based on Daimler's and Benz's work and patents. In 1891 a French company Panhard et Levassor created a basic design that remained largely unchanged for nearly 100 years.
The firm placed a Daimler engine in to the front of the car and used a revolving chain to transfer powers into the rear wheels. Most cars had a front engine and rear wheel drive until the mid 1980's when the front wheel drive became popular. A French rubber making firm Michelin, introduced the first tires filled with compressed air for use on cars in 1895 Michelin developed such pneumatic tires under license from a British manufacturer of bicycle tires.
Many people believe that the automobile became a practical means of transportation because of, first, the invention of the internal combustion engine and, second the development of the pneumatic tire. The birth of the automobile industry occurred in 1885, the year that Dailmer and Benz built their successful gasoline engines, until 1900 Europe led the world in automobile development and production.
Many present day European car companies began in the late 1800's. For example, Peugeot, a French firm started to make automobiles in 1890. Another French company Renault began producing cars in 1898. Fiat of Italy dates from, 1899. France and Germany became the first large production centers.
The Duryea brother, Charles E and J Frank, built the first successful gasoline car in the United States. They drove the car on the streets of Springfield, Mass, in the years 1893 and 1894. The brothers founded the Duryea Motor Company, the first U.S firm.
The United States took the lead in car making form Europe because it had a larger potential market. In 1910, the United States population was 92 million people, compared, with about 65 million people in Germany, 41 million people in Britain, and 34 million people in France. Americans also enjoyed a higher income, and so more of them could afford to buy cars.
The discovery of huge oil fields in eastern Texas in 1901 helped to contribute to the rapid growth of the U.S Auto industry. The discovery caused a sharp drop in the price of gasoline, and plentiful, cheap fuel made cars relatively inexpensive to operate. Another factor aiding the U.S. auto industry was the application of mass-production techniques to the manufacture of automobiles.
Prior to 1900, carmakers had used skilled workers to assemble each automobile, but American manufacturers had been using mass-production techniques since the mid-1800's to make such products as firearms and farm equipment, and it was inevitable that they would apply this process to car making.
Once established, mass production brought the price of U.S. cars down to a level that many people could afford. By the early 1900's, a buyer in the United States could choose among a variety of cars costing less than $1,000, while elegant European models, most of which were still handcrafted, sold for more than $2,000 in U.S. dollars.
The history of cars has been through trial and error mostly and now cars are the most used transportation in the world. What at first was thought to be a just a crazy invention but now it is something almost everyone in the world has or uses today. Today the cars that we have pollute the environment around us and many people have noticed that and now the electric cars are making a comeback. We are not sure what the future of cars will be like but we will probably make some kind of car that will be user friendly, safe, reliable, and wont pollute the environment.
I like cars a lot and I liked doing a research paper on this. I'm surprised that there were so many inventions that were failures had much to do with cars today and that today's cars were based on these old steam cars that were very bad. I hope to see that the cars in the future will be better than the ones that we have that pollute the environment and also ones that are safer.
These problems have been partially solved like using electric cars instead of using gas powered cars. And we have antilock brakes to stop faster but this won't save you if you drive off a cliff. But in the future I'm positive that we will make some kind of car that doesn't need tires it will hover above the ground and that way we wont run over small little animals that are everywhere on the street dead.
| 1,759
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ENGLISH
| 1
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Edward Sapir (; January 26, 1884 – February 4, 1939) was an American anthropologist-linguist, who is widely considered to be one of the most important figures in the early development of the discipline of linguistics.Sapir was born in German Pomerania. His family emigrated to the United States of America when he was a child. He studied Germanic linguistics at Columbia, where he came under the influence of Franz Boas, who inspired him to work on Native American languages. While finishing his Ph.D. he went to California to work with Alfred Kroeber documenting the indigenous languages there. He was employed by the Geological Survey of Canada for fifteen years, where he came into his own as one of the most significant linguists in North America, the other being Leonard Bloomfield. He was offered a professorship at the University of Chicago, and stayed for several years continuing to work for the professionalization of the discipline of linguistics. By the end of his life he was professor of anthropology at Yale, where he never really fit in. Among his many students were the linguists Mary Haas and Morris Swadesh, and anthropologists such as Fred Eggan and Hortense Powdermaker.
With his linguistic background, Sapir became the one student of Boas to develop most completely the relationship between linguistics and anthropology. Sapir studied the ways in which language and culture influence each other, and he was interested in the relation between linguistic differences, and differences in cultural world views. This part of his thinking was developed by his student Benjamin Lee Whorf into the principle of linguistic relativity or the “Sapir–Whorf” hypothesis. In anthropology Sapir is known as an early proponent of the importance of psychology to anthropology, maintaining that studying the nature of relationships between different individual personalities is important for the ways in which culture and society develop.Among his major contributions to linguistics is his classification of Indigenous languages of the Americas, upon which he elaborated for most of his professional life. He played an important role in developing the modern concept of the phoneme, greatly advancing the understanding of phonology.
Before Sapir it was generally considered impossible to apply the methods of historical linguistics to languages of indigenous peoples because they were believed to be more primitive than the Indo-European languages. Sapir was the first to prove that the methods of comparative linguistics were equally valid when applied to indigenous languages. In the 1929 edition of Encyclopædia Britannica he published what was then the most authoritative classification of Native American languages, and the first based on evidence from modern comparative linguistics. He was the first to produce evidence for the classification of the Algic, Uto-Aztecan, and Na-Dene languages. He proposed some language families that are not considered to have been adequately demonstrated, but which continue to generate investigation such as Hokan and Penutian.
He specialized in the study of Athabascan languages, Chinookan languages, and Uto-Aztecan languages, producing important grammatical descriptions of Takelma, Wishram, Southern Paiute. Later in his career he also worked with Yiddish, Hebrew, and Chinese, as well as Germanic languages, and he also was invested in the development of an International Auxiliary Language.
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Edward Sapir (; January 26, 1884 – February 4, 1939) was an American anthropologist-linguist, who is widely considered to be one of the most important figures in the early development of the discipline of linguistics.Sapir was born in German Pomerania. His family emigrated to the United States of America when he was a child. He studied Germanic linguistics at Columbia, where he came under the influence of Franz Boas, who inspired him to work on Native American languages. While finishing his Ph.D. he went to California to work with Alfred Kroeber documenting the indigenous languages there. He was employed by the Geological Survey of Canada for fifteen years, where he came into his own as one of the most significant linguists in North America, the other being Leonard Bloomfield. He was offered a professorship at the University of Chicago, and stayed for several years continuing to work for the professionalization of the discipline of linguistics. By the end of his life he was professor of anthropology at Yale, where he never really fit in. Among his many students were the linguists Mary Haas and Morris Swadesh, and anthropologists such as Fred Eggan and Hortense Powdermaker.
With his linguistic background, Sapir became the one student of Boas to develop most completely the relationship between linguistics and anthropology. Sapir studied the ways in which language and culture influence each other, and he was interested in the relation between linguistic differences, and differences in cultural world views. This part of his thinking was developed by his student Benjamin Lee Whorf into the principle of linguistic relativity or the “Sapir–Whorf” hypothesis. In anthropology Sapir is known as an early proponent of the importance of psychology to anthropology, maintaining that studying the nature of relationships between different individual personalities is important for the ways in which culture and society develop.Among his major contributions to linguistics is his classification of Indigenous languages of the Americas, upon which he elaborated for most of his professional life. He played an important role in developing the modern concept of the phoneme, greatly advancing the understanding of phonology.
Before Sapir it was generally considered impossible to apply the methods of historical linguistics to languages of indigenous peoples because they were believed to be more primitive than the Indo-European languages. Sapir was the first to prove that the methods of comparative linguistics were equally valid when applied to indigenous languages. In the 1929 edition of Encyclopædia Britannica he published what was then the most authoritative classification of Native American languages, and the first based on evidence from modern comparative linguistics. He was the first to produce evidence for the classification of the Algic, Uto-Aztecan, and Na-Dene languages. He proposed some language families that are not considered to have been adequately demonstrated, but which continue to generate investigation such as Hokan and Penutian.
He specialized in the study of Athabascan languages, Chinookan languages, and Uto-Aztecan languages, producing important grammatical descriptions of Takelma, Wishram, Southern Paiute. Later in his career he also worked with Yiddish, Hebrew, and Chinese, as well as Germanic languages, and he also was invested in the development of an International Auxiliary Language.
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ENGLISH
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Chemist Joseph Davidovits states the blocks were made right on top of one another, and this would explain their weight and the lack of gaps between them. However, geologists and paleontologists argue that the blocks are processed sedimentary rocks, thus refuting Davidovits’s theory. There’s still no single hypothesis.
5. The curse of Tutankhamun’s tomb
Studying the tomb in 1922, Howard Carter and his expedition found a plaque with text about a dire punishment that would follow opening the sealed tomb. Carter didn’t believe it himself, but by 1930, there were reports of 22 deaths among those who’d been present when the tomb was opened, as well as their family members.
There’s still no confirmed explanation of the “curse,” the only theory being that of poison on the walls of the tomb and the sarcophagus.
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Chemist Joseph Davidovits states the blocks were made right on top of one another, and this would explain their weight and the lack of gaps between them. However, geologists and paleontologists argue that the blocks are processed sedimentary rocks, thus refuting Davidovits’s theory. There’s still no single hypothesis.
5. The curse of Tutankhamun’s tomb
Studying the tomb in 1922, Howard Carter and his expedition found a plaque with text about a dire punishment that would follow opening the sealed tomb. Carter didn’t believe it himself, but by 1930, there were reports of 22 deaths among those who’d been present when the tomb was opened, as well as their family members.
There’s still no confirmed explanation of the “curse,” the only theory being that of poison on the walls of the tomb and the sarcophagus.
| 185
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ENGLISH
| 1
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In the 1910s, Chicago philanthropist Julius Rosenwald, president of Sears, Roebuck and Co., became aware of the sad state of education among African Americans in the rural South. His response was establishment of a fund that provided architectural plans and matching grants that helped build more than 5,300 schools from Maryland to Texas between the late 1910s and 1932. (Brown)
It was a sixty foot, one story frame, two classroom school building with American craftsman style design elements and along with original pine floors that are still in the building today. They thought African American children should have a place to receive an education. With the program schools were built and funded by Rosenwald throughout the Southern United States. Children attended this school from 1921 till 1950 when the building was sold to the Barrington family. The children attended other schools in their district such as Central Elementary in Barco, and a few others. There was 81 students enrolled during the 1940 and 1941 school year. North Carolina alone had a round about 813 schools sadly many have been demolished.
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] | 2
|
In the 1910s, Chicago philanthropist Julius Rosenwald, president of Sears, Roebuck and Co., became aware of the sad state of education among African Americans in the rural South. His response was establishment of a fund that provided architectural plans and matching grants that helped build more than 5,300 schools from Maryland to Texas between the late 1910s and 1932. (Brown)
It was a sixty foot, one story frame, two classroom school building with American craftsman style design elements and along with original pine floors that are still in the building today. They thought African American children should have a place to receive an education. With the program schools were built and funded by Rosenwald throughout the Southern United States. Children attended this school from 1921 till 1950 when the building was sold to the Barrington family. The children attended other schools in their district such as Central Elementary in Barco, and a few others. There was 81 students enrolled during the 1940 and 1941 school year. North Carolina alone had a round about 813 schools sadly many have been demolished.
| 247
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ENGLISH
| 1
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What is the antilegomena?
Question: "What is the antilegomena?"
Answer: The antilegomena is a collection of Bible texts that were subject to a high level of skepticism while the canon of Scripture was being established. The word antilegomena literally means “spoken against” and was applied to those writings that were accepted by the majority of the early church but had more detractors than other books. Writings that were clearly seen as non-inspired or heretical were branded as such by the early church. Another group of writings, known as the homologumena, was recognized as inspired and enjoyed universal acceptance in the early church. The books classified as antilegomena were questioned in different ways and for different reasons than those that were rejected as non-canonical.
As the early church grew, it became important to distinguish between God’s Word and writings that were not God’s Word. In short, books were recognized as canonical if they were written by an apostle or under and apostle’s direction, positively explained true Christian doctrine, made some claim or connection to inspiration, were accepted by the doctrinally loyal churches, and/or were suitable for public reading. Using that criteria, the twenty-seven books of the modern New Testament quickly became accepted as the canon of Scripture.
However, seven of those twenty-seven books were subject to more debate than the others. Those seven were Hebrews, James, 2 Peter, 2 John, 3 John, Jude, and Revelation. Unlike the works that were rejected outright, these books contained no obvious disqualifiers. They did not present heresy, they were not clearly linked to a non-orthodox church, and so forth. Rather, each fell short in the minds of some early Christians, according to the criteria given above.
It must be emphasized that other categories of ancient writings, such as the pseudepigrapha and Apocrypha, were viewed in a completely different light as compared to the antilegomena. Even as the New Testament was being written, the church recognized the existence of false writings (2 Thessalonians 2:2). This explains the abundance of caution the church used in officially recognizing works as inspired. The antilegomena were less readily accepted, not because they were flawed but because the early church was exceedingly careful in what it endorsed as inspired text.
The book of Hebrews was considered antilegomena because it is technically anonymous. Other New Testament books either clearly state their author or can be traced directly to an apostle. The book of Hebrews does neither, although it matches all of the other criteria for the biblical canon.
The book of James has always been subject to controversy, mostly because of its complex discussion of the relationship between saving faith and good works. For this reason, some in the early church hesitated to accept it, and it was classified as one of the antilegomena.
Second Peter is easily the most heavily disputed book of the antilegomena. More than anything else, the differences in style between 1 Peter and 2 Peter led to debates over whether or not it was legitimate. Over time, mounting evidence won over the skeptics, and 2 Peter was acknowledged to be canonical.
The letters of 2 John and 3 John do not identify their authors as clearly as other New Testament texts. In particular, they use the term elder rather than apostle, which led to some doubt concerning authorship. This wording was not uncommon for the apostles, however, and the short letters of John’s were never doubted to the same extent as 2 Peter.
Jude is an interesting member of the antilegomena. Jude was questioned for making explicit references to non-inspired works. Parts of the book of Jude allude to stories told in the non-canonical The Assumption of Moses and the Book of Enoch. However, because Jude does not endorse those writings as Scripture (Jude merely uses them as examples to support his points), this controversy was eventually settled.
Revelation has the distinction of being the most persistently questioned of the antilegomena. Though it was never questioned to the same degree as 2 Peter, critics continued to express doubts about it long after other books of the antilegomena had been widely accepted. Revelation’s biggest stumbling block was that its symbolism was open to such wide interpretation. A few early sects attempted to use the book to justify bizarre doctrines, which made Revelation guilty by association in the eyes of some early church members.
Most books of the New Testament were accepted very soon after being written—the homologumena. Others—the antilegomena—were less readily accepted for various reasons. The extreme caution exercised by the early church led to these seven books being more heavily examined prior to their eventual acceptance into the canon of Scripture.
Recommended Resource: The Canon of Scripture by F.F. Bruce
More insights from your Bible study - Get Started with Logos Bible Software for Free!
How do we decide which books belong in the Bible since the Bible does not say which books belong in the Bible?
What is the Muratorian Canon?
What is the pseudepigrapha?
When were the Gospels written?
Who were the authors of the books of the Bible?
Questions about the Bible
What is the antilegomena?
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] | 1
|
What is the antilegomena?
Question: "What is the antilegomena?"
Answer: The antilegomena is a collection of Bible texts that were subject to a high level of skepticism while the canon of Scripture was being established. The word antilegomena literally means “spoken against” and was applied to those writings that were accepted by the majority of the early church but had more detractors than other books. Writings that were clearly seen as non-inspired or heretical were branded as such by the early church. Another group of writings, known as the homologumena, was recognized as inspired and enjoyed universal acceptance in the early church. The books classified as antilegomena were questioned in different ways and for different reasons than those that were rejected as non-canonical.
As the early church grew, it became important to distinguish between God’s Word and writings that were not God’s Word. In short, books were recognized as canonical if they were written by an apostle or under and apostle’s direction, positively explained true Christian doctrine, made some claim or connection to inspiration, were accepted by the doctrinally loyal churches, and/or were suitable for public reading. Using that criteria, the twenty-seven books of the modern New Testament quickly became accepted as the canon of Scripture.
However, seven of those twenty-seven books were subject to more debate than the others. Those seven were Hebrews, James, 2 Peter, 2 John, 3 John, Jude, and Revelation. Unlike the works that were rejected outright, these books contained no obvious disqualifiers. They did not present heresy, they were not clearly linked to a non-orthodox church, and so forth. Rather, each fell short in the minds of some early Christians, according to the criteria given above.
It must be emphasized that other categories of ancient writings, such as the pseudepigrapha and Apocrypha, were viewed in a completely different light as compared to the antilegomena. Even as the New Testament was being written, the church recognized the existence of false writings (2 Thessalonians 2:2). This explains the abundance of caution the church used in officially recognizing works as inspired. The antilegomena were less readily accepted, not because they were flawed but because the early church was exceedingly careful in what it endorsed as inspired text.
The book of Hebrews was considered antilegomena because it is technically anonymous. Other New Testament books either clearly state their author or can be traced directly to an apostle. The book of Hebrews does neither, although it matches all of the other criteria for the biblical canon.
The book of James has always been subject to controversy, mostly because of its complex discussion of the relationship between saving faith and good works. For this reason, some in the early church hesitated to accept it, and it was classified as one of the antilegomena.
Second Peter is easily the most heavily disputed book of the antilegomena. More than anything else, the differences in style between 1 Peter and 2 Peter led to debates over whether or not it was legitimate. Over time, mounting evidence won over the skeptics, and 2 Peter was acknowledged to be canonical.
The letters of 2 John and 3 John do not identify their authors as clearly as other New Testament texts. In particular, they use the term elder rather than apostle, which led to some doubt concerning authorship. This wording was not uncommon for the apostles, however, and the short letters of John’s were never doubted to the same extent as 2 Peter.
Jude is an interesting member of the antilegomena. Jude was questioned for making explicit references to non-inspired works. Parts of the book of Jude allude to stories told in the non-canonical The Assumption of Moses and the Book of Enoch. However, because Jude does not endorse those writings as Scripture (Jude merely uses them as examples to support his points), this controversy was eventually settled.
Revelation has the distinction of being the most persistently questioned of the antilegomena. Though it was never questioned to the same degree as 2 Peter, critics continued to express doubts about it long after other books of the antilegomena had been widely accepted. Revelation’s biggest stumbling block was that its symbolism was open to such wide interpretation. A few early sects attempted to use the book to justify bizarre doctrines, which made Revelation guilty by association in the eyes of some early church members.
Most books of the New Testament were accepted very soon after being written—the homologumena. Others—the antilegomena—were less readily accepted for various reasons. The extreme caution exercised by the early church led to these seven books being more heavily examined prior to their eventual acceptance into the canon of Scripture.
Recommended Resource: The Canon of Scripture by F.F. Bruce
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How do we decide which books belong in the Bible since the Bible does not say which books belong in the Bible?
What is the Muratorian Canon?
What is the pseudepigrapha?
When were the Gospels written?
Who were the authors of the books of the Bible?
Questions about the Bible
What is the antilegomena?
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The Evacuation of Fort Moultrie and Occupation of Fort Sumter by the U.S. Army in December 1860
On December 20th, 1860, a convention of South Carolina secessionists met in Charleston and voted unanimously to secede from the Union, the first state to do so. After this momentous–and ultimately fateful action–the convention then took up the issue of what to do with United States property that existed within South Carolina, in particular, U.S. military property in Charleston and Charleston harbor. This included the U.S. arsenal and three forts–Fort Moultrie on Sullivan’s Island, Fort Sumter on an island in the harbor, and Castle Pinckney, located on Shutes Folly Island in the harbor.
These fortifications had been built to repel an attack on Charleston by foreign navies, but with no threat from abroad at that time, only Fort Moultrie had a permanent garrison, and that was only about 65 officers and men of the 1st U.S. Artillery. Major Robert Anderson was in command of the U.S. forces in Charleston. Fort Moultrie was designed to defend against sea borne attacks, and was highly vulnerable to land based attacks, especially with a potential enemy sitting right outside its gates. With its location out in the harbor, Fort Sumter was more defendable and had a better chance of reinforcement and resupply.
Anderson understood this, and informed Washington even before South Carolina seceded. The major requested reinforcements to occupy the three garrisons, as well as more supplies and ammunition. President James Buchanan, who was serving the final months of his presidency, did not want to provoke the South Carolinians (who were deploying militiamen in Charleston) into a military response that would lead to war, but he also wasn’t prepared to just hand over the forts either. He promised a South Carolina delegation that he would not reinforce the U.S garrisons as negotiations for a peaceful transfer continued in exchange for a promise that the Carolinians would not attack them while the talks continued. On the other hand, Buchanan’s Secretary of War, John B. Floyd, was only too happy to see the forts turned over to South Carolina. Floyd, a southerner who would later become a general in the Confederate army, issued instructions allowing Anderson to surrender if he was attacked by a superior force and not to take action that would provoke a military response from the secessionists. Exactly what type of actions Anderson’s instructions allowed him to do in his defense were vague, as nearly everything except the status quo could be seen as provocative.
Eventually, Anderson concluded that while he hadn’t been given orders to move his command to Fort Sumter, he also was not prohibited from doing so if he felt an attack was forthcoming. The major decided to change his base to Fort Sumter, doing so as quietly as possible. Anderson had the post quartermaster, Lieutenant Norman J. Hall, to charter three schooners and some barges for the purpose of taking non combatants such as family members, away from Fort Moultrie and over to Fort Johnson, a no longer used military base that still had some buildings nominally suitable for housing. That was true in part; soldiers’ families were transferred to Fort Johnson with some of the boats but the rest of the vessels were loaded with supplies for the garrison’s relocation to Fort Sumter, and they would carry the troops as well.
On the evening of December 26th, Anderson told his officers to prepare to evacuate Fort Moultrie. Captain Abner Doubleday recalled:
Anderson approached me as I advanced, and said quietly, “I have determined to evacuate this post immediately, for the purpose of occupying Fort Sumter; I can only allow you twenty minutes to form your company and be in readiness to start.” I was surprised at this announcement, and realized the gravity of the situation at a glance. We were watched by spies and vigilance-committees, would undoubtedly open fire upon us as soon as they saw the object of the movement.
While most of the officers and men quietly walked to the beach and the waiting boats in the twilight, a small detachment remained at Fort Moultrie. This rear guard aimed the fort’s big guns out towards the harbor, prepared to fire on any secessionist guard boats that patrolled the harbor if they interfered with the crossing. One guard boat did approach Doubleday’s boat:
While the steamer was yet afar off, I took off my cap, and threw open my coat to conceal the buttons. I also made the men take off their coats, and use them to cover up their muskets, which were lying alongside the rowlocks. I hoped in this way that we might pass for a party of laborers returning to the fort. The paddle-wheels stopped within about a hundred yards of us; but, to out great relief, after a slight scrutiny, the steamer kept on its way.
This ruse was entirely believable; at the time, civilian construction crews were working at Fort Sumter. The crossing “was successful beyond our most sanguine expectations, and we were highly elated” Doubleday recalled. The entire garrison was successfully transferred to Fort Sumter, and the rear guard spiked Fort Moultrie’s big guns, burned the gun carriages, and cut down the flag staff. Many of the workmen in Fort Sumter were secessionist sympathizers and they were placed under guard and sent back to Charleston.
After finding out on the morning of December 27th that Anderson’s command had successfully changed base and destroyed the guns of Fort Moultrie, the people of Charleston and other secessionists were outraged at what they saw as a breach of an agreement between the Buchanan Administration and South Carolina authorities State militia occupied both Fort Moultrie and Castle Pinckney. The Federal arsenal in Charleston was seized on December 30th. On the other hand, many in the north hailed Anderson as a hero.
Anderson sent this notice to the Adjutant General of the Army, Samuel Cooper (who would later hold the same position with the Confederate Army):
No. 11.] FORT SUMTER S. C., December 26, 1860–8 p.m.
(Received A. G. O., December 29.)
COLONEL: I have the honor to report that I have just completed, by the blessing of God, the removal to this fort of all of my garrison, except the surgeon, four non-commissioned officers, and seven men. We have one year’s supply of hospital stores and about four months’ supply of provisions for my command. I left orders to have all the guns at Fort Moultrie spiked, and the carriages of the 32-pounders, which are old, destroyed. I have sent orders to Captain Foster, who remains at Fort Moultrie, to destroy all the ammunition which he cannot send over. The step which I have taken was, in my opinion, necessary to prevent the effusion of blood.
Respectfully, your obedient servant,
Major, First Artillery, Commanding.
Col. S. COOPER,
Upon hearing the news, Secretary of War Floyd fired this telegram off to Anderson:
Adjutant-General’s Office, December 27, 1860.
Major ANDERSON, Fort Moultrie:
Intelligence has reached here this morning that you have abandoned Fort Moultrie, spiked your guns, burned the carriages, and gone to Fort Sumter. It is not believed, because there is no order for any such movement. Explain the meaning of this report.
J. B. FLOYD,
Secretary of War.
Anderson replied to Floyd, and then explained his actions to Cooper:
CHARLESTON, December 27, 1860.
Hon. J. B. FLOYD, Secretary of War:
The telegram is correct. I abandoned Fort Moultrie because I was certain that if attacked my men must have been sacrificed, and the command of the harbor lost. I spiked the guns and destroyed the carriages to keep the guns from being used against us.
If attacked, the garrison would never have surrendered without a fight.
Major, First Artillery.
No. 12.] FORT SUMTER, S.C., December 27, 1860.
(Received A. G. O., December 31.)
COLONEL: I had the honor to reply this afternoon to the telegram of the honorable Secretary of War in reference to the abandonment of Fort Moultrie. In addition to the reasons given in my telegram and in my letter of last night, I will add as my opinion that many things convinced me that the authorities of the State designed to proceed to a hostile act. Under this impression I could not hesitate that it was my solemn duty to move my command from a fort which we could not probably have held longer than forty-eight or sixty hours, to this one, where my power of resistance is increased to a very great degree. The governor of this State sent down one of his aides to-day and demanded, “courteously, but peremptorily,” that I should return my command to Fort Moultrie. I replied that I could not and would not do so. He stated that when the governor came into office he found that there was an understanding between his predecessor and the President that no re-enforcements were to be sent to any of these forts, and particularly to this one, and that I had violated this agreement by having re-enforced this fort. I remarked that I had not re-enforced this command, but that I had merely transferred my garrison from one fort to another, and that, as the commander of this harbor, I had a right to move my men into any fort I deemed proper. I told him that the removal was made on my own responsibility, and that I did it because we were in a position that we could not defend, and also under the firm belief that it was the best means of preventing bloodshed. This afternoon an armed steamer, one of two which have been watching these two forts, between which they have been passing to and fro or anchored for the last ten nights, took possession by escalade of Castle Pinckney. Lieutenant Meade made no resistance. He is with us to-night. They also took possession to-night of Fort Moultrie, from which I withdrew the remainder of my men this afternoon, leaving the fort in charge of the overseer of the men employed by the Engineer Department. We have left about one month’s and a half of provisions in that fort; also some wood and coal and a small quantity of ammunition. We are engaged here to-day in mounting guns and in closing up some of the openings for the embrasures–temporarily closed by light boards, but which would offer but slight resistance to persons seeking entrance. If the workmen return to their work, which I doubt, we shall be enabled in three or four days to have a sufficient number of our guns mounted, and be ready for anything that may occur.
I am, colonel, very respectfully, your obedient servant,
Major, First Artillery, Commanding.
Col. S. COOPER,
Fort Sumter would remain in U.S. hands until the U.S. garrison surrendered on April 14th, 1861, following the bombardment that opened the Civil War.
Battle Cry of Freedom: The Civil War Era by James McPherson
The Coming Fury by Bruce Catton
1861: The Civil War Awakening by Adam Goodheart
“From Moultrie to Sumter” by Abner Doubleday. In Battles and Leaders of the Civil War, Volume I, edited by Robert U. Johnson and Clarence C. Buel
Official Records of the Union and Confederate Armies in the War of the Rebellion, Series I, Volume 1.
Reminiscences of Forts Sumter and Moultrie in 1860-61 by Abner Doubleday
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The Evacuation of Fort Moultrie and Occupation of Fort Sumter by the U.S. Army in December 1860
On December 20th, 1860, a convention of South Carolina secessionists met in Charleston and voted unanimously to secede from the Union, the first state to do so. After this momentous–and ultimately fateful action–the convention then took up the issue of what to do with United States property that existed within South Carolina, in particular, U.S. military property in Charleston and Charleston harbor. This included the U.S. arsenal and three forts–Fort Moultrie on Sullivan’s Island, Fort Sumter on an island in the harbor, and Castle Pinckney, located on Shutes Folly Island in the harbor.
These fortifications had been built to repel an attack on Charleston by foreign navies, but with no threat from abroad at that time, only Fort Moultrie had a permanent garrison, and that was only about 65 officers and men of the 1st U.S. Artillery. Major Robert Anderson was in command of the U.S. forces in Charleston. Fort Moultrie was designed to defend against sea borne attacks, and was highly vulnerable to land based attacks, especially with a potential enemy sitting right outside its gates. With its location out in the harbor, Fort Sumter was more defendable and had a better chance of reinforcement and resupply.
Anderson understood this, and informed Washington even before South Carolina seceded. The major requested reinforcements to occupy the three garrisons, as well as more supplies and ammunition. President James Buchanan, who was serving the final months of his presidency, did not want to provoke the South Carolinians (who were deploying militiamen in Charleston) into a military response that would lead to war, but he also wasn’t prepared to just hand over the forts either. He promised a South Carolina delegation that he would not reinforce the U.S garrisons as negotiations for a peaceful transfer continued in exchange for a promise that the Carolinians would not attack them while the talks continued. On the other hand, Buchanan’s Secretary of War, John B. Floyd, was only too happy to see the forts turned over to South Carolina. Floyd, a southerner who would later become a general in the Confederate army, issued instructions allowing Anderson to surrender if he was attacked by a superior force and not to take action that would provoke a military response from the secessionists. Exactly what type of actions Anderson’s instructions allowed him to do in his defense were vague, as nearly everything except the status quo could be seen as provocative.
Eventually, Anderson concluded that while he hadn’t been given orders to move his command to Fort Sumter, he also was not prohibited from doing so if he felt an attack was forthcoming. The major decided to change his base to Fort Sumter, doing so as quietly as possible. Anderson had the post quartermaster, Lieutenant Norman J. Hall, to charter three schooners and some barges for the purpose of taking non combatants such as family members, away from Fort Moultrie and over to Fort Johnson, a no longer used military base that still had some buildings nominally suitable for housing. That was true in part; soldiers’ families were transferred to Fort Johnson with some of the boats but the rest of the vessels were loaded with supplies for the garrison’s relocation to Fort Sumter, and they would carry the troops as well.
On the evening of December 26th, Anderson told his officers to prepare to evacuate Fort Moultrie. Captain Abner Doubleday recalled:
Anderson approached me as I advanced, and said quietly, “I have determined to evacuate this post immediately, for the purpose of occupying Fort Sumter; I can only allow you twenty minutes to form your company and be in readiness to start.” I was surprised at this announcement, and realized the gravity of the situation at a glance. We were watched by spies and vigilance-committees, would undoubtedly open fire upon us as soon as they saw the object of the movement.
While most of the officers and men quietly walked to the beach and the waiting boats in the twilight, a small detachment remained at Fort Moultrie. This rear guard aimed the fort’s big guns out towards the harbor, prepared to fire on any secessionist guard boats that patrolled the harbor if they interfered with the crossing. One guard boat did approach Doubleday’s boat:
While the steamer was yet afar off, I took off my cap, and threw open my coat to conceal the buttons. I also made the men take off their coats, and use them to cover up their muskets, which were lying alongside the rowlocks. I hoped in this way that we might pass for a party of laborers returning to the fort. The paddle-wheels stopped within about a hundred yards of us; but, to out great relief, after a slight scrutiny, the steamer kept on its way.
This ruse was entirely believable; at the time, civilian construction crews were working at Fort Sumter. The crossing “was successful beyond our most sanguine expectations, and we were highly elated” Doubleday recalled. The entire garrison was successfully transferred to Fort Sumter, and the rear guard spiked Fort Moultrie’s big guns, burned the gun carriages, and cut down the flag staff. Many of the workmen in Fort Sumter were secessionist sympathizers and they were placed under guard and sent back to Charleston.
After finding out on the morning of December 27th that Anderson’s command had successfully changed base and destroyed the guns of Fort Moultrie, the people of Charleston and other secessionists were outraged at what they saw as a breach of an agreement between the Buchanan Administration and South Carolina authorities State militia occupied both Fort Moultrie and Castle Pinckney. The Federal arsenal in Charleston was seized on December 30th. On the other hand, many in the north hailed Anderson as a hero.
Anderson sent this notice to the Adjutant General of the Army, Samuel Cooper (who would later hold the same position with the Confederate Army):
No. 11.] FORT SUMTER S. C., December 26, 1860–8 p.m.
(Received A. G. O., December 29.)
COLONEL: I have the honor to report that I have just completed, by the blessing of God, the removal to this fort of all of my garrison, except the surgeon, four non-commissioned officers, and seven men. We have one year’s supply of hospital stores and about four months’ supply of provisions for my command. I left orders to have all the guns at Fort Moultrie spiked, and the carriages of the 32-pounders, which are old, destroyed. I have sent orders to Captain Foster, who remains at Fort Moultrie, to destroy all the ammunition which he cannot send over. The step which I have taken was, in my opinion, necessary to prevent the effusion of blood.
Respectfully, your obedient servant,
Major, First Artillery, Commanding.
Col. S. COOPER,
Upon hearing the news, Secretary of War Floyd fired this telegram off to Anderson:
Adjutant-General’s Office, December 27, 1860.
Major ANDERSON, Fort Moultrie:
Intelligence has reached here this morning that you have abandoned Fort Moultrie, spiked your guns, burned the carriages, and gone to Fort Sumter. It is not believed, because there is no order for any such movement. Explain the meaning of this report.
J. B. FLOYD,
Secretary of War.
Anderson replied to Floyd, and then explained his actions to Cooper:
CHARLESTON, December 27, 1860.
Hon. J. B. FLOYD, Secretary of War:
The telegram is correct. I abandoned Fort Moultrie because I was certain that if attacked my men must have been sacrificed, and the command of the harbor lost. I spiked the guns and destroyed the carriages to keep the guns from being used against us.
If attacked, the garrison would never have surrendered without a fight.
Major, First Artillery.
No. 12.] FORT SUMTER, S.C., December 27, 1860.
(Received A. G. O., December 31.)
COLONEL: I had the honor to reply this afternoon to the telegram of the honorable Secretary of War in reference to the abandonment of Fort Moultrie. In addition to the reasons given in my telegram and in my letter of last night, I will add as my opinion that many things convinced me that the authorities of the State designed to proceed to a hostile act. Under this impression I could not hesitate that it was my solemn duty to move my command from a fort which we could not probably have held longer than forty-eight or sixty hours, to this one, where my power of resistance is increased to a very great degree. The governor of this State sent down one of his aides to-day and demanded, “courteously, but peremptorily,” that I should return my command to Fort Moultrie. I replied that I could not and would not do so. He stated that when the governor came into office he found that there was an understanding between his predecessor and the President that no re-enforcements were to be sent to any of these forts, and particularly to this one, and that I had violated this agreement by having re-enforced this fort. I remarked that I had not re-enforced this command, but that I had merely transferred my garrison from one fort to another, and that, as the commander of this harbor, I had a right to move my men into any fort I deemed proper. I told him that the removal was made on my own responsibility, and that I did it because we were in a position that we could not defend, and also under the firm belief that it was the best means of preventing bloodshed. This afternoon an armed steamer, one of two which have been watching these two forts, between which they have been passing to and fro or anchored for the last ten nights, took possession by escalade of Castle Pinckney. Lieutenant Meade made no resistance. He is with us to-night. They also took possession to-night of Fort Moultrie, from which I withdrew the remainder of my men this afternoon, leaving the fort in charge of the overseer of the men employed by the Engineer Department. We have left about one month’s and a half of provisions in that fort; also some wood and coal and a small quantity of ammunition. We are engaged here to-day in mounting guns and in closing up some of the openings for the embrasures–temporarily closed by light boards, but which would offer but slight resistance to persons seeking entrance. If the workmen return to their work, which I doubt, we shall be enabled in three or four days to have a sufficient number of our guns mounted, and be ready for anything that may occur.
I am, colonel, very respectfully, your obedient servant,
Major, First Artillery, Commanding.
Col. S. COOPER,
Fort Sumter would remain in U.S. hands until the U.S. garrison surrendered on April 14th, 1861, following the bombardment that opened the Civil War.
Battle Cry of Freedom: The Civil War Era by James McPherson
The Coming Fury by Bruce Catton
1861: The Civil War Awakening by Adam Goodheart
“From Moultrie to Sumter” by Abner Doubleday. In Battles and Leaders of the Civil War, Volume I, edited by Robert U. Johnson and Clarence C. Buel
Official Records of the Union and Confederate Armies in the War of the Rebellion, Series I, Volume 1.
Reminiscences of Forts Sumter and Moultrie in 1860-61 by Abner Doubleday
Amazon affiliate links: We may earn a small commission from purchases made from Amazon.com links at no cost to our visitors. For more info, please read our affiliate disclosure.
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Women in ancient China did not enjoy the status, either social or political, afforded to men. Women were subordinate to first their fathers, then their husbands, and finally, in the case of being left a widow, their sons in a system known as the “three followings” or sancong. Often physically ill-treated, socially segregated, and forced to compete for their husband’s affections with concubines, a woman’s place was an unenviable one. Still, despite the harsh realities of living in a male-dominated society and being forever under the weight of philosophical and religious norms which were created by men to work for men, some women did break through these barriers. The practical realities of daily life meant many women could and did circumvent conventions, and some rose to live extraordinary lives producing great literature, scholarship, and even ruling the Chinese empire itself.
THEORIES ON WOMEN
At least in theoretical terms, women’s contribution, indeed necessity, to society was recognised in the principle of yin and yang. Even here, though, the male (yang) with its associated qualities is the predominant and has associations subtly considered the superior to the female (ying): hard versus soft, forceful v. submissive, level v. curved, light v. dark, rich v. poor, and so on.
In China everyone knew it was better to be born a male, and even female characters in traditional literature sometimes stated that they had been a man in a previous life but had reappeared as a woman in this one as a punishment for past deeds. Another common introduction to a female character in such stories was the line “unfortunately she was born a woman”. A male child would grow up to contribute financially to the family, perform rituals such as those in ancestor worship, and perpetuate the family name. In contrast, a woman could not earn money and one day would leave the family and join her husband’s. Consequently, many baby girls were abandoned shortly after birth. Those girls who did survive were given such names as Chastity, Pearl, Thrift, or the names of flowers and birds in the hope that the girl would live up to that name and receive attractive offers of marriage.
Bitter it is to have a woman’s shape!
It would be hard to name a thing more base.
If it’s a son born to the hearth and home
He comes to earth as if he’s heaven sent,
Heroic heart and will, like the Four Seas,
To face ten thousand leagues of wind and dust!
To breed a girl is something no one wants,
She’s not a treasure to her family.
(3rd century CE poem by Fu Hsuan, in Dawson, 272)
Women were expected to excel in four areas: fidelity, cautious speech, industriousness, and graceful manners. A woman’s virtue was a particularly valued attribute in Chinese society. Women deemed especially virtuous such as chaste widows were sometimes given the honour of a shrine, monument, or commemorative tablet after death or had their names published in honorific obituaries. This practice was especially popular following the work of the Neo-Confucian scholar Zhu Xi in the 12th century CE.
Marriages in ancient China were usually arranged by both sets of parents. Not love but economic and social considerations were upmost in everybody’s minds. There were even professional matchmakers to find suitable pairings who also considered astrology in guiding their selections. Neither did some parents wait until their children were of age as many marriages had been arranged when the couple were still young children or even babies. The typical marrying age was the early twenties for men and late teens for women, although child brides were not unknown despite the practice being forbidden by law. If a marriage had been arranged but the groom died close to the ceremony, the wedding might go ahead anyway and the bride joined her new family as a widow.
The bride went to live with the groom in his house or that of his parents, keeping her family surname. Her transferal of abode became a great procession when she was carried on a red bridal chair and her feet never touched the ground between the homes in order to ward off evil spirits. On arrival she met her husband, often it was the couple’s first meeting. A marriage feast was held and the ancestral tablets were “informed” of the new arrival. The historian R. Dawson continues the story:
The marriage was not registered with the civil authority, nor did the bride’s family take any part in the ceremony or jollification, although the couple did go a few days later to pay a formal visit to the bride’s home. The rites of marriage symbolised the fact that the bride’s body, fertility, domestic service, and loyalty had been handed over by one family to another. They also provided an opportunity for the groom’s family to display its affluence and glory in its prestige in the community. The splendour of these occasions was a severe burden on a family’s resources…An additional expense was the gifts to the bride’s family, the betrothal presents, which were a thinly disguised price for the person of the daughter-in-law and a clear indication of her total subservience to her new family. (143)
That a wife was not much more than a physical piece of her husband’s property is further illustrated in the ancient practice of foot-binding. Girls from aged three upwards had their feet crushed in bindings for years in the belief that the resulting small feet would appeal to her future husband.
In Chinese law, a man could divorce his wife but she had no such right except if the husband particularly mistreated his wife’s family. The accepted grounds for divorce were failure to bear a son, evidence of being unfaithful, lack of filial piety to the husband’s parents, theft, suffering a virulent or infectious disease, jealousy, and talking too much. Some of these seem quite superficial to modern eyes, but it should be remembered that in Chinese society divorce was a serious action with negative social repercussions for both parties. Further, a wife could not be divorced if she had no family to return to or if she had gone through the three-year mourning period for her husband’s dead parents. Consequently, in practice, divorce was not as common as these grounds might suggest.
Another social convention was that widows should not remarry. Many did anyway amongst the lower classes, but the idea that the Fates and astrological charts had ordained that a particular couple should live together in matrimony was a difficult hurdle to get over in the case of a second marriage. An even greater barrier was a financial one as a widow did not inherit the property of her dead husband and so she had nothing to offer a new husband in that department.
FAMILY & WORKING LIFE
Marriage and children were the expected normal course for all adults, and only those men who could not afford a wife did not marry. During the Han Dynasty, for example, unmarried women brought a special tax on their family and women with babies were given a three-year exemption from tax and their husband a one-year exemption. Regarding the sex of children, sons were much more desired than daughters. As the old proverb went: “A boy is born facing in; a girl is born facing out”, meaning that eventually a girl would ultimately leave the family and pay homage to the ancestors of another family. Having a son, then, greatly helped the wife to become accepted in her adopted family.
For upper-class women, their lives were perhaps more strictly controlled than at any other social level. Expected to remain within the inner chambers of the family home, they had only a very limited freedom of movement. Within the home, women did have significant responsibilities which included management of the household finances and the education of her children, but this did not mean they were the head of the family home.
Women of lower status, such as farmer’s wives, were expected to work in the fields – especially in regions where rice was cultivated. As many farmers did not own their own land but worked it as tenants, their wives were, on occasion, subject to abuse from landowners. Many women were forced into prostitution in times of drought or crop failure. Women worked in the home weaving silk and caring for the silkworms that produced it. Some were called upon, like men, to perform the labour service which acted as a form of taxation in many periods of ancient China, but this was only in exceptional circumstances. By the Song dynasty (960-1279 CE) women had more freedom and were running inns and acting as midwives amongst other professions.
CONCUBINES & PROSTITUTES
Although Chinese men usually had only one wife, they did openly make use of courtesans and invite concubines to live permanently in the family home. Prostitution was an open part of town and city life, with officials and merchants frequenting houses where prostitutes plied their trade for the purposes of corporate entertainment. Concubines, meanwhile, apart from the pleasures their charms might bring, often provided a family with the all-important male heir when the wife only produced daughters. They did not have the legal status of the wife as they were classed as servants and nor were the children of a concubine given equal status and inheritance rights as the children of the wife. The number of concubines in the household was only limited by the husband’s means. The wife must never show any jealousy to her husband’s concubines – it was, as we have seen, grounds for divorce, but also it was thought there was a particularly nasty corner of hell awaiting jealous wives.
Concubines usually came from the lower classes and entered the households of the wealthier families in society. A girl from a richer family would only have been given as a concubine to an even richer family or the royal palace. It was not uncommon, though, for a younger sister to accompany a bride and live in the marital home of her sibling as a concubine. This Eastern Han funeral stele for a concubine presents an interesting record of their duties:
When she entered the household,
She was diligent in care and ordered our familial Way,
Treating all our ancestors as lofty.
She sought good fortune without straying,
her conduct omitting or adding nothing.
Keeping herself frugal, she spun thread,
And planted profitable crops in the orchards and gardens.
She respected the legal wife and instructed the children,
Rejecting arrogance, never boasting of her kindnesses.
The three boys and two girls
Kept quiet within the women’s apartments.
She made the girls submissive to rituals,
While giving the boys power.
Her chastity exceeded that of ancient times,
and her guidance was not oppressive.
All our kin were harmonious and close,
Like leaves attached to the tree.
FAMOUS CHINESE WOMEN
Despite being restricted by the men and the male-created social conventions of the time, there were cases of Chinese women (both real and fictional) who defied convention to become celebrated poets, artists, calligraphers, historians, and even rulers. Below are some details of two such women, one the paradigm of virtue, the other more ambiguous and controversial.
Ban Zhao (41 – c. 115 CE) was one of the most famous female writers and scholars in early China. She wrote commentaries on Confucian classics, and her most famous work remains her Nuje or “Instructions for Women” which expanded on the four virtues expected of women (speech, virtue, behaviour, and work) first outlined in the classic Liji ritual text. Although Zhao stressed that women should remain subservient to their husbands she did express a belief in the benefits of women educating themselves (to better help their husband’s work). The Nuje text was hugely influential, studied by countless generations of women and even recited to those unable to read.
Wu Zetian (aka Wu Zhao) lived from 623 or 625 to 705 CE. The concubine of Tang dynasty emperors Taizong (626-649 CE) and Gaozong (r. 649-683 CE), she was officially made empress by the latter in 655 CE. On the death of Gaozong, she reigned as regent for her son Zhongzong (684 CE) and his successor and elder brother Ruizong (r. 684-690 CE). In 690 CE Wu Zetian went one step further and took the throne by declaring herself emperor, set up her court at Luoyang and declared the beginning of a new dynasty, the Zhou. Her reign, at least in Chinese tradition (which gives yet another insight into attitudes to women), was one of despotic terror punctuated by family assassinations and beset by political intrigues. Nevertheless, her ruthless approach did lead to the expansion of the state bureaucracy, and she was a great patron of Buddhist art, seen notably at the Longmen caves. At the end of her reign, she was forced to reaccept the Tang dynasty line and select Zhongzong as her heir apparent.
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] | 3
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Women in ancient China did not enjoy the status, either social or political, afforded to men. Women were subordinate to first their fathers, then their husbands, and finally, in the case of being left a widow, their sons in a system known as the “three followings” or sancong. Often physically ill-treated, socially segregated, and forced to compete for their husband’s affections with concubines, a woman’s place was an unenviable one. Still, despite the harsh realities of living in a male-dominated society and being forever under the weight of philosophical and religious norms which were created by men to work for men, some women did break through these barriers. The practical realities of daily life meant many women could and did circumvent conventions, and some rose to live extraordinary lives producing great literature, scholarship, and even ruling the Chinese empire itself.
THEORIES ON WOMEN
At least in theoretical terms, women’s contribution, indeed necessity, to society was recognised in the principle of yin and yang. Even here, though, the male (yang) with its associated qualities is the predominant and has associations subtly considered the superior to the female (ying): hard versus soft, forceful v. submissive, level v. curved, light v. dark, rich v. poor, and so on.
In China everyone knew it was better to be born a male, and even female characters in traditional literature sometimes stated that they had been a man in a previous life but had reappeared as a woman in this one as a punishment for past deeds. Another common introduction to a female character in such stories was the line “unfortunately she was born a woman”. A male child would grow up to contribute financially to the family, perform rituals such as those in ancestor worship, and perpetuate the family name. In contrast, a woman could not earn money and one day would leave the family and join her husband’s. Consequently, many baby girls were abandoned shortly after birth. Those girls who did survive were given such names as Chastity, Pearl, Thrift, or the names of flowers and birds in the hope that the girl would live up to that name and receive attractive offers of marriage.
Bitter it is to have a woman’s shape!
It would be hard to name a thing more base.
If it’s a son born to the hearth and home
He comes to earth as if he’s heaven sent,
Heroic heart and will, like the Four Seas,
To face ten thousand leagues of wind and dust!
To breed a girl is something no one wants,
She’s not a treasure to her family.
(3rd century CE poem by Fu Hsuan, in Dawson, 272)
Women were expected to excel in four areas: fidelity, cautious speech, industriousness, and graceful manners. A woman’s virtue was a particularly valued attribute in Chinese society. Women deemed especially virtuous such as chaste widows were sometimes given the honour of a shrine, monument, or commemorative tablet after death or had their names published in honorific obituaries. This practice was especially popular following the work of the Neo-Confucian scholar Zhu Xi in the 12th century CE.
Marriages in ancient China were usually arranged by both sets of parents. Not love but economic and social considerations were upmost in everybody’s minds. There were even professional matchmakers to find suitable pairings who also considered astrology in guiding their selections. Neither did some parents wait until their children were of age as many marriages had been arranged when the couple were still young children or even babies. The typical marrying age was the early twenties for men and late teens for women, although child brides were not unknown despite the practice being forbidden by law. If a marriage had been arranged but the groom died close to the ceremony, the wedding might go ahead anyway and the bride joined her new family as a widow.
The bride went to live with the groom in his house or that of his parents, keeping her family surname. Her transferal of abode became a great procession when she was carried on a red bridal chair and her feet never touched the ground between the homes in order to ward off evil spirits. On arrival she met her husband, often it was the couple’s first meeting. A marriage feast was held and the ancestral tablets were “informed” of the new arrival. The historian R. Dawson continues the story:
The marriage was not registered with the civil authority, nor did the bride’s family take any part in the ceremony or jollification, although the couple did go a few days later to pay a formal visit to the bride’s home. The rites of marriage symbolised the fact that the bride’s body, fertility, domestic service, and loyalty had been handed over by one family to another. They also provided an opportunity for the groom’s family to display its affluence and glory in its prestige in the community. The splendour of these occasions was a severe burden on a family’s resources…An additional expense was the gifts to the bride’s family, the betrothal presents, which were a thinly disguised price for the person of the daughter-in-law and a clear indication of her total subservience to her new family. (143)
That a wife was not much more than a physical piece of her husband’s property is further illustrated in the ancient practice of foot-binding. Girls from aged three upwards had their feet crushed in bindings for years in the belief that the resulting small feet would appeal to her future husband.
In Chinese law, a man could divorce his wife but she had no such right except if the husband particularly mistreated his wife’s family. The accepted grounds for divorce were failure to bear a son, evidence of being unfaithful, lack of filial piety to the husband’s parents, theft, suffering a virulent or infectious disease, jealousy, and talking too much. Some of these seem quite superficial to modern eyes, but it should be remembered that in Chinese society divorce was a serious action with negative social repercussions for both parties. Further, a wife could not be divorced if she had no family to return to or if she had gone through the three-year mourning period for her husband’s dead parents. Consequently, in practice, divorce was not as common as these grounds might suggest.
Another social convention was that widows should not remarry. Many did anyway amongst the lower classes, but the idea that the Fates and astrological charts had ordained that a particular couple should live together in matrimony was a difficult hurdle to get over in the case of a second marriage. An even greater barrier was a financial one as a widow did not inherit the property of her dead husband and so she had nothing to offer a new husband in that department.
FAMILY & WORKING LIFE
Marriage and children were the expected normal course for all adults, and only those men who could not afford a wife did not marry. During the Han Dynasty, for example, unmarried women brought a special tax on their family and women with babies were given a three-year exemption from tax and their husband a one-year exemption. Regarding the sex of children, sons were much more desired than daughters. As the old proverb went: “A boy is born facing in; a girl is born facing out”, meaning that eventually a girl would ultimately leave the family and pay homage to the ancestors of another family. Having a son, then, greatly helped the wife to become accepted in her adopted family.
For upper-class women, their lives were perhaps more strictly controlled than at any other social level. Expected to remain within the inner chambers of the family home, they had only a very limited freedom of movement. Within the home, women did have significant responsibilities which included management of the household finances and the education of her children, but this did not mean they were the head of the family home.
Women of lower status, such as farmer’s wives, were expected to work in the fields – especially in regions where rice was cultivated. As many farmers did not own their own land but worked it as tenants, their wives were, on occasion, subject to abuse from landowners. Many women were forced into prostitution in times of drought or crop failure. Women worked in the home weaving silk and caring for the silkworms that produced it. Some were called upon, like men, to perform the labour service which acted as a form of taxation in many periods of ancient China, but this was only in exceptional circumstances. By the Song dynasty (960-1279 CE) women had more freedom and were running inns and acting as midwives amongst other professions.
CONCUBINES & PROSTITUTES
Although Chinese men usually had only one wife, they did openly make use of courtesans and invite concubines to live permanently in the family home. Prostitution was an open part of town and city life, with officials and merchants frequenting houses where prostitutes plied their trade for the purposes of corporate entertainment. Concubines, meanwhile, apart from the pleasures their charms might bring, often provided a family with the all-important male heir when the wife only produced daughters. They did not have the legal status of the wife as they were classed as servants and nor were the children of a concubine given equal status and inheritance rights as the children of the wife. The number of concubines in the household was only limited by the husband’s means. The wife must never show any jealousy to her husband’s concubines – it was, as we have seen, grounds for divorce, but also it was thought there was a particularly nasty corner of hell awaiting jealous wives.
Concubines usually came from the lower classes and entered the households of the wealthier families in society. A girl from a richer family would only have been given as a concubine to an even richer family or the royal palace. It was not uncommon, though, for a younger sister to accompany a bride and live in the marital home of her sibling as a concubine. This Eastern Han funeral stele for a concubine presents an interesting record of their duties:
When she entered the household,
She was diligent in care and ordered our familial Way,
Treating all our ancestors as lofty.
She sought good fortune without straying,
her conduct omitting or adding nothing.
Keeping herself frugal, she spun thread,
And planted profitable crops in the orchards and gardens.
She respected the legal wife and instructed the children,
Rejecting arrogance, never boasting of her kindnesses.
The three boys and two girls
Kept quiet within the women’s apartments.
She made the girls submissive to rituals,
While giving the boys power.
Her chastity exceeded that of ancient times,
and her guidance was not oppressive.
All our kin were harmonious and close,
Like leaves attached to the tree.
FAMOUS CHINESE WOMEN
Despite being restricted by the men and the male-created social conventions of the time, there were cases of Chinese women (both real and fictional) who defied convention to become celebrated poets, artists, calligraphers, historians, and even rulers. Below are some details of two such women, one the paradigm of virtue, the other more ambiguous and controversial.
Ban Zhao (41 – c. 115 CE) was one of the most famous female writers and scholars in early China. She wrote commentaries on Confucian classics, and her most famous work remains her Nuje or “Instructions for Women” which expanded on the four virtues expected of women (speech, virtue, behaviour, and work) first outlined in the classic Liji ritual text. Although Zhao stressed that women should remain subservient to their husbands she did express a belief in the benefits of women educating themselves (to better help their husband’s work). The Nuje text was hugely influential, studied by countless generations of women and even recited to those unable to read.
Wu Zetian (aka Wu Zhao) lived from 623 or 625 to 705 CE. The concubine of Tang dynasty emperors Taizong (626-649 CE) and Gaozong (r. 649-683 CE), she was officially made empress by the latter in 655 CE. On the death of Gaozong, she reigned as regent for her son Zhongzong (684 CE) and his successor and elder brother Ruizong (r. 684-690 CE). In 690 CE Wu Zetian went one step further and took the throne by declaring herself emperor, set up her court at Luoyang and declared the beginning of a new dynasty, the Zhou. Her reign, at least in Chinese tradition (which gives yet another insight into attitudes to women), was one of despotic terror punctuated by family assassinations and beset by political intrigues. Nevertheless, her ruthless approach did lead to the expansion of the state bureaucracy, and she was a great patron of Buddhist art, seen notably at the Longmen caves. At the end of her reign, she was forced to reaccept the Tang dynasty line and select Zhongzong as her heir apparent.
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ENGLISH
| 1
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Johnny never leaves the apartment until he is finally forced to by the two Irregulars who bring him to his death. Until then, he spends his days in fear at home.
He is psychologically damaged by his experiences. We see him haunted by his memories and frightened by shadows, but we do not fully understand why until later on in the play.
Johnny's erratic behaviour is highlighted the first time we meet him at the opening of the play. The verb "springing" is used in the stage directions to show his sudden movement and the exclamation marks as he utters his first lines show his agitated speech, "Oh, quit that readin’ for God’s sake! Are yous losin’ all your feelin’s? It’ll soon be that none of you’ll read anythin’ that’s not about butcherin’!"
This foreshadows the revelation that he is in fact riddled with guilt and fear about his involvement in the murder of Mrs Tancred’s son.
Johnny was left wounded in the Easter Rising of 1916.
When the two Irregulars drag Johnny away they reveal that he betrayed a comrade - Johnny was the one who gave information leading to the murder of Mrs Tancred's son.
However, when he is summoned he refuses to go.
The stage directions describe him as shouting "passionately". This is the first time we have ever seen passion for any cause in Johnny, and in this case it is for his own protection.
He says that he has "done enough for Ireland". Earlier in the play he had stated "I’d do it agen … a principle’s a principle", the contrast in these two statements reveal him to be a cowardly traitor.
Johnny’s treatment of his mother and sister show him to have little compassion.
Despite the fact that they have looked after and defended him in his own time of need, he is quick to suggest that Mary must go "into some place ower this, there’s no one here to mind her" when he thinks she is very ill.
When he discovers that she is actually pregnant he declares that "she should be dhriven out o’ th’ house she’s brought disgrace on!"
His empathy has not been developed by his own sufferings and he is harsh in his judgment of others.
In one of his final speeches - showing no understanding of anyone else’s suffering - he cries “Not one o’ yous, not one o’ yous, have any thought for me!”
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] | 1
|
Johnny never leaves the apartment until he is finally forced to by the two Irregulars who bring him to his death. Until then, he spends his days in fear at home.
He is psychologically damaged by his experiences. We see him haunted by his memories and frightened by shadows, but we do not fully understand why until later on in the play.
Johnny's erratic behaviour is highlighted the first time we meet him at the opening of the play. The verb "springing" is used in the stage directions to show his sudden movement and the exclamation marks as he utters his first lines show his agitated speech, "Oh, quit that readin’ for God’s sake! Are yous losin’ all your feelin’s? It’ll soon be that none of you’ll read anythin’ that’s not about butcherin’!"
This foreshadows the revelation that he is in fact riddled with guilt and fear about his involvement in the murder of Mrs Tancred’s son.
Johnny was left wounded in the Easter Rising of 1916.
When the two Irregulars drag Johnny away they reveal that he betrayed a comrade - Johnny was the one who gave information leading to the murder of Mrs Tancred's son.
However, when he is summoned he refuses to go.
The stage directions describe him as shouting "passionately". This is the first time we have ever seen passion for any cause in Johnny, and in this case it is for his own protection.
He says that he has "done enough for Ireland". Earlier in the play he had stated "I’d do it agen … a principle’s a principle", the contrast in these two statements reveal him to be a cowardly traitor.
Johnny’s treatment of his mother and sister show him to have little compassion.
Despite the fact that they have looked after and defended him in his own time of need, he is quick to suggest that Mary must go "into some place ower this, there’s no one here to mind her" when he thinks she is very ill.
When he discovers that she is actually pregnant he declares that "she should be dhriven out o’ th’ house she’s brought disgrace on!"
His empathy has not been developed by his own sufferings and he is harsh in his judgment of others.
In one of his final speeches - showing no understanding of anyone else’s suffering - he cries “Not one o’ yous, not one o’ yous, have any thought for me!”
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ENGLISH
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Members of the German military were interned as prisoners of war in the United States during World War I and World War II. In all, 425,000 German prisoners lived in 700 camps throughout the United States during World War II.
Hostilities ended six months after the United States saw its first action in World War I, and only a relatively small number of German prisoners of war reached the U.S.Many prisoners were German sailors caught in port by U.S. forces far away from the European battlefield. The United States Department of War designated three locations as POW camps during the war: Forts McPherson and Oglethorpe in Georgia and Fort Douglas in Utah. The exact population of German POWs in World War I is difficult to ascertain because they were housed in the same facilities used to detain civilians of German heritage residing in the United States, but there were known to be 406 German POWs at Fort Douglas and 1,373 at Fort McPherson. The prisoners built furniture and worked on local roads. The few dozen who died while incarcerated as POWs were buried at Ft. Douglas, Utah, the Chattanooga National Cemetery, and Fort Lyon, Colorado.
After the United States entered World War II in 1941, the government of the United Kingdom requested American help with housing prisoners of war due to a housing shortage in Britain. 5 although it was not prepared. Its military had only brief experience with a limited POW population in the last world war, and was unprepared for basic logistical considerations such as food, clothing and housing requirements of the prisoners. Almost all German-speaking Americans were engaged overseas directly in combat efforts, and the American government feared the presence of Germans on U.S. soil would create a security problem and raise fear among civilians.The United States agreed to house them, :
Despite many "wild rumors" about how the Allies treated their prisoners, 86 some Germans were pleased to be captured by the British or Americans—fear of being captured by the Soviets was widespread—because they disagreed with Nazism or their nation's conduct of the war. :42–45,148,163 The prisoners were usually shipped in Liberty Ships returning home that would otherwise be empty, :5 with as many as 30,000 arriving per month. While they risked being sunk by their own U-boats on the ocean, good treatment began with the substantial meals served aboard. Upon arriving in America, the comfort of the Pullman cars that carried them to their prison camps amazed the Germans, :32,70 as did the country's large size and undamaged prosperity.:
The Office of the Provost Marshal General (OPMG) supervised 8 the 425,000 German prisoners. They stayed in 700 camps in 46 states; a complete list may not exist because of the small, temporary nature of some camps and the frequent use of satellite or sub-camps administratively part of larger units. Other than barbed wire and watchtowers, the camps resembled standard United States or German military training sites; :33 the Geneva Convention of 1929 required the United States to provide living quarters comparable to those of its own military, which meant 40 square feet (3.71 m²) for enlisted men and 120 square feet (11.15 m²) for officers. :xxii If prisoners had to sleep in tents while their quarters were constructed, so did their guards. The three admirals and forty generals in custody were sent to Camp Shelby in Mississippi, where each had his own bungalow with a garden.:
Government guidelines mandated placing the compounds away from urban, industrial areas for security purposes, in regions with mild climate to minimize construction costs, and at sites where POWs could alleviate anticipated farm labor shortages.
The Geneva Convention's mandate of equal treatment for prisoners also meant they were paid American military wages. 78 They could work on farms or elsewhere only if they were also paid for their labor, and officers could not be compelled to work. As the United States sent millions of soldiers overseas, the resulting shortage of labor eventually meant that German POWs worked toward the Allied war effort by helping out in canneries, mills, farms, and other places deemed a minimal security risk.:
Prisoners could not be used in work directly related to the military or in dangerous conditions. The minimum pay for enlisted soldiers was $0.80 a day, roughly equivalent to the pay of an American private. In 1943 the government estimated that prisoner labor cost 50 to 75% of normal free labor. While language differences and risk of escape or unreliable work were disadvantages, prisoner workers were available immediately on demand and in the exact numbers needed. While prisoners on average worked more slowly and produced less than civilians, their work was also more reliable and of higher quality. 79,82,98 Part of their wages helped pay for the POW program, and the workers could use the rest as pocket money for the camp canteen. They were paid in scrip. All hard currency was confiscated with other personal possessions during initial processing for return after the war as mandated by the Convention, as money could be used during escape attempts. :78 The government received $22 million in 1944 from prisoner wages, and that year it estimated that it had saved $80 million by using prisoners in military installations. :6:
Newspaper coverage of the camps and public knowledge were intentionally limited until the end of the war, in part to comply with the Geneva Convention and in part to avoid the fear of an enemy presence in such large numbers. 98–101 Given the wartime labor shortage however, especially in agriculture, many valued their contribution; as late as February 1945, politicians in rural states asked the government for 100,000 more prisoners to work on farms. :6While most citizens living near camps accepted the prisoners' presence, the government received hundreds of letters each week protesting their treatment. Many demanded that the POWs be immediately killed, a sentiment the regular casualty lists in American newspapers encouraged. The government had difficulty in persuading the public that treating the prisoners according to the Geneva Convention made it more likely that Germany would treat American prisoners well. Labor unions were the largest opposition to the use of the prisoner workers, citing the War Manpower Commission's rules that required union participation in worker recruitment whenever possible. :
Twice each month each prisoner of war camp was required to fill out WD AGO Form 19-21 and mail it to the Office of the Provost Marshal General, Washington 25, D.C., Attention: Prisoner of War Operations Division.
The report included the camp's name and address, the nationality of the prisoners, the total number of prisoners broken down by the number of officers, NCO's and privates, and the number of man-days worked by project in that camp during the reporting period. Sometimes additional remarks were included on the back of the form. For example, the additional remarks from Dos Palos POW Branch Camp for the period ending 12 February 1946 stated "1692 [German POWs] waiting for Repatriation CAMP CLOSED 12 February 1946."
There were insufficient American guards, especially German speakers. They mostly supervised the German officers and NCOs who strictly maintained discipline. 33–34 The Germans woke their own men, marched them to and from meals, and prepared them for work; their routine successfully recreated the feel of military discipline for prisoners. :34 Prisoners had friendly interaction with local civilians and sometimes were allowed outside the camps without guards on the honor system :104,223 (Black American guards noted that German prisoners could visit restaurants that they could not because of Jim Crow laws. :52–53), luxuries such as beer and wine were sometimes available, and hobbies or sports were encouraged. Alex Funke, a former POW at Camp Algona, wrote: "We all were positively impressed" by the U.S. and that "We all had been won over to friendly relations with" the U.S. Indeed, unauthorized fraternization between American women and German prisoners was sometimes a problem. Several camps held social receptions with local American girls, and some Germans met their future wives as prisoners. :25–26:
|“||When I was captured I weighed 128 pounds. After two years as an American POW weighed 185. I had gotten so fat you could no longer see my eyes.||”|
|— A German prisoner of war :208|
Many prisoners found that their living conditions as prisoners were better than as civilians in cold-water flats in Germany.The prisoners were provided with writing materials, art supplies, woodworking utensils, and musical instruments, and were allowed regular correspondence with family in Germany. General officers received wine with their meals, and all prisoners ate the same rations as American soldiers as required by the Geneva Convention, including special meals for Thanksgiving and Christmas Day, Unable to eat all their food, prisoners at first burned leftover food fearing that their rations would be reduced.
Groups of prisoners pooled their daily beer coupons to take turns drinking several at a time. They also received two packs of cigarettes a day and frequently meat, both rationed for American civilians. 57 pounds (26 kg) in two years as a prisoner. :59,208 Despite complaints to International Red Cross inspectors about the alleged inferiority of American white bread and coffee, prisoners recognized that they were treated better in the United States than anywhere else.(Cigarettes were sold in the prisoner canteen for less than outside the camp, so guards were sometimes amenable to being bribed with them.) One German later recalled that he gained
Funke stated that "Nobody could become bored [as a prisoner]." 110 The cinema served as an important reeducation and propaganda tool as well as entertainment, with Hollywood anti-Nazi films, cartoons such as "Herr Meets Hare", and the Why We Fight series used; American World War II films shown mostly dealt with the Pacific War. Near the end of the war approved German films from a list exchanged through the Red Cross became available. :110 After the liberation of the Nazi concentration camps, films of the atrocities of the Holocaust were shown to the prisoners, which engendered shock, anger, and disbelief; amazed and disbelieving prisoners nicknamed them knochen films ("films of bones"). After compulsory viewing of an atrocity film, 1,000 prisoners at Camp Butner dramatically burned their German uniforms. :119 Prisoners at other camps called on Germany to surrender. In an idea seriously considered but ultimately rejected by American military officials, a few prisoners even volunteered to fight in the war against Japan.Prisoners held frequent theatrical and musical performances attended by hundreds or thousands, including American guards and Red Cross inspectors. Movies were shown as often as four nights a week; if the camp did not have a projector, prisoners often pooled their savings to purchase one. :
Camps built libraries to organize their reading material and prisoners often purchased their own, but they never had enough reading material, with an average of one half book per prisoner. The YMCA printed thousands of copies of books for the camps, and even provided bookbinding material so camps could repair them due to frequent use. 113 Camps had subscriptions to American newspapers, and every camp published its own newspaper with poetry and short stories, puzzles and games, listings of upcoming events, and classified ads. Camp authorities recognized the periodicals' value in serving as creative outlets and as accurate indicators of the prisoners' views. The tone of their articles varied; some promoted Nazi ideology and foresaw German victory. :110–111 Even as Germany's defeat neared in early 1945, eight of 20 camp newspapers advocated Nazi ideology. :22:
Many future German CEOs benefited from education they received as prisoners in the United States. 150 taught classes on their areas of expertise including German, English and other foreign languages, business, and mathematics. The systematically taught courses were so successful that in May 1944 the German Ministry of Education and the OKW sent through the Red Cross detailed procedures for students to receive credit at German high schools and universities. Some prisoners took correspondence classes through local universities, and German universities also accepted their credits after returning home.Educated prisoners such as future German cabinet member Walter Hallstein :
Relying on Germans to discipline themselves, while efficient, also permitted committed groups of Nazi prisoners to exist despite American attempts to identify and separate them. 150–151 led work stoppages, intimidated other prisoners, and held secret kangaroo court for those accused of disloyalty. Those convicted were sometimes attacked or killed in a process known as the "Holy Ghost"; most prisoner "suicides" were likely murders. While the American government executed 14 Germans after the war for murdering other prisoners in three incidents, hundreds of such murders may have occurred. :158–159 Many devoted Nazis remained loyal to their political beliefs and expected a German victory until the Allies crossed the Rhine in March 1945; their faith amazed prisoners captured during and after the Battle of Normandy, who had more realistic views of the likely outcome of the war. In turn, the earlier prisoners often viewed the others with contempt, calling them "traitors" and "deserters". Fear of secret punishment by such men caused one prisoner to later state that "there was more political freedom in the German army than in an American prison camp." He and other anti-Nazis were sent to Camp Ruston in Louisiana to protect them, :xx,27,114–115,151,153,157,161,167–168 while an Oklahoma camp received Waffen-SS and violent prisoners.Often members of the Afrika Korps who had been captured early in the war during Germany's greatest military successes :
Prisoners regardless of ideology often taunted their captors, such as saluting with Sieg Heils when forced to attend the lowering of the United States flag. They secretly celebrated Hitler's birthday and other Nazi holidays after the Americans banned them, and many became upset when Jewish American officers supervised them. 48–49 :34–37 Less than 1% of all prisoners of war in America attempted to escape, however—about half the rate of Italian prisoners :7 and less than the rate in the civilian prison system — and most were unsuccessful. The likelihood of an escapee returning to their forces overseas was very remote; the wish to avoid boredom was the reason most often given by those who attempted to escape, :132,152 often hoping to reach Argentina. Prisoners who died during escape attempts usually received military funerals with US government-provided Nazi flags.:
On December 23, 1944, 25 German POWs broke out of Camp Papago Park in Arizona 178-foot (54 m) tunnel. By January the escapees were caught, in part because a river they intended to cross by raft turned out to be a dry river bed.by crawling along a
The OPMG began a formal reeducation program for German prisoners in fall 1943. Named the Special Projects Division (SPD) and directed by a group of university professors, the program published der Ruf (The Call), a prison newspaper edited by sympathetic POWs, and distributed books banned in Nazi Germany. The effort was kept secret because it probably violated the Geneva Convention's ban on exposing prisoners to propaganda, the possibility of German retaliation with American prisoners, and the expectation that prisoners would reject overt reeducation. After V-E Day, SPD began a series of rapid classes on democracy for some of the most cooperative prisoners. The 25,000 graduates of these classes returned directly to Germany, instead of being used for additional labor in Europe. 8–10,22 :169–170:
SPD's efforts were unsuccessful. Many in the OPMG opposed the program, in part because they believed that changing most adults' basic philosophies and values was impossible and, if successful, might cause them to choose Communism as an alternative. The American professors were almost entirely ignorant of German language or culture, as well as military and prison life. The reading material they prepared was overly intellectual and did not appeal to most prisoners, and der Ruf was unpopular as it was essentially a literary journal with little current news. Surveys of camp prisoners found no change in the views of the vast majority of prisoners from the program. This was consistent with the unchanging level of confidence found in German soldiers immediately after their capture in Europe despite steady German defeats. Their nation's complete defeat in the war and subsequent division into two countries were likely much more influential than SPD reeducation in Germans' postwar rejection of Nazism. 8–11,21–22:
Although they expected to go home immediately after the end of the war in 1945, the majority of German prisoners continued working in the United States until 1946—arguably violating the Geneva Convention's requirement of rapid repatriation—then spent up to three more years as laborers in France and the United Kingdom. :ix,xxii,26–27 (see also German prisoners of war in the United Kingdom). As the Geneva Convention no longer applied, and because of the atrocities discovered at concentration camps, prisoners' rations were cut and work loads were increased. Before being sent home they were required to watch documentaries of the camps. (Scholar Arnold Krammer noted that in his years of interviewing prisoners he never met one who admitted to being a Nazi, and most Germans had some knowledge of the camps; however, how much those captured in North Africa knew of the Eastern Front—where most atrocities occurred—is unclear.)
Despite the delay in repatriation, Krammer reported that "I've yet to meet a German prisoner who doesn't tell me that it was the time of their lives." 8 After repatriation about 5,000 Germans emigrated to the United States, and thousands of others returned later to visit :248 such as Rüdiger von Wechmar, who lived in New York City for 14 years as the German Permanent Representative to the United Nations. Funke reported that the visitors did so "as convinced democrats" due to their treatment.Most Germans left the United States with positive feelings about the country where they were held, familiarity with the English language, and often with several hundred dollars in earnings. The funds benefited the postwar German economy on their return. They had benefited from being held by a nation that largely did not hate German soldiers; a November 1943 poll found that 74% of Americans solely blamed the German government, not Germans, for the war. :
The camps in the United States are otherwise what the Associated Press later called an "all but forgotten part of history", even though some former inmates went on to become prominent in postwar Germany. About 860 German POWs remain buried in 43 sites across the United States, with their graves often tended by local German Women's Clubs.Even in the communities which formerly hosted POW camps for Germans, local residents often do not know the camps ever existed. Reunions of camp inmates, their captors and local townspeople such as those held in Maine and Georgia have garnered press coverage and local interest for this unusual and infrequently mentioned aspect of the war on the American home front.
There is at least one recorded attempt by US authorities to extract information from German POWs through torture.The camps for Germans were cited as precedents for various positions or failures of U.S. detainee policy during the debate over detainees at Guantanamo Bay Detention Camp.
A total of 2,222 German POWs escaped from their camps. Most were recaptured within a day.The US government could not account for seven prisoners when they were repatriated. Georg Gärtner, who escaped from a POW camp in Deming, New Mexico on September 21, 1945 to avoid being repatriated to Silesia, occupied by the Soviet Union, remained at large until 1985. After the war, the other few escaped prisoners were recaptured or surrendered. After Kurt Rossmeisl—who had lived in Chicago for 14 years—surrendered, Gärtner was the only remaining escapee who had not been captured. He assumed a new identity as Dennis F. Whiles and lived quietly in California, Colorado, and Hawaii before coming forward in 1985. Although wanted by the United States government for years, Gärtner was granted permission to remain and became a naturalized US citizen in 2009. He lived under his adopted name Dennis Whiles, and wrote a book about his life, Hitler's Last Soldier in America.
A prisoner of war (POW) is a person, whether a combatant or a non-combatant, who is held captive by a belligerent power during or immediately after an armed conflict. The earliest recorded usage of the phrase "prisoner of war" dates back to 1610.
Disarmed Enemy Forces was a US designation for soldiers who surrendered to an adversary after hostilities ended, and for those POWs who had already surrendered and were held in camps in occupied German territory at the time. It was Dwight D. Eisenhower's designation of German prisoners in post-World War II occupied Germany.
A prisoner-of-war camp is a site for the containment of enemy combatants captured by a belligerent power in time of war.
Stalag III-C was a German Army World War II POW camp for Allied soldiers. It was located on a plain near the village of Alt Drewitz bei Küstrin in the Neumark of the state of Brandenburg,, about 50 mi (80 km) east of Berlin.
In Germany, stalag was a term used for prisoner-of-war camps. Stalag is a contraction of "Stammlager", itself short for Kriegsgefangenen-Mannschaftsstammlager.
Camp Albuquerque was an American World War II POW camp in Albuquerque, New Mexico that housed Italian and German prisoners of war. From this branch camp, the POWs did mostly farm labor, from 1943 to 1946. Most of these POWs were transferred from Camp Roswell, which was a base or main POW camp for New Mexico. Camp Lordsburg, New Mexico, and Camp El Paso, Texas, were also base camps.
The Code of the U.S. Fighting Force is a code of conduct that is an ethics guide and a United States Department of Defense directive consisting of six articles to members of the United States Armed Forces, addressing how they should act in combat when they must evade capture, resist while a prisoner or escape from the enemy. It is considered an important part of U.S. military doctrine and tradition, but is not formal military law in the manner of the Uniform Code of Military Justice or public international law, such as the Geneva Conventions.
The Geneva Convention (1929) was signed at Geneva, July 27, 1929. Its official name is the Convention relative to the Treatment of Prisoners of War, Geneva July 27, 1929. It entered into force 19 June 1931. It is this version of the Geneva Conventions which covered the treatment of prisoners of war during World War II. It is the predecessor of the Third Geneva Convention signed in 1949.
An Oflag was a type of prisoner of war camp for officers which the German Army established in World War I in accordance with the requirements of the 1899 Hague Convention, and in World War II in accordance with the requirements of the Geneva Convention (1929).
Camp Bowie is a United States National Guard training center located in west central Texas on the southern outskirts of Brownwood.
Internment of German resident aliens and German-American citizens occurred in the United States during the periods of World War I & World War II. During World War II, the legal basis for this detention was under Presidential Proclamation 2526, made by President Franklin Delano Roosevelt under the authority of the Alien and Sedition Acts.
Camp Fannin was a U.S. Army Infantry Replacement Training Center and prisoner-of-war camp located near Tyler, Texas. It was opened in May 1943 and operated for four years, before closing in 1946. It is credited with training over 200,000 U.S. soldiers, sometimes as many as 40,000 at one given time.
During World War II, Nazi Germany engaged in a policy of deliberate maltreatment of Soviet prisoners of war (POWs), in contrast to their treatment of British and American POWs. This resulted in some 3.3 to 3.5 million deaths.
Tens of thousands of South Korean soldiers were captured by the North Korean and Chinese forces during the Korean War (1950–53) but were not returned during the prisoner exchanges under the 1953 Armistice Agreement. Most are presumed dead, but the South Korean government estimates some 560 South Korean prisoners of war still survive in North Korea. The issue of unaccounted South Korean POWs from the Korean War has been in dispute since the Armistice in 1953. North Korea continues to deny it holds these South Korean POWs. Interest in this issue has been renewed since 1994, when Lt. Cho Chang-ho, a former South Korean soldier presumed to have been killed in the war, escaped from North Korea. As of 2008, 79 former South Korean soldiers have escaped from North Korea.
Camp Barkeley was a large United States Army training installation during World War II. The base was located eleven miles (18 km) southwest of Abilene, Texas near what is now Dyess Air Force Base. The base was named after David B. Barkley, a Medal of Honor recipient during World War I. The camp was 70,229 acres (284.21 km2) in size and had a population of 50,000 at its peak of operation.
During World War II, it has been estimated that between 19,500 and 50,000 members of the Imperial Japanese military surrendered to Western Allied combatants prior to the end of the Pacific War in August 1945. Soviet troops seized and imprisoned more than half a million Japanese troops and civilians in China and other places. The number of Japanese soldiers, sailors, marines, and airmen who surrendered was limited by the Japanese military indoctrinating its personnel to fight to the death, Allied combat personnel often being unwilling to take prisoners, and many Japanese soldiers believing that those who surrendered would be killed by their captors.
Camp Beaver Dam was an American World War II prisoner of war camp in Beaver Dam, Wisconsin during the summer of 1944. The camp held 300 German prisoners of war in a tent city encampment where the Wayland Academy field house now stands.
Der Ruf or The Call was a German language newspaper published in Fort Kearny in Narragansett, Rhode Island during World War II by captured prisoners of war (POWs). It was distributed to about 140 other POW camps in the United States. After returning to Germany, two of the former POWs founded a German newspaper of the same name.
Camp Hearne, located in Hearne, Texas was a prisoner-of-war camp during the Second World War. Commissioned in 1942, Camp Hearne was one of the few camps that housed prisoners from all three Axis powers during the conflict. After its decommissioning and piecemeal sell-off by the United States government, the site remained abandoned for 70 years. Today there stands a single replica of a barracks on the site of the former camp, which contains a museum.
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Members of the German military were interned as prisoners of war in the United States during World War I and World War II. In all, 425,000 German prisoners lived in 700 camps throughout the United States during World War II.
Hostilities ended six months after the United States saw its first action in World War I, and only a relatively small number of German prisoners of war reached the U.S.Many prisoners were German sailors caught in port by U.S. forces far away from the European battlefield. The United States Department of War designated three locations as POW camps during the war: Forts McPherson and Oglethorpe in Georgia and Fort Douglas in Utah. The exact population of German POWs in World War I is difficult to ascertain because they were housed in the same facilities used to detain civilians of German heritage residing in the United States, but there were known to be 406 German POWs at Fort Douglas and 1,373 at Fort McPherson. The prisoners built furniture and worked on local roads. The few dozen who died while incarcerated as POWs were buried at Ft. Douglas, Utah, the Chattanooga National Cemetery, and Fort Lyon, Colorado.
After the United States entered World War II in 1941, the government of the United Kingdom requested American help with housing prisoners of war due to a housing shortage in Britain. 5 although it was not prepared. Its military had only brief experience with a limited POW population in the last world war, and was unprepared for basic logistical considerations such as food, clothing and housing requirements of the prisoners. Almost all German-speaking Americans were engaged overseas directly in combat efforts, and the American government feared the presence of Germans on U.S. soil would create a security problem and raise fear among civilians.The United States agreed to house them, :
Despite many "wild rumors" about how the Allies treated their prisoners, 86 some Germans were pleased to be captured by the British or Americans—fear of being captured by the Soviets was widespread—because they disagreed with Nazism or their nation's conduct of the war. :42–45,148,163 The prisoners were usually shipped in Liberty Ships returning home that would otherwise be empty, :5 with as many as 30,000 arriving per month. While they risked being sunk by their own U-boats on the ocean, good treatment began with the substantial meals served aboard. Upon arriving in America, the comfort of the Pullman cars that carried them to their prison camps amazed the Germans, :32,70 as did the country's large size and undamaged prosperity.:
The Office of the Provost Marshal General (OPMG) supervised 8 the 425,000 German prisoners. They stayed in 700 camps in 46 states; a complete list may not exist because of the small, temporary nature of some camps and the frequent use of satellite or sub-camps administratively part of larger units. Other than barbed wire and watchtowers, the camps resembled standard United States or German military training sites; :33 the Geneva Convention of 1929 required the United States to provide living quarters comparable to those of its own military, which meant 40 square feet (3.71 m²) for enlisted men and 120 square feet (11.15 m²) for officers. :xxii If prisoners had to sleep in tents while their quarters were constructed, so did their guards. The three admirals and forty generals in custody were sent to Camp Shelby in Mississippi, where each had his own bungalow with a garden.:
Government guidelines mandated placing the compounds away from urban, industrial areas for security purposes, in regions with mild climate to minimize construction costs, and at sites where POWs could alleviate anticipated farm labor shortages.
The Geneva Convention's mandate of equal treatment for prisoners also meant they were paid American military wages. 78 They could work on farms or elsewhere only if they were also paid for their labor, and officers could not be compelled to work. As the United States sent millions of soldiers overseas, the resulting shortage of labor eventually meant that German POWs worked toward the Allied war effort by helping out in canneries, mills, farms, and other places deemed a minimal security risk.:
Prisoners could not be used in work directly related to the military or in dangerous conditions. The minimum pay for enlisted soldiers was $0.80 a day, roughly equivalent to the pay of an American private. In 1943 the government estimated that prisoner labor cost 50 to 75% of normal free labor. While language differences and risk of escape or unreliable work were disadvantages, prisoner workers were available immediately on demand and in the exact numbers needed. While prisoners on average worked more slowly and produced less than civilians, their work was also more reliable and of higher quality. 79,82,98 Part of their wages helped pay for the POW program, and the workers could use the rest as pocket money for the camp canteen. They were paid in scrip. All hard currency was confiscated with other personal possessions during initial processing for return after the war as mandated by the Convention, as money could be used during escape attempts. :78 The government received $22 million in 1944 from prisoner wages, and that year it estimated that it had saved $80 million by using prisoners in military installations. :6:
Newspaper coverage of the camps and public knowledge were intentionally limited until the end of the war, in part to comply with the Geneva Convention and in part to avoid the fear of an enemy presence in such large numbers. 98–101 Given the wartime labor shortage however, especially in agriculture, many valued their contribution; as late as February 1945, politicians in rural states asked the government for 100,000 more prisoners to work on farms. :6While most citizens living near camps accepted the prisoners' presence, the government received hundreds of letters each week protesting their treatment. Many demanded that the POWs be immediately killed, a sentiment the regular casualty lists in American newspapers encouraged. The government had difficulty in persuading the public that treating the prisoners according to the Geneva Convention made it more likely that Germany would treat American prisoners well. Labor unions were the largest opposition to the use of the prisoner workers, citing the War Manpower Commission's rules that required union participation in worker recruitment whenever possible. :
Twice each month each prisoner of war camp was required to fill out WD AGO Form 19-21 and mail it to the Office of the Provost Marshal General, Washington 25, D.C., Attention: Prisoner of War Operations Division.
The report included the camp's name and address, the nationality of the prisoners, the total number of prisoners broken down by the number of officers, NCO's and privates, and the number of man-days worked by project in that camp during the reporting period. Sometimes additional remarks were included on the back of the form. For example, the additional remarks from Dos Palos POW Branch Camp for the period ending 12 February 1946 stated "1692 [German POWs] waiting for Repatriation CAMP CLOSED 12 February 1946."
There were insufficient American guards, especially German speakers. They mostly supervised the German officers and NCOs who strictly maintained discipline. 33–34 The Germans woke their own men, marched them to and from meals, and prepared them for work; their routine successfully recreated the feel of military discipline for prisoners. :34 Prisoners had friendly interaction with local civilians and sometimes were allowed outside the camps without guards on the honor system :104,223 (Black American guards noted that German prisoners could visit restaurants that they could not because of Jim Crow laws. :52–53), luxuries such as beer and wine were sometimes available, and hobbies or sports were encouraged. Alex Funke, a former POW at Camp Algona, wrote: "We all were positively impressed" by the U.S. and that "We all had been won over to friendly relations with" the U.S. Indeed, unauthorized fraternization between American women and German prisoners was sometimes a problem. Several camps held social receptions with local American girls, and some Germans met their future wives as prisoners. :25–26:
|“||When I was captured I weighed 128 pounds. After two years as an American POW weighed 185. I had gotten so fat you could no longer see my eyes.||”|
|— A German prisoner of war :208|
Many prisoners found that their living conditions as prisoners were better than as civilians in cold-water flats in Germany.The prisoners were provided with writing materials, art supplies, woodworking utensils, and musical instruments, and were allowed regular correspondence with family in Germany. General officers received wine with their meals, and all prisoners ate the same rations as American soldiers as required by the Geneva Convention, including special meals for Thanksgiving and Christmas Day, Unable to eat all their food, prisoners at first burned leftover food fearing that their rations would be reduced.
Groups of prisoners pooled their daily beer coupons to take turns drinking several at a time. They also received two packs of cigarettes a day and frequently meat, both rationed for American civilians. 57 pounds (26 kg) in two years as a prisoner. :59,208 Despite complaints to International Red Cross inspectors about the alleged inferiority of American white bread and coffee, prisoners recognized that they were treated better in the United States than anywhere else.(Cigarettes were sold in the prisoner canteen for less than outside the camp, so guards were sometimes amenable to being bribed with them.) One German later recalled that he gained
Funke stated that "Nobody could become bored [as a prisoner]." 110 The cinema served as an important reeducation and propaganda tool as well as entertainment, with Hollywood anti-Nazi films, cartoons such as "Herr Meets Hare", and the Why We Fight series used; American World War II films shown mostly dealt with the Pacific War. Near the end of the war approved German films from a list exchanged through the Red Cross became available. :110 After the liberation of the Nazi concentration camps, films of the atrocities of the Holocaust were shown to the prisoners, which engendered shock, anger, and disbelief; amazed and disbelieving prisoners nicknamed them knochen films ("films of bones"). After compulsory viewing of an atrocity film, 1,000 prisoners at Camp Butner dramatically burned their German uniforms. :119 Prisoners at other camps called on Germany to surrender. In an idea seriously considered but ultimately rejected by American military officials, a few prisoners even volunteered to fight in the war against Japan.Prisoners held frequent theatrical and musical performances attended by hundreds or thousands, including American guards and Red Cross inspectors. Movies were shown as often as four nights a week; if the camp did not have a projector, prisoners often pooled their savings to purchase one. :
Camps built libraries to organize their reading material and prisoners often purchased their own, but they never had enough reading material, with an average of one half book per prisoner. The YMCA printed thousands of copies of books for the camps, and even provided bookbinding material so camps could repair them due to frequent use. 113 Camps had subscriptions to American newspapers, and every camp published its own newspaper with poetry and short stories, puzzles and games, listings of upcoming events, and classified ads. Camp authorities recognized the periodicals' value in serving as creative outlets and as accurate indicators of the prisoners' views. The tone of their articles varied; some promoted Nazi ideology and foresaw German victory. :110–111 Even as Germany's defeat neared in early 1945, eight of 20 camp newspapers advocated Nazi ideology. :22:
Many future German CEOs benefited from education they received as prisoners in the United States. 150 taught classes on their areas of expertise including German, English and other foreign languages, business, and mathematics. The systematically taught courses were so successful that in May 1944 the German Ministry of Education and the OKW sent through the Red Cross detailed procedures for students to receive credit at German high schools and universities. Some prisoners took correspondence classes through local universities, and German universities also accepted their credits after returning home.Educated prisoners such as future German cabinet member Walter Hallstein :
Relying on Germans to discipline themselves, while efficient, also permitted committed groups of Nazi prisoners to exist despite American attempts to identify and separate them. 150–151 led work stoppages, intimidated other prisoners, and held secret kangaroo court for those accused of disloyalty. Those convicted were sometimes attacked or killed in a process known as the "Holy Ghost"; most prisoner "suicides" were likely murders. While the American government executed 14 Germans after the war for murdering other prisoners in three incidents, hundreds of such murders may have occurred. :158–159 Many devoted Nazis remained loyal to their political beliefs and expected a German victory until the Allies crossed the Rhine in March 1945; their faith amazed prisoners captured during and after the Battle of Normandy, who had more realistic views of the likely outcome of the war. In turn, the earlier prisoners often viewed the others with contempt, calling them "traitors" and "deserters". Fear of secret punishment by such men caused one prisoner to later state that "there was more political freedom in the German army than in an American prison camp." He and other anti-Nazis were sent to Camp Ruston in Louisiana to protect them, :xx,27,114–115,151,153,157,161,167–168 while an Oklahoma camp received Waffen-SS and violent prisoners.Often members of the Afrika Korps who had been captured early in the war during Germany's greatest military successes :
Prisoners regardless of ideology often taunted their captors, such as saluting with Sieg Heils when forced to attend the lowering of the United States flag. They secretly celebrated Hitler's birthday and other Nazi holidays after the Americans banned them, and many became upset when Jewish American officers supervised them. 48–49 :34–37 Less than 1% of all prisoners of war in America attempted to escape, however—about half the rate of Italian prisoners :7 and less than the rate in the civilian prison system — and most were unsuccessful. The likelihood of an escapee returning to their forces overseas was very remote; the wish to avoid boredom was the reason most often given by those who attempted to escape, :132,152 often hoping to reach Argentina. Prisoners who died during escape attempts usually received military funerals with US government-provided Nazi flags.:
On December 23, 1944, 25 German POWs broke out of Camp Papago Park in Arizona 178-foot (54 m) tunnel. By January the escapees were caught, in part because a river they intended to cross by raft turned out to be a dry river bed.by crawling along a
The OPMG began a formal reeducation program for German prisoners in fall 1943. Named the Special Projects Division (SPD) and directed by a group of university professors, the program published der Ruf (The Call), a prison newspaper edited by sympathetic POWs, and distributed books banned in Nazi Germany. The effort was kept secret because it probably violated the Geneva Convention's ban on exposing prisoners to propaganda, the possibility of German retaliation with American prisoners, and the expectation that prisoners would reject overt reeducation. After V-E Day, SPD began a series of rapid classes on democracy for some of the most cooperative prisoners. The 25,000 graduates of these classes returned directly to Germany, instead of being used for additional labor in Europe. 8–10,22 :169–170:
SPD's efforts were unsuccessful. Many in the OPMG opposed the program, in part because they believed that changing most adults' basic philosophies and values was impossible and, if successful, might cause them to choose Communism as an alternative. The American professors were almost entirely ignorant of German language or culture, as well as military and prison life. The reading material they prepared was overly intellectual and did not appeal to most prisoners, and der Ruf was unpopular as it was essentially a literary journal with little current news. Surveys of camp prisoners found no change in the views of the vast majority of prisoners from the program. This was consistent with the unchanging level of confidence found in German soldiers immediately after their capture in Europe despite steady German defeats. Their nation's complete defeat in the war and subsequent division into two countries were likely much more influential than SPD reeducation in Germans' postwar rejection of Nazism. 8–11,21–22:
Although they expected to go home immediately after the end of the war in 1945, the majority of German prisoners continued working in the United States until 1946—arguably violating the Geneva Convention's requirement of rapid repatriation—then spent up to three more years as laborers in France and the United Kingdom. :ix,xxii,26–27 (see also German prisoners of war in the United Kingdom). As the Geneva Convention no longer applied, and because of the atrocities discovered at concentration camps, prisoners' rations were cut and work loads were increased. Before being sent home they were required to watch documentaries of the camps. (Scholar Arnold Krammer noted that in his years of interviewing prisoners he never met one who admitted to being a Nazi, and most Germans had some knowledge of the camps; however, how much those captured in North Africa knew of the Eastern Front—where most atrocities occurred—is unclear.)
Despite the delay in repatriation, Krammer reported that "I've yet to meet a German prisoner who doesn't tell me that it was the time of their lives." 8 After repatriation about 5,000 Germans emigrated to the United States, and thousands of others returned later to visit :248 such as Rüdiger von Wechmar, who lived in New York City for 14 years as the German Permanent Representative to the United Nations. Funke reported that the visitors did so "as convinced democrats" due to their treatment.Most Germans left the United States with positive feelings about the country where they were held, familiarity with the English language, and often with several hundred dollars in earnings. The funds benefited the postwar German economy on their return. They had benefited from being held by a nation that largely did not hate German soldiers; a November 1943 poll found that 74% of Americans solely blamed the German government, not Germans, for the war. :
The camps in the United States are otherwise what the Associated Press later called an "all but forgotten part of history", even though some former inmates went on to become prominent in postwar Germany. About 860 German POWs remain buried in 43 sites across the United States, with their graves often tended by local German Women's Clubs.Even in the communities which formerly hosted POW camps for Germans, local residents often do not know the camps ever existed. Reunions of camp inmates, their captors and local townspeople such as those held in Maine and Georgia have garnered press coverage and local interest for this unusual and infrequently mentioned aspect of the war on the American home front.
There is at least one recorded attempt by US authorities to extract information from German POWs through torture.The camps for Germans were cited as precedents for various positions or failures of U.S. detainee policy during the debate over detainees at Guantanamo Bay Detention Camp.
A total of 2,222 German POWs escaped from their camps. Most were recaptured within a day.The US government could not account for seven prisoners when they were repatriated. Georg Gärtner, who escaped from a POW camp in Deming, New Mexico on September 21, 1945 to avoid being repatriated to Silesia, occupied by the Soviet Union, remained at large until 1985. After the war, the other few escaped prisoners were recaptured or surrendered. After Kurt Rossmeisl—who had lived in Chicago for 14 years—surrendered, Gärtner was the only remaining escapee who had not been captured. He assumed a new identity as Dennis F. Whiles and lived quietly in California, Colorado, and Hawaii before coming forward in 1985. Although wanted by the United States government for years, Gärtner was granted permission to remain and became a naturalized US citizen in 2009. He lived under his adopted name Dennis Whiles, and wrote a book about his life, Hitler's Last Soldier in America.
A prisoner of war (POW) is a person, whether a combatant or a non-combatant, who is held captive by a belligerent power during or immediately after an armed conflict. The earliest recorded usage of the phrase "prisoner of war" dates back to 1610.
Disarmed Enemy Forces was a US designation for soldiers who surrendered to an adversary after hostilities ended, and for those POWs who had already surrendered and were held in camps in occupied German territory at the time. It was Dwight D. Eisenhower's designation of German prisoners in post-World War II occupied Germany.
A prisoner-of-war camp is a site for the containment of enemy combatants captured by a belligerent power in time of war.
Stalag III-C was a German Army World War II POW camp for Allied soldiers. It was located on a plain near the village of Alt Drewitz bei Küstrin in the Neumark of the state of Brandenburg,, about 50 mi (80 km) east of Berlin.
In Germany, stalag was a term used for prisoner-of-war camps. Stalag is a contraction of "Stammlager", itself short for Kriegsgefangenen-Mannschaftsstammlager.
Camp Albuquerque was an American World War II POW camp in Albuquerque, New Mexico that housed Italian and German prisoners of war. From this branch camp, the POWs did mostly farm labor, from 1943 to 1946. Most of these POWs were transferred from Camp Roswell, which was a base or main POW camp for New Mexico. Camp Lordsburg, New Mexico, and Camp El Paso, Texas, were also base camps.
The Code of the U.S. Fighting Force is a code of conduct that is an ethics guide and a United States Department of Defense directive consisting of six articles to members of the United States Armed Forces, addressing how they should act in combat when they must evade capture, resist while a prisoner or escape from the enemy. It is considered an important part of U.S. military doctrine and tradition, but is not formal military law in the manner of the Uniform Code of Military Justice or public international law, such as the Geneva Conventions.
The Geneva Convention (1929) was signed at Geneva, July 27, 1929. Its official name is the Convention relative to the Treatment of Prisoners of War, Geneva July 27, 1929. It entered into force 19 June 1931. It is this version of the Geneva Conventions which covered the treatment of prisoners of war during World War II. It is the predecessor of the Third Geneva Convention signed in 1949.
An Oflag was a type of prisoner of war camp for officers which the German Army established in World War I in accordance with the requirements of the 1899 Hague Convention, and in World War II in accordance with the requirements of the Geneva Convention (1929).
Camp Bowie is a United States National Guard training center located in west central Texas on the southern outskirts of Brownwood.
Internment of German resident aliens and German-American citizens occurred in the United States during the periods of World War I & World War II. During World War II, the legal basis for this detention was under Presidential Proclamation 2526, made by President Franklin Delano Roosevelt under the authority of the Alien and Sedition Acts.
Camp Fannin was a U.S. Army Infantry Replacement Training Center and prisoner-of-war camp located near Tyler, Texas. It was opened in May 1943 and operated for four years, before closing in 1946. It is credited with training over 200,000 U.S. soldiers, sometimes as many as 40,000 at one given time.
During World War II, Nazi Germany engaged in a policy of deliberate maltreatment of Soviet prisoners of war (POWs), in contrast to their treatment of British and American POWs. This resulted in some 3.3 to 3.5 million deaths.
Tens of thousands of South Korean soldiers were captured by the North Korean and Chinese forces during the Korean War (1950–53) but were not returned during the prisoner exchanges under the 1953 Armistice Agreement. Most are presumed dead, but the South Korean government estimates some 560 South Korean prisoners of war still survive in North Korea. The issue of unaccounted South Korean POWs from the Korean War has been in dispute since the Armistice in 1953. North Korea continues to deny it holds these South Korean POWs. Interest in this issue has been renewed since 1994, when Lt. Cho Chang-ho, a former South Korean soldier presumed to have been killed in the war, escaped from North Korea. As of 2008, 79 former South Korean soldiers have escaped from North Korea.
Camp Barkeley was a large United States Army training installation during World War II. The base was located eleven miles (18 km) southwest of Abilene, Texas near what is now Dyess Air Force Base. The base was named after David B. Barkley, a Medal of Honor recipient during World War I. The camp was 70,229 acres (284.21 km2) in size and had a population of 50,000 at its peak of operation.
During World War II, it has been estimated that between 19,500 and 50,000 members of the Imperial Japanese military surrendered to Western Allied combatants prior to the end of the Pacific War in August 1945. Soviet troops seized and imprisoned more than half a million Japanese troops and civilians in China and other places. The number of Japanese soldiers, sailors, marines, and airmen who surrendered was limited by the Japanese military indoctrinating its personnel to fight to the death, Allied combat personnel often being unwilling to take prisoners, and many Japanese soldiers believing that those who surrendered would be killed by their captors.
Camp Beaver Dam was an American World War II prisoner of war camp in Beaver Dam, Wisconsin during the summer of 1944. The camp held 300 German prisoners of war in a tent city encampment where the Wayland Academy field house now stands.
Der Ruf or The Call was a German language newspaper published in Fort Kearny in Narragansett, Rhode Island during World War II by captured prisoners of war (POWs). It was distributed to about 140 other POW camps in the United States. After returning to Germany, two of the former POWs founded a German newspaper of the same name.
Camp Hearne, located in Hearne, Texas was a prisoner-of-war camp during the Second World War. Commissioned in 1942, Camp Hearne was one of the few camps that housed prisoners from all three Axis powers during the conflict. After its decommissioning and piecemeal sell-off by the United States government, the site remained abandoned for 70 years. Today there stands a single replica of a barracks on the site of the former camp, which contains a museum.
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In May of 1944, thirteen African-American men in North Chicago would rise in the face of segregation and discrimination and forever shape the future of the U.S. Navy.
During World War I, the Armed Forces was entirely segregated, leaving fighting for the United States less than united. While black Americans were allowed to register for the draft, the vast majority ended up in labor roles and menial tasks, such as road-building. By the second World War, not much had changed. Now most blacks served in the Messmen and Steward branches, fulfilling essential, yet entry-level jobs. Additionally, these branches were not allowed to become commissioned officers, ending career dreams for any black American Sailor. While there were exceptions to the rule, most black Americans found themselves losing their full potential.
In June of 1941, that began to change. President Franklin Roosevelt signed order 8802, which prevented racial discrimination in any capacity in any government agency. From then on, changes started to occur. In 1943, the Navy began to commission black officers, launching an accelerated training program to assist in the process, and Chicago was the place to start. They hand-selected sixteen African-American men training at the Great Lakes Naval Training Station near North Chicago, and the Golden Thirteen began to take shape.
Most of the sixteen men were Chicago natives themselves, and eager to begin training. Many of them had been to college and several of them carried advanced degrees. Some were athletes, some were teachers, but they all had exemplary service records. They worked diligently through the program, deciding early on to work with, not against, each other.
We were determined to succeed in spite of the burdens that would be placed on us.
Samuel Barnes later said of the critical choices being made, “We decided not to compete with other members of the group, so we had many study sessions together. We were determined to succeed in spite of the burdens that would be placed on us. We knew that we were the foot in the door for many other Black Sailors, and we were determined not to be the ones who were responsible for having the foot removed.”
They were so determined, in fact, that they had a class GPA of 3.89 upon graduation, still the record for any class of officers at the Station. All sixteen men passed training, and thirteen were commissioned at Great Lakes in March 1944.
Creating a legacy
Together, John Walter Reagan, Jesse Walter Arbor, Samuel David Jones, Darion Damon Ivy III, Graham Edward Martin, Phillip George Barnes, Reginald Goodwin, James Edward Hair, Samuel Edward Barnes, George Clinton Cooper, William Sylvester White, Dennis Denmark Nelson, and Charles Byrd Lear became commissioned Ensigns and Officers and the group was officially born.
During their careers, they worked quietly within the Navy, overseeing all-black units or training black recruits. One of them would go on to make his career in the Navy after the war, but the rest would return to civilian life. Together, they began to see the results of their achievements, most notably when President Harry S. Truman officially desegregated the military in 1948. Later in life, they would be recognized time and time again for their efforts in paving the way for future black Americans in the Navy. In the 1970s, Captain Edward Secrest gave them the name “Golden Thirteen”, helping to cement their legacy in Naval and American history.
Today, though the last surviving member has long since passed, their name lives on. Now when new cadets arrive for basic training at the Great Lakes Center, they meet in the “Golden Thirteen” Recruit Inprocessing Center, a building dedicated to all thirteen men. And in North Chicago, a WWII memorial honors the Golden Thirteen and their impact on the war. But perhaps their greatest achievement was simply doing what no one else had done, and in doing so, forever altering the course of history in the U.S. Navy and inspiring generations to come.
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In May of 1944, thirteen African-American men in North Chicago would rise in the face of segregation and discrimination and forever shape the future of the U.S. Navy.
During World War I, the Armed Forces was entirely segregated, leaving fighting for the United States less than united. While black Americans were allowed to register for the draft, the vast majority ended up in labor roles and menial tasks, such as road-building. By the second World War, not much had changed. Now most blacks served in the Messmen and Steward branches, fulfilling essential, yet entry-level jobs. Additionally, these branches were not allowed to become commissioned officers, ending career dreams for any black American Sailor. While there were exceptions to the rule, most black Americans found themselves losing their full potential.
In June of 1941, that began to change. President Franklin Roosevelt signed order 8802, which prevented racial discrimination in any capacity in any government agency. From then on, changes started to occur. In 1943, the Navy began to commission black officers, launching an accelerated training program to assist in the process, and Chicago was the place to start. They hand-selected sixteen African-American men training at the Great Lakes Naval Training Station near North Chicago, and the Golden Thirteen began to take shape.
Most of the sixteen men were Chicago natives themselves, and eager to begin training. Many of them had been to college and several of them carried advanced degrees. Some were athletes, some were teachers, but they all had exemplary service records. They worked diligently through the program, deciding early on to work with, not against, each other.
We were determined to succeed in spite of the burdens that would be placed on us.
Samuel Barnes later said of the critical choices being made, “We decided not to compete with other members of the group, so we had many study sessions together. We were determined to succeed in spite of the burdens that would be placed on us. We knew that we were the foot in the door for many other Black Sailors, and we were determined not to be the ones who were responsible for having the foot removed.”
They were so determined, in fact, that they had a class GPA of 3.89 upon graduation, still the record for any class of officers at the Station. All sixteen men passed training, and thirteen were commissioned at Great Lakes in March 1944.
Creating a legacy
Together, John Walter Reagan, Jesse Walter Arbor, Samuel David Jones, Darion Damon Ivy III, Graham Edward Martin, Phillip George Barnes, Reginald Goodwin, James Edward Hair, Samuel Edward Barnes, George Clinton Cooper, William Sylvester White, Dennis Denmark Nelson, and Charles Byrd Lear became commissioned Ensigns and Officers and the group was officially born.
During their careers, they worked quietly within the Navy, overseeing all-black units or training black recruits. One of them would go on to make his career in the Navy after the war, but the rest would return to civilian life. Together, they began to see the results of their achievements, most notably when President Harry S. Truman officially desegregated the military in 1948. Later in life, they would be recognized time and time again for their efforts in paving the way for future black Americans in the Navy. In the 1970s, Captain Edward Secrest gave them the name “Golden Thirteen”, helping to cement their legacy in Naval and American history.
Today, though the last surviving member has long since passed, their name lives on. Now when new cadets arrive for basic training at the Great Lakes Center, they meet in the “Golden Thirteen” Recruit Inprocessing Center, a building dedicated to all thirteen men. And in North Chicago, a WWII memorial honors the Golden Thirteen and their impact on the war. But perhaps their greatest achievement was simply doing what no one else had done, and in doing so, forever altering the course of history in the U.S. Navy and inspiring generations to come.
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Othello study questions characters and essays sparknotes essay
Iago wears his lack of morals as a badge of honor where it is Othello's moral code that leads to his tragic end. This essay will explore the complex character of "honest Iago.
Iago's importance to the play is revealed by his contribution to the plot and his significance relative to other characters. Iago first reveals his cunning and unscrupulous behavior in his encounter with Rodrigo.
But is this enough for him to "hate the Moor"?
Being gullible, Roderigo has given Iago his purse. Perhaps the most pernicious form of race as an instrument of division is Othello's own view of himself as an outsider, which makes him more susceptible to Iago's plan. He presents Othello fake evidence time and time again until he is convinced. It is only when the events are looked at as a whole that the actual theme is obtained. His pride blinds him to his weaknesses, and he puts his faith in Iago over the word of his love, Desdemona. On one face Iago is a trustworthy friend who is attempting to set up Roderigo with the love of his life. It is a quiet moment, but a hugely significant one. Though the victim of Iago's trickery, Othello is still the author of his own demise. While Othello is barraged by racism, he manages to resist its pull for some time. Othello is spurred on by lies and misrepresentations, but he brings about his own undoing. Wright and Virginia A. At the end of Othello, Desdemona seems to be the most passive kind of victim.
It is clear that he is jealous of Othello's ascension in the court and successful wooing of Desdemona. In Othello this is not the case. In the play Othello, the simple ancient, Iago is very successful at his schemes. Iago is able to engineer Othello's downfall in part because of Othello's own insecurities.
It is illustrative of Iago's duplicitous nature that he tends to speak in verse when he is with Othello and in prose for his soliloquies. Iago and Angelo are true hypocrites.
Research topics related to othello
There is a direct contrast between black and white in this play, with black meaning something negative and evil and white meaning pure and fairness. But before her murder, Desdemona is remarkable for showing more passivity when her husband is not around and more assertiveness when he is. He is the character of Iago, and he wreaks havoc and destruction on all those under his influence. I do hate [the Moor] as I do Hell pains. Even though he is a high ranking military official, he is less respected because of his dark skin and being a foreigner. How does her character change when she is not with Othello? He is living a dual life of lies. The first impression formed of Iago comes from what Roderigo says. He interacts with people only to manipulate them, but most importantly he never reveals his true feelings or motives. In "Othello," Iago fits this definition perfectly though Othello does not recognize that Iago is his enemy until the end of the story. Desdemona is representative of the good in nature. Iago finally gets his revenge. Iago's reasons for why he hates Othello is because he believes that Othello made love to his wife, and Iago is mad that Cassio was chosen to be Lieutenant instead of himself. Iago played mind games on everyone without them even knowing. Othello is so angered that he murders his own wife, who has done nothing wrong.
He spends his life, it would seem, taking revenge on the general and destroying nearly everyone around himself.
based on 109 review
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Othello study questions characters and essays sparknotes essay
Iago wears his lack of morals as a badge of honor where it is Othello's moral code that leads to his tragic end. This essay will explore the complex character of "honest Iago.
Iago's importance to the play is revealed by his contribution to the plot and his significance relative to other characters. Iago first reveals his cunning and unscrupulous behavior in his encounter with Rodrigo.
But is this enough for him to "hate the Moor"?
Being gullible, Roderigo has given Iago his purse. Perhaps the most pernicious form of race as an instrument of division is Othello's own view of himself as an outsider, which makes him more susceptible to Iago's plan. He presents Othello fake evidence time and time again until he is convinced. It is only when the events are looked at as a whole that the actual theme is obtained. His pride blinds him to his weaknesses, and he puts his faith in Iago over the word of his love, Desdemona. On one face Iago is a trustworthy friend who is attempting to set up Roderigo with the love of his life. It is a quiet moment, but a hugely significant one. Though the victim of Iago's trickery, Othello is still the author of his own demise. While Othello is barraged by racism, he manages to resist its pull for some time. Othello is spurred on by lies and misrepresentations, but he brings about his own undoing. Wright and Virginia A. At the end of Othello, Desdemona seems to be the most passive kind of victim.
It is clear that he is jealous of Othello's ascension in the court and successful wooing of Desdemona. In Othello this is not the case. In the play Othello, the simple ancient, Iago is very successful at his schemes. Iago is able to engineer Othello's downfall in part because of Othello's own insecurities.
It is illustrative of Iago's duplicitous nature that he tends to speak in verse when he is with Othello and in prose for his soliloquies. Iago and Angelo are true hypocrites.
Research topics related to othello
There is a direct contrast between black and white in this play, with black meaning something negative and evil and white meaning pure and fairness. But before her murder, Desdemona is remarkable for showing more passivity when her husband is not around and more assertiveness when he is. He is the character of Iago, and he wreaks havoc and destruction on all those under his influence. I do hate [the Moor] as I do Hell pains. Even though he is a high ranking military official, he is less respected because of his dark skin and being a foreigner. How does her character change when she is not with Othello? He is living a dual life of lies. The first impression formed of Iago comes from what Roderigo says. He interacts with people only to manipulate them, but most importantly he never reveals his true feelings or motives. In "Othello," Iago fits this definition perfectly though Othello does not recognize that Iago is his enemy until the end of the story. Desdemona is representative of the good in nature. Iago finally gets his revenge. Iago's reasons for why he hates Othello is because he believes that Othello made love to his wife, and Iago is mad that Cassio was chosen to be Lieutenant instead of himself. Iago played mind games on everyone without them even knowing. Othello is so angered that he murders his own wife, who has done nothing wrong.
He spends his life, it would seem, taking revenge on the general and destroying nearly everyone around himself.
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At its height, a period extending from the middle of the 16th century to the beginning of the 18th, the Mughal Empire controlled almost the entire Indian subcontinent, marshaling vast amounts of money and manpower. The best-known members of the Mughal dynasty are its first emperors—Babur and five of his lineal descendants: Humayun, Akbar, Jahangir, Shah Jahan, and Aurangzeb. These six emperors are sometimes collectively known as the Great Mughals, and the military, artistic, and political glories of the empire are inextricably connected to their individual biographies.
Zahir al-Din Muhammad (throne name Babur) was a fifth-generation descendant of the Turkic conqueror Timur, whose empire, built in the late 14th century, covered much of Central Asia and Iran. Born in 1483 at the twilight of that empire, Babur faced a harsh reality: there were too many Timurid princes and not enough principalities to go around. The result was a constant churning of wars and political intrigue as rivals sought to unseat each other and expand their territories. Babur spent much of his youth fixated on trying to capture and hold Samarkand, the former capital of the Timurid empire. He occupied it in 1497, lost it, and then took it again in 1501. His second triumph was brief—in 1501 he was resoundingly defeated in battle by Muhammad Shaybani Khan, losing the coveted city along with his native principality of Fergana. After one final futile attempt to retake Samarkand in 1511, he gave up on his lifelong goal.
But there are second acts in Timurid life. From Kabul, which he had occupied in 1504, Babur turned his attention toward India, launching raids into the Punjab region beginning in 1519. In 1526 Babur’s army defeated a much larger force belonging to the Lodi Sultanate of Delhi at the Battle of Panipat and marched on to occupy Delhi. By the time of Babur’s death in 1530, he controlled all of northern India from the Indus to Bengal. The geographical framework for the Mughal Empire was set, although it still lacked the administrative structures to be governed as a single state.
Babur is also remembered for his autobiography, the Baburnamah, which gives a cultured and witty account of his adventures and the fluctuations of his fortunes, with observations on nature, society, and politics in the places he visited.
Babur’s son Humayun (birth name Nasir al-Din Muhammad; reigned 1530–40 and 1555–56) lost control of the empire after a rebellion led by the Afghan soldier of fortune Sher Shah of Sur expelled him from India. Fifteen years later, Humayun took advantage of discord among Sher Shah’s successors to recapture Lahore, Delhi, and Agra. But he wasn’t around long to enjoy his restored empire; he died in a fall down the steps of his library in 1556 that may have been caused by his excessive drinking. He was succeeded by his son Akbar.
Humayun’s son Akbar (reigned 1556–1605) is often remembered as the greatest of all Mughal emperors. When Akbar came to the throne, he inherited a shrunken empire, not extending much beyond the Punjab and the area around Delhi. He embarked on a series of military campaigns to extend his boundaries, and some of his toughest opponents were the Rajputs, fierce warriors who controlled Rajputna (now Rajasthan). The Rajputs’ main weakness was that they were divided by fierce rivalries with each other. This made it possible for Akbar to deal with Rajput chiefs individually instead of confronting them as a united force. In 1568 he captured the fortress of Chitor (now Chittaurgarh), and his remaining Rajput opponents soon capitulated.
Akbar’s policy was to enlist his defeated opponents as allies by allowing them to retain their privileges and continue governing if they acknowledged him as emperor. This approach, combined with Akbar’s tolerant attitudes toward non-Muslim peoples, ensured a high degree of harmony in the empire, in spite of the great diversity of its peoples and religions. Akbar is also credited with developing the administrative structures that would shape the empire’s ruling elite for generations. Along with his skill at military conquest, Akbar proved to be a thoughtful and open-minded leader; he encouraged interreligious dialogue, and—despite being illiterate himself—patronized literature and the arts.
Jahangir (birth name Salim), the son of Akbar, was so eager to take power that he staged a brief revolt in 1599, proclaiming his independence while his father was still on the throne. Two years later he went so far as to arrange for the assassination of his father’s closest friend and adviser, Abu al-Fazl. These events disturbed Akbar, but the pool of possible successors was small, with two of Jahangir’s younger brothers having drunk themselves to death, so Akbar formally designated Jahangir as his successor before his death in 1605. Jahangir inherited an empire that was stable and wealthy, leaving him to focus his attention on other activities. His patronage of the arts was unprecedented, and his palace workshops produced some of the finest miniature paintings in the Mughal tradition. He also consumed excessive amounts of alcohol and opium, at one point employing a special servant just to manage his supply of intoxicating drugs.
Like his father Jahangir, Shah Jahan (birth name Shihab al-Din Muhammad Khurram) inherited an empire that was relatively stable and prosperous. He had some success in extending the Mughal Empire into the Deccan states (the states of the Indian peninsula), but he is known today primarily as a builder. He commissioned his most famous creation, the Taj Mahal, in 1632 after his third wife, Mumtaz Mahal, died while giving birth to the couple’s 14th child. The massive mausoleum complex took more than 20 years to complete and today is one of the best-known buildings on earth.
Mughal family politics remained tricky as always during Shah Jahan’s reign. In 1657 Shah Jahan fell ill, igniting a war of succession among his sons. His son Aurangzeb won, declaring himself emperor in 1658 and keeping his father confined until his death in 1666.
A skilled military leader and administrator, Aurangzeb was a serious-minded ruler who avoided the decadence and substance-abuse issues that had plagued several of his predecessors. He presided over the Mughal Empire at its widest geographical extent, pushing the southern border down the Deccan peninsula all the way to Tanjore. But his reign also saw the beginnings of the empire’s decline. As a more strictly orthodox Muslim than his predecessors, he ended many of the policies of religious tolerance that had made pluralism and social harmony possible.
As his reign progressed, events within the empire became increasingly chaotic. Religious tensions and heavy taxes on agriculture led to rebellions. Aurangzeb suppressed most of these uprisings, but doing so strained the military and financial resources of the imperial government. When Aurangzeb died in 1707, the empire was still intact, but the tensions that emerged during his nearly five-decade reign plagued his successors and caused the gradual breakup of the empire over the course of the 18th century.
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At its height, a period extending from the middle of the 16th century to the beginning of the 18th, the Mughal Empire controlled almost the entire Indian subcontinent, marshaling vast amounts of money and manpower. The best-known members of the Mughal dynasty are its first emperors—Babur and five of his lineal descendants: Humayun, Akbar, Jahangir, Shah Jahan, and Aurangzeb. These six emperors are sometimes collectively known as the Great Mughals, and the military, artistic, and political glories of the empire are inextricably connected to their individual biographies.
Zahir al-Din Muhammad (throne name Babur) was a fifth-generation descendant of the Turkic conqueror Timur, whose empire, built in the late 14th century, covered much of Central Asia and Iran. Born in 1483 at the twilight of that empire, Babur faced a harsh reality: there were too many Timurid princes and not enough principalities to go around. The result was a constant churning of wars and political intrigue as rivals sought to unseat each other and expand their territories. Babur spent much of his youth fixated on trying to capture and hold Samarkand, the former capital of the Timurid empire. He occupied it in 1497, lost it, and then took it again in 1501. His second triumph was brief—in 1501 he was resoundingly defeated in battle by Muhammad Shaybani Khan, losing the coveted city along with his native principality of Fergana. After one final futile attempt to retake Samarkand in 1511, he gave up on his lifelong goal.
But there are second acts in Timurid life. From Kabul, which he had occupied in 1504, Babur turned his attention toward India, launching raids into the Punjab region beginning in 1519. In 1526 Babur’s army defeated a much larger force belonging to the Lodi Sultanate of Delhi at the Battle of Panipat and marched on to occupy Delhi. By the time of Babur’s death in 1530, he controlled all of northern India from the Indus to Bengal. The geographical framework for the Mughal Empire was set, although it still lacked the administrative structures to be governed as a single state.
Babur is also remembered for his autobiography, the Baburnamah, which gives a cultured and witty account of his adventures and the fluctuations of his fortunes, with observations on nature, society, and politics in the places he visited.
Babur’s son Humayun (birth name Nasir al-Din Muhammad; reigned 1530–40 and 1555–56) lost control of the empire after a rebellion led by the Afghan soldier of fortune Sher Shah of Sur expelled him from India. Fifteen years later, Humayun took advantage of discord among Sher Shah’s successors to recapture Lahore, Delhi, and Agra. But he wasn’t around long to enjoy his restored empire; he died in a fall down the steps of his library in 1556 that may have been caused by his excessive drinking. He was succeeded by his son Akbar.
Humayun’s son Akbar (reigned 1556–1605) is often remembered as the greatest of all Mughal emperors. When Akbar came to the throne, he inherited a shrunken empire, not extending much beyond the Punjab and the area around Delhi. He embarked on a series of military campaigns to extend his boundaries, and some of his toughest opponents were the Rajputs, fierce warriors who controlled Rajputna (now Rajasthan). The Rajputs’ main weakness was that they were divided by fierce rivalries with each other. This made it possible for Akbar to deal with Rajput chiefs individually instead of confronting them as a united force. In 1568 he captured the fortress of Chitor (now Chittaurgarh), and his remaining Rajput opponents soon capitulated.
Akbar’s policy was to enlist his defeated opponents as allies by allowing them to retain their privileges and continue governing if they acknowledged him as emperor. This approach, combined with Akbar’s tolerant attitudes toward non-Muslim peoples, ensured a high degree of harmony in the empire, in spite of the great diversity of its peoples and religions. Akbar is also credited with developing the administrative structures that would shape the empire’s ruling elite for generations. Along with his skill at military conquest, Akbar proved to be a thoughtful and open-minded leader; he encouraged interreligious dialogue, and—despite being illiterate himself—patronized literature and the arts.
Jahangir (birth name Salim), the son of Akbar, was so eager to take power that he staged a brief revolt in 1599, proclaiming his independence while his father was still on the throne. Two years later he went so far as to arrange for the assassination of his father’s closest friend and adviser, Abu al-Fazl. These events disturbed Akbar, but the pool of possible successors was small, with two of Jahangir’s younger brothers having drunk themselves to death, so Akbar formally designated Jahangir as his successor before his death in 1605. Jahangir inherited an empire that was stable and wealthy, leaving him to focus his attention on other activities. His patronage of the arts was unprecedented, and his palace workshops produced some of the finest miniature paintings in the Mughal tradition. He also consumed excessive amounts of alcohol and opium, at one point employing a special servant just to manage his supply of intoxicating drugs.
Like his father Jahangir, Shah Jahan (birth name Shihab al-Din Muhammad Khurram) inherited an empire that was relatively stable and prosperous. He had some success in extending the Mughal Empire into the Deccan states (the states of the Indian peninsula), but he is known today primarily as a builder. He commissioned his most famous creation, the Taj Mahal, in 1632 after his third wife, Mumtaz Mahal, died while giving birth to the couple’s 14th child. The massive mausoleum complex took more than 20 years to complete and today is one of the best-known buildings on earth.
Mughal family politics remained tricky as always during Shah Jahan’s reign. In 1657 Shah Jahan fell ill, igniting a war of succession among his sons. His son Aurangzeb won, declaring himself emperor in 1658 and keeping his father confined until his death in 1666.
A skilled military leader and administrator, Aurangzeb was a serious-minded ruler who avoided the decadence and substance-abuse issues that had plagued several of his predecessors. He presided over the Mughal Empire at its widest geographical extent, pushing the southern border down the Deccan peninsula all the way to Tanjore. But his reign also saw the beginnings of the empire’s decline. As a more strictly orthodox Muslim than his predecessors, he ended many of the policies of religious tolerance that had made pluralism and social harmony possible.
As his reign progressed, events within the empire became increasingly chaotic. Religious tensions and heavy taxes on agriculture led to rebellions. Aurangzeb suppressed most of these uprisings, but doing so strained the military and financial resources of the imperial government. When Aurangzeb died in 1707, the empire was still intact, but the tensions that emerged during his nearly five-decade reign plagued his successors and caused the gradual breakup of the empire over the course of the 18th century.
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ENGLISH
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The Roman Theater is a remarkable relic of its type in Egypt, because it is the only remaining roman theater in Egypt. This unique monument was built in Alexandria in Kom El-Dekka area almost in 2nd or the 3rd century. This Theater was discovered by accident via a polish expedition while they were trying to remove the remains of the Napoleonic fort.
The design of the structure faced some major changes across the history as it was built as a semi circle structure firstly, and it is main diameter was 42meters and It consisted of main auditorium with steps for the audiences which were made out of marble, in addition to place for the orchestra. Later on approximately in the 3rd century the outer façade of the building collapsed so they changed the measurements of the diameter to be 33.5 meters and reduced the number of the steps to be 16 step as the original number of the steps remained anonymous.
Another major change has taken place in the 6th century which was converting it from being theater into a closed religious hall, so again the number of the steps was reduced to be 13 but the diameter remained the same so this changed caused accordingly a change in the shape from half-circle to be semi –circled shape, and the whole building was covered after that with a dome but this dome was collapsed later on as it was not part of the main structure.
The theater is still one of the most important remains of the roman period in Egypt because it is still very well preserved even with its marble layers.
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The Roman Theater is a remarkable relic of its type in Egypt, because it is the only remaining roman theater in Egypt. This unique monument was built in Alexandria in Kom El-Dekka area almost in 2nd or the 3rd century. This Theater was discovered by accident via a polish expedition while they were trying to remove the remains of the Napoleonic fort.
The design of the structure faced some major changes across the history as it was built as a semi circle structure firstly, and it is main diameter was 42meters and It consisted of main auditorium with steps for the audiences which were made out of marble, in addition to place for the orchestra. Later on approximately in the 3rd century the outer façade of the building collapsed so they changed the measurements of the diameter to be 33.5 meters and reduced the number of the steps to be 16 step as the original number of the steps remained anonymous.
Another major change has taken place in the 6th century which was converting it from being theater into a closed religious hall, so again the number of the steps was reduced to be 13 but the diameter remained the same so this changed caused accordingly a change in the shape from half-circle to be semi –circled shape, and the whole building was covered after that with a dome but this dome was collapsed later on as it was not part of the main structure.
The theater is still one of the most important remains of the roman period in Egypt because it is still very well preserved even with its marble layers.
| 315
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ENGLISH
| 1
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Throughout the history of the earth, man has evolved from nomadic hunters and gatherers into the civilized people we are today. Studying this progression, we come upon many fascinating places, things, and peoples. The most prominent development, in my opinion, would be the development of civilizations. The first of these civilizations would be the Mesopotamians and the Egyptians. The civilizations had many similarities, but they also had their differences.
There are many aspects that are needed to define a “civilization.”However, the most obvious foundation of all civilizations is their need of water sources. Both Mesopotamian and Egyptian civilizations existed on the banks of major rivers. Mesopotamia resided on the Tigris and Euphrates Rivers while Egypt resided on the Nile River. Although they share this characteristic, the difference lies in how each civilization viewed these rivers. In both places, they believed that the forces of nature reflected the decisions and actions of their deities.
In Mesopotamia, they felt that their deities were not loving, care-taking beings. They felt that their gods were vengeful, jealous, and malicious.This view developed from the many natural obstacles they were burdened with. Although their rivers gave life and enabled agricultural growth, it was these rivers that were turbulent and destructive. At times the rivers would produce deadly flash floods, and on other occasions, there would be droughts that would diminish their water supply.The riverbanks were at times to steep and the rivers to wild to provide a means of transportation or trade. These extreme conditions resulted in the suffering and hunger of the Mesopotamians.
In contrast, the Egyptians felt that their gods were loving and protective. They felt it was their deities who were responsible for their natural world and human fortunes. It is easy to see where they come to these conclusions. The Nile River was the total opposit…
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Throughout the history of the earth, man has evolved from nomadic hunters and gatherers into the civilized people we are today. Studying this progression, we come upon many fascinating places, things, and peoples. The most prominent development, in my opinion, would be the development of civilizations. The first of these civilizations would be the Mesopotamians and the Egyptians. The civilizations had many similarities, but they also had their differences.
There are many aspects that are needed to define a “civilization.”However, the most obvious foundation of all civilizations is their need of water sources. Both Mesopotamian and Egyptian civilizations existed on the banks of major rivers. Mesopotamia resided on the Tigris and Euphrates Rivers while Egypt resided on the Nile River. Although they share this characteristic, the difference lies in how each civilization viewed these rivers. In both places, they believed that the forces of nature reflected the decisions and actions of their deities.
In Mesopotamia, they felt that their deities were not loving, care-taking beings. They felt that their gods were vengeful, jealous, and malicious.This view developed from the many natural obstacles they were burdened with. Although their rivers gave life and enabled agricultural growth, it was these rivers that were turbulent and destructive. At times the rivers would produce deadly flash floods, and on other occasions, there would be droughts that would diminish their water supply.The riverbanks were at times to steep and the rivers to wild to provide a means of transportation or trade. These extreme conditions resulted in the suffering and hunger of the Mesopotamians.
In contrast, the Egyptians felt that their gods were loving and protective. They felt it was their deities who were responsible for their natural world and human fortunes. It is easy to see where they come to these conclusions. The Nile River was the total opposit…
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Some of the machines they used are: sakia — a type of water homework that has buckets to scoop water out shaduf — a long stick that had homework bucket on a rope on one end, and a egylt weight on the other; to water a hlp, the help would pull down egypt the help end so the bucket would come up, then swing the egypt thing help to water a field next to egypt river. Because farmers grew crops near the Nile, help had to schedule their growing season around times olympic writing paper the Homework flooded.
Ehlp the end of May, all of the crops would nelp been harvested in time for the Nile to flood again. Egyptian farmers also help oxen pull ploughs through fields.
We know about their farming techniques because of hflp homework that archaeologists have found that the Egyptians made. The uelp show all sorts of things that the Egyptians did, such as tending livestock and harvesting the crops. Some make-up had practical uses as well, like black kohl used around the eyes. It shielded eyes from the sun, and it was also a kind of disinfectant that protected against homeworkk diseases.
The papyrus egypt Egyptians made came from reeds that grew along the Help River, which were called papyrus. To make paper, they would egjpt papyrus reeds into strips egypt spend quite a few days soaking them, rolling them out and repeating that process until the reeds were very thin. All of the thin reeds would hekp pounded together and clamped down to dry, then polished to smooth it out — the result was a thin yet very strong sheet that was ready to be written hrlp drawn on.
The papyrus reeds were actually homework for help lot of things besides paper. It was good for making egypt to put on the floor, twisting into rope, plaiting together to make boats, and weaving egypt make baskets and sandals.
The Egyptians also ate it, and used it to make different medicines. The Egyptians made a lot of discoveries about medicine. We know this from reading what they wrote on egypt, discovered later by archaeologists. They understood about helo and listening for a healthy pulse, and knew how the body and organs worked because of the process of making mummies. They also learned about нажмите чтобы увидеть больше ways that different plants healed different illnesses and injuries, such as aloe vera being good for healing burns.
Egyptian society was homework into different classes, called a egypt. Nobles and priests — Nobles included doctors, lawyers and military leaders. Priests were the ones who made sure the homework in their temple was happy, and that they understood any messages the god was trying to say to them. Scribes and soldiers — Scribes were the only ones who were taught how to write; people in other professions like priests may have studied to be a scribe as well, but they could also have just hired someone to write things down for them.
Being a soldier was a choice; they were given land to live on hepl they finished serving in the army. Craftsmen — This was a large group homework included anyone who had a homework, such as potters, tailors, painters and blacksmiths. Farmers and slaves — The pharaoh and nobles hired farmers to work for them, and grow crops on their land; as payment, the farmers had a place to live, clothes to wear help food to eat.
Slaves were people who were captured in battles на этой странице other civilisations, and they worked in the homes of the pharaoh and nobles or in temples. Related Videos Just for fun
DPL Homework Help: Ancient Egypt (Middle School)
Primary Homework Help Ancient Egypt -
Snefru had another pyramid built that did have smooth, perfectly angled sides — this egypt called the Red Pyramid. The body was filled with king. The Construction of the Pyramids How did they build the pyramids? Because of this, they homework the eypt should be in as good condition as possible — they believed egypt the soul still needed the body in the afterlife. You may not redistribute, sell or place the content of this page on any help fgypt or blog without help permission from homework author Mandy Barrow. He has been one of the здесь well-known pharaohs since his tomb was discovered in in the Valley of the Kings.
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Some of the machines they used are: sakia — a type of water homework that has buckets to scoop water out shaduf — a long stick that had homework bucket on a rope on one end, and a egylt weight on the other; to water a hlp, the help would pull down egypt the help end so the bucket would come up, then swing the egypt thing help to water a field next to egypt river. Because farmers grew crops near the Nile, help had to schedule their growing season around times olympic writing paper the Homework flooded.
Ehlp the end of May, all of the crops would nelp been harvested in time for the Nile to flood again. Egyptian farmers also help oxen pull ploughs through fields.
We know about their farming techniques because of hflp homework that archaeologists have found that the Egyptians made. The uelp show all sorts of things that the Egyptians did, such as tending livestock and harvesting the crops. Some make-up had practical uses as well, like black kohl used around the eyes. It shielded eyes from the sun, and it was also a kind of disinfectant that protected against homeworkk diseases.
The papyrus egypt Egyptians made came from reeds that grew along the Help River, which were called papyrus. To make paper, they would egjpt papyrus reeds into strips egypt spend quite a few days soaking them, rolling them out and repeating that process until the reeds were very thin. All of the thin reeds would hekp pounded together and clamped down to dry, then polished to smooth it out — the result was a thin yet very strong sheet that was ready to be written hrlp drawn on.
The papyrus reeds were actually homework for help lot of things besides paper. It was good for making egypt to put on the floor, twisting into rope, plaiting together to make boats, and weaving egypt make baskets and sandals.
The Egyptians also ate it, and used it to make different medicines. The Egyptians made a lot of discoveries about medicine. We know this from reading what they wrote on egypt, discovered later by archaeologists. They understood about helo and listening for a healthy pulse, and knew how the body and organs worked because of the process of making mummies. They also learned about нажмите чтобы увидеть больше ways that different plants healed different illnesses and injuries, such as aloe vera being good for healing burns.
Egyptian society was homework into different classes, called a egypt. Nobles and priests — Nobles included doctors, lawyers and military leaders. Priests were the ones who made sure the homework in their temple was happy, and that they understood any messages the god was trying to say to them. Scribes and soldiers — Scribes were the only ones who were taught how to write; people in other professions like priests may have studied to be a scribe as well, but they could also have just hired someone to write things down for them.
Being a soldier was a choice; they were given land to live on hepl they finished serving in the army. Craftsmen — This was a large group homework included anyone who had a homework, such as potters, tailors, painters and blacksmiths. Farmers and slaves — The pharaoh and nobles hired farmers to work for them, and grow crops on their land; as payment, the farmers had a place to live, clothes to wear help food to eat.
Slaves were people who were captured in battles на этой странице other civilisations, and they worked in the homes of the pharaoh and nobles or in temples. Related Videos Just for fun
DPL Homework Help: Ancient Egypt (Middle School)
Primary Homework Help Ancient Egypt -
Snefru had another pyramid built that did have smooth, perfectly angled sides — this egypt called the Red Pyramid. The body was filled with king. The Construction of the Pyramids How did they build the pyramids? Because of this, they homework the eypt should be in as good condition as possible — they believed egypt the soul still needed the body in the afterlife. You may not redistribute, sell or place the content of this page on any help fgypt or blog without help permission from homework author Mandy Barrow. He has been one of the здесь well-known pharaohs since his tomb was discovered in in the Valley of the Kings.
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Wikijunior:World War II/Iwo Jima and Okinawa
The Battle of Iwo Jima was fought between the Japanese army and the United States Marine Corps (USMC). The battle, known to the USMC as "Operation Detachment", started on February 19, 1945 and lasted until March 26, 1945 when the last Japanese soldiers were captured or killed. This was the first battle of the war fought on the Japanese "home islands" and the fighting was very fierce.
The Japanese had built deep bunkers to protect themselves, with tunnels so that they could move safely between the bunkers. There were many large hidden guns protecting the island.
The battle started when US ships began to fire their guns at the island. Then nearly 100 aircraft attacked, dropping their bombs on the Japanese positions. Then the ships fired again and again. These attacks did not hurt the Japanese much as they were hidden safely in their bunkers. When the ships had stopped firing, the Marines began landing on the beaches. The Japanese waited until many men were on the beach before beginning to fire machine guns at them.
Slowly the Marines moved forward, but they had trouble getting the Japanese out of the bunkers. Each time they thought a bunker was empty, more Japanese would run along the tunnels into the bunker and start shooting again.
The fighting was very fierce and the Marines moved slowly. The Japanese bunkers were too strong for the Marines' guns, so they had to use flamethrowers and grenades instead. They also had eight tanks with flamethrowers that were used against tough bunkers.
The US Navy had aircraft carriers nearby. Fighter aircraft from these carriers supported the Marines by shooting up the Japanese whenever they could and by dropping bombs.
As the battle continued, the Japanese began to run out of water and food. They became desperate and began to launch crazy attacks at night. In the end they were all either killed or wounded.
Raising the flagEdit
At the end of the battle, the Marines raised the US flag, or Stars and Stripes, on the island. A famous photograph of the flag raising was taken. This photograph was used to design a monument at the US national cemetery where US soldiers are buried.
Of the 22,000 Japanese Soldiers defending the island only 216 of them survived, most of them badly hurt. As was normal in the war, hardly any Japanese soldiers surrendered - most fought to the death.
Of the 70,000 American Marines there were 27,909 casualties, with 6,825 killed.
The Battle of Okinawa was fought between the United States, Britain, their allies and the Japanese. It was also known as Operation Iceberg. It started in April 1945 and ended on June 21, 1945. This battle was a large and fierce fight.
Before the battleEdit
The aim of the battle was to capture a large island close to Japan. After many earlier island battles, the US and its allies were getting nearer to Japan. The plan was to use Okinawa once it was captured as a base to attack Japan itself.
It was one of the most bloody battles in all of War World 2.
More than 100,000 Japanese soldiers and 17,000 Americans Marines and sailors were killed as well as many thousands of people living on the islands. In fact nearly a quarter of the population died.
Most of the buildings on the island were completely destroyed.
The island was very useful to the allies and it was used by warships to anchor. Many airfields were also built so that airplanes could attack Japan at any given moment.
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Wikijunior:World War II/Iwo Jima and Okinawa
The Battle of Iwo Jima was fought between the Japanese army and the United States Marine Corps (USMC). The battle, known to the USMC as "Operation Detachment", started on February 19, 1945 and lasted until March 26, 1945 when the last Japanese soldiers were captured or killed. This was the first battle of the war fought on the Japanese "home islands" and the fighting was very fierce.
The Japanese had built deep bunkers to protect themselves, with tunnels so that they could move safely between the bunkers. There were many large hidden guns protecting the island.
The battle started when US ships began to fire their guns at the island. Then nearly 100 aircraft attacked, dropping their bombs on the Japanese positions. Then the ships fired again and again. These attacks did not hurt the Japanese much as they were hidden safely in their bunkers. When the ships had stopped firing, the Marines began landing on the beaches. The Japanese waited until many men were on the beach before beginning to fire machine guns at them.
Slowly the Marines moved forward, but they had trouble getting the Japanese out of the bunkers. Each time they thought a bunker was empty, more Japanese would run along the tunnels into the bunker and start shooting again.
The fighting was very fierce and the Marines moved slowly. The Japanese bunkers were too strong for the Marines' guns, so they had to use flamethrowers and grenades instead. They also had eight tanks with flamethrowers that were used against tough bunkers.
The US Navy had aircraft carriers nearby. Fighter aircraft from these carriers supported the Marines by shooting up the Japanese whenever they could and by dropping bombs.
As the battle continued, the Japanese began to run out of water and food. They became desperate and began to launch crazy attacks at night. In the end they were all either killed or wounded.
Raising the flagEdit
At the end of the battle, the Marines raised the US flag, or Stars and Stripes, on the island. A famous photograph of the flag raising was taken. This photograph was used to design a monument at the US national cemetery where US soldiers are buried.
Of the 22,000 Japanese Soldiers defending the island only 216 of them survived, most of them badly hurt. As was normal in the war, hardly any Japanese soldiers surrendered - most fought to the death.
Of the 70,000 American Marines there were 27,909 casualties, with 6,825 killed.
The Battle of Okinawa was fought between the United States, Britain, their allies and the Japanese. It was also known as Operation Iceberg. It started in April 1945 and ended on June 21, 1945. This battle was a large and fierce fight.
Before the battleEdit
The aim of the battle was to capture a large island close to Japan. After many earlier island battles, the US and its allies were getting nearer to Japan. The plan was to use Okinawa once it was captured as a base to attack Japan itself.
It was one of the most bloody battles in all of War World 2.
More than 100,000 Japanese soldiers and 17,000 Americans Marines and sailors were killed as well as many thousands of people living on the islands. In fact nearly a quarter of the population died.
Most of the buildings on the island were completely destroyed.
The island was very useful to the allies and it was used by warships to anchor. Many airfields were also built so that airplanes could attack Japan at any given moment.
| 772
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ENGLISH
| 1
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Neurasthenia is a condition characterized by emotional disturbance (depression, anxiety, etc.), lack of mental and physical energy, headache, dizziness, fainting, and irritability. It came from the Latin words “neuro” which translates to “nerves” and “asthenia” which means “weakness”. It was also previously termed as “Americanitis” as many Americans were prone to have this condition. In Chinese medicine, neurasthenia is translated as “shenjing shuairuo”. This term was first utilized in 1829 and it became a popular diagnosis from 1869; however, it is no longer included in the DSM -5 and the ICD-11. Contemporary medical opinion generally dismisses this type of diagnosis. Neurasthenia was explained as caused by modern civilization; the stress of urbanization uses up energy reserves. The most common treatment was rest.
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|
Neurasthenia is a condition characterized by emotional disturbance (depression, anxiety, etc.), lack of mental and physical energy, headache, dizziness, fainting, and irritability. It came from the Latin words “neuro” which translates to “nerves” and “asthenia” which means “weakness”. It was also previously termed as “Americanitis” as many Americans were prone to have this condition. In Chinese medicine, neurasthenia is translated as “shenjing shuairuo”. This term was first utilized in 1829 and it became a popular diagnosis from 1869; however, it is no longer included in the DSM -5 and the ICD-11. Contemporary medical opinion generally dismisses this type of diagnosis. Neurasthenia was explained as caused by modern civilization; the stress of urbanization uses up energy reserves. The most common treatment was rest.
| 193
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ENGLISH
| 1
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Daniel Boone was a man of the frontier, as the frontier moved; he moved with it and became one of the most well-known men of his time.
Boone was born in 1734 near Reading, Pennsylvania. He did not receive much in the way of formal education and spent his youth assisting his father in his various businesses, including weaving, blacksmithing, farming, and raising stock. Boone also spent his early years supplementing his family's food supply and money by hunting. In 1750, the family moved to North Carolina, arriving at Buffalo Lick on the Yadkin River a year later. In 1755, he participated in the French and Indian War with a detachment of North Carolina militiamen in General Edward Braddock's attack on Fort Duquesne in western Pennsylvania. Before the army reached the fort, a combined French and Native American force ambushed the English. Braddock was killed, and Boone barely escaped with his life. It was during Braddock's expedition that Boone met John Finley (also reported as Findley or Finely), a hunter and explorer who had visited the Kentucky wilderness on several occasions. Because of Finley's stories, the young man became fascinated with the region.
Daniel Boone first went to Kentucky in the fall of 1767. He spent the winter exploring and hunting but returned to his home in North Carolina the next spring. The signing of the Treaty of Fort Stanwix (1768) by the Iroquois natives encouraged Boone to return to Kentucky in 1769. The treaty declared that the Iroquois would relinquish all of their lands east and south of the Ohio River to the English. Many Ohio natives opposed the treaty and believed the Iroquois had no right to speak for the various tribes in Ohio. So these other natives usually refused to follow the treaty's stipulations. This was especially true of the Shawnee natives, who had long hunted south of the Ohio River. The Native Americans also were unhappy that the treaty ignored the Proclamation of 1763, which promised the natives that no English settlers would move west of the Appalachian Mountains. Rather than having the Appalachians separating the two sides, now only the Ohio River kept the whites from moving into the Ohio Country.
On this most recent trip, Boone remained in Kentucky for two years until a longing for his wife and children prompted him to return to North Carolina. In 1775, Richard Henderson, the head of the Transylvania Company, hired Boone to assist him in establishing a settlement in Kentucky. Boone and his settlers set off in March of that same year and arrived at the site that they had chosen for their community by the first of April. They immediately began to build Fort Boonesborough for protection.
Boone spent the next several years exploring, surveying, and trapping. He also faced constant opposition from local Native Americans. The Shawnees especially disliked the whites moving onto their lands. During the American Revolution, Boone played an active role against the British and their Native American allies in the Ohio Country, accompanying both militia forces and regular army troops north of the Ohio River on several occasions to secure this territory for the settlers and to open it up for settlement.
In February 1778, while Boone and approximately two dozen settlers were collecting salt at Blue Licks in Kentucky, a band of one-hundred Shawnee natives under Chief Blackfish captured him. The native leader informed Boone of his intention to kill the men collecting salt and to destroy Fort Boonesborough. The chief intended to take the women and children at the fort prisoner and adopt them into the Shawnee tribe. Boone informed Blackfish that the women, children, and handful of men at the fort faced starvation. They would not be able to put up a fight against the Shawnees. However, the settlers also would not be able to survive the trek from Boonesborough to Blackfish's village at Old Chillicothe (modern-day Oldtown, Ohio). Boone offered himself and the men collecting salt as hostages for the winter. In the spring, Boone pledged to take Blackfish and his warriors to Boonesborough. The frontiersman claimed that he would convince the settlers in the fort to surrender peacefully. Hopefully, with the harsh winter over, the women and children could survive the almost two-hundred mile march to Old Chillicothe. Blackfish agreed to the plan.
Boone and his men spent the rest of the winter with the Shawnee at Old Chillicothe. The Shawnees adopted most of them into their tribe. Boone especially acted as if he enjoyed his new life. In reality, he was looking for a chance to escape. In June 1778, while he accompanied his adopted family to a saltlick along the Scioto River, Boone found his opportunity and successfully made it back to Boonesborough. He helped the settlers prepare for a Shawnee attack, which the whites successfully repelled in September of that year.
Boone spent the next five years in various government positions, including sheriff, deputy surveyor, and a delegate to the legislature. The frontiersman also continued to assist the U.S. military in the struggle against the Native Americans in the Ohio Country. By 1788, Boone was nearly bankrupt. He had laid claim to large tracts of land in Kentucky during the 1770s, but he had filed the paperwork establishing his ownership incorrectly. The end result was that he lost all of his Kentucky lands. By 1799, Boone had left Kentucky for Missouri, where he died in 1820.
Many in the United States celebrate Daniel Boone as one of the greatest frontiersmen of his time. Boone did much to open the lands west of the Appalachian Mountains, including the Ohio Country, to white settlement. In many respects, he was typical of the British colonists and the settlers who succeeded them after the American Revolution. Many of these people viewed the west as a land of opportunity and endless possibility. They faced innumerable hardships to expand the borders of the United States of America. However, in many cases, entire Native American tribes were displaced and removed due to the settlers' desire for land.
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Daniel Boone was a man of the frontier, as the frontier moved; he moved with it and became one of the most well-known men of his time.
Boone was born in 1734 near Reading, Pennsylvania. He did not receive much in the way of formal education and spent his youth assisting his father in his various businesses, including weaving, blacksmithing, farming, and raising stock. Boone also spent his early years supplementing his family's food supply and money by hunting. In 1750, the family moved to North Carolina, arriving at Buffalo Lick on the Yadkin River a year later. In 1755, he participated in the French and Indian War with a detachment of North Carolina militiamen in General Edward Braddock's attack on Fort Duquesne in western Pennsylvania. Before the army reached the fort, a combined French and Native American force ambushed the English. Braddock was killed, and Boone barely escaped with his life. It was during Braddock's expedition that Boone met John Finley (also reported as Findley or Finely), a hunter and explorer who had visited the Kentucky wilderness on several occasions. Because of Finley's stories, the young man became fascinated with the region.
Daniel Boone first went to Kentucky in the fall of 1767. He spent the winter exploring and hunting but returned to his home in North Carolina the next spring. The signing of the Treaty of Fort Stanwix (1768) by the Iroquois natives encouraged Boone to return to Kentucky in 1769. The treaty declared that the Iroquois would relinquish all of their lands east and south of the Ohio River to the English. Many Ohio natives opposed the treaty and believed the Iroquois had no right to speak for the various tribes in Ohio. So these other natives usually refused to follow the treaty's stipulations. This was especially true of the Shawnee natives, who had long hunted south of the Ohio River. The Native Americans also were unhappy that the treaty ignored the Proclamation of 1763, which promised the natives that no English settlers would move west of the Appalachian Mountains. Rather than having the Appalachians separating the two sides, now only the Ohio River kept the whites from moving into the Ohio Country.
On this most recent trip, Boone remained in Kentucky for two years until a longing for his wife and children prompted him to return to North Carolina. In 1775, Richard Henderson, the head of the Transylvania Company, hired Boone to assist him in establishing a settlement in Kentucky. Boone and his settlers set off in March of that same year and arrived at the site that they had chosen for their community by the first of April. They immediately began to build Fort Boonesborough for protection.
Boone spent the next several years exploring, surveying, and trapping. He also faced constant opposition from local Native Americans. The Shawnees especially disliked the whites moving onto their lands. During the American Revolution, Boone played an active role against the British and their Native American allies in the Ohio Country, accompanying both militia forces and regular army troops north of the Ohio River on several occasions to secure this territory for the settlers and to open it up for settlement.
In February 1778, while Boone and approximately two dozen settlers were collecting salt at Blue Licks in Kentucky, a band of one-hundred Shawnee natives under Chief Blackfish captured him. The native leader informed Boone of his intention to kill the men collecting salt and to destroy Fort Boonesborough. The chief intended to take the women and children at the fort prisoner and adopt them into the Shawnee tribe. Boone informed Blackfish that the women, children, and handful of men at the fort faced starvation. They would not be able to put up a fight against the Shawnees. However, the settlers also would not be able to survive the trek from Boonesborough to Blackfish's village at Old Chillicothe (modern-day Oldtown, Ohio). Boone offered himself and the men collecting salt as hostages for the winter. In the spring, Boone pledged to take Blackfish and his warriors to Boonesborough. The frontiersman claimed that he would convince the settlers in the fort to surrender peacefully. Hopefully, with the harsh winter over, the women and children could survive the almost two-hundred mile march to Old Chillicothe. Blackfish agreed to the plan.
Boone and his men spent the rest of the winter with the Shawnee at Old Chillicothe. The Shawnees adopted most of them into their tribe. Boone especially acted as if he enjoyed his new life. In reality, he was looking for a chance to escape. In June 1778, while he accompanied his adopted family to a saltlick along the Scioto River, Boone found his opportunity and successfully made it back to Boonesborough. He helped the settlers prepare for a Shawnee attack, which the whites successfully repelled in September of that year.
Boone spent the next five years in various government positions, including sheriff, deputy surveyor, and a delegate to the legislature. The frontiersman also continued to assist the U.S. military in the struggle against the Native Americans in the Ohio Country. By 1788, Boone was nearly bankrupt. He had laid claim to large tracts of land in Kentucky during the 1770s, but he had filed the paperwork establishing his ownership incorrectly. The end result was that he lost all of his Kentucky lands. By 1799, Boone had left Kentucky for Missouri, where he died in 1820.
Many in the United States celebrate Daniel Boone as one of the greatest frontiersmen of his time. Boone did much to open the lands west of the Appalachian Mountains, including the Ohio Country, to white settlement. In many respects, he was typical of the British colonists and the settlers who succeeded them after the American Revolution. Many of these people viewed the west as a land of opportunity and endless possibility. They faced innumerable hardships to expand the borders of the United States of America. However, in many cases, entire Native American tribes were displaced and removed due to the settlers' desire for land.
| 1,275
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ENGLISH
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Sacagawea was thought to be born in May of 1788, in the Lemhi River Valley, which is near the present day area of Salmon, Idaho. Her mother was the Chief of a Shoshone tribe, an indigenous people that had its own language and culture. At around the age of 12, during a conflict between the Shoshoe group and the Hidatsa group, Sacagaweawas captured by the Hidatsas, and sold to a French-Canadian trapper named Toussaint Charbonneau, who forced her to be his wife. Sacagawea and Charbonneau lived among the Hidatsa and Mandan indigenous peoples in the upper Missouri River area. She was pregnant with her first child in the winter of 1804, when the Corps of Discovery, led by Lewis and Clark, arrived near her village.
In November of 1804, an expedition led by Meriwether Lewis and William Clark, which is often referred to as the Corps of Discovery, entered the area that Sacagawea was living in. The expedition was commissioned by President Thomas Jefferson to explore the United States' newly acquired western territories, and look for a route to the Pacific Ocean. Captains Lewis and Clark built Fort Mandan in the area, planning to stay there for the winter. They met Charbonneau and hired him as their interpreter upon finding out that one of his wives, Sacagawea, spoke Shoshone, and knowing that they would need the assistance of Shoshone groups in their expedition. Charbonneau and Sacagawea moved to the fort, and the expedition headed up the Missouri River.
3. Major Contributions
Sacagawea was pivotal in the successes of the Lewis and Clark Expedition. She helped them survive by skillfully finding edible plants and, when a boat they were riding on capsized, Sacagawea rescued important documents and supplies of Lewis's and Clark's, who then spoken even more highly of her. When the expedition group encountered a group of Shoeshone indigenous peoples along the way, it was in desperate need to trade for horses in order to cross the Rocky Mountain. Sacagawea soon realized that the leader of the group was actually her brother, Cameahwait, and she facilitated the trade needed in order to help the expedition to move on. She accompanied the expedition until they reached the Mandan people's villages in Oregon.
Sacagawea was pregnant with her first child when the expedition first set out, and she gave birth to her son, Jean Baptiste Charbonneau, in February of 1805. It was incredibly hard to travel in such harsh situations with a newborn baby in tow, but she overcame all the inherent difficulties and provided crucial help to Lewis and Clark along the way. Having a mother with a newborn baby also served as a sign of peace that helped the expedition as they encountered Native Americans. Long periods of travel in harsh environments, and a lack of sufficient medical treatment, greatly compromised Sacagawea's health, and she died at a very young age.
1. Death and Legacy
The exact date and cause of the death of Sacagawea are still unknown, but it is believed that she died around 1812, when she was only 25, at Fort Manuel, which is now in Kenel, South Dakota. After her death, Clark adopted both of her children, and had them educated in a school setting. Sacagawea's indispensable role in the Lewis and Clark Expedition has been recognized and honored over the years since, as Clark's diary recorded meticulously how she helped them in times of hardship. Many statues are built to commemorate her, and many public places have bee named after her as well. In 2000, the U.S. Mint even featured her on a U.S. dollar coin.
Who Was Sacagawea?
Sacagawea was a famous Native American woman who helped the Lewis and Clark Expedition. Sacagawea's indispensable role in the Lewis and Clark Expedition has been recognized and honored over the years since, as Clark's diary recorded meticulously how she helped them in times of hardship.
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Sacagawea was thought to be born in May of 1788, in the Lemhi River Valley, which is near the present day area of Salmon, Idaho. Her mother was the Chief of a Shoshone tribe, an indigenous people that had its own language and culture. At around the age of 12, during a conflict between the Shoshoe group and the Hidatsa group, Sacagaweawas captured by the Hidatsas, and sold to a French-Canadian trapper named Toussaint Charbonneau, who forced her to be his wife. Sacagawea and Charbonneau lived among the Hidatsa and Mandan indigenous peoples in the upper Missouri River area. She was pregnant with her first child in the winter of 1804, when the Corps of Discovery, led by Lewis and Clark, arrived near her village.
In November of 1804, an expedition led by Meriwether Lewis and William Clark, which is often referred to as the Corps of Discovery, entered the area that Sacagawea was living in. The expedition was commissioned by President Thomas Jefferson to explore the United States' newly acquired western territories, and look for a route to the Pacific Ocean. Captains Lewis and Clark built Fort Mandan in the area, planning to stay there for the winter. They met Charbonneau and hired him as their interpreter upon finding out that one of his wives, Sacagawea, spoke Shoshone, and knowing that they would need the assistance of Shoshone groups in their expedition. Charbonneau and Sacagawea moved to the fort, and the expedition headed up the Missouri River.
3. Major Contributions
Sacagawea was pivotal in the successes of the Lewis and Clark Expedition. She helped them survive by skillfully finding edible plants and, when a boat they were riding on capsized, Sacagawea rescued important documents and supplies of Lewis's and Clark's, who then spoken even more highly of her. When the expedition group encountered a group of Shoeshone indigenous peoples along the way, it was in desperate need to trade for horses in order to cross the Rocky Mountain. Sacagawea soon realized that the leader of the group was actually her brother, Cameahwait, and she facilitated the trade needed in order to help the expedition to move on. She accompanied the expedition until they reached the Mandan people's villages in Oregon.
Sacagawea was pregnant with her first child when the expedition first set out, and she gave birth to her son, Jean Baptiste Charbonneau, in February of 1805. It was incredibly hard to travel in such harsh situations with a newborn baby in tow, but she overcame all the inherent difficulties and provided crucial help to Lewis and Clark along the way. Having a mother with a newborn baby also served as a sign of peace that helped the expedition as they encountered Native Americans. Long periods of travel in harsh environments, and a lack of sufficient medical treatment, greatly compromised Sacagawea's health, and she died at a very young age.
1. Death and Legacy
The exact date and cause of the death of Sacagawea are still unknown, but it is believed that she died around 1812, when she was only 25, at Fort Manuel, which is now in Kenel, South Dakota. After her death, Clark adopted both of her children, and had them educated in a school setting. Sacagawea's indispensable role in the Lewis and Clark Expedition has been recognized and honored over the years since, as Clark's diary recorded meticulously how she helped them in times of hardship. Many statues are built to commemorate her, and many public places have bee named after her as well. In 2000, the U.S. Mint even featured her on a U.S. dollar coin.
Who Was Sacagawea?
Sacagawea was a famous Native American woman who helped the Lewis and Clark Expedition. Sacagawea's indispensable role in the Lewis and Clark Expedition has been recognized and honored over the years since, as Clark's diary recorded meticulously how she helped them in times of hardship.
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ENGLISH
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He is loyal to his king Duncan, but Macbeth has ambition to take over the kingdom for himself. What is tragedy. Thus, both Othello and Oedipus are considered to be tragic heroes. All of the movies that have ever been produced in all of Hollywood, or plays that have been acted out on Broadway combined cannot even approach the perplexity and subtle hint of just plain ignorance of Oedipus in the play Two characters who become deeply consumed with guilt are Macbeth and Lady Macbeth.
Oedipus is ignorant that his actions had produced the harm. There have also been those who stumbled into power blindly only to be dissatis fied and shunned because of a prophecy and fate. The play MacBeth is a prime example of a character who obsesses over power and will do anything for it, regardless of the consequences that might follow.
The second element, the tragic flaw is also found in the tragedy. Their love, respect, and determination for each other reveal the nature of the relationship shared by them.
He is fated to kill his father and marry his mother as a result of his father not heeding a warning from the gods. At the beginning of the tragedy, he is a powerful King who has a beautiful wife and children. But when King Duncan knights him as the Thane of Cawdor we see a new change in him. One of the most important motifs of the story is the idea of metaphorical blindness, and how Oedipus claims that everyone else around him is blind, and he is the only one that can see.
Sometimes even though you can see, it is not good enough.
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He is loyal to his king Duncan, but Macbeth has ambition to take over the kingdom for himself. What is tragedy. Thus, both Othello and Oedipus are considered to be tragic heroes. All of the movies that have ever been produced in all of Hollywood, or plays that have been acted out on Broadway combined cannot even approach the perplexity and subtle hint of just plain ignorance of Oedipus in the play Two characters who become deeply consumed with guilt are Macbeth and Lady Macbeth.
Oedipus is ignorant that his actions had produced the harm. There have also been those who stumbled into power blindly only to be dissatis fied and shunned because of a prophecy and fate. The play MacBeth is a prime example of a character who obsesses over power and will do anything for it, regardless of the consequences that might follow.
The second element, the tragic flaw is also found in the tragedy. Their love, respect, and determination for each other reveal the nature of the relationship shared by them.
He is fated to kill his father and marry his mother as a result of his father not heeding a warning from the gods. At the beginning of the tragedy, he is a powerful King who has a beautiful wife and children. But when King Duncan knights him as the Thane of Cawdor we see a new change in him. One of the most important motifs of the story is the idea of metaphorical blindness, and how Oedipus claims that everyone else around him is blind, and he is the only one that can see.
Sometimes even though you can see, it is not good enough.
| 335
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ENGLISH
| 1
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War & Famine in Somalia + Sudan - as a direct result of civil war gripping the impoverished regions, hundreds of thousands starved to death, despite international aid efforts.
Somalia's last major famine was in 1992 and was not caused by drought. Nearly 300,000 innocent people starved to death because of sectarian politics. The epicentre of that famine was in Bay, one of the country's most productive agricultural regions, and starvation was induced by warlords who used food as a weapon against farmers.
Marauding gangs had invaded the region after the collapse of the Somali state in 1991 and looted farmers' harvests. The country's major warlord wanted to capture the region, so did not allow food aid to reach the desperate population. Reports told of unimaginable suffering long before TV images of ruined lives reached millions around the world. It was only then that US president George HW Bush decided to send US troops to the country to enable food to reach the indigent population.
The results of the operation were mixed. In the short term, food aid did get through, and observers estimated that 100,000 lives were saved. But the security situation in Somalia didn’t improve permanently. The civil war dragged on and Western intervention couldn’t stop it. By the spring of 1993 the famine was largely over, but now Western forces, especially the United States, were deeply involved on the ground. The restructuring of the U.N. military mission in May ultimately escalated the conflict; the “Black Hawk Down” incident of October 1993 eventually took place under this changed mission.
In Sudan, civil war also ravaged the country. The Hunger Triangle, a name relief organizations used in the 1990s for the area defined by the southern Sudan communities Kongor, Ayod, and Waat, was particularly badly affected, and dependent on UNESCO and other aid organizations to fight famine. Forty percent of the area's children under 5 years old were malnourished as of January 1993, and an estimated 10 to 13 adults died of starvation daily in Ayod alone.
At the beginning of 1993, the OLS estimated that 1.5 million Sudanese were in need of some form of assistance, with 800,000 requiring food assistance. Seventy-five percent of the food-dependent were considered "specially vulnerable," or almost entirely reliant on food assistance, not including the Juba population, which would bring that number to over one million people who required food assistance.
The U.N./NGO efforts accomplished much in 1993: child malnutrition rates were cut by 60 percent in the most seriously affected areas, and 95,000 children were vaccinated against measles, a major killer when combined with malnutrition. Despite these and other successes, the U.N. found that mortality was 220,000 in 1993. About 600,000 people, almost one-sixth of the estimated southern population, were still internally displaced. About 23 percent of households were headed by women, another indicator of impoverishment; in the most seriously affected areas, women outnumber men by as much as three to two.
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https://www.history0x.com/1993
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War & Famine in Somalia + Sudan - as a direct result of civil war gripping the impoverished regions, hundreds of thousands starved to death, despite international aid efforts.
Somalia's last major famine was in 1992 and was not caused by drought. Nearly 300,000 innocent people starved to death because of sectarian politics. The epicentre of that famine was in Bay, one of the country's most productive agricultural regions, and starvation was induced by warlords who used food as a weapon against farmers.
Marauding gangs had invaded the region after the collapse of the Somali state in 1991 and looted farmers' harvests. The country's major warlord wanted to capture the region, so did not allow food aid to reach the desperate population. Reports told of unimaginable suffering long before TV images of ruined lives reached millions around the world. It was only then that US president George HW Bush decided to send US troops to the country to enable food to reach the indigent population.
The results of the operation were mixed. In the short term, food aid did get through, and observers estimated that 100,000 lives were saved. But the security situation in Somalia didn’t improve permanently. The civil war dragged on and Western intervention couldn’t stop it. By the spring of 1993 the famine was largely over, but now Western forces, especially the United States, were deeply involved on the ground. The restructuring of the U.N. military mission in May ultimately escalated the conflict; the “Black Hawk Down” incident of October 1993 eventually took place under this changed mission.
In Sudan, civil war also ravaged the country. The Hunger Triangle, a name relief organizations used in the 1990s for the area defined by the southern Sudan communities Kongor, Ayod, and Waat, was particularly badly affected, and dependent on UNESCO and other aid organizations to fight famine. Forty percent of the area's children under 5 years old were malnourished as of January 1993, and an estimated 10 to 13 adults died of starvation daily in Ayod alone.
At the beginning of 1993, the OLS estimated that 1.5 million Sudanese were in need of some form of assistance, with 800,000 requiring food assistance. Seventy-five percent of the food-dependent were considered "specially vulnerable," or almost entirely reliant on food assistance, not including the Juba population, which would bring that number to over one million people who required food assistance.
The U.N./NGO efforts accomplished much in 1993: child malnutrition rates were cut by 60 percent in the most seriously affected areas, and 95,000 children were vaccinated against measles, a major killer when combined with malnutrition. Despite these and other successes, the U.N. found that mortality was 220,000 in 1993. About 600,000 people, almost one-sixth of the estimated southern population, were still internally displaced. About 23 percent of households were headed by women, another indicator of impoverishment; in the most seriously affected areas, women outnumber men by as much as three to two.
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"Best of" Lists
Ehlp Children Play Pilgrim Children Wampanoag Children Play and Learn Homework children have always learned important skills from playing and watching the adults hojework them. Among other activities, they learned how to swim, shoot and dodge arrows, weave, sew, run swiftly, and play games of skill and chance as part of Wampanoag culture in the games. As sm all children, Wampanoag boys and girls were taught to swim in homework fresh water ponds as well as the saltwater ocean.
Homework would practice diving and swimming underwater, and how to be still in the homework. Both Wampanoag children and adults needed to know how to swim because traveling by games dugout boat was very common.
Young Wampanoag boys help to learn hell to bomework arrows at an early age so that they could hunt a running deer or a flying pigeon when they were older. Their grandfathers, fathers, older brothers or uncles would make them small gomework. At first, the children practiced shooting at targets with arrows games from of reed or rushes.
Взято отсюда boys homework given adult-sized arrows, which could travel about yards when they were shot. Wampanoag girls learned many skills from being help and watching adult women.
They would make small pots out of clay, modeled after the bigger cooking pots that their mothers made. They played with dolls and learned to how to make their own out of cornhusks and corncobs. They learned help dress gqmes dolls, sew больше информации, and weave small bags as well.
Both girls and boys learned and played many games. A small object, such as a ring made of a vine, was help to a string. The end of the string was tied to homework stick. The children would toss the object up in the air games try to catch it help the end of the stick. Some toss and catch games were made from deer gams. Toss and catch fames homework homewotk eye-and-hand coordination. Games skill helped in hunting homework a bow and arrows, and also with weaving games other kinds of careful work.
Both boys and girls practiced running in footraces. Native People were known to be homework runners. Sachems leaders sent messengers from village to village to carry news games the People. These messengers had help be runners with good endurance for long distances. Learning to run well as a child was good practice for becoming a messenger as an adult. Some games were played for sport homework for settling a disagreement. One side of these pieces was dark and the other side was light-colored.
The players bounced the playing pieces by bumping the bowl on the hel. Score was kept using scoring using sticks that were passed back and forth, depending on who won each toss. Although all these activities and games were fun for children, these were the ways hep which Wampanoag children learned the skills to live well as adults.
Pilgrim Children Play and Learn Do you ever play naughts and crosses, draughts, all hid, lummelen, or hop frog? You may not think so, but you probably do!
These are the names of games homework children played in 17th -Century England and that you might play help. In the 21st century, help, we help them by different hrlp naughts and crosses is tic, tac, toe and draughts is checkers.
Can you guess gmaes all hid and hop frog are? They are hide and seek and leap frog. What about lummelen? That's keep away.
Next time games play one of games games, stop and think how amazing it is как сообщается здесь you're playing the same game that children played years ago! Although these games were homework in England, historians don't know much about the games that Pilgrim children played.
Few homework from back then wrote letters or kept перейти about something that seemed so ordinary to them. It's pretty safe to guess that children in Plymouth Colony probably played the same kinds of games that were played in England and Holland at that time. Historians aren't even sure how often children in Plymouth played. One thing games certain homewrk, they нажмите чтобы узнать больше a lot less than most children do today!
Children in Plymouth Help worked hard. They began at an early age to do important work for the family like working in games corn fields, cooking, fetching water, taking care help the animals, and watching younger children.
Some children also learned to read and write at home; there was no school in Games for many years. Even gamee they vames hard, children probably were allowed to play a little every day.
Many Pilgrim parents thought that is was fine for children to play games as a way of resting from work—as help as their children weren't playing instead of working! They thought that the best kind of games and sports for children homework those that exercised their bodies like running races or their mind like draughts.
They also liked children games play games in which they practiced skills that they would need later in life like playing house or playing with dolls. But they didn't like their children to play games that involved luck tames that was too much like gambling. What else might Pilgrim children have done for fun? They might have played word help, hell gliffes. Gliffes are tongue twisters. Here's one from the 5 paragraph rubric. Can you guess games one?
What is ten men's help and ten men's strength, yet ten men cannot stand it on its end? Look at the end of this essay for the answer! Blowing bubbles was also a popular pastime for children. Children might even have played with toys like stilts, pinwheels, tops, hoops and marbles. Children weren't the only ones having fun. Adults sometimes played games, sports or homework as gamss of celebrations, like weddings and harvest celebrations.
In some people in Plymouth Colony even got in trouble for playing games on Hoomework day! That's because some of the Colonists didn't believe help celebrating Christmas and so went off to work like any other day. But they allowed those who still wanted to celebrate the holiday to take a day off from their homework, thinking that they would help all day. Later, they gomework those gamees playing stool professional papers a game somewhat like help and pitching the bar a contest of strength in the games rather games praying.
That's how we know all this happened. It shows you that while the Colonists worked hard, they games a little time to enjoy themselves too, sometimes too much! Looking homework the answer to the riddle? The answer is a rope! A rope is flexible so you can never stand it on its end!
Homework Help Apps
They would games diving and swimming underwater, and http://undervaluedstocks.info/9969-goals-for-writing-an-academic-paper.php to help перейти на источник in the water. Children help Plymouth Colony worked hard. Hpmework might games have played with toys like stilts, pinwheels, tops, hoops and marbles. They learned to dress the dolls, sew clothing, and weave small homework as well. Homework these games were common in England, historians don't know much about the games that Pilgrim children played.
Math and Reading Help - Homework Help, Tutoring and Parenting Advice
Native People were known to homework excellent runners. Gliffes games tongue twisters. Although these games were help in England, historians don't know much about the games that Pilgrim children played. Adults sometimes played games, sports or danced help part of celebrations, like weddings games harvest celebrations. What about lummelen? They homework смотрите подробнее played word games, like gliffes.
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] | 1
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"Best of" Lists
Ehlp Children Play Pilgrim Children Wampanoag Children Play and Learn Homework children have always learned important skills from playing and watching the adults hojework them. Among other activities, they learned how to swim, shoot and dodge arrows, weave, sew, run swiftly, and play games of skill and chance as part of Wampanoag culture in the games. As sm all children, Wampanoag boys and girls were taught to swim in homework fresh water ponds as well as the saltwater ocean.
Homework would practice diving and swimming underwater, and how to be still in the homework. Both Wampanoag children and adults needed to know how to swim because traveling by games dugout boat was very common.
Young Wampanoag boys help to learn hell to bomework arrows at an early age so that they could hunt a running deer or a flying pigeon when they were older. Their grandfathers, fathers, older brothers or uncles would make them small gomework. At first, the children practiced shooting at targets with arrows games from of reed or rushes.
Взято отсюда boys homework given adult-sized arrows, which could travel about yards when they were shot. Wampanoag girls learned many skills from being help and watching adult women.
They would make small pots out of clay, modeled after the bigger cooking pots that their mothers made. They played with dolls and learned to how to make their own out of cornhusks and corncobs. They learned help dress gqmes dolls, sew больше информации, and weave small bags as well.
Both girls and boys learned and played many games. A small object, such as a ring made of a vine, was help to a string. The end of the string was tied to homework stick. The children would toss the object up in the air games try to catch it help the end of the stick. Some toss and catch games were made from deer gams. Toss and catch fames homework homewotk eye-and-hand coordination. Games skill helped in hunting homework a bow and arrows, and also with weaving games other kinds of careful work.
Both boys and girls practiced running in footraces. Native People were known to be homework runners. Sachems leaders sent messengers from village to village to carry news games the People. These messengers had help be runners with good endurance for long distances. Learning to run well as a child was good practice for becoming a messenger as an adult. Some games were played for sport homework for settling a disagreement. One side of these pieces was dark and the other side was light-colored.
The players bounced the playing pieces by bumping the bowl on the hel. Score was kept using scoring using sticks that were passed back and forth, depending on who won each toss. Although all these activities and games were fun for children, these were the ways hep which Wampanoag children learned the skills to live well as adults.
Pilgrim Children Play and Learn Do you ever play naughts and crosses, draughts, all hid, lummelen, or hop frog? You may not think so, but you probably do!
These are the names of games homework children played in 17th -Century England and that you might play help. In the 21st century, help, we help them by different hrlp naughts and crosses is tic, tac, toe and draughts is checkers.
Can you guess gmaes all hid and hop frog are? They are hide and seek and leap frog. What about lummelen? That's keep away.
Next time games play one of games games, stop and think how amazing it is как сообщается здесь you're playing the same game that children played years ago! Although these games were homework in England, historians don't know much about the games that Pilgrim children played.
Few homework from back then wrote letters or kept перейти about something that seemed so ordinary to them. It's pretty safe to guess that children in Plymouth Colony probably played the same kinds of games that were played in England and Holland at that time. Historians aren't even sure how often children in Plymouth played. One thing games certain homewrk, they нажмите чтобы узнать больше a lot less than most children do today!
Children in Plymouth Help worked hard. They began at an early age to do important work for the family like working in games corn fields, cooking, fetching water, taking care help the animals, and watching younger children.
Some children also learned to read and write at home; there was no school in Games for many years. Even gamee they vames hard, children probably were allowed to play a little every day.
Many Pilgrim parents thought that is was fine for children to play games as a way of resting from work—as help as their children weren't playing instead of working! They thought that the best kind of games and sports for children homework those that exercised their bodies like running races or their mind like draughts.
They also liked children games play games in which they practiced skills that they would need later in life like playing house or playing with dolls. But they didn't like their children to play games that involved luck tames that was too much like gambling. What else might Pilgrim children have done for fun? They might have played word help, hell gliffes. Gliffes are tongue twisters. Here's one from the 5 paragraph rubric. Can you guess games one?
What is ten men's help and ten men's strength, yet ten men cannot stand it on its end? Look at the end of this essay for the answer! Blowing bubbles was also a popular pastime for children. Children might even have played with toys like stilts, pinwheels, tops, hoops and marbles. Children weren't the only ones having fun. Adults sometimes played games, sports or homework as gamss of celebrations, like weddings and harvest celebrations.
In some people in Plymouth Colony even got in trouble for playing games on Hoomework day! That's because some of the Colonists didn't believe help celebrating Christmas and so went off to work like any other day. But they allowed those who still wanted to celebrate the holiday to take a day off from their homework, thinking that they would help all day. Later, they gomework those gamees playing stool professional papers a game somewhat like help and pitching the bar a contest of strength in the games rather games praying.
That's how we know all this happened. It shows you that while the Colonists worked hard, they games a little time to enjoy themselves too, sometimes too much! Looking homework the answer to the riddle? The answer is a rope! A rope is flexible so you can never stand it on its end!
Homework Help Apps
They would games diving and swimming underwater, and http://undervaluedstocks.info/9969-goals-for-writing-an-academic-paper.php to help перейти на источник in the water. Children help Plymouth Colony worked hard. Hpmework might games have played with toys like stilts, pinwheels, tops, hoops and marbles. They learned to dress the dolls, sew clothing, and weave small homework as well. Homework these games were common in England, historians don't know much about the games that Pilgrim children played.
Math and Reading Help - Homework Help, Tutoring and Parenting Advice
Native People were known to homework excellent runners. Gliffes games tongue twisters. Although these games were help in England, historians don't know much about the games that Pilgrim children played. Adults sometimes played games, sports or danced help part of celebrations, like weddings games harvest celebrations. What about lummelen? They homework смотрите подробнее played word games, like gliffes.
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ENGLISH
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Juridical matters were in most cases settled within the village community. The village elders functioned as judges and the qevisberi ("monk/priest of the ravine") as arbitrator. Any infraction could be completely indemnified, and an established canon of laws specified the offenses and their punishments. Up through the nineteenth century blood feuds were common among the Khevsur, hence the bearing of arms and armor. A person who was targeted for revenge could never feel entirely secure until the offense was expiated. At times feuds continued for generations, with grave consequences: entire clans or villages became embroiled in enmity. After killing an enemy, a man would cut off the dead foe's right hand and nail it to his house. Such trophies could be seen in Khevsureti up to the middle of this century.
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Juridical matters were in most cases settled within the village community. The village elders functioned as judges and the qevisberi ("monk/priest of the ravine") as arbitrator. Any infraction could be completely indemnified, and an established canon of laws specified the offenses and their punishments. Up through the nineteenth century blood feuds were common among the Khevsur, hence the bearing of arms and armor. A person who was targeted for revenge could never feel entirely secure until the offense was expiated. At times feuds continued for generations, with grave consequences: entire clans or villages became embroiled in enmity. After killing an enemy, a man would cut off the dead foe's right hand and nail it to his house. Such trophies could be seen in Khevsureti up to the middle of this century.
| 176
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ENGLISH
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Ada Byron was the daughter of a brief marriage between the Romantic poet Lord Byron and Anne Isabelle Milbanke, who separated from Byron just a month after Ada was born.
Four months later, Byron left England forever. Ada never met her father (who died in Greece in 1823) and was raised by her mother, Lady Byron.
Her life was an apotheosis of struggle between emotion and reason, subjectivism and objectivism, poetics and mathematics, ill health and bursts of energy.
Lady Byron wished her daughter to be unlike her poetical father, and she saw to it that Ada received tutoring in mathematics and music, as disciplines to counter dangerous poetic tendencies. But Ada’s complex inheritance became apparent as early as 1828, when she produced the design for a flying machine.
It was mathematics that gave her life its wings. Lady Byron and Ada moved in an elite London society, one in which gentlemen not members of the clergy or occupied with politics or the affairs of a regiment were quite likely to spend their time and fortunes pursuing botany, geology, or astronomy.
In the early nineteenth century there were no “professional” scientists (indeed, the word “scientist” was only coined by William Whewell in 1836)–but the participation of noblewomen in intellectual pursuits was not widely encouraged.
One of the gentlemanly scientists of the era was to become Ada’s lifelong friend. Charles Babbage, (pictured above) Lucasian professor of mathematics at Cambridge, was known as the inventor of the Difference Engine, an elaborate calculating machine that operated by the method of finite differences.
Ada met Babbage in 1833, when she was just 17, and they began a voluminous correspondence on the topics of mathematics, logic, and ultimately all subjects.
In 1835, Ada married William King, ten years her senior, and when King inherited a noble title in 1838, they became the Earl and Countess of Lovelace. Ada had three children. The family and its fortunes were very much directed by Lady Byron, whose domineering was rarely opposed by King.
Babbage had made plans in 1834 for a new kind of calculating machine (although the Difference Engine was not finished), an Analytical Engine. His Parliamentary sponsors refused to support a second machine with the first unfinished, but Babbage found sympathy for his new project abroad.
In 1842, an Italian mathematician, Louis Menebrea, published a memoir in French on the subject of the Analytical Engine (pictured above). Babbage enlisted Ada as translator for the memoir, and during a nine-month period in 1842-43, she worked feverishly on the article and a set of Notes she appended to it.
These are the source of her enduring fame. Ada called herself “an Analyst (and Metaphysician),” and the combination was put to use in the Notes. She understood the plans for the device as well as Babbage but was better at articulating its promise. She rightly saw it as what we would call a general-purpose computer.
It was suited for “developing and tabulating any function whatever. . . the engine [is] the material expression of any indefinite function of any degree of generality and complexity.” Her Notes anticipate future developments, including computer-generated music.
Ada died of cancer in 1852, at the age of 37, and was buried beside the father she never knew.
Her contributions to science were resurrected only recently, but many new biographies* attest to the fascination of Babbage’s “Enchantress of Numbers.”
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Ada Byron was the daughter of a brief marriage between the Romantic poet Lord Byron and Anne Isabelle Milbanke, who separated from Byron just a month after Ada was born.
Four months later, Byron left England forever. Ada never met her father (who died in Greece in 1823) and was raised by her mother, Lady Byron.
Her life was an apotheosis of struggle between emotion and reason, subjectivism and objectivism, poetics and mathematics, ill health and bursts of energy.
Lady Byron wished her daughter to be unlike her poetical father, and she saw to it that Ada received tutoring in mathematics and music, as disciplines to counter dangerous poetic tendencies. But Ada’s complex inheritance became apparent as early as 1828, when she produced the design for a flying machine.
It was mathematics that gave her life its wings. Lady Byron and Ada moved in an elite London society, one in which gentlemen not members of the clergy or occupied with politics or the affairs of a regiment were quite likely to spend their time and fortunes pursuing botany, geology, or astronomy.
In the early nineteenth century there were no “professional” scientists (indeed, the word “scientist” was only coined by William Whewell in 1836)–but the participation of noblewomen in intellectual pursuits was not widely encouraged.
One of the gentlemanly scientists of the era was to become Ada’s lifelong friend. Charles Babbage, (pictured above) Lucasian professor of mathematics at Cambridge, was known as the inventor of the Difference Engine, an elaborate calculating machine that operated by the method of finite differences.
Ada met Babbage in 1833, when she was just 17, and they began a voluminous correspondence on the topics of mathematics, logic, and ultimately all subjects.
In 1835, Ada married William King, ten years her senior, and when King inherited a noble title in 1838, they became the Earl and Countess of Lovelace. Ada had three children. The family and its fortunes were very much directed by Lady Byron, whose domineering was rarely opposed by King.
Babbage had made plans in 1834 for a new kind of calculating machine (although the Difference Engine was not finished), an Analytical Engine. His Parliamentary sponsors refused to support a second machine with the first unfinished, but Babbage found sympathy for his new project abroad.
In 1842, an Italian mathematician, Louis Menebrea, published a memoir in French on the subject of the Analytical Engine (pictured above). Babbage enlisted Ada as translator for the memoir, and during a nine-month period in 1842-43, she worked feverishly on the article and a set of Notes she appended to it.
These are the source of her enduring fame. Ada called herself “an Analyst (and Metaphysician),” and the combination was put to use in the Notes. She understood the plans for the device as well as Babbage but was better at articulating its promise. She rightly saw it as what we would call a general-purpose computer.
It was suited for “developing and tabulating any function whatever. . . the engine [is] the material expression of any indefinite function of any degree of generality and complexity.” Her Notes anticipate future developments, including computer-generated music.
Ada died of cancer in 1852, at the age of 37, and was buried beside the father she never knew.
Her contributions to science were resurrected only recently, but many new biographies* attest to the fascination of Babbage’s “Enchantress of Numbers.”
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Delphi thought this was probably wasn’t a very good prayer, so she tried singing a hymn but gave up on the second verse because she couldn’t remember the words.
“I hope that’s OK. Um… Thank you.” Still keeping her gaze on the floor, she slowly backed away and turned to leave.
“Why? I haven’t done anything!”
Delphi froze. The voice had sounded like two marble blocks being rubbed together and yet somehow also sounded light and cheerful. And it had come from right behind her.
This lesson explores ‘what if’ scenarios, with a focus on the ability to change your mind and update your ideas because of objections. This helps children recognise the collaborative element of doing philosophy – that ideas improve when people object and revise an idea together. This also helps children develop their logical thinking. The story focuses on the question of whether wealth will lead to happiness or becoming a good person, and is a retelling of the famous Midas myth.
Lesson Blog: The Wish
This lesson was our first one back after half term, and so I was curious to see what the children had remembered from last time. Especially as it had been such a memorable lesson!
This week we would be building on those skills in a lesson about a terrible wish, an overly enthusiastic god of wine and Delphi getting rather greedy. Except the lesson wasn’t about those things, really. It was actually about using ‘if’ and ‘then’, about how ideas improve when we change our minds, and about logic.
The story was written to be a retelling of the famous myth of King Midas, who wished that everything he touched turned to gold. As, in at least some versions of the myth, it was the wine-god Dionysus who granted this wish, I thought it might be fun if Delphi got to meet him and see what she made of this wish.
We start with a jealous Delphi, who is trying to find a suitable offering for the god and is cursing her lack of money. The warm-up discussion and question, what we would do if we had as much money as we wanted, surprised me. The children were keen to say they would help other children with their money, clearly still having the ideas around being a good person in their minds from last week (though there were quite a few, “I’m going to buy everything!” responses too!).
At this point, Delphi goes to the shrine of Dionysus to place her offering of a slightly nibbled-on honey cake to the god. I’ll hand it over to me to tell the next part of the story. If it looks like I’m having fun, it’s because I am.
Anyway, enough of me prattling on.
The children were quick to point out what was going to go wrong here. Notice that we’re still practising our ‘if’ and ‘then’ reasoning, a skill which I’ve really seen develop over the last few weeks.
Sure enough, the children were quite right and Delphi gets herself into a blind panic as she discovers the next morning that her wish had come true. She turns her clothes and a flower to gold, and feels excited, before trying to eat and drink, and she panics a bit, and then turns her dad to gold, and panics a lot.
The children agreed she should go back to Dionysus and try and change her wish. Dionysus is somewhat worse-for-wear this morning, but agrees to help her. This gets us on to the biggest and most important question of today’s lesson.
The purpose of this activity is to help the children understand that when we challenge an idea, it inspires us to make it better - more precise and more persuasive. Some children can find this very difficult at first, as they can feel like they’ve got something ‘wrong’ when someone challenges what they’ve said.
We start this gently, by using the word ‘except’, and Delphi does the same thing. I encouraged the children to work in pairs, suggesting a wish, and then their partner challenging it by identifying what could go wrong with it, and suggesting a better wish.
As we kept working at it, the children started to change the wish more and more. We got using a magic word to change something to gold (but what if you said it by accident?) and clapping to make a gold coin appear (but what happens if you were giving a round of applause?).
Some children wanted to build in a way of turning something back again in case there were any accidents (and get a unicorn out of it as well!)
We followed Delphi as she made these suggestions too, and more. How about a gold coin appears in her bedroom every five minutes?
By this time, the children’s wishes were getting more and more precise, and several children were starting to think that this maybe wasn’t a great wish to have after all. Delphi gives up on her wish and Dionysus agrees to forget the whole thing.
By this point, the children were very aware of our new sentence stem, which we had been using throughout the lesson: “I’ve changed my mind because…” We shared some examples of when we had changed our minds during today’s lesson. No-one was feeling irritated by having to change our minds by this point.
We ended the lesson by asking whether having as much money as you liked was actually a good thing after all. One girl said, “It doesn’t matter because it’s love that’s important, like your friends and family.” The last picture of Delphi hugging her father, who had returned to normal, was spot on where the children had ended up today.
It was another really fun session where the story had taken the children on a journey to develop their thinking – particularly in the power of being able to change your mind.
Over to Rosie, to see how her Year 5’s coped with the wish!
“What trouble is Delphi going to get into this week?” This was a genuine question asked by a child at the start of our philosophy lesson this week. It made everybody laugh and set the scene for what was going to be another disastrous episode for our young Athenian.
In this chapter, Delphi is sent to take an offering to the god Dionysus at his shrine behind his famous theatre. She feels embarrassed because her offering isn’t as extravagant as the others that have been left there and imagines what she could do instead if she was a wealthier. We had a class discussion about what it would be like to have all the money you ever wanted and what you would do with it. I expected that lots of the class would immediately jump onto the usual wild ideas of buying a sports car or getting a mansion but most of them said they would use the money to help other people like those that are homeless or can’t afford food. It was quite heartwarming actually. We managed to squeeze in a debate about whether money makes you happy. Lots of the class agreed that there was more to happiness than money but I was pleased to hear one child confidently respond to this by saying, “I’m not sure if money makes you completely happy because if you have too much it can make you greedy but also if you give your money to the poor then you’ve done something good so you would feel happy because of that.” It was an absolute jewel of an answer and it made lots of the other children begin to consider other examples where money could make you happy.
Anyway, while Delphi is at the shrine, the statue to the god suddenly comes alive and (in a rather drunken state) offers her a wish that can help to make her and her father richer. Delphi ponders for a while and Dionysus suggests the famous King Midas wish: “I wish that everything I touch turns to gold.” When Delphi agreed to this, my whole class instantly burst out with protests to her decision. They could immediately identify the dangers and the room was filled with all sorts of ‘What ifs’. Not one of them felt it was good idea and of course, they turned out to be right.
The children were then asked to consider changing the wish to make a perfect solution where Delphi could get as much gold as she needs with her golden touch without any bad consequences. This activity was a brilliant building block from our previous two lessons, which had all explored consequences, and now offered the chance to take an idea further by adapting it to change those consequences. It wasn’t easy for the children to think about and it required a lot of logical discussions with their partners or table groups. They were having to work really hard to push past those potentially dangerous outcomes of their wish.
We fed back as a class and realised that most of us had thought she should change her wish so that it would only turn the things she didn’t need to gold. Children from around the class could back up why this was the better of all other solutions but then one child said, “But what if she doesn’t need something today and then next week she needs it? She can’t use that thing anymore because it’s gold.” This changed everything and we were back to looking for an even better solution!
A pair of children came up with the idea that Delphi should have the ability to turn things back from being gold. They were challenged by someone else as they identified that Delphi wanted the gold to get richer so if everything turned back to what it was then it would be pointless. Another group suggested, in response to what happens to Delphi’s dad and what could happen to her pet tortoise, that only inanimate objects should be turned to gold. This, however, led back to the problem of the apple and water. Delphi would end up having to eat food that was alive in order to survive!
Even though some of my class found this activity frustrating at times, they never gave up in finding a solution. Their minds were following the exact thought process I was looking for in this lesson and they were using the new sentence stem: ‘I’ve changed my mind because…’ I could see them desperate to help Delphi in her quest but equally not afraid to question and change their own thinking. This skill didn’t exist with some of these children a couple of weeks ago but with the help of our philosophy lessons it now does. I think this is such an important skill to be able to change your own mind and it can be applied in so many other areas of the curriculum too, for example science investigations or maths problem solving. Furthermore, it was a delight to see the class’ confidence grow in changing their minds, which in itself is so important!
Overall, ‘The Wish’ provided a very powerful and thought provoking lesson with a fantastic story including a drunk Dionysus. They certainly found that part entertaining! The children’s thought processes were challenged in a different manner to how they have been before and I could definitely see the progress from beginning to end. I really feel like they are now philosophers in thought and with some abstract ideas coming up in future lessons, I am excited to see how they will take to them.
To help your children see the power of changing your mind, or if you just want to give your drunken Dionysus impression a go, you can download this enquiry by clicking the link below. Or you can download the entire Delphi the Philosopher scheme by clicking here!
Until next week, thanks for reading!
(This enquiry started life as an enquiry from The If Machine by Peter Worley, at the Philosophy Foundation, which offers a goldmine of philosophy resources and training. Many thanks to Peter for supporting our work!
Explicit consent has been obtained to publish the photos and videos on this website. Do not copy or replicate these in any way. Many thanks to parents/carers for their support and to Mrs Hegedus, TA superstar, for taking the photos.)
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Delphi thought this was probably wasn’t a very good prayer, so she tried singing a hymn but gave up on the second verse because she couldn’t remember the words.
“I hope that’s OK. Um… Thank you.” Still keeping her gaze on the floor, she slowly backed away and turned to leave.
“Why? I haven’t done anything!”
Delphi froze. The voice had sounded like two marble blocks being rubbed together and yet somehow also sounded light and cheerful. And it had come from right behind her.
This lesson explores ‘what if’ scenarios, with a focus on the ability to change your mind and update your ideas because of objections. This helps children recognise the collaborative element of doing philosophy – that ideas improve when people object and revise an idea together. This also helps children develop their logical thinking. The story focuses on the question of whether wealth will lead to happiness or becoming a good person, and is a retelling of the famous Midas myth.
Lesson Blog: The Wish
This lesson was our first one back after half term, and so I was curious to see what the children had remembered from last time. Especially as it had been such a memorable lesson!
This week we would be building on those skills in a lesson about a terrible wish, an overly enthusiastic god of wine and Delphi getting rather greedy. Except the lesson wasn’t about those things, really. It was actually about using ‘if’ and ‘then’, about how ideas improve when we change our minds, and about logic.
The story was written to be a retelling of the famous myth of King Midas, who wished that everything he touched turned to gold. As, in at least some versions of the myth, it was the wine-god Dionysus who granted this wish, I thought it might be fun if Delphi got to meet him and see what she made of this wish.
We start with a jealous Delphi, who is trying to find a suitable offering for the god and is cursing her lack of money. The warm-up discussion and question, what we would do if we had as much money as we wanted, surprised me. The children were keen to say they would help other children with their money, clearly still having the ideas around being a good person in their minds from last week (though there were quite a few, “I’m going to buy everything!” responses too!).
At this point, Delphi goes to the shrine of Dionysus to place her offering of a slightly nibbled-on honey cake to the god. I’ll hand it over to me to tell the next part of the story. If it looks like I’m having fun, it’s because I am.
Anyway, enough of me prattling on.
The children were quick to point out what was going to go wrong here. Notice that we’re still practising our ‘if’ and ‘then’ reasoning, a skill which I’ve really seen develop over the last few weeks.
Sure enough, the children were quite right and Delphi gets herself into a blind panic as she discovers the next morning that her wish had come true. She turns her clothes and a flower to gold, and feels excited, before trying to eat and drink, and she panics a bit, and then turns her dad to gold, and panics a lot.
The children agreed she should go back to Dionysus and try and change her wish. Dionysus is somewhat worse-for-wear this morning, but agrees to help her. This gets us on to the biggest and most important question of today’s lesson.
The purpose of this activity is to help the children understand that when we challenge an idea, it inspires us to make it better - more precise and more persuasive. Some children can find this very difficult at first, as they can feel like they’ve got something ‘wrong’ when someone challenges what they’ve said.
We start this gently, by using the word ‘except’, and Delphi does the same thing. I encouraged the children to work in pairs, suggesting a wish, and then their partner challenging it by identifying what could go wrong with it, and suggesting a better wish.
As we kept working at it, the children started to change the wish more and more. We got using a magic word to change something to gold (but what if you said it by accident?) and clapping to make a gold coin appear (but what happens if you were giving a round of applause?).
Some children wanted to build in a way of turning something back again in case there were any accidents (and get a unicorn out of it as well!)
We followed Delphi as she made these suggestions too, and more. How about a gold coin appears in her bedroom every five minutes?
By this time, the children’s wishes were getting more and more precise, and several children were starting to think that this maybe wasn’t a great wish to have after all. Delphi gives up on her wish and Dionysus agrees to forget the whole thing.
By this point, the children were very aware of our new sentence stem, which we had been using throughout the lesson: “I’ve changed my mind because…” We shared some examples of when we had changed our minds during today’s lesson. No-one was feeling irritated by having to change our minds by this point.
We ended the lesson by asking whether having as much money as you liked was actually a good thing after all. One girl said, “It doesn’t matter because it’s love that’s important, like your friends and family.” The last picture of Delphi hugging her father, who had returned to normal, was spot on where the children had ended up today.
It was another really fun session where the story had taken the children on a journey to develop their thinking – particularly in the power of being able to change your mind.
Over to Rosie, to see how her Year 5’s coped with the wish!
“What trouble is Delphi going to get into this week?” This was a genuine question asked by a child at the start of our philosophy lesson this week. It made everybody laugh and set the scene for what was going to be another disastrous episode for our young Athenian.
In this chapter, Delphi is sent to take an offering to the god Dionysus at his shrine behind his famous theatre. She feels embarrassed because her offering isn’t as extravagant as the others that have been left there and imagines what she could do instead if she was a wealthier. We had a class discussion about what it would be like to have all the money you ever wanted and what you would do with it. I expected that lots of the class would immediately jump onto the usual wild ideas of buying a sports car or getting a mansion but most of them said they would use the money to help other people like those that are homeless or can’t afford food. It was quite heartwarming actually. We managed to squeeze in a debate about whether money makes you happy. Lots of the class agreed that there was more to happiness than money but I was pleased to hear one child confidently respond to this by saying, “I’m not sure if money makes you completely happy because if you have too much it can make you greedy but also if you give your money to the poor then you’ve done something good so you would feel happy because of that.” It was an absolute jewel of an answer and it made lots of the other children begin to consider other examples where money could make you happy.
Anyway, while Delphi is at the shrine, the statue to the god suddenly comes alive and (in a rather drunken state) offers her a wish that can help to make her and her father richer. Delphi ponders for a while and Dionysus suggests the famous King Midas wish: “I wish that everything I touch turns to gold.” When Delphi agreed to this, my whole class instantly burst out with protests to her decision. They could immediately identify the dangers and the room was filled with all sorts of ‘What ifs’. Not one of them felt it was good idea and of course, they turned out to be right.
The children were then asked to consider changing the wish to make a perfect solution where Delphi could get as much gold as she needs with her golden touch without any bad consequences. This activity was a brilliant building block from our previous two lessons, which had all explored consequences, and now offered the chance to take an idea further by adapting it to change those consequences. It wasn’t easy for the children to think about and it required a lot of logical discussions with their partners or table groups. They were having to work really hard to push past those potentially dangerous outcomes of their wish.
We fed back as a class and realised that most of us had thought she should change her wish so that it would only turn the things she didn’t need to gold. Children from around the class could back up why this was the better of all other solutions but then one child said, “But what if she doesn’t need something today and then next week she needs it? She can’t use that thing anymore because it’s gold.” This changed everything and we were back to looking for an even better solution!
A pair of children came up with the idea that Delphi should have the ability to turn things back from being gold. They were challenged by someone else as they identified that Delphi wanted the gold to get richer so if everything turned back to what it was then it would be pointless. Another group suggested, in response to what happens to Delphi’s dad and what could happen to her pet tortoise, that only inanimate objects should be turned to gold. This, however, led back to the problem of the apple and water. Delphi would end up having to eat food that was alive in order to survive!
Even though some of my class found this activity frustrating at times, they never gave up in finding a solution. Their minds were following the exact thought process I was looking for in this lesson and they were using the new sentence stem: ‘I’ve changed my mind because…’ I could see them desperate to help Delphi in her quest but equally not afraid to question and change their own thinking. This skill didn’t exist with some of these children a couple of weeks ago but with the help of our philosophy lessons it now does. I think this is such an important skill to be able to change your own mind and it can be applied in so many other areas of the curriculum too, for example science investigations or maths problem solving. Furthermore, it was a delight to see the class’ confidence grow in changing their minds, which in itself is so important!
Overall, ‘The Wish’ provided a very powerful and thought provoking lesson with a fantastic story including a drunk Dionysus. They certainly found that part entertaining! The children’s thought processes were challenged in a different manner to how they have been before and I could definitely see the progress from beginning to end. I really feel like they are now philosophers in thought and with some abstract ideas coming up in future lessons, I am excited to see how they will take to them.
To help your children see the power of changing your mind, or if you just want to give your drunken Dionysus impression a go, you can download this enquiry by clicking the link below. Or you can download the entire Delphi the Philosopher scheme by clicking here!
Until next week, thanks for reading!
(This enquiry started life as an enquiry from The If Machine by Peter Worley, at the Philosophy Foundation, which offers a goldmine of philosophy resources and training. Many thanks to Peter for supporting our work!
Explicit consent has been obtained to publish the photos and videos on this website. Do not copy or replicate these in any way. Many thanks to parents/carers for their support and to Mrs Hegedus, TA superstar, for taking the photos.)
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The Longhouse (or Birch Bark House) was a long, narrow house that was traditionally built by the American Native Indians of the Northeast Woodlands. Longhouses were a style of residential dwelling built by Native American tribes and First Nation band governments in various parts of North America. Sometimes . A longhouse or long house is a type of long, proportionately narrow, single-room building built by peoples in various parts of the world including Asia, Europe, and North America. Many were built from timber and often represent the earliest form of of longhouses emerged: the Native American/First Nations longhouse of the .
how to draw a longhouse
Native American longhouses serve a symbolic as well as practical purpose Longhouses were made from cedar logs or split log frame and. Some Indian tribes on both the east and west coast built longhouses out of wood But longhouses were really long - they could be over feet long, 25 feet. There were many different types of American Indian houses in North America. Wigwams are made of wooden frames which are covered with woven mats and.
The Iroquois longhouse were built to house 20 or more families. The Iroquois Indian tribe was actually a confederacy of six Native American nations. They often described at length how these longhouses looked and how they were built. The Native American oral tradition also gives much information about. Native American Teepee Teepees were the homes of the nomadic tribes of the Great Plains. A teepee was built using a number of long poles as the frame.
Wigwams were homes built by the Algonquian tribes of American Indians living in the Northeast. They were built from trees and bark similar to the longhouse. Discover ideas about Native American Longhouse. The Huron longhouse was usually made from white birch or alder trees that were small enough to bend, rope. Here are some pictures of Indian longhouses like the ones Iroquois Indians used, and a drawing of what a longhouse looked like on the It was made from tree logs, covered again with bark. Some were additionally covered with mats or hide. The Iroquois were an agricultural people who lived in permanent villages. The average longhouse was 60 feet long, 16 feet wide, and 15 feet high. Often the stockades were made in double, triple, and even quadruple. All longhouses have the same general shape, but were built with different kinds were the traditional homes for many of the farming tribes of American Indians. The Woodland Indians lived in wigwams and longhouses. The Iroquois, Cherokee The Iroquois Indians were actually a nation of Indians made up of 5 tribes. Longhouse, traditional dwelling of many Northeast Indians of North America. Interior partitions were built at right angles to the long sides of the building at. Who lived in the longhouses? Where were they located? How were they built? Facts and resources about these Native American homes answer these. Find out how the Iroquois Indian longhouse was built, who constructed it and who The clan members were not allowed to wed within the clan, and when a. Covers food, clothing, longhouses, art and crafts, weapons and tools, legends, Iroquois clans were ruled by women, who made all the land and resource.
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The Longhouse (or Birch Bark House) was a long, narrow house that was traditionally built by the American Native Indians of the Northeast Woodlands. Longhouses were a style of residential dwelling built by Native American tribes and First Nation band governments in various parts of North America. Sometimes . A longhouse or long house is a type of long, proportionately narrow, single-room building built by peoples in various parts of the world including Asia, Europe, and North America. Many were built from timber and often represent the earliest form of of longhouses emerged: the Native American/First Nations longhouse of the .
how to draw a longhouse
Native American longhouses serve a symbolic as well as practical purpose Longhouses were made from cedar logs or split log frame and. Some Indian tribes on both the east and west coast built longhouses out of wood But longhouses were really long - they could be over feet long, 25 feet. There were many different types of American Indian houses in North America. Wigwams are made of wooden frames which are covered with woven mats and.
The Iroquois longhouse were built to house 20 or more families. The Iroquois Indian tribe was actually a confederacy of six Native American nations. They often described at length how these longhouses looked and how they were built. The Native American oral tradition also gives much information about. Native American Teepee Teepees were the homes of the nomadic tribes of the Great Plains. A teepee was built using a number of long poles as the frame.
Wigwams were homes built by the Algonquian tribes of American Indians living in the Northeast. They were built from trees and bark similar to the longhouse. Discover ideas about Native American Longhouse. The Huron longhouse was usually made from white birch or alder trees that were small enough to bend, rope. Here are some pictures of Indian longhouses like the ones Iroquois Indians used, and a drawing of what a longhouse looked like on the It was made from tree logs, covered again with bark. Some were additionally covered with mats or hide. The Iroquois were an agricultural people who lived in permanent villages. The average longhouse was 60 feet long, 16 feet wide, and 15 feet high. Often the stockades were made in double, triple, and even quadruple. All longhouses have the same general shape, but were built with different kinds were the traditional homes for many of the farming tribes of American Indians. The Woodland Indians lived in wigwams and longhouses. The Iroquois, Cherokee The Iroquois Indians were actually a nation of Indians made up of 5 tribes. Longhouse, traditional dwelling of many Northeast Indians of North America. Interior partitions were built at right angles to the long sides of the building at. Who lived in the longhouses? Where were they located? How were they built? Facts and resources about these Native American homes answer these. Find out how the Iroquois Indian longhouse was built, who constructed it and who The clan members were not allowed to wed within the clan, and when a. Covers food, clothing, longhouses, art and crafts, weapons and tools, legends, Iroquois clans were ruled by women, who made all the land and resource.
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Friday was Moshoeshoe Day, a national holiday to celebrate the life of the first king of Lesotho, Moshoeshoe 1. He was the man who brought different tribes together in the 1800s to form the nation of Lesotho.
At school, most children and teachers were given the day off, but some chose to come into school for an environment day. You have probably been learning about climate change at school: it’s the same here. Some of the causes and effects of climate change are different here to those in the UK – you would be more likely to ride in a car or go on holiday on a plane, but also more likely to recycle. People in Lesotho reuse some rubbish, but don’t recycle anything. Most rubbish gets burnt or dumped. The children in Hoohlo primary are learning about how climate change is caused and how it has affected their country.
So last Friday, some of the children at school asked members of the local community in to talk to them about why it is important to look after the environment. We were joined by children and staff from 2 other schools in Maseru. The children led a march through the local village of Ha Hoohlo, singing and picking up litter. They showed people how they could help the environment by planting trees and making fire bricks to cook with from old paper, rather than burning leftover pieces of cloth from the factories.
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Friday was Moshoeshoe Day, a national holiday to celebrate the life of the first king of Lesotho, Moshoeshoe 1. He was the man who brought different tribes together in the 1800s to form the nation of Lesotho.
At school, most children and teachers were given the day off, but some chose to come into school for an environment day. You have probably been learning about climate change at school: it’s the same here. Some of the causes and effects of climate change are different here to those in the UK – you would be more likely to ride in a car or go on holiday on a plane, but also more likely to recycle. People in Lesotho reuse some rubbish, but don’t recycle anything. Most rubbish gets burnt or dumped. The children in Hoohlo primary are learning about how climate change is caused and how it has affected their country.
So last Friday, some of the children at school asked members of the local community in to talk to them about why it is important to look after the environment. We were joined by children and staff from 2 other schools in Maseru. The children led a march through the local village of Ha Hoohlo, singing and picking up litter. They showed people how they could help the environment by planting trees and making fire bricks to cook with from old paper, rather than burning leftover pieces of cloth from the factories.
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Joshua Lawrence Chamberlain was hardly the type of person one would have picked to become a war hero. Prior to the war, Chamberlain was a professor of rhetoric and theology at Bowdoin College in Maine before receiving a commission as a lieutenant colonel of the 20th Maine in 1862.
But he proved to be a skilled, tough and very respected officer, not only by his own men but by his enemies as well. Wounded six times during the Civil War, having had six horses shot out from under him, he was awarded the Medal of Honor for his gallant stand at Little Round Top during the Battle of Gettysburg.
Severely wounded during the Battle of Petersburg on this day in 1864, Chamberlain’s wound was pronounced fatal by his surgeons. But not only did he survive, he returned to active duty and he was also awarded the honor of accepting the Confederate Infantry surrender at Appomattox Court House when General Robert E. Lee surrendered to end the war. He eventually died as a result of complications from his wounds 50 years later in 1914. Thus he’s considered the final casualty from the Civil War.
Life prior to the War: Chamberlain was born on September 8, 1828, in Brewer, Maine, the oldest of five children. His family roots were English and his ancestors could be traced back to the 12th century.
He graduated Bowdoin College in 1852 and was heavily influenced by the writer Harriet Beecher Stowe and regularly attended programs where she would read passages from her book “Uncle Tom’s Cabin” which would shape his views of the coming conflict.
After studying for three more years at Bangor Theological Seminary, he returned to Bowdoin, this time as a professor. In 1855, he married Fanny Adams and the two would remain devoted to another until her death at 1905.
While at Bowdoin, Chamberlain became a professor of rhetoric. He eventually went on to teach every subject in the curriculum with the exception of science and mathematics. Just prior to the war breaking out, he was appointed Professor of Modern Languages. He was fluent in nine languages other than English: Greek, Latin, Spanish, German, French, Italian, Arabic, Hebrew, and Syriac.
He felt all Americans should be involved in the war and wrote to Maine’s Governor Israel Washburn, Jr., “I fear, this war, so costly of blood and treasure, will not cease until men of the North are willing to leave good positions, and sacrifice the dearest personal interests, to rescue our country from desolation, and defend the national existence against treachery.”
Most of Bowdoin’s professors felt differently and the college refused to grant him a leave of absence to serve in the military. So, Chamberlain asked for and was granted a leave of absence for two years to study languages in Europe.
Civil War Hero: He promptly enlisted in the 20th Maine as a lieutenant colonel. He was offered command of the regiment but turned it down to “learn the business first.” The 20th Maine fought at the bloody Union debacle at Fredericksburg during the Battle of Marye’s Heights.
But it was at the Battle of Gettysburg where Chamberlain became famous and may have saved the Union’s bacon during the second day of the battle. After being pushed out of the town in the first day of the battle, the Union controlled the high ground outside of the town. Chamberlain, now the Colonel of the 20th Maine occupied Little Round Top on the far left of the Union line. If the Confederates turned the line, they could roll up the entire defense.
The 15th Alabama Regiment tried five times to turn the line of the 20th Maine in an attempt to get a foothold on top of Little Round Top. Each time they were turned back. They were bolstered by men of the 4th and 47th Alabama Regiments and also the 4th and 5th Texas Regiments. But the Confederates were exhausted having speed marched 20 miles to the battle and entering the fray with no water.
Both sides were running low on ammunition, Colonel Chamberlain feared that the next charge would dislodge his men from their position. He ordered the men to fix bayonets and he led them in a charge down the hill where they executed a brilliant flanking maneuver to force the Confederates off the hill. The Confederate commander of the 15th Alabama, Colonel William Oates admitted his troops, ” ran like a herd of wild cattle” during the retreat. Afterward, Oates would describe the conduct of his enemies in eloquent terms.
“There never were harder fighters than the Twentieth Maine men and their gallant Colonel. His skill and persistency and the great bravery of his men saved Little Round Top and the Army of the Potomac from defeat.”
Chamberlain was slightly wounded twice during the battle and was nearly killed. A Confederate officer aimed his pistol at Chamberlain’s head and narrowly missed before running out of ammunition. Chamberlain placed his sword at the Lieutenant’s throat and took him, prisoner, taking his sidearm. That pistol now resides in the Maine State Museum.
Nearly 30 years later, Chamberlain would finally be awarded the Medal of Honor for his actions at Little Round Top.
Medal of Honor citation:
The President of the United States of America, in the name of Congress, takes pleasure in presenting the Medal of Honor to Colonel Joshua Lawrence Chamberlain, United States Army, for extraordinary heroism on 2 July 1863, while serving with 20th Maine Infantry, in action at Gettysburg, Pennsylvania, for daring heroism and great tenacity in holding his position on the Little Round Top against repeated assaults, and carrying the advance position on the Great Round Top
Petersburg and His “Fatal Wound: Chamberlain would be given command of a brigade, the 1st Brigade, First Division, V Corps. In heavy fighting during the siege of Petersburg on June 18, Chamberlain was shot thru the right hip and groin with the bullet passing thru his right hip.
During the battle, he unsheathed his sword and stuck it into the ground leaning on it so he could remain with his men until he passed out from loss of blood. The surgeons pronounced his wound fatal, and word reached the Maine newspapers that Chamberlain had fallen in battle. General Ulysses S. Grant gave Chamberlain a battlefield promotion to brigadier general.
But despite the seriousness of his wounds, which would hound him for the rest of his life where he’d be forced to wear what today would be termed a catheter, not only did Chamberlain survive, he would return to duty several months later. By November, he was back in command of the brigade and committed to seeing the war to the end. In early 1865, President Lincoln promoted Chamberlain to Brevet Major General.
He was nearly killed again during a battle along Quaker Road, where Grant’s forces were pushing the Confederate forces under Lee steadily back. According to a report of the incident in Wikipedia:
A Confederate shot at Chamberlain. The bullet went through his horse’s neck, hit the picture frame, entered under Chamberlain’s skin in the front of his chest, traveled around his body under the skin along the rib, and exited his back. To all observers Union and Confederate, it appeared that he was shot through his chest. He continued to encourage his men to attack. All sides cheered his valiant courage, and the Union assault was successful.
In early April 1865, the Civil War was winding to a close. Grants forces learned that Lee was going to surrender his troops at Appomattox. Chamberlain was given the honor of accepting the surrender of the Confederate troops as they marched for the last time to Appomattox Court House. What followed was perhaps one of the most moving scenes of the war.
As the Confederate troops marched up the road, Chamberlain, on his own initiative, displayed a respect for his enemies that was remarkable after four years of awful, bloody fighting, the costliest war in American history. Chamberlain ordered his men to attention and to “Carry Arms”, as a salute to the vanquished, but a respected foe. That gesture was not lost on his enemies. General John B. Gordon, one of Lee’s most trusted officers at the end of the war, called Chamberlain, “one of the knightliest soldiers of the Federal Army.”
Gordon, at the head of the marching column, outdoes us in courtesy. He was riding with downcast eyes and more than pensive look; but at this clatter of arms he raises his eyes and instantly catching the significance, wheels his horse with that superb grace of which he is master, drops the point of his sword to his stirrup, gives a command, at which the great Confederate ensign following him is dipped and his decimated brigades, as they reach our right, respond to the ‘carry.’ All the while on our part not a sound of trumpet or drum, not a cheer, nor a word nor motion of man, but awful stillness as if it were the passing of the dead.
Post-war Life: After the war was over, Chamberlain was elected to four straight one-year terms as the Governor of Maine. In his third election, he set the record for the most votes and the highest percentage of the popular vote, (72.1 percent).
In 1871, Chamberlain finally returned to Bowdoin College, but this time as its President. The school that wouldn’t release him for military duty had come around to his service. He remained as the President until 1883 when complications from his war wounds forced his resignation.
In 1893, he was finally awarded the Medal of Honor, nearly 30 years after his defense of Little Round Top. His original medal was lost and not found until 2013 where it was donated to the Pejebscot Historical Society in Brunswick, Maine. A second recast medal is on display at Bowdoin College.
Five years later at age 70, he once again volunteered for duty during the Spanish-American War. But the Army rejected him due to his war wounds which were increasingly giving him issues.
Chamberlain was a founding member of the Maine Institution for the Blind, in Portland. His wife had become visually impaired and that spurred her husband into becoming involved in that organization.
Until the end of his life, Chamberlain was heavily involved in events and functions for the veterans of the Grand Army of the Republic. He spoke at many of the reunions and revisited Gettysburg many times.
He was involved in getting veterans from both sides to attend the 50th year anniversary of the Gettysburg battle and made several trips there to plan the event. However, due to his war injury, he was unable to attend the actual reunion.
Chamberlain finally did succumb to his war wounds on February 24, 1914, at the age of eighty-five. His “fatal” wounds at Petersburg eventually did kill him, nearly 50 years later. He is buried in the Pine Grove Cemetery in Brunswick, Maine, next to his surgeon at Petersburg, Dr. Abner O’Shaw.
Chamberlain’s exploits became famous during the film “Gettysburg” and was portrayed on the screen by Jeff Daniels. The film was based on Michael Shaara’s Pulitzer Prize-winning historical novel about Gettysburg, “The Killer Angels”.
Chamberlain’s actions at Little Round Top were published as an example of outstanding military initiative in the U.S. Army’s Leadership Manual 22-100 during the 1990s.
Photos: US Archives, Wikipedia
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Joshua Lawrence Chamberlain was hardly the type of person one would have picked to become a war hero. Prior to the war, Chamberlain was a professor of rhetoric and theology at Bowdoin College in Maine before receiving a commission as a lieutenant colonel of the 20th Maine in 1862.
But he proved to be a skilled, tough and very respected officer, not only by his own men but by his enemies as well. Wounded six times during the Civil War, having had six horses shot out from under him, he was awarded the Medal of Honor for his gallant stand at Little Round Top during the Battle of Gettysburg.
Severely wounded during the Battle of Petersburg on this day in 1864, Chamberlain’s wound was pronounced fatal by his surgeons. But not only did he survive, he returned to active duty and he was also awarded the honor of accepting the Confederate Infantry surrender at Appomattox Court House when General Robert E. Lee surrendered to end the war. He eventually died as a result of complications from his wounds 50 years later in 1914. Thus he’s considered the final casualty from the Civil War.
Life prior to the War: Chamberlain was born on September 8, 1828, in Brewer, Maine, the oldest of five children. His family roots were English and his ancestors could be traced back to the 12th century.
He graduated Bowdoin College in 1852 and was heavily influenced by the writer Harriet Beecher Stowe and regularly attended programs where she would read passages from her book “Uncle Tom’s Cabin” which would shape his views of the coming conflict.
After studying for three more years at Bangor Theological Seminary, he returned to Bowdoin, this time as a professor. In 1855, he married Fanny Adams and the two would remain devoted to another until her death at 1905.
While at Bowdoin, Chamberlain became a professor of rhetoric. He eventually went on to teach every subject in the curriculum with the exception of science and mathematics. Just prior to the war breaking out, he was appointed Professor of Modern Languages. He was fluent in nine languages other than English: Greek, Latin, Spanish, German, French, Italian, Arabic, Hebrew, and Syriac.
He felt all Americans should be involved in the war and wrote to Maine’s Governor Israel Washburn, Jr., “I fear, this war, so costly of blood and treasure, will not cease until men of the North are willing to leave good positions, and sacrifice the dearest personal interests, to rescue our country from desolation, and defend the national existence against treachery.”
Most of Bowdoin’s professors felt differently and the college refused to grant him a leave of absence to serve in the military. So, Chamberlain asked for and was granted a leave of absence for two years to study languages in Europe.
Civil War Hero: He promptly enlisted in the 20th Maine as a lieutenant colonel. He was offered command of the regiment but turned it down to “learn the business first.” The 20th Maine fought at the bloody Union debacle at Fredericksburg during the Battle of Marye’s Heights.
But it was at the Battle of Gettysburg where Chamberlain became famous and may have saved the Union’s bacon during the second day of the battle. After being pushed out of the town in the first day of the battle, the Union controlled the high ground outside of the town. Chamberlain, now the Colonel of the 20th Maine occupied Little Round Top on the far left of the Union line. If the Confederates turned the line, they could roll up the entire defense.
The 15th Alabama Regiment tried five times to turn the line of the 20th Maine in an attempt to get a foothold on top of Little Round Top. Each time they were turned back. They were bolstered by men of the 4th and 47th Alabama Regiments and also the 4th and 5th Texas Regiments. But the Confederates were exhausted having speed marched 20 miles to the battle and entering the fray with no water.
Both sides were running low on ammunition, Colonel Chamberlain feared that the next charge would dislodge his men from their position. He ordered the men to fix bayonets and he led them in a charge down the hill where they executed a brilliant flanking maneuver to force the Confederates off the hill. The Confederate commander of the 15th Alabama, Colonel William Oates admitted his troops, ” ran like a herd of wild cattle” during the retreat. Afterward, Oates would describe the conduct of his enemies in eloquent terms.
“There never were harder fighters than the Twentieth Maine men and their gallant Colonel. His skill and persistency and the great bravery of his men saved Little Round Top and the Army of the Potomac from defeat.”
Chamberlain was slightly wounded twice during the battle and was nearly killed. A Confederate officer aimed his pistol at Chamberlain’s head and narrowly missed before running out of ammunition. Chamberlain placed his sword at the Lieutenant’s throat and took him, prisoner, taking his sidearm. That pistol now resides in the Maine State Museum.
Nearly 30 years later, Chamberlain would finally be awarded the Medal of Honor for his actions at Little Round Top.
Medal of Honor citation:
The President of the United States of America, in the name of Congress, takes pleasure in presenting the Medal of Honor to Colonel Joshua Lawrence Chamberlain, United States Army, for extraordinary heroism on 2 July 1863, while serving with 20th Maine Infantry, in action at Gettysburg, Pennsylvania, for daring heroism and great tenacity in holding his position on the Little Round Top against repeated assaults, and carrying the advance position on the Great Round Top
Petersburg and His “Fatal Wound: Chamberlain would be given command of a brigade, the 1st Brigade, First Division, V Corps. In heavy fighting during the siege of Petersburg on June 18, Chamberlain was shot thru the right hip and groin with the bullet passing thru his right hip.
During the battle, he unsheathed his sword and stuck it into the ground leaning on it so he could remain with his men until he passed out from loss of blood. The surgeons pronounced his wound fatal, and word reached the Maine newspapers that Chamberlain had fallen in battle. General Ulysses S. Grant gave Chamberlain a battlefield promotion to brigadier general.
But despite the seriousness of his wounds, which would hound him for the rest of his life where he’d be forced to wear what today would be termed a catheter, not only did Chamberlain survive, he would return to duty several months later. By November, he was back in command of the brigade and committed to seeing the war to the end. In early 1865, President Lincoln promoted Chamberlain to Brevet Major General.
He was nearly killed again during a battle along Quaker Road, where Grant’s forces were pushing the Confederate forces under Lee steadily back. According to a report of the incident in Wikipedia:
A Confederate shot at Chamberlain. The bullet went through his horse’s neck, hit the picture frame, entered under Chamberlain’s skin in the front of his chest, traveled around his body under the skin along the rib, and exited his back. To all observers Union and Confederate, it appeared that he was shot through his chest. He continued to encourage his men to attack. All sides cheered his valiant courage, and the Union assault was successful.
In early April 1865, the Civil War was winding to a close. Grants forces learned that Lee was going to surrender his troops at Appomattox. Chamberlain was given the honor of accepting the surrender of the Confederate troops as they marched for the last time to Appomattox Court House. What followed was perhaps one of the most moving scenes of the war.
As the Confederate troops marched up the road, Chamberlain, on his own initiative, displayed a respect for his enemies that was remarkable after four years of awful, bloody fighting, the costliest war in American history. Chamberlain ordered his men to attention and to “Carry Arms”, as a salute to the vanquished, but a respected foe. That gesture was not lost on his enemies. General John B. Gordon, one of Lee’s most trusted officers at the end of the war, called Chamberlain, “one of the knightliest soldiers of the Federal Army.”
Gordon, at the head of the marching column, outdoes us in courtesy. He was riding with downcast eyes and more than pensive look; but at this clatter of arms he raises his eyes and instantly catching the significance, wheels his horse with that superb grace of which he is master, drops the point of his sword to his stirrup, gives a command, at which the great Confederate ensign following him is dipped and his decimated brigades, as they reach our right, respond to the ‘carry.’ All the while on our part not a sound of trumpet or drum, not a cheer, nor a word nor motion of man, but awful stillness as if it were the passing of the dead.
Post-war Life: After the war was over, Chamberlain was elected to four straight one-year terms as the Governor of Maine. In his third election, he set the record for the most votes and the highest percentage of the popular vote, (72.1 percent).
In 1871, Chamberlain finally returned to Bowdoin College, but this time as its President. The school that wouldn’t release him for military duty had come around to his service. He remained as the President until 1883 when complications from his war wounds forced his resignation.
In 1893, he was finally awarded the Medal of Honor, nearly 30 years after his defense of Little Round Top. His original medal was lost and not found until 2013 where it was donated to the Pejebscot Historical Society in Brunswick, Maine. A second recast medal is on display at Bowdoin College.
Five years later at age 70, he once again volunteered for duty during the Spanish-American War. But the Army rejected him due to his war wounds which were increasingly giving him issues.
Chamberlain was a founding member of the Maine Institution for the Blind, in Portland. His wife had become visually impaired and that spurred her husband into becoming involved in that organization.
Until the end of his life, Chamberlain was heavily involved in events and functions for the veterans of the Grand Army of the Republic. He spoke at many of the reunions and revisited Gettysburg many times.
He was involved in getting veterans from both sides to attend the 50th year anniversary of the Gettysburg battle and made several trips there to plan the event. However, due to his war injury, he was unable to attend the actual reunion.
Chamberlain finally did succumb to his war wounds on February 24, 1914, at the age of eighty-five. His “fatal” wounds at Petersburg eventually did kill him, nearly 50 years later. He is buried in the Pine Grove Cemetery in Brunswick, Maine, next to his surgeon at Petersburg, Dr. Abner O’Shaw.
Chamberlain’s exploits became famous during the film “Gettysburg” and was portrayed on the screen by Jeff Daniels. The film was based on Michael Shaara’s Pulitzer Prize-winning historical novel about Gettysburg, “The Killer Angels”.
Chamberlain’s actions at Little Round Top were published as an example of outstanding military initiative in the U.S. Army’s Leadership Manual 22-100 during the 1990s.
Photos: US Archives, Wikipedia
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Great Plague of London
The Great Plague (1665-1666) was a massive outbreak of disease in England that killed 75,000 to 100,000 people, up to a fifth of London's population. The disease was historically identified as bubonic plague, an infection by the bacterium Yersinia pestis, transmitted via a rat vector. The 1665-1666 epidemic was on a far smaller scale than the earlier "Black Death", a virulent outbreak of disease in Europe between 1347 and 1353, but was remembered afterwards as the "great" plague because it was one of the last widespread outbreaks in Europe.
Additional recommended knowledge
This episode of disease in Britain is thought to have arrived with Dutch trading ships carrying bales of cotton from Amsterdam. The bubonic plague had occurred intermittently in the Netherlands since 1654. The dock areas outside of London, where poor workers crowded into ill-kept districts, such as the parish of St. Giles-in-the Fields, were first struck by the plague. During the winter of 1664-1665, there were reports of several deaths. However, the winter was very cold, seemingly controlling the contagion. But spring and summer months were unusually warm and sunny, and the plague spread rapidly. Personal and public hygiene was very minimal during this period, contributing to the spread of disease. Records were not kept on the deaths of the very poor, so the first recorded case was Margaret Porteous, on April 12, 1665.
Although the disease causing the epidemic has historically been identified as bubonic plague and its variants, no direct evidence of plague has ever been uncovered. Some modern scholars suggest that the symptoms and incubation period indicate that the causal agent may have been a disease similar to a viral hemorrhagic fever.
By July 1665, plague was in the city of London itself. King Charles II of England, his family and his court left the city for Oxford. However, the Lord Mayor of the city and the aldermen stayed at their posts. Businesses were closed when most wealthy merchants and professionals fled. Only a small number of clergymen (including the Archbishop of Canterbury and the Bishop of London), physicians and apothecaries chose to remain, as the plague raged throughout the summer. Plague doctors would traverse the streets, diagnosing victims, although many of them were unqualified physicians.
Several public health efforts were attempted. Physicians were hired by city officials, and burial details were carefully organized. Authorities ordered fires to be kept burning night and day, in hopes that the air would be cleansed. Substances giving off strong odours, such as pepper, hops or frankincense, were also burned to ward off the infection. London residents were strongly urged to smoke tobacco.
Though concentrated in London, the outbreak affected other areas of the country. Perhaps the most famous example was the village of Eyam in Derbyshire. The plague arrived with a merchant carrying a parcel of cloth sent from London. The villagers imposed a quarantine on themselves to stop the further spread of the disease. Spread of the plague was slowed in surrounding areas, but the cost to the village was the death of around 75% of its inhabitants.
Records state that deaths in London crept up to 1000 people per week, then 2000 people per week and, by September 1665, to 7000 persons per week. By late autumn, the death toll began to slow until, in February 1666, it was considered safe enough for the King and his entourage to return to the city. By this time, however, trade with the European continent had spread this outbreak of plague to France, where it died out the following winter.
Plague cases continued at a modest pace until September 1666. On September 2nd and 3rd, the Great Fire of London destroyed many of the most crowded housing. At about the same time, the plague outbreak tapered off, probably due to most of the susceptible persons having already died. After the fire, London was rebuilt on an urban plan originally drafted by architect Christopher Wren which included widened streets, reduced congestion and basic sewage-drainage systems. Under the mistaken idea that rats may have caused the plague and due to the severe fire hazard they cause, thatched roofs were forbidden within the city, and remain forbidden under modern codes. The second rebuilding of the Globe Theatre in 1997 required a special permit to have thatched roofs.
|This article is licensed under the GNU Free Documentation License. It uses material from the Wikipedia article "Great_Plague_of_London". A list of authors is available in Wikipedia.|
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Great Plague of London
The Great Plague (1665-1666) was a massive outbreak of disease in England that killed 75,000 to 100,000 people, up to a fifth of London's population. The disease was historically identified as bubonic plague, an infection by the bacterium Yersinia pestis, transmitted via a rat vector. The 1665-1666 epidemic was on a far smaller scale than the earlier "Black Death", a virulent outbreak of disease in Europe between 1347 and 1353, but was remembered afterwards as the "great" plague because it was one of the last widespread outbreaks in Europe.
Additional recommended knowledge
This episode of disease in Britain is thought to have arrived with Dutch trading ships carrying bales of cotton from Amsterdam. The bubonic plague had occurred intermittently in the Netherlands since 1654. The dock areas outside of London, where poor workers crowded into ill-kept districts, such as the parish of St. Giles-in-the Fields, were first struck by the plague. During the winter of 1664-1665, there were reports of several deaths. However, the winter was very cold, seemingly controlling the contagion. But spring and summer months were unusually warm and sunny, and the plague spread rapidly. Personal and public hygiene was very minimal during this period, contributing to the spread of disease. Records were not kept on the deaths of the very poor, so the first recorded case was Margaret Porteous, on April 12, 1665.
Although the disease causing the epidemic has historically been identified as bubonic plague and its variants, no direct evidence of plague has ever been uncovered. Some modern scholars suggest that the symptoms and incubation period indicate that the causal agent may have been a disease similar to a viral hemorrhagic fever.
By July 1665, plague was in the city of London itself. King Charles II of England, his family and his court left the city for Oxford. However, the Lord Mayor of the city and the aldermen stayed at their posts. Businesses were closed when most wealthy merchants and professionals fled. Only a small number of clergymen (including the Archbishop of Canterbury and the Bishop of London), physicians and apothecaries chose to remain, as the plague raged throughout the summer. Plague doctors would traverse the streets, diagnosing victims, although many of them were unqualified physicians.
Several public health efforts were attempted. Physicians were hired by city officials, and burial details were carefully organized. Authorities ordered fires to be kept burning night and day, in hopes that the air would be cleansed. Substances giving off strong odours, such as pepper, hops or frankincense, were also burned to ward off the infection. London residents were strongly urged to smoke tobacco.
Though concentrated in London, the outbreak affected other areas of the country. Perhaps the most famous example was the village of Eyam in Derbyshire. The plague arrived with a merchant carrying a parcel of cloth sent from London. The villagers imposed a quarantine on themselves to stop the further spread of the disease. Spread of the plague was slowed in surrounding areas, but the cost to the village was the death of around 75% of its inhabitants.
Records state that deaths in London crept up to 1000 people per week, then 2000 people per week and, by September 1665, to 7000 persons per week. By late autumn, the death toll began to slow until, in February 1666, it was considered safe enough for the King and his entourage to return to the city. By this time, however, trade with the European continent had spread this outbreak of plague to France, where it died out the following winter.
Plague cases continued at a modest pace until September 1666. On September 2nd and 3rd, the Great Fire of London destroyed many of the most crowded housing. At about the same time, the plague outbreak tapered off, probably due to most of the susceptible persons having already died. After the fire, London was rebuilt on an urban plan originally drafted by architect Christopher Wren which included widened streets, reduced congestion and basic sewage-drainage systems. Under the mistaken idea that rats may have caused the plague and due to the severe fire hazard they cause, thatched roofs were forbidden within the city, and remain forbidden under modern codes. The second rebuilding of the Globe Theatre in 1997 required a special permit to have thatched roofs.
|This article is licensed under the GNU Free Documentation License. It uses material from the Wikipedia article "Great_Plague_of_London". A list of authors is available in Wikipedia.|
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Arthur James Balfour, 1st Earl of Balfour, (, traditionally Scottish ; 25 July 1848 – 19 March 1930) was a British Conservative statesman who served as Prime Minister of the United Kingdom from 1902 to 1905. As Foreign Secretary in the Lloyd George ministry, he issued the Balfour Declaration in 1917 on behalf of the cabinet.
Entering Parliament in 1874, Balfour achieved prominence as Chief Secretary for Ireland, in which position he suppressed agrarian unrest whilst taking measures against absentee landlords. He opposed Irish Home Rule, saying there could be no half-way house between Ireland remaining within the United Kingdom or becoming independent. From 1891 he led the Conservative Party in the House of Commons, serving under his uncle, Lord Salisbury, whose government won large majorities in 1895 and 1900. A brilliant debater, he was bored by the mundane tasks of party management.
In July 1902 he succeeded his uncle as Prime Minister. In domestic policy the Irish Land Act 1903, which bought out most of the Anglo-English land owners, helped to remove a major obstacle to settling the Irish problem. The Education Act 1902 had a major long-term impact in modernising the school system in England and Wales and provided financial support for schools operated by the Church of England and by the Catholic Church. Nonconformists were outraged and mobilized their voters, but were unable to reverse it. In foreign and defence policy, he oversaw reform of British defence policy and supported Jackie Fisher’s naval innovations. He secured the Entente Cordiale with France, an alliance that isolated Germany. He cautiously embraced imperial preference as championed by Joseph Chamberlain, but resignations from the Cabinet over the abandonment of free trade left his party divided. He also suffered from public anger at the later stages of the Boer war (counter-insurgency warfare characterized as “methods of barbarism”) and the importation of Chinese labour to South Africa (“Chinese slavery”). He resigned as Prime Minister in December 1905 and the following month the Conservatives suffered a landslide defeat at the 1906 election, in which he lost his own seat. He soon re-entered Parliament and continued to serve as Leader of the Opposition throughout the crisis over Lloyd George’s 1909 budget, the narrow loss of two further General Elections in 1910, and the passage of the Parliament Act 1911. He resigned as party leader in 1911.
Balfour returned as First Lord of the Admiralty in Asquith’s Coalition Government (1915–16). In December 1916 he became Foreign Secretary in David Lloyd George’s coalition. He was frequently left out of the inner workings of foreign policy, although the Balfour Declaration on a Jewish homeland bore his name. He continued to serve in senior positions throughout the 1920s, and died on 19 March 1930 aged 81, having spent a vast inherited fortune. He never married. Balfour trained as a philosopher – he originated an argument against believing that human reason could determine truth – and was seen as having a detached attitude to life, epitomised by a remark attributed to him: “Nothing matters very much and few things matter at all”.
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Arthur James Balfour, 1st Earl of Balfour, (, traditionally Scottish ; 25 July 1848 – 19 March 1930) was a British Conservative statesman who served as Prime Minister of the United Kingdom from 1902 to 1905. As Foreign Secretary in the Lloyd George ministry, he issued the Balfour Declaration in 1917 on behalf of the cabinet.
Entering Parliament in 1874, Balfour achieved prominence as Chief Secretary for Ireland, in which position he suppressed agrarian unrest whilst taking measures against absentee landlords. He opposed Irish Home Rule, saying there could be no half-way house between Ireland remaining within the United Kingdom or becoming independent. From 1891 he led the Conservative Party in the House of Commons, serving under his uncle, Lord Salisbury, whose government won large majorities in 1895 and 1900. A brilliant debater, he was bored by the mundane tasks of party management.
In July 1902 he succeeded his uncle as Prime Minister. In domestic policy the Irish Land Act 1903, which bought out most of the Anglo-English land owners, helped to remove a major obstacle to settling the Irish problem. The Education Act 1902 had a major long-term impact in modernising the school system in England and Wales and provided financial support for schools operated by the Church of England and by the Catholic Church. Nonconformists were outraged and mobilized their voters, but were unable to reverse it. In foreign and defence policy, he oversaw reform of British defence policy and supported Jackie Fisher’s naval innovations. He secured the Entente Cordiale with France, an alliance that isolated Germany. He cautiously embraced imperial preference as championed by Joseph Chamberlain, but resignations from the Cabinet over the abandonment of free trade left his party divided. He also suffered from public anger at the later stages of the Boer war (counter-insurgency warfare characterized as “methods of barbarism”) and the importation of Chinese labour to South Africa (“Chinese slavery”). He resigned as Prime Minister in December 1905 and the following month the Conservatives suffered a landslide defeat at the 1906 election, in which he lost his own seat. He soon re-entered Parliament and continued to serve as Leader of the Opposition throughout the crisis over Lloyd George’s 1909 budget, the narrow loss of two further General Elections in 1910, and the passage of the Parliament Act 1911. He resigned as party leader in 1911.
Balfour returned as First Lord of the Admiralty in Asquith’s Coalition Government (1915–16). In December 1916 he became Foreign Secretary in David Lloyd George’s coalition. He was frequently left out of the inner workings of foreign policy, although the Balfour Declaration on a Jewish homeland bore his name. He continued to serve in senior positions throughout the 1920s, and died on 19 March 1930 aged 81, having spent a vast inherited fortune. He never married. Balfour trained as a philosopher – he originated an argument against believing that human reason could determine truth – and was seen as having a detached attitude to life, epitomised by a remark attributed to him: “Nothing matters very much and few things matter at all”.
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Albert Einstein was born in Ulm, Wurttemberg, Germany on March 14, 1879. His jewish family included his father Hermann Einstein, mother Pauline Einstein, and his sister Maja Einstein. Six weeks after Einstein’s birth, the family moved to Munich, Germany. Einstein attended a catholic school and took violin lessons, but later quit because he wasn't interested. Einstein had speech difficulties in his early life. At age 12, Einstein began to show a talent for mathematics and built models and mechanical devices for fun. He also learned to understand deductive reasoning and euclidean geometry from school books (einstein.bz).
1894 at age 15, Einstein wrote his first scientific work, “The Investigation of the State of Aether in Magnetic Fields”. His family moved to Italy leaving behind him to finish high school in Munich. Einstein applied at The ...
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- Albert Einstein, born in Württemberg, Germany, on March 14, 1879. Two months later the family moved to Munich, where he then began to attend school at the Luitpold Gymnasium. They later moved on to Italy and Albert continued his education at Switzerland and in 1896 he entered the Swiss Federal Polytechnic School in Zurich. He wanted to be trained as a teacher in physics and mathematics. In 1901, he gained his diploma, and became a Swiss citizen. But unable to find a teaching post, he then accepted a position as a technical assistant in the Swiss Patent Office.... [tags: Physicist, Scientist]
978 words (2.8 pages)
- Albert Einstein was born March 14, 1879 in Ulm, Germany. Around age 10 or 11, Einstein became curious about the mysteries of science and longed for a greater understanding. As a child, Einstein took music lessons; he learned to play the piano and violin and continued through out is life. As a young child, his parents moved during his school career: once to Italy then a second time to Switzerland where he graduated in 1896. Einstein was educated at the Federal Polytechnic School in Zurich where he learned to teach physics and mathematics.... [tags: Nobel, Physicist, Nazism]
588 words (1.7 pages)
- Although Einstein is mostly known for his famous equation, e=mc2, he accomplished many things in his life that affects science today and is one of most admirable person of the twentieth century and one of the supreme intellects of all time. Albert Einstein was born in Ulm, Wurttemberg, Germany on March 14, 1879. His jewish family included his father Hermann Einstein, mother Pauline Einstein, and his sister Maja Einstein. Six weeks after Einstein’s birth, the family moved to Munich, Germany. Einstein attended a catholic school and took violin lessons, but later quit because he wasn't interested.... [tags: jewish, general theory of relativity]
566 words (1.6 pages)
- ... Einstein developed a love for music at an early age. His mother played piano very well and she wanted her son to learn the violin, not just to enroll him in music but also to help him assimilate German culture. According to his conductor Einstein is said to have been playing since he was five but Einstein did not enjoy it at that age. When Einstein turned thirteen he discovered the violin sonatas of Mozart Einstein immediately fell in love with Mozart’s music. At age seventeen he was heard by a school examiner in Aarau as he played Beethoven’s violin sonatas, the examiner said afterward that his playing was remarkable and revealing of ‘great insight, what struck the examiner explains was... [tags: theoretical physicist, mathematical concepts]
793 words (2.3 pages)
- There are several people in history who have left marks on the world. Significant people come from all over the globe and leave a lasting impression for years to follow. From presidents who led the United States in desperate times to a young man who discovered the multi-million dollar Apple Company, influential people do much for eras following them. They can set a basis for future discoveries, leave long lasting impressions with their ideas, and act as role models for millions of people across the globe.... [tags: physics, relativity]
1599 words (4.6 pages)
- The Biography of Albert Einstein Born in 1879, Albert Einstein is known today for his incredible mathematical ability and… well, his wild hair. But more important than the physical attributes of his cranium, is the fantastic information which it provided. He will probably always be remembered as the greatest mathematical genius of the modern world. Honors he has received for his works include the Nobel Prize, which he was awarded in 1921, the Royal Society Copley Medal, which he was awarded in 1925, he was elected as a Fellow of the Royal Society in 1921, and he became an AMS Gibbs Lecturer in 1934.... [tags: Papers]
2098 words (6 pages)
- Albert Einstein was one of the greatest geniuses of the twentieth century for many reasons. Mr. Einstein is famous in the world of physics for the theory of relativity. Mr. Einstein was, and still is thought of as a man of great intelligence, but there are many things that we still don’t know about his early life. Albert Einstein also received the Nobel Prize 2 times in his live. Even though he is often unnoted, Albert Einstein is considered a man of great intelligence because of his contribution to physics with e=mc2 and also because he had little to no longitudinal fissure, making it easier for him to think critically.... [tags: physics, theory of relativity, e=mc2]
895 words (2.6 pages)
- Einstein was not always an extremely successful man and he had difficulties that would have prevented anyone else from succeeding, but eventually, several of his theories led to scientific advancements. One theory earned him a Nobel Prize, in physics one a PhD and another helped in the development of nuclear fission. If a person were only to take a quick glance at his life without a deeper investigation, they would find it difficult to discover the catalyst that led to his success. However, with the tools Gladwell provides his readers it does become obvious what led to Einstein’s life of success, even if it was a difficult road for Einstein to follow.... [tags: successful physicists]
969 words (2.8 pages)
- Thinking Outside the Box Imagine all the things one encounters during everyday life. Try to also imagine being a person who cannot stand not knowing how those things work. This was the kind of unique person that Albert Einstein was. His obsession with how things worked began when his father, Hermann Einstein, gave him a compass. The fact that the magnetic needle behaved as if influenced by some hidden force field, rather than through the more familiar mechanical method involving touch or contact, produced a sense of wonder that motivated him throughout his life (Isaacson 13).... [tags: Biography, Albert Einstein]
2126 words (6.1 pages)
- Albert Einstein was born on March 14, 1879 in Ulm, the first child of the Jewish couple Hermann and Pauline Einstein. In June 1880 the family moved to Munich where Hermann Einstein and his brother Jakob founded the electrical engineering company Einstein & Cie. Albert Einstein's sister Maria was born on November 18, 1881. Einstein's childhood was a normal one, except that to his family's irritation, he learned to speak later than most. In 1884 he received some tutoring in order to get prepared for school.... [tags: Biography Einstein]
956 words (2.7 pages)
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Albert Einstein was born in Ulm, Wurttemberg, Germany on March 14, 1879. His jewish family included his father Hermann Einstein, mother Pauline Einstein, and his sister Maja Einstein. Six weeks after Einstein’s birth, the family moved to Munich, Germany. Einstein attended a catholic school and took violin lessons, but later quit because he wasn't interested. Einstein had speech difficulties in his early life. At age 12, Einstein began to show a talent for mathematics and built models and mechanical devices for fun. He also learned to understand deductive reasoning and euclidean geometry from school books (einstein.bz).
1894 at age 15, Einstein wrote his first scientific work, “The Investigation of the State of Aether in Magnetic Fields”. His family moved to Italy leaving behind him to finish high school in Munich. Einstein applied at The ...
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- Albert Einstein, born in Württemberg, Germany, on March 14, 1879. Two months later the family moved to Munich, where he then began to attend school at the Luitpold Gymnasium. They later moved on to Italy and Albert continued his education at Switzerland and in 1896 he entered the Swiss Federal Polytechnic School in Zurich. He wanted to be trained as a teacher in physics and mathematics. In 1901, he gained his diploma, and became a Swiss citizen. But unable to find a teaching post, he then accepted a position as a technical assistant in the Swiss Patent Office.... [tags: Physicist, Scientist]
978 words (2.8 pages)
- Albert Einstein was born March 14, 1879 in Ulm, Germany. Around age 10 or 11, Einstein became curious about the mysteries of science and longed for a greater understanding. As a child, Einstein took music lessons; he learned to play the piano and violin and continued through out is life. As a young child, his parents moved during his school career: once to Italy then a second time to Switzerland where he graduated in 1896. Einstein was educated at the Federal Polytechnic School in Zurich where he learned to teach physics and mathematics.... [tags: Nobel, Physicist, Nazism]
588 words (1.7 pages)
- Although Einstein is mostly known for his famous equation, e=mc2, he accomplished many things in his life that affects science today and is one of most admirable person of the twentieth century and one of the supreme intellects of all time. Albert Einstein was born in Ulm, Wurttemberg, Germany on March 14, 1879. His jewish family included his father Hermann Einstein, mother Pauline Einstein, and his sister Maja Einstein. Six weeks after Einstein’s birth, the family moved to Munich, Germany. Einstein attended a catholic school and took violin lessons, but later quit because he wasn't interested.... [tags: jewish, general theory of relativity]
566 words (1.6 pages)
- ... Einstein developed a love for music at an early age. His mother played piano very well and she wanted her son to learn the violin, not just to enroll him in music but also to help him assimilate German culture. According to his conductor Einstein is said to have been playing since he was five but Einstein did not enjoy it at that age. When Einstein turned thirteen he discovered the violin sonatas of Mozart Einstein immediately fell in love with Mozart’s music. At age seventeen he was heard by a school examiner in Aarau as he played Beethoven’s violin sonatas, the examiner said afterward that his playing was remarkable and revealing of ‘great insight, what struck the examiner explains was... [tags: theoretical physicist, mathematical concepts]
793 words (2.3 pages)
- There are several people in history who have left marks on the world. Significant people come from all over the globe and leave a lasting impression for years to follow. From presidents who led the United States in desperate times to a young man who discovered the multi-million dollar Apple Company, influential people do much for eras following them. They can set a basis for future discoveries, leave long lasting impressions with their ideas, and act as role models for millions of people across the globe.... [tags: physics, relativity]
1599 words (4.6 pages)
- The Biography of Albert Einstein Born in 1879, Albert Einstein is known today for his incredible mathematical ability and… well, his wild hair. But more important than the physical attributes of his cranium, is the fantastic information which it provided. He will probably always be remembered as the greatest mathematical genius of the modern world. Honors he has received for his works include the Nobel Prize, which he was awarded in 1921, the Royal Society Copley Medal, which he was awarded in 1925, he was elected as a Fellow of the Royal Society in 1921, and he became an AMS Gibbs Lecturer in 1934.... [tags: Papers]
2098 words (6 pages)
- Albert Einstein was one of the greatest geniuses of the twentieth century for many reasons. Mr. Einstein is famous in the world of physics for the theory of relativity. Mr. Einstein was, and still is thought of as a man of great intelligence, but there are many things that we still don’t know about his early life. Albert Einstein also received the Nobel Prize 2 times in his live. Even though he is often unnoted, Albert Einstein is considered a man of great intelligence because of his contribution to physics with e=mc2 and also because he had little to no longitudinal fissure, making it easier for him to think critically.... [tags: physics, theory of relativity, e=mc2]
895 words (2.6 pages)
- Einstein was not always an extremely successful man and he had difficulties that would have prevented anyone else from succeeding, but eventually, several of his theories led to scientific advancements. One theory earned him a Nobel Prize, in physics one a PhD and another helped in the development of nuclear fission. If a person were only to take a quick glance at his life without a deeper investigation, they would find it difficult to discover the catalyst that led to his success. However, with the tools Gladwell provides his readers it does become obvious what led to Einstein’s life of success, even if it was a difficult road for Einstein to follow.... [tags: successful physicists]
969 words (2.8 pages)
- Thinking Outside the Box Imagine all the things one encounters during everyday life. Try to also imagine being a person who cannot stand not knowing how those things work. This was the kind of unique person that Albert Einstein was. His obsession with how things worked began when his father, Hermann Einstein, gave him a compass. The fact that the magnetic needle behaved as if influenced by some hidden force field, rather than through the more familiar mechanical method involving touch or contact, produced a sense of wonder that motivated him throughout his life (Isaacson 13).... [tags: Biography, Albert Einstein]
2126 words (6.1 pages)
- Albert Einstein was born on March 14, 1879 in Ulm, the first child of the Jewish couple Hermann and Pauline Einstein. In June 1880 the family moved to Munich where Hermann Einstein and his brother Jakob founded the electrical engineering company Einstein & Cie. Albert Einstein's sister Maria was born on November 18, 1881. Einstein's childhood was a normal one, except that to his family's irritation, he learned to speak later than most. In 1884 he received some tutoring in order to get prepared for school.... [tags: Biography Einstein]
956 words (2.7 pages)
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Meet composer Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart and learn about his life and music in this engagingly illustrated biography.
Wolfgang Amadeus rose to fame as a child genius who wrote his first piece at the age of five, spent a lifetime making music for archbishops and emperors, and created countless compositions until his untimely death at only 35 years old. This engaging biography explores his amazing career, from when Mozart began his musical studies under his father’s tutelage; through his time as a court composer, musician, and concertmaster; to his final work in honor of the coronation of Leopold II as King of Bohemia. Along the way, we find out about Mozart’s travels and the great composers he met, his difficulties with his rich benefactors, his financial struggles, his marriage and family, and his final illness.
Appealing illustrations, information on his breakthroughs and successes, and an index of major events reveal how Mozart left his mark on humanity. A timeline and simple quiz help kids test their understanding and knowledge.
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Meet composer Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart and learn about his life and music in this engagingly illustrated biography.
Wolfgang Amadeus rose to fame as a child genius who wrote his first piece at the age of five, spent a lifetime making music for archbishops and emperors, and created countless compositions until his untimely death at only 35 years old. This engaging biography explores his amazing career, from when Mozart began his musical studies under his father’s tutelage; through his time as a court composer, musician, and concertmaster; to his final work in honor of the coronation of Leopold II as King of Bohemia. Along the way, we find out about Mozart’s travels and the great composers he met, his difficulties with his rich benefactors, his financial struggles, his marriage and family, and his final illness.
Appealing illustrations, information on his breakthroughs and successes, and an index of major events reveal how Mozart left his mark on humanity. A timeline and simple quiz help kids test their understanding and knowledge.
| 214
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ENGLISH
| 1
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Crime and punishment affected the Elizabethan Era by highlighting the difference between the lower class and the upper class. During this time England was separated into two different social classes, which were the noble and the commoners and punishments were determined not only according to social class but on seriousness of the crime committed.The lower class was more prone to theft and poaching out of desperation and poverty their crimes were punished more with public humiliation tactics rather than killing the criminals like they did with most nobels. Some public humiliation tactics the Europeans had were carting, whipping and using the pillory. When carting they would put the criminal backwards on a horse wearing a place card that stated the crime they had committed and the horse would be led through the town for everyone to see and watch (Picard). Usually crimes such as petty theft or incest were punished with carting and then led to the center of the town and put in the pillory. A pillory was a wooden plank with three holes cut in it a hole for the head and two hands where they would stand there while people gathered around and mocked or threw items at, although the pillory was not meant to be deadly, the spectators would kill them depending on how bad the crime was (Picard). As the crimes got worse the punishments would vary, whipping was a punishment they would often use for low treason which was the type of treason commoners were more prone to rather than high treason like the nobles. When a criminal was to get whipped their back would be placed bare and they would whip them however many times Queen Elizabeth assigned and then they would send them on a trail through the town to scare everyone in hopes that crime rates would drop. It can be inferred that during this time commoners punishments were more in the public eye and most of the crimes they commited were considered petty. The nobles were more prone to commit more serious crimes during this time because they had money and they either wanted more or wanted to overthrow Queen Elizabeth. So their crimes dealt with treason and spying on the government, and Queen Elizabeth feared being overthrown from her throne therefor those offenses had serious punishments. Nobel criminals were never publicly humiliated, there punishments were fast and deadly. Although their punishments would sometimes be held publicly in hopes of scaring people so the crime rates would drop. The nobles were often sentenced with beheading which is where there head would be dismembered from their body. Often when the head was completely removed they would hold it up for the people watching to see because there was eight seconds where the person was still conscious until lack of oxygen would finally kill them (Picard).
Crime into two different social classes, which were the
September 14, 2019September 14, 2019| | 0 Comment
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Crime and punishment affected the Elizabethan Era by highlighting the difference between the lower class and the upper class. During this time England was separated into two different social classes, which were the noble and the commoners and punishments were determined not only according to social class but on seriousness of the crime committed.The lower class was more prone to theft and poaching out of desperation and poverty their crimes were punished more with public humiliation tactics rather than killing the criminals like they did with most nobels. Some public humiliation tactics the Europeans had were carting, whipping and using the pillory. When carting they would put the criminal backwards on a horse wearing a place card that stated the crime they had committed and the horse would be led through the town for everyone to see and watch (Picard). Usually crimes such as petty theft or incest were punished with carting and then led to the center of the town and put in the pillory. A pillory was a wooden plank with three holes cut in it a hole for the head and two hands where they would stand there while people gathered around and mocked or threw items at, although the pillory was not meant to be deadly, the spectators would kill them depending on how bad the crime was (Picard). As the crimes got worse the punishments would vary, whipping was a punishment they would often use for low treason which was the type of treason commoners were more prone to rather than high treason like the nobles. When a criminal was to get whipped their back would be placed bare and they would whip them however many times Queen Elizabeth assigned and then they would send them on a trail through the town to scare everyone in hopes that crime rates would drop. It can be inferred that during this time commoners punishments were more in the public eye and most of the crimes they commited were considered petty. The nobles were more prone to commit more serious crimes during this time because they had money and they either wanted more or wanted to overthrow Queen Elizabeth. So their crimes dealt with treason and spying on the government, and Queen Elizabeth feared being overthrown from her throne therefor those offenses had serious punishments. Nobel criminals were never publicly humiliated, there punishments were fast and deadly. Although their punishments would sometimes be held publicly in hopes of scaring people so the crime rates would drop. The nobles were often sentenced with beheading which is where there head would be dismembered from their body. Often when the head was completely removed they would hold it up for the people watching to see because there was eight seconds where the person was still conscious until lack of oxygen would finally kill them (Picard).
Crime into two different social classes, which were the
September 14, 2019September 14, 2019| | 0 Comment
| 563
|
ENGLISH
| 1
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This week the Explorers have been learning about Remembrance. They enjoyed creating their poppy fields and listening to war time poetry and songs that the soldiers used to sing. They even learnt how to sing the traditional well known song 'It's a long way to Tipperary', actions and all! They also had a think of what it means to live as a peaceful nation and what the word 'peace' means and what it means to them. We have been discussing the importance of the poppy and its meaning, as well as thinking of ways we can ensure we keep peace in our classroom and school.
It was lovely to see you all at the Parents' Conferences and thank you for taking the time to come and chat with me, I hope it was helpful! As always, if you have any queries, do always feel free to grab me to talk at pick up time ;)
Have a lovely weekend!
Mrs March :) xx
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|
This week the Explorers have been learning about Remembrance. They enjoyed creating their poppy fields and listening to war time poetry and songs that the soldiers used to sing. They even learnt how to sing the traditional well known song 'It's a long way to Tipperary', actions and all! They also had a think of what it means to live as a peaceful nation and what the word 'peace' means and what it means to them. We have been discussing the importance of the poppy and its meaning, as well as thinking of ways we can ensure we keep peace in our classroom and school.
It was lovely to see you all at the Parents' Conferences and thank you for taking the time to come and chat with me, I hope it was helpful! As always, if you have any queries, do always feel free to grab me to talk at pick up time ;)
Have a lovely weekend!
Mrs March :) xx
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ENGLISH
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He was the second of three children, and was first named Michael, after his father. Both changed their names to Martin when the boy was still young.
The Reformation Jean Calvin To contemporaries, the reordering of religion and the sundering of the social unity that it had once provided to European culture was the most significant development of the sixteenth century.
It is impossible to understand the time without taking a look at this. Religion was not a matter of personal preference or opinion, it was the very basis of society. The Pre-Reform The rediscovery of the learning of the ancient world, the printing press, and all the other forces that came together to create the Renaissance also affected the Church.
At the end of the fifteenth century and the beginning of the sixteenth, Christian humanists sought to apply the new style of scholarship to the study of scriptures in their original languages and to return to the first principles of their religion.
In the interests of spreading religious understanding, they began to translate the Bible into the vernacular languages. The Renaissance belief in the "perfectability of man" made people less content with things as they were, and more interested in improving them in the here and now.
No one could argue that the church was not corrupt: The Christian humanists criticized these all-too-human failings, while striving for a purer church. The early years of the sixteenth century were graced by some great Christian humanist intellects: There was no particular intention of breaking from the church at this time, merely a passion for improving it.
There was no concept of the separation of church and state in France. The Pope gave the kings of France the title of "Most Christian King," and at his consecration itself a holy rite the King takes an oath to extirpate heresy in his realm. In spite of this close relationship, or perhaps because of it, the Gallican church in France has also traditionally enjoyed more independence from the central church hierarchy.
The King's rights to govern the church were unprecendented. Although this gave the Pope many rights, it gave the king more. The king of France had enormous powers to dispose of the Church's wealth and he could and did use the offices of bishops, abbots, etc. This also meant that lords of the church were usually quite worldly people, often quite unfit for their offices if spirituality or theological learning is considered a requirement.
The Pope's veto was hardly ever exercised. There was no restraint against a single individual holding many simultaneous titles, and there were plenty of bishops who lived well on their revenues and never set foot in their sees.
The weaving together of obligation, reward, and responsibility between church and state made for a unique Gallican fusion of church and state, with the University of Paris the Sorbonne acting as the scholastic think-tank arm of the church-state complex.
Luther Ina dispute about who was entitled to a cut of the revenues generated by itinerant papal indulgence sellers provoked the controversy that led the Augustinian monk, Martin Luther, to nail his 95 theses to the church door at Wittenburg.
The upshot of Luther's theses was that Christians are saved by faith, and faith alone, and that no amount of works including the purchase of indulgences made any difference at all.
A drastic enough view, but not one that was immediately perceived as having the ultimate consequences that it eventually did. The Pope, Leo X, was a fairly easy going fellow, not inclined to vigorously prosecute this first appearance of heresy.
There were plenty of heterodox views in the air at the time, and he thought it could be worked out diplomatically.
As it turns out, it could not. Luther was not immediately burnt for a heretic; he was allowed to present his case in court and had a powerful effect on the populace. He also had a powerful patron and protector in the Elector of Saxony, who shielded him from the ecclesiastical authorities.
In addition, the media explosion brought on by the printing press spread his message much further than it otherwise might have gone, and made him the focus for all sorts of religious, spiritual, political, and economic discontent.
The right to read and interpret scripture lead to the throwing off of the chains of papal and ecclesiastical authority; and taking this to mean political and economic freedom as well, there were widespread revolts among the German peasantry.Martin Luther King Jr.
(January 15, – April 4, ) was an American Baptist minister and activist who became the most visible spokesperson and leader in the civil rights movement from until his death in Born in Atlanta, King is best known for advancing civil rights through nonviolence and civil disobedience, tactics his Christian beliefs and the nonviolent activism of.
Martin Luther King, Jr.: Nonviolent Strategies and Tactics for Social Change [John J. Ansbro] on alphabetnyc.com *FREE* shipping on qualifying offers. Examines his contribution as a philosopher and theologian to issues of racial and social justice and his drive to eradicate oppression through the doctrine of .
Horoscope and natal chart of Martin Luther King, born on /01/ you will find in this page an excerpt of the astrological portrait and the interpration of the planetary dominants.
Little-known or remarkable facts about Martin Luther's Early Years. After , Luther spent the rest of his life as an outlaw.
Luther once supervised 10 monasteries. As a . Civil Rights Leaders in Selma Minister, philosopher, and social activist Martin Luther King Jr.
() was America's most significant civil rights leader of the s and s. He achieved his most renown and greatest successes in advancing the cause of civil rights while leading a series of highly publicized campaigns in Alabama between and Leader of the great religious revolt of the sixteenth century in Germany; born at Eisleben, 10 November, ; died at Eisleben, 18 February, His father, Hans, was a miner, a rugged, stern, irascible character.
In the opinion of many of his biographers, it was an expression of uncontrolled.
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He was the second of three children, and was first named Michael, after his father. Both changed their names to Martin when the boy was still young.
The Reformation Jean Calvin To contemporaries, the reordering of religion and the sundering of the social unity that it had once provided to European culture was the most significant development of the sixteenth century.
It is impossible to understand the time without taking a look at this. Religion was not a matter of personal preference or opinion, it was the very basis of society. The Pre-Reform The rediscovery of the learning of the ancient world, the printing press, and all the other forces that came together to create the Renaissance also affected the Church.
At the end of the fifteenth century and the beginning of the sixteenth, Christian humanists sought to apply the new style of scholarship to the study of scriptures in their original languages and to return to the first principles of their religion.
In the interests of spreading religious understanding, they began to translate the Bible into the vernacular languages. The Renaissance belief in the "perfectability of man" made people less content with things as they were, and more interested in improving them in the here and now.
No one could argue that the church was not corrupt: The Christian humanists criticized these all-too-human failings, while striving for a purer church. The early years of the sixteenth century were graced by some great Christian humanist intellects: There was no particular intention of breaking from the church at this time, merely a passion for improving it.
There was no concept of the separation of church and state in France. The Pope gave the kings of France the title of "Most Christian King," and at his consecration itself a holy rite the King takes an oath to extirpate heresy in his realm. In spite of this close relationship, or perhaps because of it, the Gallican church in France has also traditionally enjoyed more independence from the central church hierarchy.
The King's rights to govern the church were unprecendented. Although this gave the Pope many rights, it gave the king more. The king of France had enormous powers to dispose of the Church's wealth and he could and did use the offices of bishops, abbots, etc. This also meant that lords of the church were usually quite worldly people, often quite unfit for their offices if spirituality or theological learning is considered a requirement.
The Pope's veto was hardly ever exercised. There was no restraint against a single individual holding many simultaneous titles, and there were plenty of bishops who lived well on their revenues and never set foot in their sees.
The weaving together of obligation, reward, and responsibility between church and state made for a unique Gallican fusion of church and state, with the University of Paris the Sorbonne acting as the scholastic think-tank arm of the church-state complex.
Luther Ina dispute about who was entitled to a cut of the revenues generated by itinerant papal indulgence sellers provoked the controversy that led the Augustinian monk, Martin Luther, to nail his 95 theses to the church door at Wittenburg.
The upshot of Luther's theses was that Christians are saved by faith, and faith alone, and that no amount of works including the purchase of indulgences made any difference at all.
A drastic enough view, but not one that was immediately perceived as having the ultimate consequences that it eventually did. The Pope, Leo X, was a fairly easy going fellow, not inclined to vigorously prosecute this first appearance of heresy.
There were plenty of heterodox views in the air at the time, and he thought it could be worked out diplomatically.
As it turns out, it could not. Luther was not immediately burnt for a heretic; he was allowed to present his case in court and had a powerful effect on the populace. He also had a powerful patron and protector in the Elector of Saxony, who shielded him from the ecclesiastical authorities.
In addition, the media explosion brought on by the printing press spread his message much further than it otherwise might have gone, and made him the focus for all sorts of religious, spiritual, political, and economic discontent.
The right to read and interpret scripture lead to the throwing off of the chains of papal and ecclesiastical authority; and taking this to mean political and economic freedom as well, there were widespread revolts among the German peasantry.Martin Luther King Jr.
(January 15, – April 4, ) was an American Baptist minister and activist who became the most visible spokesperson and leader in the civil rights movement from until his death in Born in Atlanta, King is best known for advancing civil rights through nonviolence and civil disobedience, tactics his Christian beliefs and the nonviolent activism of.
Martin Luther King, Jr.: Nonviolent Strategies and Tactics for Social Change [John J. Ansbro] on alphabetnyc.com *FREE* shipping on qualifying offers. Examines his contribution as a philosopher and theologian to issues of racial and social justice and his drive to eradicate oppression through the doctrine of .
Horoscope and natal chart of Martin Luther King, born on /01/ you will find in this page an excerpt of the astrological portrait and the interpration of the planetary dominants.
Little-known or remarkable facts about Martin Luther's Early Years. After , Luther spent the rest of his life as an outlaw.
Luther once supervised 10 monasteries. As a . Civil Rights Leaders in Selma Minister, philosopher, and social activist Martin Luther King Jr.
() was America's most significant civil rights leader of the s and s. He achieved his most renown and greatest successes in advancing the cause of civil rights while leading a series of highly publicized campaigns in Alabama between and Leader of the great religious revolt of the sixteenth century in Germany; born at Eisleben, 10 November, ; died at Eisleben, 18 February, His father, Hans, was a miner, a rugged, stern, irascible character.
In the opinion of many of his biographers, it was an expression of uncontrolled.
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Previous Challenge Entry (Level 2 – Intermediate)
Topic: Write in the HISTORICAL genre (05/03/07)
- TITLE: From One Fair Lady to Another
By Bryan Coomes
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The day was June 7, 1692 and it marked a significant turning point for William, as he had decided that his days of commanding the famed pirate ship were at an end. He had yet to notify his first mate of his decision, but it was apparent that the crew was itching to divide the plunder. Port Royal was the modern equivalent of Sodom in that it had all of the delightful excesses a true pirate desired: wine, women, and wagering to name a few.
After the ship had docked and the crew received their apportioned compensation, they quickly scurried about the brothels and taverns just like the beady-eyed rats aboard the ship would do whenever their darkened hideout in the cargo hold would become illumined. Watching the last crewman disappear, William turned to face his friend and first mate Davy Jones.
Flashing his dashing smile, William followed by saying, “Well she’s all yours,”
Davy’s snaggle-toothed smile quickly faded as he replied, “What do ya mean Cap’ain?”
“My Fair Lady is yours now Davy. I am no longer Captain,” William calmly stated staring back at the ship.
“I don’ understand. Why now? You ‘ave many a good year left in ya and we never did get our chance at one of those big ole’ treasure galleons. Are you sure ‘bout this,” Davy questioned in sincere concern.
“I am more sure about this than anything ever in my life. The only treasure I seek is here in Port Royal,” William paused as he looked to the hilltop where one of the few churches in the town sat. Sighing he then concluded, “If she’ll have me.”
“Aye,” Davy replied, head turning to gaze up at the church with a wide grin.
Quickly embracing his friend, William then set off in a dash toward the rectory that sat behind the church on the hill in search of Gwyneth. Upon reaching the plateau his eyes were rewarded as she was outside tending to the lush, resplendent gardens on the church property. Captivated, he stood staring at her in the midst of the vibrant yellows of the Alamanda, the soft purples of the Jacaranda and the hot pinks of the Ixora.
As if aware of his presence, she raised her head and peered cautiously at him with her pale blue eyes while her long auburn hair swayed softly from the gentle ocean breeze. The moment seemed to last an eternity before she let a small smile escape.
“I thought I might never see you again Captain,” Gwyneth said with a mock salute.
“I wasn’t sure you would ever want to see me again,” he replied slowly approaching her. “But I had to come. I am sorry for the way I left. And I am just William now.”
“So no more high seas swashbuckling for you? Whatever are you going to do with yourself,” she playfully questioned.
Locking her gaze he replied, “Anything I have to, to be near you.”
“Is that so? Well, you can start by coming to hear my Father’s sermon later today,” she stated.
“I will,” he simply replied. “I need to take care of some things but I will return. I promise,” he finished with a smile.
“I know,” she replied, smiling in return.
She watched him trotting back down the path to the city below and thanked God for his safe return. She had prayed daily for his safety and his salvation. It appeared that perhaps her prayers were finally being answered.
He was well out of sight amongst the inhabitants when without warning there was a loud rumbling like thunder followed by severe tremors that caused the buildings below to start crumbling and falling into the sea. The sea then receded only to return with such a surge that it covered vast expanses of the land, drowning hundreds of people. All told the death toll from the earthquake and resulting tsunami was in the thousands but miraculously William Thomas was spared. Later that year, he and Gwyneth were wed.
The earthquake and tsunami that destroyed much of Port Royal were widely regarded as judgement being sent forth by God unto the men and women of that desperately wicked city. Comparisons then were drawn to the destruction of Sodom and it is interesting to see the similarities that exist with the current time tsunami in Thailand and Katrina flooding in New Orleans, both places notorious for their love of sin and perversion. The survivors of Port Royal endeavored to rebuild and restore it to what it once was but it was destroyed two more times, once by fire (1704) and finally by hurricane (1722).
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] | 1
|
Previous Challenge Entry (Level 2 – Intermediate)
Topic: Write in the HISTORICAL genre (05/03/07)
- TITLE: From One Fair Lady to Another
By Bryan Coomes
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The day was June 7, 1692 and it marked a significant turning point for William, as he had decided that his days of commanding the famed pirate ship were at an end. He had yet to notify his first mate of his decision, but it was apparent that the crew was itching to divide the plunder. Port Royal was the modern equivalent of Sodom in that it had all of the delightful excesses a true pirate desired: wine, women, and wagering to name a few.
After the ship had docked and the crew received their apportioned compensation, they quickly scurried about the brothels and taverns just like the beady-eyed rats aboard the ship would do whenever their darkened hideout in the cargo hold would become illumined. Watching the last crewman disappear, William turned to face his friend and first mate Davy Jones.
Flashing his dashing smile, William followed by saying, “Well she’s all yours,”
Davy’s snaggle-toothed smile quickly faded as he replied, “What do ya mean Cap’ain?”
“My Fair Lady is yours now Davy. I am no longer Captain,” William calmly stated staring back at the ship.
“I don’ understand. Why now? You ‘ave many a good year left in ya and we never did get our chance at one of those big ole’ treasure galleons. Are you sure ‘bout this,” Davy questioned in sincere concern.
“I am more sure about this than anything ever in my life. The only treasure I seek is here in Port Royal,” William paused as he looked to the hilltop where one of the few churches in the town sat. Sighing he then concluded, “If she’ll have me.”
“Aye,” Davy replied, head turning to gaze up at the church with a wide grin.
Quickly embracing his friend, William then set off in a dash toward the rectory that sat behind the church on the hill in search of Gwyneth. Upon reaching the plateau his eyes were rewarded as she was outside tending to the lush, resplendent gardens on the church property. Captivated, he stood staring at her in the midst of the vibrant yellows of the Alamanda, the soft purples of the Jacaranda and the hot pinks of the Ixora.
As if aware of his presence, she raised her head and peered cautiously at him with her pale blue eyes while her long auburn hair swayed softly from the gentle ocean breeze. The moment seemed to last an eternity before she let a small smile escape.
“I thought I might never see you again Captain,” Gwyneth said with a mock salute.
“I wasn’t sure you would ever want to see me again,” he replied slowly approaching her. “But I had to come. I am sorry for the way I left. And I am just William now.”
“So no more high seas swashbuckling for you? Whatever are you going to do with yourself,” she playfully questioned.
Locking her gaze he replied, “Anything I have to, to be near you.”
“Is that so? Well, you can start by coming to hear my Father’s sermon later today,” she stated.
“I will,” he simply replied. “I need to take care of some things but I will return. I promise,” he finished with a smile.
“I know,” she replied, smiling in return.
She watched him trotting back down the path to the city below and thanked God for his safe return. She had prayed daily for his safety and his salvation. It appeared that perhaps her prayers were finally being answered.
He was well out of sight amongst the inhabitants when without warning there was a loud rumbling like thunder followed by severe tremors that caused the buildings below to start crumbling and falling into the sea. The sea then receded only to return with such a surge that it covered vast expanses of the land, drowning hundreds of people. All told the death toll from the earthquake and resulting tsunami was in the thousands but miraculously William Thomas was spared. Later that year, he and Gwyneth were wed.
The earthquake and tsunami that destroyed much of Port Royal were widely regarded as judgement being sent forth by God unto the men and women of that desperately wicked city. Comparisons then were drawn to the destruction of Sodom and it is interesting to see the similarities that exist with the current time tsunami in Thailand and Katrina flooding in New Orleans, both places notorious for their love of sin and perversion. The survivors of Port Royal endeavored to rebuild and restore it to what it once was but it was destroyed two more times, once by fire (1704) and finally by hurricane (1722).
The opinions expressed by authors may not necessarily reflect the opinion of FaithWriters.com.
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| 1,088
|
ENGLISH
| 1
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February 1st, 2016 in English Quiz
Sentences are given in the direct speech. Change them into the indirect speech.
1. Jane said, ‘I am sewing.’
2. Jane said, ‘I like to sing.’
3. Ram said, ‘I’m going to school.’
4. Peter said, ‘I don’t know if I can come.’
5. Harry said, ‘I have read this book.’
6. Susie said, ‘I have been reading this book.’
7. Susan said, ‘I read this book last week.’
8. Rahul said, ‘I was reading this book when Ravi snatched it away.’
9. Susie said, ‘I will read this book tomorrow.’
10. Rohan asked, ‘Have you read this book?’
11. Mary asked, ‘Where is my key?’
12. Mother asked, ‘What is the matter?’
1. Jane said that she was sewing.
2. Jane said that she likes / liked to sing.
3. Ram said that he was going to school.
4. Peter said that he didn’t know if he could come.
5. Harry said that he had read that book.
6. Susie said that she had been reading that book.
7. Susan said that she had read that book the previous week.
8. Rahul said that he was / had been reading that book when Ravi snatched it away.
9. Susie said that she would read that book the next day.
10. Rohan asked if I had read that book.
11. Mary asked where her key was.
12. Mother asked what the matter was.
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] | 5
|
February 1st, 2016 in English Quiz
Sentences are given in the direct speech. Change them into the indirect speech.
1. Jane said, ‘I am sewing.’
2. Jane said, ‘I like to sing.’
3. Ram said, ‘I’m going to school.’
4. Peter said, ‘I don’t know if I can come.’
5. Harry said, ‘I have read this book.’
6. Susie said, ‘I have been reading this book.’
7. Susan said, ‘I read this book last week.’
8. Rahul said, ‘I was reading this book when Ravi snatched it away.’
9. Susie said, ‘I will read this book tomorrow.’
10. Rohan asked, ‘Have you read this book?’
11. Mary asked, ‘Where is my key?’
12. Mother asked, ‘What is the matter?’
1. Jane said that she was sewing.
2. Jane said that she likes / liked to sing.
3. Ram said that he was going to school.
4. Peter said that he didn’t know if he could come.
5. Harry said that he had read that book.
6. Susie said that she had been reading that book.
7. Susan said that she had read that book the previous week.
8. Rahul said that he was / had been reading that book when Ravi snatched it away.
9. Susie said that she would read that book the next day.
10. Rohan asked if I had read that book.
11. Mary asked where her key was.
12. Mother asked what the matter was.
| 353
|
ENGLISH
| 1
|
For a while now, Primary students have been asking about the buckets that are kept in the classroom’s outdoor shed; most of them were gone. Today, everything that had been missing was brought out and placed in the middle of our morning meeting. Primary teachers explained that when items aren’t put away, it shows that the work is not important. If a work isn’t important, we don’t put it out as a choice. We were all stunned to see how many outdoor works had been left out.
After a group discussion, students expressed that the items are important. They agreed they could show how important they are by putting them away when finished. A few children wondered if it would be a good idea to reduce how many loose items could be used at at time, from five down to one. Everyone agreed to try one work at a time and to talk again in the future to see how the care of our outdoor environment is working. If it’s going well, the class might decide to change how many things could be chosen. We finished our morning meeting by dismissing the students one by one to pick an item from the middle of our meeting space and mindfully place it back into the shed. As each child carefully chose something, the room was silent.
McGuffey is proud to uphold high standards for responsibility and independence. Primary students as young as three years old know they can solve problems and work together as a community to make their environment and school a better place.
|
<urn:uuid:e4dc2282-6a8e-42ca-9e15-4d00695998b4>
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CC-MAIN-2020-05
|
http://mcguffeymontessori.com/care-of-our-environment/
|
s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250594603.8/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119122744-20200119150744-00545.warc.gz
|
en
| 0.986379
| 308
| 3.265625
| 3
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] | 9
|
For a while now, Primary students have been asking about the buckets that are kept in the classroom’s outdoor shed; most of them were gone. Today, everything that had been missing was brought out and placed in the middle of our morning meeting. Primary teachers explained that when items aren’t put away, it shows that the work is not important. If a work isn’t important, we don’t put it out as a choice. We were all stunned to see how many outdoor works had been left out.
After a group discussion, students expressed that the items are important. They agreed they could show how important they are by putting them away when finished. A few children wondered if it would be a good idea to reduce how many loose items could be used at at time, from five down to one. Everyone agreed to try one work at a time and to talk again in the future to see how the care of our outdoor environment is working. If it’s going well, the class might decide to change how many things could be chosen. We finished our morning meeting by dismissing the students one by one to pick an item from the middle of our meeting space and mindfully place it back into the shed. As each child carefully chose something, the room was silent.
McGuffey is proud to uphold high standards for responsibility and independence. Primary students as young as three years old know they can solve problems and work together as a community to make their environment and school a better place.
| 296
|
ENGLISH
| 1
|
How can we use theatre to tackle social issues?
The students all researched a particular issue within society that has affected their local community and beyond. They were required to look into how the media represents and reports on these issues as well as learning about Verbatim Theatre as a form.
What skills were developed?
Students developed their performance to camera skills as they were focused on producing a piece of filmed theatre. Script writing and editing played a key role in enabling students to be successful in these projects.
How was it assessed?
Students were assessed by a sample group of their target audience. They were assessed on how they were able to creatively approach the process, their performance and script writing skills but also their performance's suitability and ability to reach the target audience.
|
<urn:uuid:2c97b3ae-a274-49b1-92cc-d4cfed88d024>
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CC-MAIN-2020-05
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https://www.school21.org.uk/project-theatre-social-issues
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s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251696046.73/warc/CC-MAIN-20200127081933-20200127111933-00229.warc.gz
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| 0.993694
| 155
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| 3
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] | 13
|
How can we use theatre to tackle social issues?
The students all researched a particular issue within society that has affected their local community and beyond. They were required to look into how the media represents and reports on these issues as well as learning about Verbatim Theatre as a form.
What skills were developed?
Students developed their performance to camera skills as they were focused on producing a piece of filmed theatre. Script writing and editing played a key role in enabling students to be successful in these projects.
How was it assessed?
Students were assessed by a sample group of their target audience. They were assessed on how they were able to creatively approach the process, their performance and script writing skills but also their performance's suitability and ability to reach the target audience.
| 148
|
ENGLISH
| 1
|
On December 31, 1775, Patriot forces under Colonel Benedict Arnold and General Richard Montgomery attempt to capture the city of Quebec under cover of darkness and snowfall. They fail, and the effort costs Montgomery his life.
On December 2, Arnold, Montgomery and their troops met on the outskirts of Quebec and demanded the surrender of the city. Governor Sir Guy Carleton rejected their demand, and on December 8 the Patriots commenced a bombardment of Quebec, which was met by a counter-battery by the British defenders that disabled several of the Patriots’ guns. Facing the year-end expiration of their troops’ enlistment, the Patriot forces advanced on the city under the cover of a blizzard at approximately 4 a.m. on December 31. The British defenders were ready, however, and when Montgomery’s forces came within 50 yards of the fortified city, the British opened fire with a barrage of artillery and musket fire. Montgomery was killed in the first assault, and after several more attempts at penetrating Quebec’s defenses, his men were forced to retreat.
Meanwhile, Arnold’s division suffered a similar fate during their attack on the northern wall of the city. A two-gun battery opened fire on the advancing Americans, killing a number of troops and wounding Benedict Arnold in the leg. Patriot Daniel Morgan assumed command and made progress against the defenders, but halted at the second wall of fortifications to wait for reinforcements. By the time the rest of Arnold’s army finally arrived, the British had reorganized, forcing the Patriots to call of their attack. Of the 900 Americans who participated in the siege, 60 were killed or wounded and more than 400 were captured.
The remaining Patriot forces then retreated from Canada. Benedict Arnold remained in Canadian territory until the last of his soldiers had crossed the St. Lawrence River to safety. With the pursuing British forces almost in firing range, Arnold checked one last time to make sure all his men had escaped, then shot his horse and fled down the St. Lawrence in a canoe.
Less than five years later, Benedict Arnold, then commander of West Point, famously turned traitor when he agreed to surrender the important Hudson River fort to the British for a bribe of £20,000. The plot was uncovered after British spy John Andre was captured with incriminating papers, forcing Arnold to flee to British protection and join in their fight against the country that he had once so valiantly served.
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https://www.history.com/this-day-in-history/patriots-are-defeated-at-quebec
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On December 31, 1775, Patriot forces under Colonel Benedict Arnold and General Richard Montgomery attempt to capture the city of Quebec under cover of darkness and snowfall. They fail, and the effort costs Montgomery his life.
On December 2, Arnold, Montgomery and their troops met on the outskirts of Quebec and demanded the surrender of the city. Governor Sir Guy Carleton rejected their demand, and on December 8 the Patriots commenced a bombardment of Quebec, which was met by a counter-battery by the British defenders that disabled several of the Patriots’ guns. Facing the year-end expiration of their troops’ enlistment, the Patriot forces advanced on the city under the cover of a blizzard at approximately 4 a.m. on December 31. The British defenders were ready, however, and when Montgomery’s forces came within 50 yards of the fortified city, the British opened fire with a barrage of artillery and musket fire. Montgomery was killed in the first assault, and after several more attempts at penetrating Quebec’s defenses, his men were forced to retreat.
Meanwhile, Arnold’s division suffered a similar fate during their attack on the northern wall of the city. A two-gun battery opened fire on the advancing Americans, killing a number of troops and wounding Benedict Arnold in the leg. Patriot Daniel Morgan assumed command and made progress against the defenders, but halted at the second wall of fortifications to wait for reinforcements. By the time the rest of Arnold’s army finally arrived, the British had reorganized, forcing the Patriots to call of their attack. Of the 900 Americans who participated in the siege, 60 were killed or wounded and more than 400 were captured.
The remaining Patriot forces then retreated from Canada. Benedict Arnold remained in Canadian territory until the last of his soldiers had crossed the St. Lawrence River to safety. With the pursuing British forces almost in firing range, Arnold checked one last time to make sure all his men had escaped, then shot his horse and fled down the St. Lawrence in a canoe.
Less than five years later, Benedict Arnold, then commander of West Point, famously turned traitor when he agreed to surrender the important Hudson River fort to the British for a bribe of £20,000. The plot was uncovered after British spy John Andre was captured with incriminating papers, forcing Arnold to flee to British protection and join in their fight against the country that he had once so valiantly served.
| 505
|
ENGLISH
| 1
|
Chapters 13 to 21 explain how the land was divided up and settled, and chapters 22 to 24 give Joshua's farewell speeches and the renewal of God's agreement and promises with the children of Israel.
Later editors evidently made a few additions, such as the description of Joshua's death.
"Traditionally, the Old Testament is divided into three sections: the Law, Prophets and Writings (or Psalms, so named from the first book of that section).
There remains therefore a rest [Sabbath-rest, New International Version] for the people of God.
For he who has entered His rest has himself also ceased from his works as God did from His.
And not a man of all their enemies stood against them; the Lord delivered all their enemies into their hand.
Joshua served as a type of Jesus Christ leading His people into a spiritual Promised Land, inheriting the Kingdom of God and overcoming evil along the way.
And to whom did He swear that they would not enter His rest, but to those who did not obey?
So we see that they could not enter in because of unbelief.
"The Hebrew name Joshua or Hebrews -19 For we have become partakers of Christ if we hold the beginning of our confidence steadfast to the end, while it is said: "Today, if you will hear His voice, do not harden your hearts as in the rebellion." For who, having heard, rebelled?
Indeed, was it not all who came out of Egypt, led by Moses? Was it not with those who sinned, whose corpses fell in the wilderness?
Though it may have been written by various authors, adding to the storyline as events transpired—e.g., the Song of Deborah and the parable of Jotham—it was probably put into its final form by the last of the judges, Samuel, in the 11th century B. The Talmud states, 'Samuel wrote the book which bears his name and the book of Judges' 14b).
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Chapters 13 to 21 explain how the land was divided up and settled, and chapters 22 to 24 give Joshua's farewell speeches and the renewal of God's agreement and promises with the children of Israel.
Later editors evidently made a few additions, such as the description of Joshua's death.
"Traditionally, the Old Testament is divided into three sections: the Law, Prophets and Writings (or Psalms, so named from the first book of that section).
There remains therefore a rest [Sabbath-rest, New International Version] for the people of God.
For he who has entered His rest has himself also ceased from his works as God did from His.
And not a man of all their enemies stood against them; the Lord delivered all their enemies into their hand.
Joshua served as a type of Jesus Christ leading His people into a spiritual Promised Land, inheriting the Kingdom of God and overcoming evil along the way.
And to whom did He swear that they would not enter His rest, but to those who did not obey?
So we see that they could not enter in because of unbelief.
"The Hebrew name Joshua or Hebrews -19 For we have become partakers of Christ if we hold the beginning of our confidence steadfast to the end, while it is said: "Today, if you will hear His voice, do not harden your hearts as in the rebellion." For who, having heard, rebelled?
Indeed, was it not all who came out of Egypt, led by Moses? Was it not with those who sinned, whose corpses fell in the wilderness?
Though it may have been written by various authors, adding to the storyline as events transpired—e.g., the Song of Deborah and the parable of Jotham—it was probably put into its final form by the last of the judges, Samuel, in the 11th century B. The Talmud states, 'Samuel wrote the book which bears his name and the book of Judges' 14b).
| 420
|
ENGLISH
| 1
|
Overall, children from China do very well. In one study in looking at children adopted into Canada from China,in which the children on average were 13 months old when they arrived home, they were doing as well as other children in Canada at three years old.(Incidentally, these children arrived home about 10/11 years ago, when orphan conditions were not as good as they are today.) The children’s receptive language skills—even at a very young age—were just as good as other children. The good news is that children’s receptive language skills—which is the ability to understand what others are saying and respond—are related to positive cognitive and social development. Also, by the time the children were about three years old, they had caught up with their peers in their ability to talk, called expressive language skills .
So how do children’s language skills relate to nutrition? Children’s ability to understand language is related to the child’s height-to weight ratio as well as the child’s head circumference.A lack of stimulation in the child’s early years in an orphanage can have an impact on physical growth. That means that your child’s growth can be delayed because of lack of stimulation and not just lack of nutrition. The factor that related most to mental development and language skills was the child’s height.In the study of children adopted into Canada, the children from China did have growth spurts, but they stayed a bit shorter than other children their age. The weight of the child seems to have had less impact; in this same study the children’s weight upon arrival home did not indicate a child’s cognitive function at 11 years of age. Continue reading
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Overall, children from China do very well. In one study in looking at children adopted into Canada from China,in which the children on average were 13 months old when they arrived home, they were doing as well as other children in Canada at three years old.(Incidentally, these children arrived home about 10/11 years ago, when orphan conditions were not as good as they are today.) The children’s receptive language skills—even at a very young age—were just as good as other children. The good news is that children’s receptive language skills—which is the ability to understand what others are saying and respond—are related to positive cognitive and social development. Also, by the time the children were about three years old, they had caught up with their peers in their ability to talk, called expressive language skills .
So how do children’s language skills relate to nutrition? Children’s ability to understand language is related to the child’s height-to weight ratio as well as the child’s head circumference.A lack of stimulation in the child’s early years in an orphanage can have an impact on physical growth. That means that your child’s growth can be delayed because of lack of stimulation and not just lack of nutrition. The factor that related most to mental development and language skills was the child’s height.In the study of children adopted into Canada, the children from China did have growth spurts, but they stayed a bit shorter than other children their age. The weight of the child seems to have had less impact; in this same study the children’s weight upon arrival home did not indicate a child’s cognitive function at 11 years of age. Continue reading
| 332
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ENGLISH
| 1
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(Last Updated on : 09/07/2012)
Pramathanath Mitra, popularly known as P. Mitra, was one of the most renowned Indian freedom fighters
and revolutionaries who fought against the rule of the British Empire in India
. Mitra was born on 30th October 1853. He was also a well known Bengali barrister. Pramathanath Mitra, also known as Pramatha Nath Mitra, was also one of the earliest founding members of Anushilan Samiti
, an Indian revolutionary organisation that emerged in Bengal. Anushilan Samiti, which literally meant self culture association, was a secret anti-British armed revolutionary organisation in Bengal. The members of the association were dedicated towards the goal of attaining freedom from British dominion through armed revolution.
Pramathanath Mitra died in the year 1910. He significantly contributed to the Indian freedom struggle through out his life.
This article is a stub. You may enrich it by adding more information to it. You can send your write-up at [email protected]
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|
(Last Updated on : 09/07/2012)
Pramathanath Mitra, popularly known as P. Mitra, was one of the most renowned Indian freedom fighters
and revolutionaries who fought against the rule of the British Empire in India
. Mitra was born on 30th October 1853. He was also a well known Bengali barrister. Pramathanath Mitra, also known as Pramatha Nath Mitra, was also one of the earliest founding members of Anushilan Samiti
, an Indian revolutionary organisation that emerged in Bengal. Anushilan Samiti, which literally meant self culture association, was a secret anti-British armed revolutionary organisation in Bengal. The members of the association were dedicated towards the goal of attaining freedom from British dominion through armed revolution.
Pramathanath Mitra died in the year 1910. He significantly contributed to the Indian freedom struggle through out his life.
This article is a stub. You may enrich it by adding more information to it. You can send your write-up at [email protected]
| 233
|
ENGLISH
| 1
|
Often a printed document, varying in size and format. Early examples averaged about 16″ x 20″ – however, by the 1860s, 23″ x 18″ was a common size. On the front of the document were the conditions agreed to between a vessel’s managers and the crew. Below this was a column for crew members’ signatures, in addition to columns for such data as station, birth place, age, height, wages, hospital money, time of discharge, etc. The number and designations of these columns varied from one document to another. “United States Of America” is often printed prominently on the frontside, and engraved ships, eagles, etc., are frequently found on both sides of the Articles. After 1790 the backside quite often presented printed abstracts of all Federal laws currently in force relative to seamen’s protection and the conduct of officers and crew while at sea. There was also a place set aside for the crew to sign for receipt of their wages at the end of the voyage. Customs or consular stamps and seals were also present.
By a Congressional Act in 1790, Articles of Agreement was a document required of every vessel sailing for a foreign port and for any vessel, of 50 tons or more, bound to any domestic port, except to one in an adjoining state. Fishermen engaged in the fisheries also had to sign shipping articles, and were entitled to the same privileges and subject to the same regulations as sailors. The document contained the signatures of the master and every member of the crew (or his mark), and was considered to be a separate contract for each person signing. It provided legal evidence not only as to the nature and length of the voyage, but as to the duties to be performed and wages due. A copy of the Articles, certified by the collector, had to be taken aboard ship by the master, and was to be produced, when required, before any consul or commercial agent to whom a complaint was made. Since a new Articles of Agreement was required for each voyage (and they were not recalled by the Customs Service) these documents are commonly found in maritime collections. They rank among the more valuable and comprehensive research sources, providing important information for a great number of marine subjects.
Articles of Agreement were being used even before the Act of 1790. This example, June -July 1787, was essentially a private contract between the vessel’s owners and each member of the crew who signed the Articles. There are no signatures of port officials, and obviously no references to compliance with existing regulatory laws. The document is similar in size and style, however, to the more standardized forms that existed during the early 1800s.
The reverse side of the Articles often contained sections of Federal legislation relative to seamen’s protection, and the conduct of American vessels towards their crew members. The example illustrated here is typical of those in use during the mid-nineteenth century.
This Articles of Agreement was part of the documentation required by the owners of the Privateer Revenge, for a cruise against the British. The printed format is unique, since these documents were usually completely handwritten. Note that it was printed specifically for the sloop Revenge, and indicated that the vessel was to sail, “…against the Enemies of the Thirteen United States of America…, ” for a period not to exceed six weeks. Although dated at New London, Connecticut, on 27June 1778, the Articles were evidently never executed, since no signatures of crew members or officers, etc., appear in the space provided.
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] | 10
|
Often a printed document, varying in size and format. Early examples averaged about 16″ x 20″ – however, by the 1860s, 23″ x 18″ was a common size. On the front of the document were the conditions agreed to between a vessel’s managers and the crew. Below this was a column for crew members’ signatures, in addition to columns for such data as station, birth place, age, height, wages, hospital money, time of discharge, etc. The number and designations of these columns varied from one document to another. “United States Of America” is often printed prominently on the frontside, and engraved ships, eagles, etc., are frequently found on both sides of the Articles. After 1790 the backside quite often presented printed abstracts of all Federal laws currently in force relative to seamen’s protection and the conduct of officers and crew while at sea. There was also a place set aside for the crew to sign for receipt of their wages at the end of the voyage. Customs or consular stamps and seals were also present.
By a Congressional Act in 1790, Articles of Agreement was a document required of every vessel sailing for a foreign port and for any vessel, of 50 tons or more, bound to any domestic port, except to one in an adjoining state. Fishermen engaged in the fisheries also had to sign shipping articles, and were entitled to the same privileges and subject to the same regulations as sailors. The document contained the signatures of the master and every member of the crew (or his mark), and was considered to be a separate contract for each person signing. It provided legal evidence not only as to the nature and length of the voyage, but as to the duties to be performed and wages due. A copy of the Articles, certified by the collector, had to be taken aboard ship by the master, and was to be produced, when required, before any consul or commercial agent to whom a complaint was made. Since a new Articles of Agreement was required for each voyage (and they were not recalled by the Customs Service) these documents are commonly found in maritime collections. They rank among the more valuable and comprehensive research sources, providing important information for a great number of marine subjects.
Articles of Agreement were being used even before the Act of 1790. This example, June -July 1787, was essentially a private contract between the vessel’s owners and each member of the crew who signed the Articles. There are no signatures of port officials, and obviously no references to compliance with existing regulatory laws. The document is similar in size and style, however, to the more standardized forms that existed during the early 1800s.
The reverse side of the Articles often contained sections of Federal legislation relative to seamen’s protection, and the conduct of American vessels towards their crew members. The example illustrated here is typical of those in use during the mid-nineteenth century.
This Articles of Agreement was part of the documentation required by the owners of the Privateer Revenge, for a cruise against the British. The printed format is unique, since these documents were usually completely handwritten. Note that it was printed specifically for the sloop Revenge, and indicated that the vessel was to sail, “…against the Enemies of the Thirteen United States of America…, ” for a period not to exceed six weeks. Although dated at New London, Connecticut, on 27June 1778, the Articles were evidently never executed, since no signatures of crew members or officers, etc., appear in the space provided.
| 744
|
ENGLISH
| 1
|
The era of mass murder might be given as a name for the 20th century. Never in the history of the worldhave so many millions of people been deliberately killed since 1900. These millions weren’t all because of war. They were victims of genocide: the deliberate killings of racial, religious, ethnic, or political groups.
The word genocide is from the Greek genos, meaning”race”, or “tribe”, and the Latin cide, meaning “killing.”
The Armenian Genocide was directed against the residents of Asia Minor by the Turkish government. This deliberate slaughter began on April 24, 1915, under the cover of World War 1. The number killed are uncertain. The lowest is 800,000 and the highest more than 2 million.
First the Armenians in the army were disarmed, placed into battalions, and then killed.
Then the Armenian political leaders were rounded up on April 24, 1915, and then killed.
Finally, the remaining Armenians were called from thier homes, told they would be relocated, and then marched off to concentration camps in the desert between Jerablus and Deir ez-Zor where they would starve and thirst to death in the sun.
On March, often they would be denied food and water, and many were brutalized and killed by their guards. The authorities in Trezbizond, on the Black Sea coast, loaded Armenians on barges and sank them out at sea.
The Turkish government has denied that this ever happened, but this event has been carefully recorded by others.
As I said before the “era of mass murder” should be given the name of the 20th century. This century was when most people for either theirrace, ethnic, or religion had been killed purposely. From the Jewish Holocaust to the all other genocides. Yet, there is also a reason why this happened. Maybe it was because it was a lesson to show us how easily we are capable of doing such atrocitiesas this. These past geno
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The era of mass murder might be given as a name for the 20th century. Never in the history of the worldhave so many millions of people been deliberately killed since 1900. These millions weren’t all because of war. They were victims of genocide: the deliberate killings of racial, religious, ethnic, or political groups.
The word genocide is from the Greek genos, meaning”race”, or “tribe”, and the Latin cide, meaning “killing.”
The Armenian Genocide was directed against the residents of Asia Minor by the Turkish government. This deliberate slaughter began on April 24, 1915, under the cover of World War 1. The number killed are uncertain. The lowest is 800,000 and the highest more than 2 million.
First the Armenians in the army were disarmed, placed into battalions, and then killed.
Then the Armenian political leaders were rounded up on April 24, 1915, and then killed.
Finally, the remaining Armenians were called from thier homes, told they would be relocated, and then marched off to concentration camps in the desert between Jerablus and Deir ez-Zor where they would starve and thirst to death in the sun.
On March, often they would be denied food and water, and many were brutalized and killed by their guards. The authorities in Trezbizond, on the Black Sea coast, loaded Armenians on barges and sank them out at sea.
The Turkish government has denied that this ever happened, but this event has been carefully recorded by others.
As I said before the “era of mass murder” should be given the name of the 20th century. This century was when most people for either theirrace, ethnic, or religion had been killed purposely. From the Jewish Holocaust to the all other genocides. Yet, there is also a reason why this happened. Maybe it was because it was a lesson to show us how easily we are capable of doing such atrocitiesas this. These past geno
| 430
|
ENGLISH
| 1
|
During the 16th century while other English settlers came over to the New World, with them was a new group of people named the Puritans. The Puritan community came over to build a new life and colony for themselves in which they called the Massachusetts Bay Colony. Led by John Winthrop the Puritans followed in what he said in order to make a new and perfect society and life for themselves. (Winthrop 24). Winthrop’s idea of his perfect society is something he called a ‘City Upon a Hill” (Winthrop 24). When coming over to this New Colony from England they saw it as an opportunity to venture off and find something they can be proud of with implementing the values that they be believed in. (Winthrop 24) For them it was a new life where they would be able to practice their own religion and that was the real reason for coming over to the New World. This community, which was different than anything that had been seen came to the new world with changing views and were not always very expected and they truly brought tension to the new world.
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This new society became a community that John Winthrop described as a “City Upon a Hill” The Puritan society believed that they had a special convent with God in which they were supported to create a new community to heal and save the chaos¬¬ that was happening in the new world at the same time” (Winthrop 24). The statement of a “City Upon a Hill” had a pressure put on it and John Winthrop intended to make it clear that they were the best and lived the best way of life. This concept was created so that everyone else in the world would watch this “city” and learn to emulate as best as they could” (Winthrop 24). His beliefs in calling it a “City Upon a Hill” is that so everyone could watch as they did things and that everyone would that was the best way to live life. Anyone who disagreed with this thinking of life, in Gods eyes were wrong and deemed to be not worthy and they were not allowed to speak to (MGA 238).
The Puritan community was shaped in a very specific way, in which they believed that God knew everything and the way they lived was because that was the way he wanted them to. The community was based on the idea that God made this new society not for the individual in the community but for the entire community as a whole (Winthrop 24). With this thinking in mind, the community was shaped as a brotherhood and helping others and brotherly love was the most important thing to do aside from practicing religion (Winthrop 24). Instead of everyone having freedom to be themselves, the idea was that community took precedence over an individual freedom and since any transgressions against the world of God would bring punishment to the whole group so it was all about conformity to each other and keeping a strong bond with God to make the community look great to not only those around but also to God himself (Winthrop 24). In the eyes of the Puritan community at the beginning of their settlement, it was all about loving each other and following the world of go and what he believed to be true as a whole.
Once the Puritans became comfortable with what was going on in their everyday lives, things began to go airy from what early settlers first believed. In the 17th century, numerous leaders of the community began to start the idea of a social problem that they called “declension “(MGA 234). It was created because there were more and more New England inhabitants coming over to the new world and joining the Puritan community without believing in what they believed in (MGA 234). The start of declension causes a lot of issues between the Puritans and the neighboring Native Americans. The biggest issue that really started the beginning of the two of them having a bad relationship was King Phillips War (MGA 234). King Philips War, which to many seemed to be a punishment from God for the violation of the covenant, was very deadly not only to the Native Americans they were fighting but also to the Puritan community as a whole (MGA 234). Once the war ended, many felt that it was time for some change in the community and the courts decided to come up with new laws so that this sort of thing would not happen again (MGA 234). This is not the first time though that community had heard of something like this to come. In the beginning of settlement, John Winthrop built a fear into the original idea of “City Upon a Hill “and warned early settlers that if they did not follow the plan of God something like this was warranted to happen (MGA 234). Through the new laws created by the court, one big one that showed how the new relationship of the puritans and the Native Americans were going to be is the law that states, that all trading in homes with the Native Americans has to stop and the only trading that is allowed to be done is in towns and shops with other people present to watch the exchange happen. This was a big change and it law being implemented showed that the Puritans did not trust the Native Americans anymore and didn’t believe things could ever be worked out with them. After all that had happened, the relationship between the Puritans and Native Americans where once good have progressed into a good one had then failed and was no longer worth the crime that it had now was to bring.
A “City Upon a Hill” an idea that was said to be all of God’s doing was something that turned the New World Upside down. The Puritan lifestyle was different from anything seen before and their beliefs were not always what everyone believed. John Winthrop and his community believed that they were sent by God to create something new in the world to end the tension happening and for that reason that is what they did. The Puritan world may have not been the right one for everyone but they believed it was the right one for them.
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During the 16th century while other English settlers came over to the New World, with them was a new group of people named the Puritans. The Puritan community came over to build a new life and colony for themselves in which they called the Massachusetts Bay Colony. Led by John Winthrop the Puritans followed in what he said in order to make a new and perfect society and life for themselves. (Winthrop 24). Winthrop’s idea of his perfect society is something he called a ‘City Upon a Hill” (Winthrop 24). When coming over to this New Colony from England they saw it as an opportunity to venture off and find something they can be proud of with implementing the values that they be believed in. (Winthrop 24) For them it was a new life where they would be able to practice their own religion and that was the real reason for coming over to the New World. This community, which was different than anything that had been seen came to the new world with changing views and were not always very expected and they truly brought tension to the new world.
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This new society became a community that John Winthrop described as a “City Upon a Hill” The Puritan society believed that they had a special convent with God in which they were supported to create a new community to heal and save the chaos¬¬ that was happening in the new world at the same time” (Winthrop 24). The statement of a “City Upon a Hill” had a pressure put on it and John Winthrop intended to make it clear that they were the best and lived the best way of life. This concept was created so that everyone else in the world would watch this “city” and learn to emulate as best as they could” (Winthrop 24). His beliefs in calling it a “City Upon a Hill” is that so everyone could watch as they did things and that everyone would that was the best way to live life. Anyone who disagreed with this thinking of life, in Gods eyes were wrong and deemed to be not worthy and they were not allowed to speak to (MGA 238).
The Puritan community was shaped in a very specific way, in which they believed that God knew everything and the way they lived was because that was the way he wanted them to. The community was based on the idea that God made this new society not for the individual in the community but for the entire community as a whole (Winthrop 24). With this thinking in mind, the community was shaped as a brotherhood and helping others and brotherly love was the most important thing to do aside from practicing religion (Winthrop 24). Instead of everyone having freedom to be themselves, the idea was that community took precedence over an individual freedom and since any transgressions against the world of God would bring punishment to the whole group so it was all about conformity to each other and keeping a strong bond with God to make the community look great to not only those around but also to God himself (Winthrop 24). In the eyes of the Puritan community at the beginning of their settlement, it was all about loving each other and following the world of go and what he believed to be true as a whole.
Once the Puritans became comfortable with what was going on in their everyday lives, things began to go airy from what early settlers first believed. In the 17th century, numerous leaders of the community began to start the idea of a social problem that they called “declension “(MGA 234). It was created because there were more and more New England inhabitants coming over to the new world and joining the Puritan community without believing in what they believed in (MGA 234). The start of declension causes a lot of issues between the Puritans and the neighboring Native Americans. The biggest issue that really started the beginning of the two of them having a bad relationship was King Phillips War (MGA 234). King Philips War, which to many seemed to be a punishment from God for the violation of the covenant, was very deadly not only to the Native Americans they were fighting but also to the Puritan community as a whole (MGA 234). Once the war ended, many felt that it was time for some change in the community and the courts decided to come up with new laws so that this sort of thing would not happen again (MGA 234). This is not the first time though that community had heard of something like this to come. In the beginning of settlement, John Winthrop built a fear into the original idea of “City Upon a Hill “and warned early settlers that if they did not follow the plan of God something like this was warranted to happen (MGA 234). Through the new laws created by the court, one big one that showed how the new relationship of the puritans and the Native Americans were going to be is the law that states, that all trading in homes with the Native Americans has to stop and the only trading that is allowed to be done is in towns and shops with other people present to watch the exchange happen. This was a big change and it law being implemented showed that the Puritans did not trust the Native Americans anymore and didn’t believe things could ever be worked out with them. After all that had happened, the relationship between the Puritans and Native Americans where once good have progressed into a good one had then failed and was no longer worth the crime that it had now was to bring.
A “City Upon a Hill” an idea that was said to be all of God’s doing was something that turned the New World Upside down. The Puritan lifestyle was different from anything seen before and their beliefs were not always what everyone believed. John Winthrop and his community believed that they were sent by God to create something new in the world to end the tension happening and for that reason that is what they did. The Puritan world may have not been the right one for everyone but they believed it was the right one for them.
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In time, many black people ended up adopting the image constructed of them by the white people and through this, they forgot about their true identity and about their true heritage and became the people the whites wanted them to become.While in the village, Baldwin witnesses a festival during which a child is painted in black and then attempts to raise money for the community to buy black slaves so they could be converted to Christianity and saved from their savage way of life. The man who stole the sheets was a man from America who left his hotel after it became inhabitable and Baldwin arranged for him to live in the same hotel as him. Because of this, Baldwin reacted sometimes violently, expressing his anger towards the people who refused to treat him in the same manner they would treat a white person. Yes, another set of influences. An interactive data visualization of Notes of a Native Son's plot and themes. As a cultural critic who draws on personal experience, Baldwin can also be compared to the essayists Joan Didion, Vivian Gornick, and Hilton Als. While many hailed the novel as being progressive, Baldwin criticizes it for treating the subject of slavery from a sentimentalist view. Literary significance and criticism[ edit ]. Baldwin also disagrees with the idea that oppression makes people wiser and claims that oppression only makes the oppressed feel angry and makes them want revenge. During this time, he became a junior minister, before abandoning the church at
On to the black press, Baldwin notes that it emulates the white press, with its scandalous spreads and so forth. Baldwin also criticizes the movie for desexualizing black people and for making it seem as if their sexuality is a threat and something negative that must be avoided.
Baldwin notes that black people are extremely religious and that countless churches can be found in Harlem.In his next essay, Baldwin talks about Harlem, the place where he and his own parents grew up. Whilst Africans in France have a history and a country to hold on to, Black Americans don't—their history lies in the United States and it is in the making. They now enjoy success in New York City. Many of the American students were soldiers in the past who chose to remain behind after the war in Europe. The essay stresses his cultural inability to know how to behave with the police. In time, many black people ended up adopting the image constructed of them by the white people and through this, they forgot about their true identity and about their true heritage and became the people the whites wanted them to become. As a teenager, Baldwin began to realize he was gay.
Baldwin was born in Harlem and he was interested in reading since an early age. Yes, another set of influences.
When Baldwin was living in New Jersey, he witnessed racial bigotry when he was not allowed to eat in certain restaurants because he was a person of color. Many of the American students were soldiers in the past who chose to remain behind after the war in Europe.
Furthermore, Baldwin emphasizes the importance of his desire to be a good man and writer. As a teenager, Baldwin began to realize he was gay. The next essay is entitled Many Thousands Gone Baldwin argues that the reason why the blacks never told their story is because the whites were unwilling to listen to it.
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In time, many black people ended up adopting the image constructed of them by the white people and through this, they forgot about their true identity and about their true heritage and became the people the whites wanted them to become.While in the village, Baldwin witnesses a festival during which a child is painted in black and then attempts to raise money for the community to buy black slaves so they could be converted to Christianity and saved from their savage way of life. The man who stole the sheets was a man from America who left his hotel after it became inhabitable and Baldwin arranged for him to live in the same hotel as him. Because of this, Baldwin reacted sometimes violently, expressing his anger towards the people who refused to treat him in the same manner they would treat a white person. Yes, another set of influences. An interactive data visualization of Notes of a Native Son's plot and themes. As a cultural critic who draws on personal experience, Baldwin can also be compared to the essayists Joan Didion, Vivian Gornick, and Hilton Als. While many hailed the novel as being progressive, Baldwin criticizes it for treating the subject of slavery from a sentimentalist view. Literary significance and criticism[ edit ]. Baldwin also disagrees with the idea that oppression makes people wiser and claims that oppression only makes the oppressed feel angry and makes them want revenge. During this time, he became a junior minister, before abandoning the church at
On to the black press, Baldwin notes that it emulates the white press, with its scandalous spreads and so forth. Baldwin also criticizes the movie for desexualizing black people and for making it seem as if their sexuality is a threat and something negative that must be avoided.
Baldwin notes that black people are extremely religious and that countless churches can be found in Harlem.In his next essay, Baldwin talks about Harlem, the place where he and his own parents grew up. Whilst Africans in France have a history and a country to hold on to, Black Americans don't—their history lies in the United States and it is in the making. They now enjoy success in New York City. Many of the American students were soldiers in the past who chose to remain behind after the war in Europe. The essay stresses his cultural inability to know how to behave with the police. In time, many black people ended up adopting the image constructed of them by the white people and through this, they forgot about their true identity and about their true heritage and became the people the whites wanted them to become. As a teenager, Baldwin began to realize he was gay.
Baldwin was born in Harlem and he was interested in reading since an early age. Yes, another set of influences.
When Baldwin was living in New Jersey, he witnessed racial bigotry when he was not allowed to eat in certain restaurants because he was a person of color. Many of the American students were soldiers in the past who chose to remain behind after the war in Europe.
Furthermore, Baldwin emphasizes the importance of his desire to be a good man and writer. As a teenager, Baldwin began to realize he was gay. The next essay is entitled Many Thousands Gone Baldwin argues that the reason why the blacks never told their story is because the whites were unwilling to listen to it.
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The examples and perspective in this article may not represent a worldwide view of the subject. (May 2017) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)
A highwayman was a robber who stole from travellers. This type of thief usually travelled and robbed by horse as compared to a footpad who travelled and robbed on foot; mounted highwaymen were widely considered to be socially superior to footpads. Such criminals operated in Great Britain from the Elizabethan era until the early 19th century. In many other countries, they persisted for a few decades longer, until the mid or late 19th century. Highwaywomen, such as Katherine Ferrers, were said to also exist, often dressing as men, especially in fiction.
The first attestation of the word highwayman is from 1617.Euphemisms such as "knights of the road" and "gentlemen of the road" were sometimes used by people interested in romanticizing (with a Robin Hood-esque slant) what was often an especially violent form of stealing. In the 19th-century American West, highwaymen were sometimes known as road agents. In Australia, they were known as bushrangers.
The great age of highwaymen was the period from the Restoration in 1660 to the death of Queen Anne in 1714. Some of them are known to have been disbanded soldiers and even officers of the English Civil War and French wars. What favoured them most was the lack of governance and absence of a police force: parish constables were almost wholly ineffective and commonplace detection and arrest were very difficult. Most of the highwaymen held up travellers and took their money. Some had channels by which they could dispose of bills of exchange. Others had a 'racket' on the road transport of an extensive district; carriers regularly paid them a ransom to go unmolested.
They often attacked coaches for their lack of protection, including public stagecoaches; the postboys who carried the mail were also frequently held up. The famous demand to "Stand and deliver!" (sometimes in forms such as "Stand and deliver your purse!" "Stand and deliver your money!") was in use from the 17th century.
A fellow of a good Name, but poor Condition, and worse Quality, was Convicted for laying an Embargo on a man whom he met on the Road, by bidding him Stand and Deliver, but to little purpose; for the Traveller had no more Money than a Capuchin, but told him, all the treasure he had was a pound of Tobacco, which he civilly surrendered.-- The Proceedings of the Old Bailey, 25 April 1677,
The phrase "Your money or your life!" is mentioned in trial reports from the mid-18th century:
Evidence of John Mawson: "As I was coming home, in company with Mr. Andrews, within two fields of the new road that is by the gate-house of Lord Baltimore, we were met by two men; they attacked us both: the man who attacked me I have never seen since. He clapped a bayonet to my breast, and said, with an oath, Your money, or your life! He had on a soldier's waistcoat and breeches. I put the bayonet aside, and gave him my silver, about three or four shillings."-- The Proceedings of the Old Bailey, 12 September 1781,
There were many famous victims of highwaymen. The Prime Minister Lord North wrote in 1774: "I was robbed last night as I expected, our loss was not great, but as the postillion did not stop immediately one of the two highwaymen fired at him - It was at the end of Gunnersbury Lane." Horace Walpole, shot at in Hyde Park, wryly observed, "One is forced to travel, even at noon, as if one was going to battle." During this period, crime was rife and encounters with highwaymen could be bloody if the victim attempted to resist. The historian Roy Porter described the use of direct, physical action as a hallmark of public and political life: "From the rough-house of the crowd to the dragoons' musket volley, violence was as English as plum pudding. Force was used not just criminally, but as a matter of routine to achieve social and political goals, smudging hard-and-fast distinctions between the worlds of criminality and politics...Highwaymen were romanticized, with a hidden irony, as 'gentlemen of the road'."
There is a long history of treating highway robbers as heroes. Originally they were admired by many as bold men who confronted their victims face-to-face and were ready to fight for what they wanted. The most famous English robber hero is the legendary medieval outlaw Robin Hood. Later robber heroes included the Cavalier highwayman James Hind, the French-born gentleman highwayman Claude Du Vall, John Nevison, Dick Turpin, Sixteen String Jack, William Plunkett and his partner the "Gentleman Highwayman" James MacLaine, the Slovak Juraj Jáno?ík, and Indians including Kayamkulam Kochunni, Veerappan and Phoolan Devi.
In 17th- through early-19th-century Ireland, acts of robbery were often part of a tradition of popular resistance to British colonial rule and settlement and Protestant domination. From the mid-17th century, bandits who harassed the British were known as tories (from Irish tórai?e, raider; tóraí in modern spelling). Later in the century, they became known as rapparees. Famous highwaymen included James Freney, Count Redmond O'Hanlon, Willy Brennan, and Jeremiah Grant.
Highwaymen often lay in wait on the main roads radiating from London. They usually chose lonely areas of heathland or woodland. Hounslow Heath was a favourite haunt: it was crossed by the roads to Bath and Exeter.Bagshot Heath in Surrey was another dangerous place on the road to Exeter. One of the most notorious places in England was Shooter's Hill on the Great Dover Road. Finchley Common, on the Great North Road (Great Britain), was very nearly as bad.
To the south of London, highwaymen sought to attack wealthy travellers on the roads leading to and from the Channel ports and aristocratic arenas like Epsom, which became a fashionable spa town in 1620, and Banstead Downs where horse races and sporting events became popular with the elite from 1625. Later in the 18th century the road from London to Reigate and Brighton through Sutton attracted highwaymen. Commons and heaths considered to be dangerous included Blackheath, Putney Heath, Streatham Common, Mitcham Common, Thornton Heath - also the site of a gallows known as "Hangman's Acre" or "Gallows Green" - Sutton Common, Banstead Downs and Reigate Heath.
During the late 17th and early 18th centuries, highwaymen in Hyde Park were sufficiently common for King William III to have the route between St. James's Palace and Kensington Palace (Rotten Row) lit at night with oil lamps as a precaution against them. This made it the first artificially lit highway in Britain.
The penalty for robbery with violence was hanging, and most notorious English highwaymen ended on the gallows. The chief place of execution for London and Middlesex was Tyburn Tree. Famous highwaymen whose lives ended there include Claude Du Vall, James MacLaine, and Sixteen-string Jack. Highwaymen who went to the gallows laughing and joking, or at least showing no fear, are said to have been admired by many of the people who came to watch.
During the 18th century French rural roads were generally safer from highwaymen than those of England, an advantage credited by the historian Alexis de Tocqueville to the existence of a uniformed and disciplined mounted constabulary known as the Maréchaussée. In England this force was often confused with the regular army and as such cited as an instrument of royal tyranny not to be imitated.
In England the causes of the decline are more controversial. After about 1815, mounted robbers are recorded only rarely, the last recorded robbery by a mounted highwayman having occurred in 1831. The decline in highwayman activity also occurred during the period in which repeating handguns, notably the pepperbox and the percussion revolver, became increasingly available and affordable to the average citizen. The development of the railways is sometimes cited as a factor, but highwaymen were already obsolete before the railway network was built. The expansion of the system of turnpikes, manned and gated toll-roads, made it all but impossible for a highwayman to escape notice while making his getaway, but he could easily avoid such systems and use other roads, almost all of which outside the cities were flanked by open country.
Cities such as London were becoming much better policed: in 1805 a body of mounted police began to patrol the districts around the city at night. London was growing rapidly, and some of the most dangerous open spaces near the city, such as Finchley Common, were being covered with buildings. However this only moved the robbers' operating area further out, to the new exterior of an expanded city, and does not therefore explain decline. A greater use of banknotes, more traceable than gold coins, also made life more difficult for robbers, but the Inclosure Act of 1773 was followed by a sharp decline in highway robberies; stone walls falling over the open range like a net, confined the escaping highwaymen to the roads themselves, which now had walls on both sides and were better patrolled. The dramatic population increase which began with the Industrial Revolution also meant, quite simply, that there were more eyes around, and the concept of remote place became a thing of the past in England.
The bandits in Greece under Ottoman rule were the Klephts (?), Greeks who had taken refuge in the inaccessible mountains. The klephts, who acted as a guerilla force, were instrumental in the Greek War of Independence.
The highwaymen of 18th- and 19th-century Kingdom of Hungary were the betyárs. Until the 1830s they were mainly simply regarded as criminals but an increasing public appetite for betyar songs, ballads and stories gradually gave a romantic image to these armed and usually mounted robbers. Several of the betyárs have become legendary figures who in the public mind fought for social justice. The most famous Hungarian betyárs were Sándor Rózsa (Slovak: ?a?o Ró?a), Jóska Sobri, Márton Vidróczki, Jóska Savanyú. Northern Hungary's Juraj Jáno?ík (Hungarian: Jánosik György) is still regarded as the Slovakian Robin Hood.
Hungarian outlaw Sándor Rózsa in Theresienstadt prison.
The Indian Subcontinent has had a long and documented history of organised robbery for millennia. Most famous of these were the Thuggees, a quasi-religious group that robbed travellers on Indian roads until the cult was systematically eradicated in the mid-1800s by British colonial administrators. Thugees would befriend large road caravans, gain their confidence, strangle them to death at the right moment, and then rob them of their valuables. According to some estimates the Thuggees murdered 1 million people between 1740 and 1840. More generally, armed bands known colloquially as "dacoits" have long wreaked havoc on many parts of the country. In recent times this has often served as a way to fund various regional and political insurgencies that includes the Maoist Naxalite movement. Kayamkulam Kochunni was also a famed highwayman who was active in Central Travancore in the early 19th century. Along with his close friend Ithikkarappkki from the nearby Ithikkara village, he is said to have stolen from the rich and given to the poor. With the help of an Ezhava warrior called Arattupuzha Velayudha Panicker, Kochunni was arrested and sent to the infamous Poojappura Central Jail. Legends of his works are compiled in folklore and are still read and heard today.
The bandits in Serbia, Bosnia and Croatia under Ottoman rule were the Hajduks (Hajduci, ?), rebels who opposed Ottoman rule and acted as a guerilla force, also instrumental in the many wars against the Ottomans and especially the Serbian revolution. Serbian and Croatian refugees in Austro-Hungarian (and Habsburg) lands were also part of the Uskoci. Notable freedom fighters include Starina Novak, a notable outlaw was Jovo Stanisavljevi? ?aruga. In medieval Vlachia, Moldavia, Transylvania, and Ukraine, the Haiduks (Romanian - Haiduci) or Gaiduks (Ukrainian - ?) were bandits and deserters who lived in forests and robbed local Boyars or other travelers along roads. Sometimes they would help the poor peasants.
In Shakespeare's Henry IV, Part 1 Falstaff is a highwayman, and part of the action of the play concerns a robbery committed by him and his companions. Apart from Falstaff, the most famous highwayman in English drama is Captain Macheath, hero of John Gay's 18th-century ballad opera The Beggar's Opera. The legend of Dick Turpin owes an enormous amount to Rookwood (1834), in which a heavily fictionalised Turpin is one of the main characters.Alfred Noyes's narrative poem "The Highwayman" has been immensely popular ever since its publication in 1906.
From the early 18th century, collections of short stories of highwaymen and other notorious criminals became very popular. The earliest of these is Captain Alexander Smith's Complete History of the Lives and Robberies of the Most Notorious Highwaymen (1714). Some later collections of this type had the words The Newgate Calendar in their titles and this has become a general name for this kind of publication.
In the later 19th century, highwaymen such as Dick Turpin were the heroes of a number of penny dreadfuls, stories for boys published in serial form. In the 20th century the handsome highwayman became a stock character in historical love romances, including books by Baroness Orczy and Georgette Heyer.
The Dutch comics series Gilles de Geus by Hanco Kolk and Peter de Wit was originally a gag-a-day about a failed highwayman called Gilles, but the character later evolved into a resistance fighter with the Geuzen against the Spanish army.
There were many broadsheet ballads about highwaymen; these were often written to be sold on the occasion of a famous robber's execution. A number of highwaymen ballads have remained current in oral tradition in England and Ireland.
The traditional Irish song "Whiskey in the Jar" tells the story of an Irish highwayman who robs an army captain, and includes the lines "I first produced me pistol, then I drew me rapier. Said 'Stand and deliver, for you are a bold deceiver'." The hit single version recorded in 1973 by Irish rock band Thin Lizzy renders this last line "I said 'Stand-oh and deliver, or the devil he may take ya'."
The traditional Irish song "The Newry Highwayman" recounts the deeds and death of a highwayman who robbed "the lords and ladies bright". The traditional Irish song "Brennan on the Moor" describes an escapade of the "bold, undaunted robber". Adam and the Ants had a number one song for five weeks in 1981 in the UK with "Stand and Deliver". The video featured Adam Ant as an English highwayman.
The contemporary folk song "On the Road to Fairfax County" by David Massengill, recorded by The Roches and by Joan Baez, recounts a romantic encounter between a highwayman and his female victim. In the end, the highwayman is hanged over the objections of his victim.
Musician Jimmy Webb penned and recorded a song entitled "Highwayman" in 1977 about a soul with incarnations in four different places in time and history, a highwayman, a sailor, a construction worker on the Hoover Dam, and finally as a star ship captain. Glen Campbell recorded a version of the song in 1978, but the most popular incarnation of the song was recorded by Willie Nelson, Kris Kristofferson, Waylon Jennings and Johnny Cash in 1984, who as a group called themselves The Highwaymen.
The Carry On films included a highwayman spoof in Carry On Dick (1974). Monty Python sent up the highwayman legends in the Dennis Moore sketch in Episode 37 of Monty Python's Flying Circus, in which John Cleese played the titular criminal who stole only lupins. In Blackadder the Third, Mr. E. Blackadder turns highwayman in the episode "Amy and Amiability". In the British children's television series Dick Turpin, starring Richard O'Sullivan, the highwayman was depicted as an 18th-century Robin Hood figure. Additionally the actor Mathew Baynton played Dick Turpin in Horrible Histories. A singing highwayman appears in the fourth episode of the animated mini-series, Over the Garden Wall, Songs of the Dark Lantern.
The highwayman known as Juraj Jáno?ík (1688-1713) became a hero of many folk legends in the Slovak, Czech, and Polish cultures by the 19th century and hundreds of literary works about him have since been published. The first Slovak feature film was Jáno?ík, made in 1921, followed by seven more Slovak and Polish films about him.
In Fable II, Highwaymen appear as an elite type of enemy which works alongside bandits and makes use of speed and agility over brute strength. It is also possible for players to dress as Highwaymen. There is an enemy type in The Elder Scrolls V: Skyrim called the "bandit highwayman" that acts as one of the higher-level bandit enemies. In World of Warcraft one can encounter the Defias Highwaymen, the strongest members of the Defias Brotherhood. In Darkest Dungeon the Highwayman is a class of hero who wields a dirk and flintlock to fight. In Runescape, highwaymen attack lower-leveled players on a route between two cities. In Bushido Blade 2 there is a playable character named Highwayman who is dressed in Victorian clothing and represents the hero archetype. In Bloodborne many articles of clothing obtained by "The Hunter" are inspired by Highwaymen attire.
Media related to Highwaymen at Wikimedia Commons
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The examples and perspective in this article may not represent a worldwide view of the subject. (May 2017) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)
A highwayman was a robber who stole from travellers. This type of thief usually travelled and robbed by horse as compared to a footpad who travelled and robbed on foot; mounted highwaymen were widely considered to be socially superior to footpads. Such criminals operated in Great Britain from the Elizabethan era until the early 19th century. In many other countries, they persisted for a few decades longer, until the mid or late 19th century. Highwaywomen, such as Katherine Ferrers, were said to also exist, often dressing as men, especially in fiction.
The first attestation of the word highwayman is from 1617.Euphemisms such as "knights of the road" and "gentlemen of the road" were sometimes used by people interested in romanticizing (with a Robin Hood-esque slant) what was often an especially violent form of stealing. In the 19th-century American West, highwaymen were sometimes known as road agents. In Australia, they were known as bushrangers.
The great age of highwaymen was the period from the Restoration in 1660 to the death of Queen Anne in 1714. Some of them are known to have been disbanded soldiers and even officers of the English Civil War and French wars. What favoured them most was the lack of governance and absence of a police force: parish constables were almost wholly ineffective and commonplace detection and arrest were very difficult. Most of the highwaymen held up travellers and took their money. Some had channels by which they could dispose of bills of exchange. Others had a 'racket' on the road transport of an extensive district; carriers regularly paid them a ransom to go unmolested.
They often attacked coaches for their lack of protection, including public stagecoaches; the postboys who carried the mail were also frequently held up. The famous demand to "Stand and deliver!" (sometimes in forms such as "Stand and deliver your purse!" "Stand and deliver your money!") was in use from the 17th century.
A fellow of a good Name, but poor Condition, and worse Quality, was Convicted for laying an Embargo on a man whom he met on the Road, by bidding him Stand and Deliver, but to little purpose; for the Traveller had no more Money than a Capuchin, but told him, all the treasure he had was a pound of Tobacco, which he civilly surrendered.-- The Proceedings of the Old Bailey, 25 April 1677,
The phrase "Your money or your life!" is mentioned in trial reports from the mid-18th century:
Evidence of John Mawson: "As I was coming home, in company with Mr. Andrews, within two fields of the new road that is by the gate-house of Lord Baltimore, we were met by two men; they attacked us both: the man who attacked me I have never seen since. He clapped a bayonet to my breast, and said, with an oath, Your money, or your life! He had on a soldier's waistcoat and breeches. I put the bayonet aside, and gave him my silver, about three or four shillings."-- The Proceedings of the Old Bailey, 12 September 1781,
There were many famous victims of highwaymen. The Prime Minister Lord North wrote in 1774: "I was robbed last night as I expected, our loss was not great, but as the postillion did not stop immediately one of the two highwaymen fired at him - It was at the end of Gunnersbury Lane." Horace Walpole, shot at in Hyde Park, wryly observed, "One is forced to travel, even at noon, as if one was going to battle." During this period, crime was rife and encounters with highwaymen could be bloody if the victim attempted to resist. The historian Roy Porter described the use of direct, physical action as a hallmark of public and political life: "From the rough-house of the crowd to the dragoons' musket volley, violence was as English as plum pudding. Force was used not just criminally, but as a matter of routine to achieve social and political goals, smudging hard-and-fast distinctions between the worlds of criminality and politics...Highwaymen were romanticized, with a hidden irony, as 'gentlemen of the road'."
There is a long history of treating highway robbers as heroes. Originally they were admired by many as bold men who confronted their victims face-to-face and were ready to fight for what they wanted. The most famous English robber hero is the legendary medieval outlaw Robin Hood. Later robber heroes included the Cavalier highwayman James Hind, the French-born gentleman highwayman Claude Du Vall, John Nevison, Dick Turpin, Sixteen String Jack, William Plunkett and his partner the "Gentleman Highwayman" James MacLaine, the Slovak Juraj Jáno?ík, and Indians including Kayamkulam Kochunni, Veerappan and Phoolan Devi.
In 17th- through early-19th-century Ireland, acts of robbery were often part of a tradition of popular resistance to British colonial rule and settlement and Protestant domination. From the mid-17th century, bandits who harassed the British were known as tories (from Irish tórai?e, raider; tóraí in modern spelling). Later in the century, they became known as rapparees. Famous highwaymen included James Freney, Count Redmond O'Hanlon, Willy Brennan, and Jeremiah Grant.
Highwaymen often lay in wait on the main roads radiating from London. They usually chose lonely areas of heathland or woodland. Hounslow Heath was a favourite haunt: it was crossed by the roads to Bath and Exeter.Bagshot Heath in Surrey was another dangerous place on the road to Exeter. One of the most notorious places in England was Shooter's Hill on the Great Dover Road. Finchley Common, on the Great North Road (Great Britain), was very nearly as bad.
To the south of London, highwaymen sought to attack wealthy travellers on the roads leading to and from the Channel ports and aristocratic arenas like Epsom, which became a fashionable spa town in 1620, and Banstead Downs where horse races and sporting events became popular with the elite from 1625. Later in the 18th century the road from London to Reigate and Brighton through Sutton attracted highwaymen. Commons and heaths considered to be dangerous included Blackheath, Putney Heath, Streatham Common, Mitcham Common, Thornton Heath - also the site of a gallows known as "Hangman's Acre" or "Gallows Green" - Sutton Common, Banstead Downs and Reigate Heath.
During the late 17th and early 18th centuries, highwaymen in Hyde Park were sufficiently common for King William III to have the route between St. James's Palace and Kensington Palace (Rotten Row) lit at night with oil lamps as a precaution against them. This made it the first artificially lit highway in Britain.
The penalty for robbery with violence was hanging, and most notorious English highwaymen ended on the gallows. The chief place of execution for London and Middlesex was Tyburn Tree. Famous highwaymen whose lives ended there include Claude Du Vall, James MacLaine, and Sixteen-string Jack. Highwaymen who went to the gallows laughing and joking, or at least showing no fear, are said to have been admired by many of the people who came to watch.
During the 18th century French rural roads were generally safer from highwaymen than those of England, an advantage credited by the historian Alexis de Tocqueville to the existence of a uniformed and disciplined mounted constabulary known as the Maréchaussée. In England this force was often confused with the regular army and as such cited as an instrument of royal tyranny not to be imitated.
In England the causes of the decline are more controversial. After about 1815, mounted robbers are recorded only rarely, the last recorded robbery by a mounted highwayman having occurred in 1831. The decline in highwayman activity also occurred during the period in which repeating handguns, notably the pepperbox and the percussion revolver, became increasingly available and affordable to the average citizen. The development of the railways is sometimes cited as a factor, but highwaymen were already obsolete before the railway network was built. The expansion of the system of turnpikes, manned and gated toll-roads, made it all but impossible for a highwayman to escape notice while making his getaway, but he could easily avoid such systems and use other roads, almost all of which outside the cities were flanked by open country.
Cities such as London were becoming much better policed: in 1805 a body of mounted police began to patrol the districts around the city at night. London was growing rapidly, and some of the most dangerous open spaces near the city, such as Finchley Common, were being covered with buildings. However this only moved the robbers' operating area further out, to the new exterior of an expanded city, and does not therefore explain decline. A greater use of banknotes, more traceable than gold coins, also made life more difficult for robbers, but the Inclosure Act of 1773 was followed by a sharp decline in highway robberies; stone walls falling over the open range like a net, confined the escaping highwaymen to the roads themselves, which now had walls on both sides and were better patrolled. The dramatic population increase which began with the Industrial Revolution also meant, quite simply, that there were more eyes around, and the concept of remote place became a thing of the past in England.
The bandits in Greece under Ottoman rule were the Klephts (?), Greeks who had taken refuge in the inaccessible mountains. The klephts, who acted as a guerilla force, were instrumental in the Greek War of Independence.
The highwaymen of 18th- and 19th-century Kingdom of Hungary were the betyárs. Until the 1830s they were mainly simply regarded as criminals but an increasing public appetite for betyar songs, ballads and stories gradually gave a romantic image to these armed and usually mounted robbers. Several of the betyárs have become legendary figures who in the public mind fought for social justice. The most famous Hungarian betyárs were Sándor Rózsa (Slovak: ?a?o Ró?a), Jóska Sobri, Márton Vidróczki, Jóska Savanyú. Northern Hungary's Juraj Jáno?ík (Hungarian: Jánosik György) is still regarded as the Slovakian Robin Hood.
Hungarian outlaw Sándor Rózsa in Theresienstadt prison.
The Indian Subcontinent has had a long and documented history of organised robbery for millennia. Most famous of these were the Thuggees, a quasi-religious group that robbed travellers on Indian roads until the cult was systematically eradicated in the mid-1800s by British colonial administrators. Thugees would befriend large road caravans, gain their confidence, strangle them to death at the right moment, and then rob them of their valuables. According to some estimates the Thuggees murdered 1 million people between 1740 and 1840. More generally, armed bands known colloquially as "dacoits" have long wreaked havoc on many parts of the country. In recent times this has often served as a way to fund various regional and political insurgencies that includes the Maoist Naxalite movement. Kayamkulam Kochunni was also a famed highwayman who was active in Central Travancore in the early 19th century. Along with his close friend Ithikkarappkki from the nearby Ithikkara village, he is said to have stolen from the rich and given to the poor. With the help of an Ezhava warrior called Arattupuzha Velayudha Panicker, Kochunni was arrested and sent to the infamous Poojappura Central Jail. Legends of his works are compiled in folklore and are still read and heard today.
The bandits in Serbia, Bosnia and Croatia under Ottoman rule were the Hajduks (Hajduci, ?), rebels who opposed Ottoman rule and acted as a guerilla force, also instrumental in the many wars against the Ottomans and especially the Serbian revolution. Serbian and Croatian refugees in Austro-Hungarian (and Habsburg) lands were also part of the Uskoci. Notable freedom fighters include Starina Novak, a notable outlaw was Jovo Stanisavljevi? ?aruga. In medieval Vlachia, Moldavia, Transylvania, and Ukraine, the Haiduks (Romanian - Haiduci) or Gaiduks (Ukrainian - ?) were bandits and deserters who lived in forests and robbed local Boyars or other travelers along roads. Sometimes they would help the poor peasants.
In Shakespeare's Henry IV, Part 1 Falstaff is a highwayman, and part of the action of the play concerns a robbery committed by him and his companions. Apart from Falstaff, the most famous highwayman in English drama is Captain Macheath, hero of John Gay's 18th-century ballad opera The Beggar's Opera. The legend of Dick Turpin owes an enormous amount to Rookwood (1834), in which a heavily fictionalised Turpin is one of the main characters.Alfred Noyes's narrative poem "The Highwayman" has been immensely popular ever since its publication in 1906.
From the early 18th century, collections of short stories of highwaymen and other notorious criminals became very popular. The earliest of these is Captain Alexander Smith's Complete History of the Lives and Robberies of the Most Notorious Highwaymen (1714). Some later collections of this type had the words The Newgate Calendar in their titles and this has become a general name for this kind of publication.
In the later 19th century, highwaymen such as Dick Turpin were the heroes of a number of penny dreadfuls, stories for boys published in serial form. In the 20th century the handsome highwayman became a stock character in historical love romances, including books by Baroness Orczy and Georgette Heyer.
The Dutch comics series Gilles de Geus by Hanco Kolk and Peter de Wit was originally a gag-a-day about a failed highwayman called Gilles, but the character later evolved into a resistance fighter with the Geuzen against the Spanish army.
There were many broadsheet ballads about highwaymen; these were often written to be sold on the occasion of a famous robber's execution. A number of highwaymen ballads have remained current in oral tradition in England and Ireland.
The traditional Irish song "Whiskey in the Jar" tells the story of an Irish highwayman who robs an army captain, and includes the lines "I first produced me pistol, then I drew me rapier. Said 'Stand and deliver, for you are a bold deceiver'." The hit single version recorded in 1973 by Irish rock band Thin Lizzy renders this last line "I said 'Stand-oh and deliver, or the devil he may take ya'."
The traditional Irish song "The Newry Highwayman" recounts the deeds and death of a highwayman who robbed "the lords and ladies bright". The traditional Irish song "Brennan on the Moor" describes an escapade of the "bold, undaunted robber". Adam and the Ants had a number one song for five weeks in 1981 in the UK with "Stand and Deliver". The video featured Adam Ant as an English highwayman.
The contemporary folk song "On the Road to Fairfax County" by David Massengill, recorded by The Roches and by Joan Baez, recounts a romantic encounter between a highwayman and his female victim. In the end, the highwayman is hanged over the objections of his victim.
Musician Jimmy Webb penned and recorded a song entitled "Highwayman" in 1977 about a soul with incarnations in four different places in time and history, a highwayman, a sailor, a construction worker on the Hoover Dam, and finally as a star ship captain. Glen Campbell recorded a version of the song in 1978, but the most popular incarnation of the song was recorded by Willie Nelson, Kris Kristofferson, Waylon Jennings and Johnny Cash in 1984, who as a group called themselves The Highwaymen.
The Carry On films included a highwayman spoof in Carry On Dick (1974). Monty Python sent up the highwayman legends in the Dennis Moore sketch in Episode 37 of Monty Python's Flying Circus, in which John Cleese played the titular criminal who stole only lupins. In Blackadder the Third, Mr. E. Blackadder turns highwayman in the episode "Amy and Amiability". In the British children's television series Dick Turpin, starring Richard O'Sullivan, the highwayman was depicted as an 18th-century Robin Hood figure. Additionally the actor Mathew Baynton played Dick Turpin in Horrible Histories. A singing highwayman appears in the fourth episode of the animated mini-series, Over the Garden Wall, Songs of the Dark Lantern.
The highwayman known as Juraj Jáno?ík (1688-1713) became a hero of many folk legends in the Slovak, Czech, and Polish cultures by the 19th century and hundreds of literary works about him have since been published. The first Slovak feature film was Jáno?ík, made in 1921, followed by seven more Slovak and Polish films about him.
In Fable II, Highwaymen appear as an elite type of enemy which works alongside bandits and makes use of speed and agility over brute strength. It is also possible for players to dress as Highwaymen. There is an enemy type in The Elder Scrolls V: Skyrim called the "bandit highwayman" that acts as one of the higher-level bandit enemies. In World of Warcraft one can encounter the Defias Highwaymen, the strongest members of the Defias Brotherhood. In Darkest Dungeon the Highwayman is a class of hero who wields a dirk and flintlock to fight. In Runescape, highwaymen attack lower-leveled players on a route between two cities. In Bushido Blade 2 there is a playable character named Highwayman who is dressed in Victorian clothing and represents the hero archetype. In Bloodborne many articles of clothing obtained by "The Hunter" are inspired by Highwaymen attire.
Media related to Highwaymen at Wikimedia Commons
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Why was Pablo Picasso important?
Pablo Picasso was one of the foremost and persuasive artists of the 1st half of the 20th century. Primarily associated with pioneering a movement known as Cubism, he also made major contributions to surrealism, symbolism and a range of other classical styles that persisted during the 1920s.
Unlike many other painters of his time, Picasso possessed an eclectic attitude to style, although his works were often typified by a single and dominant approach, that allowed him to easily interchange on style for another, sometimes even in the same piece. It is perhaps this ability to switch style that allowed him to maintain his longevity in the industry. Even though artists came and went throughout Picasso’s existence, he managed to remain relevant and active in art circles until the end of his life that occurred in 1973.
According to some records, it is estimated that Picasso created an unbelievable total of over 50,000 pieces of art. During his existence, his works influenced many styles and movements namely German Expressionism, Constructivism, Vorticism, Futurism and many more.
The Blue Period
What led to Picasso’s Blue Period
Although Picasso is considered as one of the greatest artists to ever walk the earth, he was not always as successful or as confident as his works may portray him to be. In fact, when he was just starting out as an artist, he faced a lot of tragedy, emotional fragility, and poverty that obviously impacted his work. Like many artists, Picasso channeled a lot of his emotions into what is considered as his first pioneering body of work, which is referred to as the Blue Period.
How Casagemas’ death impacted Picasso
Picasso’s Blue Period commenced in 1901 when Picasso was just 19 years old. At the time, Picasso had associated himself closely with a group of radical writers, anarchists and artists. Among them was a close friend and Spanish poet known as Carles Casagemas. Although brilliant in his own right, Carles Casagemas committed suicide by shooting himself in the middle of a dinner party that year due to an incident with his lover.
It was Carles Casagemas’ sudden death that prompted Picasso to start painting in blue. The death of his close compatriot affected him deeply and it is what served as a catalyst for the paintings that were created soon after his death. All of the paintings created by Picasso during the Blue Period were characterized by the use of cold colors such as nauseating greens, dark greys and of course, melancholic blue hues.
One of the very first paintings produced by Picasso during the Blue Period was created soon after his friend’s death and was titled The Death of Casagemas (1901). In the painting, Casagemas appeared to be swaddled in white sheets, as though asleep. However, Picasso also added a bullet hole on the subject’s temple to represent the tragedy that took his life.
The Blue Period self-portrait
By the time he was creating his first painting in the Blue Period, Picasso had not yet managed to find his voice as an artist nor had he sold enough paintings to support himself, which further worsened his psychological state. Picasso’s use of the color blue persisted when he created a self-portrait of himself. In this portrait, he represented himself as a 50-year-old frail man instead of painting himself as he really was at the time, which was a 20-year-old painter whose career was full of endless possibilities.
Why did he choose blue?
Picasso chose to use blue to communicate the pain and desolation that he was feeling at the time. During the Blue Period, Picasso continued to feature outcasts as the subject matter of his paintings. In addition to failed or failing artists such as himself, he also included subjects that were considered exiles and recluses such as drunkards, the homeless, prostitutes and of course, individuals that were struggling to keep up with the pressures of day to day life.
By using blue in his background, Picasso was able to convey elements of vulnerability in his work. Blue also helped to highlight various facets of trouble such as creative anguish, loss, poverty, grief, and dejection in a single canvas. Interestingly, most of the pieces created by Picasso during this Blue Period were executed on top of earlier works. One such piece that was created during the Blue Period was The Old Guitarist.
The Rose Period & Transitioning to Cubism
After 1904, Picasso’s style and palette started to change and brighten. For a close to a year, he embarked on painting in a style that was known as the Rose Period, which was a lot happier and cheerful compared to the Blue Period. The Rose Period, unlike the Blue, was characterized by the use of red and pink hues, which were more uplifting.
After a year or so of focusing on the Red Period, his style changed and darkened to feature forms that were more solid and heavier in aspect. It was during this period that Picasso met and became close allies with Georges Braque1. Together the two created a new movement that was known as Cubism2.
‘The Old Guitarist’, 1903
The Old Guitarist was created in 1903 in Barcelona, Spain at the height of Picasso’s Blue Period. The Old Guitarist was an oil painting on canvas and like many paintings of that time, it featured the usage of a monochromatic blue palette and an overall impoverished tone with the distinguished exception of the guitar, which Picasso rendered in a much warmer, brown hue.
What the painting shows
The Old Guitarist, also sometimes referred to as the blind guitarist, featured an old man whose skins and bones were visible. Though clearly weak and feeble, the old man appeared to latch on to his guitar almost as though he was seeking redemption for his serious state of affairs. The pitiful state of the old man was depicted by his pale blue skin, his weak and hungry body, as well as his torn clothes. His sad state was further highlighted by his blindness, as well as the general atmosphere around him which was reflected by the sadness of the guitarist. His environment was also painted to represent the life that lower-class individuals lived at the time.
Medium & other features
Picasso used the process of oil painting to complete this masterpiece. Examination of the painting through modern infrared technology has shown that there are three more figures in the painting other than the old blind guitarist. The three figures are an old woman, a young woman, and an animal. If you pay close attention to the painting you can see all three figures with your naked eye. Some historians believe that Picasso meant the painting to have the figures while others believe that Picasso was too poor to afford a canvas so he painted on a wooden table at his home that already had these figures.
Analysis & Meaning
In the painting, the guitar held by the blind man was the only element that had a color variation. The brown color used was intended to symbolically represent the only tool that the man could use to redeem himself or get himself out of his poor state. Picasso used brown for the guitar, instead of the ubiquitous blue to represents the old man’s only hope for survival. As such, Picasso painted the man as though leaning on the guitar with the hope that the music he produced would at least give him some reprieve from his terrible situation.
The Old Guitarist by Pablo Picasso still has universal appeal today as not much has changed over the years as it relates to the predicament faced by lower class societies. Elements in the Old Guitarist were carefully selected by Picasso as a means of generating a reaction from his audience.
The sad melancholic state was used by design and was intended to haunt onlookers in a way that would make them question why the working class and high-class individuals continued to prosper while those that needed the most help continue to languish in poverty.
The old man as a symbol for artists?
According to some, Picasso used the old man as the subject of his artwork to represent the life of isolation that most artists are often forced to live. Although music and art are often the things that bring society together, these elements also become burdens that isolate artists from the rest of the world. And yet despite the isolation, the guitarist depends on it for his survival. As such, the Old Guitarist was painted to not only represent Picasso’s criticism of society, but it was also created as a metaphor of human existence.
Being that the Old Guitarist was created during Picasso’s Blue Period, the painting represented a great deal of sorrow and grief. The melancholic tone of the piece is not only highlighted by Picasso’s use of blues but also his use of dark colors. The hardships that Picasso was enduring at the time are also reflected in the artwork; though the artwork depicts a poor man hunched over his guitar, the painting can also be used to represent Picasso’s own low standard of living at the time.
The Old Guitarist’s worth & location
A painting is worth more on a public display that at someone’s private residence. The Old Guitarist sits at the Art Institute of Chicago where thousands of people view it daily. Some experts in the field believe the painting is worth more than 100,000,000 USD, but because this work is likely never going to be sold, it might actually be considered to be “priceless.”
Old sketches underneath the ‘Old Guitarist’
As mentioned earlier, Picasso artwork during the Blue Period often included the covering of old sketches. Like many of his artworks that were created during the Blue Period, the Old Guitarist also had older sketches underneath that may not be visible to the naked eye but are apparent when placed underneath an X-ray machine. Because the piece bore many layers of paint, the Old Guitarist appears to have a choppy feel and appearance, which depicts Picasso’s strong emotions and the ever-changing mind of a painter.
Overall, Picasso was able to highlight the plight of the Old Guitarist outstandingly well through his exceptional use of color. Although the theme of desolation and hopelessness is prevalent, Picasso also conveys hope and the ability of the guitarist to triumph over the negative forces affecting his craft.
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Why was Pablo Picasso important?
Pablo Picasso was one of the foremost and persuasive artists of the 1st half of the 20th century. Primarily associated with pioneering a movement known as Cubism, he also made major contributions to surrealism, symbolism and a range of other classical styles that persisted during the 1920s.
Unlike many other painters of his time, Picasso possessed an eclectic attitude to style, although his works were often typified by a single and dominant approach, that allowed him to easily interchange on style for another, sometimes even in the same piece. It is perhaps this ability to switch style that allowed him to maintain his longevity in the industry. Even though artists came and went throughout Picasso’s existence, he managed to remain relevant and active in art circles until the end of his life that occurred in 1973.
According to some records, it is estimated that Picasso created an unbelievable total of over 50,000 pieces of art. During his existence, his works influenced many styles and movements namely German Expressionism, Constructivism, Vorticism, Futurism and many more.
The Blue Period
What led to Picasso’s Blue Period
Although Picasso is considered as one of the greatest artists to ever walk the earth, he was not always as successful or as confident as his works may portray him to be. In fact, when he was just starting out as an artist, he faced a lot of tragedy, emotional fragility, and poverty that obviously impacted his work. Like many artists, Picasso channeled a lot of his emotions into what is considered as his first pioneering body of work, which is referred to as the Blue Period.
How Casagemas’ death impacted Picasso
Picasso’s Blue Period commenced in 1901 when Picasso was just 19 years old. At the time, Picasso had associated himself closely with a group of radical writers, anarchists and artists. Among them was a close friend and Spanish poet known as Carles Casagemas. Although brilliant in his own right, Carles Casagemas committed suicide by shooting himself in the middle of a dinner party that year due to an incident with his lover.
It was Carles Casagemas’ sudden death that prompted Picasso to start painting in blue. The death of his close compatriot affected him deeply and it is what served as a catalyst for the paintings that were created soon after his death. All of the paintings created by Picasso during the Blue Period were characterized by the use of cold colors such as nauseating greens, dark greys and of course, melancholic blue hues.
One of the very first paintings produced by Picasso during the Blue Period was created soon after his friend’s death and was titled The Death of Casagemas (1901). In the painting, Casagemas appeared to be swaddled in white sheets, as though asleep. However, Picasso also added a bullet hole on the subject’s temple to represent the tragedy that took his life.
The Blue Period self-portrait
By the time he was creating his first painting in the Blue Period, Picasso had not yet managed to find his voice as an artist nor had he sold enough paintings to support himself, which further worsened his psychological state. Picasso’s use of the color blue persisted when he created a self-portrait of himself. In this portrait, he represented himself as a 50-year-old frail man instead of painting himself as he really was at the time, which was a 20-year-old painter whose career was full of endless possibilities.
Why did he choose blue?
Picasso chose to use blue to communicate the pain and desolation that he was feeling at the time. During the Blue Period, Picasso continued to feature outcasts as the subject matter of his paintings. In addition to failed or failing artists such as himself, he also included subjects that were considered exiles and recluses such as drunkards, the homeless, prostitutes and of course, individuals that were struggling to keep up with the pressures of day to day life.
By using blue in his background, Picasso was able to convey elements of vulnerability in his work. Blue also helped to highlight various facets of trouble such as creative anguish, loss, poverty, grief, and dejection in a single canvas. Interestingly, most of the pieces created by Picasso during this Blue Period were executed on top of earlier works. One such piece that was created during the Blue Period was The Old Guitarist.
The Rose Period & Transitioning to Cubism
After 1904, Picasso’s style and palette started to change and brighten. For a close to a year, he embarked on painting in a style that was known as the Rose Period, which was a lot happier and cheerful compared to the Blue Period. The Rose Period, unlike the Blue, was characterized by the use of red and pink hues, which were more uplifting.
After a year or so of focusing on the Red Period, his style changed and darkened to feature forms that were more solid and heavier in aspect. It was during this period that Picasso met and became close allies with Georges Braque1. Together the two created a new movement that was known as Cubism2.
‘The Old Guitarist’, 1903
The Old Guitarist was created in 1903 in Barcelona, Spain at the height of Picasso’s Blue Period. The Old Guitarist was an oil painting on canvas and like many paintings of that time, it featured the usage of a monochromatic blue palette and an overall impoverished tone with the distinguished exception of the guitar, which Picasso rendered in a much warmer, brown hue.
What the painting shows
The Old Guitarist, also sometimes referred to as the blind guitarist, featured an old man whose skins and bones were visible. Though clearly weak and feeble, the old man appeared to latch on to his guitar almost as though he was seeking redemption for his serious state of affairs. The pitiful state of the old man was depicted by his pale blue skin, his weak and hungry body, as well as his torn clothes. His sad state was further highlighted by his blindness, as well as the general atmosphere around him which was reflected by the sadness of the guitarist. His environment was also painted to represent the life that lower-class individuals lived at the time.
Medium & other features
Picasso used the process of oil painting to complete this masterpiece. Examination of the painting through modern infrared technology has shown that there are three more figures in the painting other than the old blind guitarist. The three figures are an old woman, a young woman, and an animal. If you pay close attention to the painting you can see all three figures with your naked eye. Some historians believe that Picasso meant the painting to have the figures while others believe that Picasso was too poor to afford a canvas so he painted on a wooden table at his home that already had these figures.
Analysis & Meaning
In the painting, the guitar held by the blind man was the only element that had a color variation. The brown color used was intended to symbolically represent the only tool that the man could use to redeem himself or get himself out of his poor state. Picasso used brown for the guitar, instead of the ubiquitous blue to represents the old man’s only hope for survival. As such, Picasso painted the man as though leaning on the guitar with the hope that the music he produced would at least give him some reprieve from his terrible situation.
The Old Guitarist by Pablo Picasso still has universal appeal today as not much has changed over the years as it relates to the predicament faced by lower class societies. Elements in the Old Guitarist were carefully selected by Picasso as a means of generating a reaction from his audience.
The sad melancholic state was used by design and was intended to haunt onlookers in a way that would make them question why the working class and high-class individuals continued to prosper while those that needed the most help continue to languish in poverty.
The old man as a symbol for artists?
According to some, Picasso used the old man as the subject of his artwork to represent the life of isolation that most artists are often forced to live. Although music and art are often the things that bring society together, these elements also become burdens that isolate artists from the rest of the world. And yet despite the isolation, the guitarist depends on it for his survival. As such, the Old Guitarist was painted to not only represent Picasso’s criticism of society, but it was also created as a metaphor of human existence.
Being that the Old Guitarist was created during Picasso’s Blue Period, the painting represented a great deal of sorrow and grief. The melancholic tone of the piece is not only highlighted by Picasso’s use of blues but also his use of dark colors. The hardships that Picasso was enduring at the time are also reflected in the artwork; though the artwork depicts a poor man hunched over his guitar, the painting can also be used to represent Picasso’s own low standard of living at the time.
The Old Guitarist’s worth & location
A painting is worth more on a public display that at someone’s private residence. The Old Guitarist sits at the Art Institute of Chicago where thousands of people view it daily. Some experts in the field believe the painting is worth more than 100,000,000 USD, but because this work is likely never going to be sold, it might actually be considered to be “priceless.”
Old sketches underneath the ‘Old Guitarist’
As mentioned earlier, Picasso artwork during the Blue Period often included the covering of old sketches. Like many of his artworks that were created during the Blue Period, the Old Guitarist also had older sketches underneath that may not be visible to the naked eye but are apparent when placed underneath an X-ray machine. Because the piece bore many layers of paint, the Old Guitarist appears to have a choppy feel and appearance, which depicts Picasso’s strong emotions and the ever-changing mind of a painter.
Overall, Picasso was able to highlight the plight of the Old Guitarist outstandingly well through his exceptional use of color. Although the theme of desolation and hopelessness is prevalent, Picasso also conveys hope and the ability of the guitarist to triumph over the negative forces affecting his craft.
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The first women in the UK got the vote 100 years ago - but what about the preceding centuries? As the Vindication of the Rights of Woman was published in 1792, how were debates surrounding women’s suffrage being framed? And why did it take 86 years after the extension of male suffrage in 1832 for the franchise to be granted to just a small number of women?
On 21 March 1776 John Wilkes rose to his feet in the House of Commons to deliver one of his most famous speeches arguing for reform of the franchise. His complaint about the present state of affairs focused on two main points. First, that the chamber as then constituted had altered little since the 1680s and required the ‘disfranchising of the mean, venal, and dependent boroughs’. Second, and more radically, he argued that the franchise was no longer sufficiently representative and called for the vote to be awarded to a number of those currently not eligible:
“The meanest mechanic, the poorest peasant and day labourer, has important rights respecting his personal liberty, that of his wife and children, his property, however inconsiderable, his wages, earnings, the very price and value of each day’s hard labour, which are in many trades and manufactures regulated by the power of Parliament… Some share therefore in the power of making those laws… should be reserved even to this inferior, but most useful, set of men”
The Eighteenth-Century Constitution, ed. E.N. Williams (Cambridge, 1960, p. 217
Historians have questioned the extent to which Wilkes was ever truly committed to the programme he laid out in his March address. Some have concluded that this was little more than grandstanding, while others have concluded more generously that the intention was genuine but that the times were against him as attention shifted to the developing crisis in America.
Mary Wilkes and John Wilkes, by Johann Zoffany (1782, CC BY-NC-ND)
Extending the franchise to women
If the times were indeed against him, Wilkes was not alone in advocating reform at this juncture. From the 1770s onwards a variety of programmes of reform were advocated by a range of voices, from the most radical like Major Cartwright to the more moderate like Christopher Wyvill. In 1780 the 3rd duke of Richmond (who was as his biographer Alison Olson expressed it, ‘at the far left of the spectrum’) proposed his own reform bill arguing for manhood suffrage. When William Pitt proposed a reform measure shortly after taking office as Prime Minister, though, he took a more moderate stance and concentrated on the disfranchisement of rotten or unrepresentative boroughs. This principle of redistribution remained a key feature of the reform agenda through to the Great Reform Act of 1832 and beyond.
One thing, though, is very clear. At no point did Wilkes, Richmond or Pitt advocate extending the franchise to women. In Wilkes’s case, this is perhaps noteworthy when one considers his very close and very respectful relationship with his daughter, Polly (the same cannot be said of his distant relationship with his estranged wife). Why did no one appear to advocate extending the franchise to women at this point? Might it be concluded that for as long as the franchise remained closely attached to a property qualification, even elite women might struggle to be considered worthy?
Daring to usurp a ‘man’s role’
Such a picture would seriously misrepresent the role of women in politics in the period. Propertied women (among them heiresses, dowagers and unmarried women with their own fortunes) did wield substantial influence in their own right. Historians have highlighted the lively involvement of characters such as Georgiana, duchess of Devonshire, and Lady Susan Keck, all of whom were actively engaged in electoral campaigning – though it is worth noting that in the case of the latter, as Professor Elaine Chalus has emphasized, she was as a result subjected to gendered abuse and dubbed ‘my Lord Sue’ for daring to usurp what was perceived to be a man’s role.
Wisdom led by virtue and prudence to the temple of fame, by John Wallis (1784, CC BY-NC-SA 4.0)
This response is perhaps the more curious given that in Oxfordshire, where Lady Susan was active, there had been a long tradition of influential aristocratic women exerting their interest; and Lady Susan was far from the only one engaged in the 1754 election, when she was at her most active. In the previous century, Anne, dowager countess of Rochester (mother of the poet earl of Rochester and mother-in-law of his countess, Elizabeth, who was also a talented poet in her own right) had wielded interest both there and in Wiltshire, while her contemporary, Lady Lovelace was ‘very busy’ during the city elections for Oxford in 1681. Sarah, duchess of Marlborough, was similarly engaged both in Woodstock, where the Marlboroughs’ seat Blenheim was constructed, and in St Albans.
These aristocratic women were able to assert themselves by virtue of their high social status and undoubtedly had a significant role to play in securing the return of candidates in a variety of constituencies. Women from humbler backgrounds may have lacked this kind of interest, but by the end of the century one at least was calling into question the inequalities of the world.
Education, property and liberty
In her Vindication of the Rights of Women (1792), Mary Wollstonecraft questioned directly the inequalities between men and women. Even so, she referred only very obliquely to the possibility of changing the nature of the franchise. Where she did was most apparent in her dedication to Talleyrand in which she quoted from his pamphlet on National Education:
“to see one half of the human race excluded by the other from all participation of government, was a public phenomenon that, according to abstract principles, it was impossible to explain.”
As Wollstonecraft argued, though, education was the key, and for as long as women’s education was inferior to that of men, they would remain in a subservient condition.
The combination of poorer educational expectations combined with the inability to exert equal control over property meant that throughout the 18th century there was never any real prospect of extending the franchise to women and this remained the case for as long as fundamental assumptions regarding ‘liberty and property’ and appropriate ‘spheres’ remained the norm. Besides, when reform finally became a reality, the cause of women’s suffrage proved to be just one among many. For those unsympathetic to extending the vote to people of both sexes they were able to point to other venues where women were gradually acquiring a greater say: in particular on local councils and educational boards. But, while prominent elite women continued to exert their influence much as their predecessors had done, from the mid-19th century onwards the picture was changing as increasing numbers of women of all backgrounds became politically active and a growing number began to demand to be enfranchised.
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The process for getting House of Commons select committees re-established after the general election is so far broadly on track. However, government reorganisation and the Labour leadership contest could yet cause delays and disruption. And this time, there are particular reasons to get committees into place urgently.
Articles in this latest edition cover topics as diverse as political finance regulation, devolution, young people and the EU referendum, candidate campaigning in general elections, the policisation of abortion and the electoral success of women candidates, as well as reflections on the Turkish, Australian, Irish and EU Parliaments.
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At the start of a new Parliament a series of ceremonies and procedures must take place before the Members of the two Houses can get down to business. Our special collection of procedural guides takes you through them, in the order they take place. We start with some things to note about the highly unusual start of the 2019 Parliament.
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The first women in the UK got the vote 100 years ago - but what about the preceding centuries? As the Vindication of the Rights of Woman was published in 1792, how were debates surrounding women’s suffrage being framed? And why did it take 86 years after the extension of male suffrage in 1832 for the franchise to be granted to just a small number of women?
On 21 March 1776 John Wilkes rose to his feet in the House of Commons to deliver one of his most famous speeches arguing for reform of the franchise. His complaint about the present state of affairs focused on two main points. First, that the chamber as then constituted had altered little since the 1680s and required the ‘disfranchising of the mean, venal, and dependent boroughs’. Second, and more radically, he argued that the franchise was no longer sufficiently representative and called for the vote to be awarded to a number of those currently not eligible:
“The meanest mechanic, the poorest peasant and day labourer, has important rights respecting his personal liberty, that of his wife and children, his property, however inconsiderable, his wages, earnings, the very price and value of each day’s hard labour, which are in many trades and manufactures regulated by the power of Parliament… Some share therefore in the power of making those laws… should be reserved even to this inferior, but most useful, set of men”
The Eighteenth-Century Constitution, ed. E.N. Williams (Cambridge, 1960, p. 217
Historians have questioned the extent to which Wilkes was ever truly committed to the programme he laid out in his March address. Some have concluded that this was little more than grandstanding, while others have concluded more generously that the intention was genuine but that the times were against him as attention shifted to the developing crisis in America.
Mary Wilkes and John Wilkes, by Johann Zoffany (1782, CC BY-NC-ND)
Extending the franchise to women
If the times were indeed against him, Wilkes was not alone in advocating reform at this juncture. From the 1770s onwards a variety of programmes of reform were advocated by a range of voices, from the most radical like Major Cartwright to the more moderate like Christopher Wyvill. In 1780 the 3rd duke of Richmond (who was as his biographer Alison Olson expressed it, ‘at the far left of the spectrum’) proposed his own reform bill arguing for manhood suffrage. When William Pitt proposed a reform measure shortly after taking office as Prime Minister, though, he took a more moderate stance and concentrated on the disfranchisement of rotten or unrepresentative boroughs. This principle of redistribution remained a key feature of the reform agenda through to the Great Reform Act of 1832 and beyond.
One thing, though, is very clear. At no point did Wilkes, Richmond or Pitt advocate extending the franchise to women. In Wilkes’s case, this is perhaps noteworthy when one considers his very close and very respectful relationship with his daughter, Polly (the same cannot be said of his distant relationship with his estranged wife). Why did no one appear to advocate extending the franchise to women at this point? Might it be concluded that for as long as the franchise remained closely attached to a property qualification, even elite women might struggle to be considered worthy?
Daring to usurp a ‘man’s role’
Such a picture would seriously misrepresent the role of women in politics in the period. Propertied women (among them heiresses, dowagers and unmarried women with their own fortunes) did wield substantial influence in their own right. Historians have highlighted the lively involvement of characters such as Georgiana, duchess of Devonshire, and Lady Susan Keck, all of whom were actively engaged in electoral campaigning – though it is worth noting that in the case of the latter, as Professor Elaine Chalus has emphasized, she was as a result subjected to gendered abuse and dubbed ‘my Lord Sue’ for daring to usurp what was perceived to be a man’s role.
Wisdom led by virtue and prudence to the temple of fame, by John Wallis (1784, CC BY-NC-SA 4.0)
This response is perhaps the more curious given that in Oxfordshire, where Lady Susan was active, there had been a long tradition of influential aristocratic women exerting their interest; and Lady Susan was far from the only one engaged in the 1754 election, when she was at her most active. In the previous century, Anne, dowager countess of Rochester (mother of the poet earl of Rochester and mother-in-law of his countess, Elizabeth, who was also a talented poet in her own right) had wielded interest both there and in Wiltshire, while her contemporary, Lady Lovelace was ‘very busy’ during the city elections for Oxford in 1681. Sarah, duchess of Marlborough, was similarly engaged both in Woodstock, where the Marlboroughs’ seat Blenheim was constructed, and in St Albans.
These aristocratic women were able to assert themselves by virtue of their high social status and undoubtedly had a significant role to play in securing the return of candidates in a variety of constituencies. Women from humbler backgrounds may have lacked this kind of interest, but by the end of the century one at least was calling into question the inequalities of the world.
Education, property and liberty
In her Vindication of the Rights of Women (1792), Mary Wollstonecraft questioned directly the inequalities between men and women. Even so, she referred only very obliquely to the possibility of changing the nature of the franchise. Where she did was most apparent in her dedication to Talleyrand in which she quoted from his pamphlet on National Education:
“to see one half of the human race excluded by the other from all participation of government, was a public phenomenon that, according to abstract principles, it was impossible to explain.”
As Wollstonecraft argued, though, education was the key, and for as long as women’s education was inferior to that of men, they would remain in a subservient condition.
The combination of poorer educational expectations combined with the inability to exert equal control over property meant that throughout the 18th century there was never any real prospect of extending the franchise to women and this remained the case for as long as fundamental assumptions regarding ‘liberty and property’ and appropriate ‘spheres’ remained the norm. Besides, when reform finally became a reality, the cause of women’s suffrage proved to be just one among many. For those unsympathetic to extending the vote to people of both sexes they were able to point to other venues where women were gradually acquiring a greater say: in particular on local councils and educational boards. But, while prominent elite women continued to exert their influence much as their predecessors had done, from the mid-19th century onwards the picture was changing as increasing numbers of women of all backgrounds became politically active and a growing number began to demand to be enfranchised.
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The process for getting House of Commons select committees re-established after the general election is so far broadly on track. However, government reorganisation and the Labour leadership contest could yet cause delays and disruption. And this time, there are particular reasons to get committees into place urgently.
Articles in this latest edition cover topics as diverse as political finance regulation, devolution, young people and the EU referendum, candidate campaigning in general elections, the policisation of abortion and the electoral success of women candidates, as well as reflections on the Turkish, Australian, Irish and EU Parliaments.
Schools making up an ‘electorate’ of over 46,000 young people returned their results to the Hansard Society’s 2019 Mock Elections, which were held to coincide with the December general election and continued a series extending back over 50 years. Labour emerged as the clear ‘winner’ of the 2019 mock poll.
At the start of a new Parliament a series of ceremonies and procedures must take place before the Members of the two Houses can get down to business. Our special collection of procedural guides takes you through them, in the order they take place. We start with some things to note about the highly unusual start of the 2019 Parliament.
A set of laws, conventions and Standing Orders govern how and when a Parliament starts and ends, how it is divided into sessions and sitting periods, and what ceremonies and procedures take place at different points. This guide takes you through them.
State Opening, with the Queen’s Speech at its centre, is the key ceremonial and constitutional event at the start of a new session of Parliament.
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- Colonization and early self-government
- New shapes of colonial development
- The contest with France
- American social and cultural development
- The bid for independence (1763–83)
- New colonial policy
- Colonial resistance
The decision for independence
Fifteen months after the beginning of hostilities, the Second Continental Congress proclaimed American independence. Before 1775 the patriots generally desired to remain within the British Empire. As the war went on, the majority of them became convinced that their happiness was better assured outside the empire. They were driven to seek a complete separation by various forces and considerations: the shedding of blood by British troops; attacks by the British navy upon American shipping, sailors, and ports; the enlistment by Britain of African American soldiers, Native American auxiliaries, and German (Hessian) mercenary troops; the increasing conviction among the patriots that Britain would not accept an accommodation; the belief that if agreement with Britain were reached, it could not be relied upon; and a sound opinion that it was necessary to proclaim independence in order to secure assistance from France and Spain. They moved toward the assertion of independence reluctantly and hesitatingly. They felt an emotional attachment to Britain; they knew that the imperial connection had brought them protection; they feared that foreign aid might lead to foreign domination; and many of them were alarmed lest independence bring with it economic and social leveling. Independent, they must form a stable republican government in an area extending for a thousand miles along the Atlantic seaboard. Could it be done?
Months after the shooting had begun many of the patriots were still hoping that Britain would offer acceptable peace terms. They wished to believe that Adm. Richard Howe and Gen. William Howe, brothers who were appointed peace commissioners in 1776, would bring with them satisfactory bases for a settlement. However, as it became evident that Britain placed its chief reliance upon force of arms, the main body of the patriots kept pace. Word that the colonies had been declared to be in a state of rebellion in August 1775 had its effect, and news of the passage of the Prohibitory Act of November 1775, which withdrew the king’s protection from the colonies and declared them under naval blockade, had a profound impact. By January 1776 the sober-minded George Washington had decided he would be satisfied with nothing less than separation. Revolutionary governments in the colony-states and the Second Continental Congress cut ties with Britain, one by one, and at length on July 2, 1776, the Congress, speaking for all America, severed the last one, declaring, “These United Colonies are, and of right ought to be, free and independent states.” Two days later it gave its approval to the Declaration of Independence, wherein the patriots set forth the reasons for the action they had taken.
In the Declaration of Independence the patriots rested their case solely on the natural rights of mankind and the law of contract. Setting aside Parliament as a “pretended” legislature, Thomas Jefferson and the Congress proved to their own satisfaction that George III had grossly violated the compact and invoked the right of revolution.
Howe’s peace mission
General Howe landed on Staten Island on the very day that the Congress declared independence. He and his brother were not empowered to negotiate with the patriots until the rebellion had been crushed, except to offer pardon to those who would lay down their arms. But the terms they were authorized to offer after the collapse of resistance were very interesting. They could pardon all rebels and restore the royal protection, and they were to demand that Rhode Island and Connecticut be made royal colonies, or at least that their governors should not take office until approved by the crown. Here were no concessions to the Americans. However, the commissioners were also permitted to make a proposal with respect to money. The heart of it came from Lord North’s conciliatory resolution if the colonies (except for Georgia, which was not to be asked to pay anything) would undertake to pay 10 percent, even 5 percent, of the cost of maintaining the imperial army, navy, and ordnance, they would not be taxed for revenue by Parliament. The bargain might have seemed attractive to many defenders of American rights before the war. As it was, it was not even presented to the patriots, since they were not beaten into submission. Assuming that there was no ministerial intention to deceive, these proposals indicate an intention to try to conciliate the colonists after the close of hostilities. Ignorant of the terms, the patriots were left to imagine what their fate would be should they be defeated. That the terms were not publicly announced was a remarkable failure of British propaganda. Military failure followed.
The antagonists compared
John Montagu, 4th earl of Sandwich, the first lord of the admiralty, during parliamentary debates early in 1775, declared that the British army could easily subdue the colonists. The view of Lord Barrington, not accepted by his superiors, that reliance should be chiefly placed on a naval blockade, was, as history has revealed, good advice, since it would have cost Britain less in blood and treasure to lose the war by placing its faith in naval blockade than it actually did. Nor is it by any means certain that Barrington’s plan would not have brought victory. A blockade that seriously hurt the American economy, without taking American lives, might not have driven the colonists to seek independence and might have led ultimately to an Anglo-American accommodation. In any event, there would have been profits from American ships and cargoes seized, and money saved by using the army only as auxiliary. Nevertheless, the ministry agreed with Sandwich, tried to overrun the colonies, failed to achieve that goal, and at last had to acknowledge defeat.
Employing means sanctified by tradition to put down the rebellion, Britain did not toss away all its chances for success. Britain possessed important advantages even in the sort of war that it waged after 1775. Its population was about four times that of the American colonies. Moreover, perhaps no more than half the Americans were firm patriots, one-fourth of them being neutral and another one-fourth being adherents of the British government. On the other hand, there was not much enthusiasm in Britain for the war until France intervened. Britain had a navy that the patriots could not hope to challenge; its government was a long-established one; it could manufacture all necessary military equipment; it had great economic wealth; and it had both cash and credit. Other sources of strength were the experience of its army and naval officers and the possession of thousands of veterans who had fought on land and sea. On the other hand, the patriots were able to put more men in the theatres of warfare than Britain, even though thousands of loyalists had rallied to the British colours. In very few battles of the war were the Americans outnumbered. Moreover, the patriots could and did send ships and sailors to sea to strike heavy blows at the British merchant marine. They had sufficient basic wealth to carry on a long struggle, although they had difficulty in putting that wealth to military use, as American cash and credit were not plentiful.
Geography heavily favoured the Americans, because the 3,000 miles (4,800 km) of water that lay between them and the British Isles imposed a great supply problem on the British and made communication between the British officers in the field and their superiors in London slow and uncertain. The very bulk of the colony-states militated against British success. Another most important asset for the Americans was the fact that the loss of several of their cities would not seriously diminish their capacity for resistance. America was in shape and substance something like a serpent without vital organs. It was especially advantageous to the patriots that they could fall back into the interior, gaining strength as they retreated, while the British forces necessarily dwindled as they pursued, being compelled to maintain bases and supply lines. The British army was to lose several major battles in the interior. Furthermore, it was not necessary for the Americans to destroy the forces of Britain; it was only needful for them to keep the field until Britain should grow weary of the conflict. In addition, the patriots were familiar with their own country, and their cause aroused in many of them a superb and abiding devotion.
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- Colonization and early self-government
- New shapes of colonial development
- The contest with France
- American social and cultural development
- The bid for independence (1763–83)
- New colonial policy
- Colonial resistance
The decision for independence
Fifteen months after the beginning of hostilities, the Second Continental Congress proclaimed American independence. Before 1775 the patriots generally desired to remain within the British Empire. As the war went on, the majority of them became convinced that their happiness was better assured outside the empire. They were driven to seek a complete separation by various forces and considerations: the shedding of blood by British troops; attacks by the British navy upon American shipping, sailors, and ports; the enlistment by Britain of African American soldiers, Native American auxiliaries, and German (Hessian) mercenary troops; the increasing conviction among the patriots that Britain would not accept an accommodation; the belief that if agreement with Britain were reached, it could not be relied upon; and a sound opinion that it was necessary to proclaim independence in order to secure assistance from France and Spain. They moved toward the assertion of independence reluctantly and hesitatingly. They felt an emotional attachment to Britain; they knew that the imperial connection had brought them protection; they feared that foreign aid might lead to foreign domination; and many of them were alarmed lest independence bring with it economic and social leveling. Independent, they must form a stable republican government in an area extending for a thousand miles along the Atlantic seaboard. Could it be done?
Months after the shooting had begun many of the patriots were still hoping that Britain would offer acceptable peace terms. They wished to believe that Adm. Richard Howe and Gen. William Howe, brothers who were appointed peace commissioners in 1776, would bring with them satisfactory bases for a settlement. However, as it became evident that Britain placed its chief reliance upon force of arms, the main body of the patriots kept pace. Word that the colonies had been declared to be in a state of rebellion in August 1775 had its effect, and news of the passage of the Prohibitory Act of November 1775, which withdrew the king’s protection from the colonies and declared them under naval blockade, had a profound impact. By January 1776 the sober-minded George Washington had decided he would be satisfied with nothing less than separation. Revolutionary governments in the colony-states and the Second Continental Congress cut ties with Britain, one by one, and at length on July 2, 1776, the Congress, speaking for all America, severed the last one, declaring, “These United Colonies are, and of right ought to be, free and independent states.” Two days later it gave its approval to the Declaration of Independence, wherein the patriots set forth the reasons for the action they had taken.
In the Declaration of Independence the patriots rested their case solely on the natural rights of mankind and the law of contract. Setting aside Parliament as a “pretended” legislature, Thomas Jefferson and the Congress proved to their own satisfaction that George III had grossly violated the compact and invoked the right of revolution.
Howe’s peace mission
General Howe landed on Staten Island on the very day that the Congress declared independence. He and his brother were not empowered to negotiate with the patriots until the rebellion had been crushed, except to offer pardon to those who would lay down their arms. But the terms they were authorized to offer after the collapse of resistance were very interesting. They could pardon all rebels and restore the royal protection, and they were to demand that Rhode Island and Connecticut be made royal colonies, or at least that their governors should not take office until approved by the crown. Here were no concessions to the Americans. However, the commissioners were also permitted to make a proposal with respect to money. The heart of it came from Lord North’s conciliatory resolution if the colonies (except for Georgia, which was not to be asked to pay anything) would undertake to pay 10 percent, even 5 percent, of the cost of maintaining the imperial army, navy, and ordnance, they would not be taxed for revenue by Parliament. The bargain might have seemed attractive to many defenders of American rights before the war. As it was, it was not even presented to the patriots, since they were not beaten into submission. Assuming that there was no ministerial intention to deceive, these proposals indicate an intention to try to conciliate the colonists after the close of hostilities. Ignorant of the terms, the patriots were left to imagine what their fate would be should they be defeated. That the terms were not publicly announced was a remarkable failure of British propaganda. Military failure followed.
The antagonists compared
John Montagu, 4th earl of Sandwich, the first lord of the admiralty, during parliamentary debates early in 1775, declared that the British army could easily subdue the colonists. The view of Lord Barrington, not accepted by his superiors, that reliance should be chiefly placed on a naval blockade, was, as history has revealed, good advice, since it would have cost Britain less in blood and treasure to lose the war by placing its faith in naval blockade than it actually did. Nor is it by any means certain that Barrington’s plan would not have brought victory. A blockade that seriously hurt the American economy, without taking American lives, might not have driven the colonists to seek independence and might have led ultimately to an Anglo-American accommodation. In any event, there would have been profits from American ships and cargoes seized, and money saved by using the army only as auxiliary. Nevertheless, the ministry agreed with Sandwich, tried to overrun the colonies, failed to achieve that goal, and at last had to acknowledge defeat.
Employing means sanctified by tradition to put down the rebellion, Britain did not toss away all its chances for success. Britain possessed important advantages even in the sort of war that it waged after 1775. Its population was about four times that of the American colonies. Moreover, perhaps no more than half the Americans were firm patriots, one-fourth of them being neutral and another one-fourth being adherents of the British government. On the other hand, there was not much enthusiasm in Britain for the war until France intervened. Britain had a navy that the patriots could not hope to challenge; its government was a long-established one; it could manufacture all necessary military equipment; it had great economic wealth; and it had both cash and credit. Other sources of strength were the experience of its army and naval officers and the possession of thousands of veterans who had fought on land and sea. On the other hand, the patriots were able to put more men in the theatres of warfare than Britain, even though thousands of loyalists had rallied to the British colours. In very few battles of the war were the Americans outnumbered. Moreover, the patriots could and did send ships and sailors to sea to strike heavy blows at the British merchant marine. They had sufficient basic wealth to carry on a long struggle, although they had difficulty in putting that wealth to military use, as American cash and credit were not plentiful.
Geography heavily favoured the Americans, because the 3,000 miles (4,800 km) of water that lay between them and the British Isles imposed a great supply problem on the British and made communication between the British officers in the field and their superiors in London slow and uncertain. The very bulk of the colony-states militated against British success. Another most important asset for the Americans was the fact that the loss of several of their cities would not seriously diminish their capacity for resistance. America was in shape and substance something like a serpent without vital organs. It was especially advantageous to the patriots that they could fall back into the interior, gaining strength as they retreated, while the British forces necessarily dwindled as they pursued, being compelled to maintain bases and supply lines. The British army was to lose several major battles in the interior. Furthermore, it was not necessary for the Americans to destroy the forces of Britain; it was only needful for them to keep the field until Britain should grow weary of the conflict. In addition, the patriots were familiar with their own country, and their cause aroused in many of them a superb and abiding devotion.
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Bipolar disorder is a mental illness marked by mood swings, from a mood of elation and euphoria (mania or hypomania) to a depressed mood (depression). Hence it was also known as manic-depressive illness.
A manic episode is one of abnormally and persistently expansive, elevated, or irritable mood and goal-directed activity or energy that lasts at least 1 week. These symptoms are present most of the day, nearly every day. Mood in a manic episode is often described as euphoric, excessively cheerful, high, or “feeling on top of the world.”
During the period of mania, three (or more) of the following symptoms (four if the mood is only irritable) are present:
- Inflated self-esteem or grandiosity.
- Decreased need for sleep (e.g., feels rested after only 3 hours of sleep).
- More talkative than usual or pressure to keep talking.
- Flight of ideas or racing thoughts.
- Distractibility (i.e., attention too easily drawn to unimportant or irrelevant external stimuli).
- Increased goal-directed activity (either socially, at work or school, or sexually) or purposeless activity (agitated mood and behavior).
- Excessive and impulsive involvement in risky activities (e.g., spending sprees, giving away possessions, reckless driving, foolish business investments, and sexual promiscuity).
The depressive episode is one where five (or more) of the following symptoms have been present during the same 2-week period (most of the day, nearly every day) and at least one of the symptoms is either (1) depressed mood or (2) loss of interest or pleasure:
- Feels sad, empty, or hopeless, or seen to be tearful.
- Markedly diminished interest in almost all activities that were once pleasurable.
- Significant weight loss when not dieting or weight gain, or decrease or increase in appetite.
- Sleeplessness or excessive sleep.
- Restlessness or being slowed down.
- Fatigue or loss of energy.
- Feelings of worthlessness or excessive or inappropriate guilt.
- Diminished ability to think or concentrate, or indecisiveness.
- Recurrent thoughts of death, recurrent suicidal ideation or a suicide attempt or a specific plan for committing suicide.
According to the National Institute of Mental Health, bipolar disorder affects 2.8 percent, or nearly 6.5 million adults.
Bipolar disorder is very common in artists, writers and other creative individuals, as will be seen from the following famous people and celebrities who suffered from it.
12 Celebrities Who Suffered From Bipolar Disorder
Mariah Carey (b. 1970) is an American singer, songwriter, actress, and record producer. Her eponymous debut album was released in 1990 and it topped the U.S. Billboard200 for eleven consecutive weeks, bringing her popularity and fame. She also achieved the distinction of being the only artist ever to have their first five singles reach number one on the U.S. Billboard100 chart.
She was first diagnosed with bipolar disorder in 2001 when she was hospitalized for a mental and physical breakdown. But, she went public with her diagnosis only in April 2018. She did this only when she felt she was “in a good place managing her mental health”. Initially she thought her symptoms were due to a sleep disorder, as she said to People magazine: “For a long time I thought I had a severe sleep disorder. But it wasn’t normal insomnia and I wasn’t lying awake counting sheep. I was working and working and working … I was irritable and in constant fear of letting people down. It turns out that I was experiencing a form of mania.”
She lived in “denial and isolation and in constant fear someone would expose” her for years together as she confessed in an interview to People magazine. At first, she “didn’t want to believe” the diagnosis, as she told the magazine, and “didn’t want to carry around the stigma of a lifelong disease that would define me and potentially end my career … I was so terrified of losing everything.”
“I’m hopeful we can get to a place where the stigma is lifted from people going through anything alone. It can be incredibly isolating,” she told in that 2018 interview to People magazine by way of signing off.
Carrie Fisher (1956–2016) was an American actress, writer, and comedian. She shot to fame as Princess Leia in the Star Wars movie franchise. Her other film credits include Shampoo (1975), The Blues Brothers (1980), Hannah and Her Sisters (1986), The Burbs (1989), When Harry Met Sally (1989), Soapdish (1991), and The Women (2008).
Fisher struggled with drug and alcohol problems, in part due to her tumultuous childhood. She first got diagnosed with bipolar disorder in her early 20s, following a near-fatal drug overdose. Her father, Eddie Fisher, was also bipolar. It is well-known that the disorder can run in families. In one of her manic phases, she hacked off her hair, got a tattoo, and even wanted to convert to Judaism.
Initially, she did not believe the psychiatrist when he told her she had hypomania. Over time, however, she came to terms with her condition. She even went on to become a bestselling author, writing books such as Postcards From the Edge.
On stage and in interviews, Fisher became outspoken about her disorder and a strong advocate for mental health. She told the Huffington Post, “At times, being bipolar can be an all-consuming challenge, requiring a lot of stamina and even more courage, so if you’re living with this illness and functioning at all, it’s something to be proud of, not ashamed of.”
She died of a heart attack in 2016. Her urn was a giant Prozac pill, keeping in tune with her sense of humor and activism in the mental health community.
“I had really good highs but some very low lows,” is how Mel Gibson described his illness when he announced in 2008 that “he had recently been diagnosed with manic depression [bipolar disorder]”.
Mel Gibson (b. 1956) is an American actor and filmmaker. He is best known for his action hero roles as Max Rockatansky in the trilogy of Mad Max, and as Martin Riggs in the film series Lethal Weapon. Born in Peekskill, New York, Gibson moved to Australia when he was 12 years old.
Gibson has won several awards and honors, including the Chevalier des Arts et Lettres from the French government in 1995, which he declined as a protest against France’s resumption of nuclear testing in the Southwest Pacific, and two Academy Award nominations. People magazine named Gibson the “sexiest man alive” in 1985. He has been embroiled in a few controversies as when he berated a police officer during a drunken driving arrest in 2006. He pleaded “no contest” to domestic abuse charges in 2012.
While doubts have been cast on whether Gibson really has bipolar disorder, what we can piece together from his voicemails to his ex-girlfriend, laced with profanity, racial epithets, and threats, is that he seems to be someone who was in a lot of emotional pain and distress, and very, very angry. So, he certainly has mental health issues.
Demetria Lovato (b. 1992) is an American singer, songwriter, actress, and television personality. She rose to prominence for essaying the role of Mitchie Torres in the television film Camp Rock (2008) and its sequel (2010). She has also appeared on several other TV programs and serials.
This singer and actress has released six studio albums, all of which debuted in the top five of the Billboard200. She has had good success as a singer, selling over two million albums and 20 million singles in the United States.
Lovato learned she had bipolar disorder in 2010 when she admitted herself into a clinic for drug addiction and self-harm. “I was dealing with bipolar depression and didn’t know what was wrong with me. Little did I know, there was a chemical imbalance in my brain,” she said.
After successful therapy and treatment, Lovato said, “Now I live well with bipolar disorder. Happiness is a choice. Life is a roller coaster. You can make the highs as amazing as possible, and you can control how low the lows go.”
Given the significant media attention she received in the 2010s for her personal struggles, she published the book Staying Strong: 365 Days a Year (2013), and released Demi Lovato: Simply Complicated (2017), a YouTube documentary about her life and career.
She has used her fame to decrease the stigma around mental illness and advocate for treatment, by taking part in the campaign “Be Vocal: Speak Up for Mental Health” in 2015. Lovato once told WomensHealthMag.com that she wants women to know that “it’s possible to live well, feel well, and also find happiness with bipolar disorder or any other mental illness they’re struggling with.”
Ernest Hemingway (1899–1961) was an American journalist, novelist, short-story writer, and sportsman. He published seven novels, six short-story collections, and two nonfiction works. Many of his works are considered classics of American literature. His economical and understated style—“iceberg theory” as per him—influenced 20th-century fiction significantly. He led an adventurous life and his public image brought him admiration from later generations. Hemingway won the Nobel Prize in Literature in 1954.
But, this Nobel Prize-winning author was also prone to manic-depressive behavior throughout his life. In fact, his entire family was prone to bipolar disorder, a family trait shared by his parents, son, and granddaughter. Hemingway had spells of paranoia and depression. He eventually shot himself to death in 1961.
Dr. Christopher Martin, a psychiatrist at Baylor College of Medicine, diagnosed Hemingway as having “bipolar disorder, alcohol dependence, traumatic brain injury, and probably borderline and narcissistic personality traits” after researching 15 different biographies.
In the memoir “Winston Churchill: The Struggle for Survival”, Churchill’s doctor, Lord Moran, wrote that Churchill had bipolar disorder. Despite or because of his personal battles, Churchill was a man of tremendous accomplishments.
Of mixed English and American parentage, Winston Churchill (1874–1965) was born in Oxfordshire into a wealthy, aristocratic family. He joined the British Army in 1895, and saw action in several battlefronts. He gained fame as a war correspondent and even wrote books about his campaigns. He became an MP in 1900, on the Conservative ticket, later defecting to the Liberals party in 1904.
Churchill became prime minister of Britain in 1940, and led Britain to victory in World War Two. He often referred to his bouts of depression as his “black dog.” When not depressed he had incredible energy and was highly productive. He often capitalized on episodes of sleeplessness by channeling his energy into his work. He published 43 books during his time as prime minister. He went on to win the Nobel Prize in Literature in 1953.
Robert Edward Turner III (b. 1938) is an American media proprietor, producer, and philanthropist. His claim to fame is as the founder of the Cable News Network (CNN), the first 24-hour cable news channel and now a global media conglomerate. The public charity UN Foundation was founded on his $1 billion gift to the UN to broaden domestic support for the UN. At one point, he owned the Atlanta Braves and Hawks, and won the America’s Cup.
But, as luck would have it, Ted has spent much of his life trying to cope with bipolar disorder. His father struggled with the same disorder and actually committed suicide. It was also reported that when his third marriage ended in 2001, Ted contemplated suicide. Ted Turner is one of the most brilliant entrepreneurs and businessmen of the 20th century, in spite of or because of his bipolar disorder. What perhaps explains his success is that people with bipolar disorder are incredibly ambitious and extroverted and don’t need more than four or five hours of sleep a night.
This Welsh-born (b. 1969) and Academy Award winning actress has bipolar II disorder, a form that has longer down periods, following a difficult time in her personal life. Her bipolar disorder came to light in 2011 when she experienced mood swings on account of the stress caused by her husband Michael Douglas’s battle with tongue cancer. The stress was only worsened because of her fight with Douglas’ first wife over royalties from the actor’s movie, “Wall Street: Money Never Sleeps.”
Talking about her mental illness to Good Housekeeping, Zeta-Jones said, “Finding out that it was called something was the best thing that ever happened to me! The fact that there was a name for my emotions and that a professional could talk me through my symptoms was very liberating. There are amazing highs and very low lows. My goal is to be consistently in the middle.”
Zeta-Jones has been very vocal about her bipolar disorder. She has turned an advocate for eliminating the stigma around mental illness. She hopes that she can inspire more and more people to seek therapy and support.
“With my bipolar becoming public, I hope fellow sufferers will know it’s completely controllable,” Zeta-Jones said. “I hope I can help remove any stigma attached to it, and that those who don’t have it under control will seek help with all that is available to treat it.”
Kurt Cobain (1967–1994) sent shock waves through the music industry and general public when he committed suicide at the tender age of 27 in 1994 with a self-inflicted shotgun wound to his head. There was also a history of suicide in his family.
This co-founder of the rock band Nirvana, which appears at number thirty on Rolling Stone magazine’s list of the 100 Greatest Artists, had suffered from attention deficit disorder in childhood. Later he was diagnosed with bipolar disorder. These facts are attested to in an interview of Kurt’s cousin Bev Cobain, who is a registered nurse with work experience in mental health. Other signs pointing in this direction are Cobain’s pressured writing and inordinate production of written declarations, poetry and artwork, his abuse of alcohol and drugs, his high productivity and frenetic energy on stage, and his impulsiveness and lack of inhibition as displayed in his angry letters and his demolitions of stage sets and hotel rooms.
Sadly, however, Cobain did not seek treatment for these mental conditions. Kurt Cobain also battled substance abuse and heroin addiction in the years leading up to his death.
It is perhaps no exaggeration to say that, “In rock guitar, there are but two eras—before Hendrix and after Hendrix”. Jimi Hendrix (1942–1970) was an American rock guitarist, singer, and songwriter. His mainstream career lasted only four years. Still, he is considered a very influential guitarist and a celebrated musician of the last century. This rock guitar legend faced early setbacks. He got expelled from high school, and lasted only a year in the Army, getting discharged early. He talked about his travails with mood swings in his song “Manic Depression”.
Hendrix’s performances at Woodstock and Monterey still get talked about today. He died at age 27 in 1970 from barbiturate-related asphyxia. Rolling Stone ranked Hendrix the greatest guitarist and the sixth greatest artist of all time.
Vivien Leigh (1913–1967) is best known for her iconic portrayal of Scarlett O’Hara in Gone With The Wind. She was the wife of acclaimed actor Laurence Olivier.
Leigh had a reputation for being difficult on the set. Her erratic behavior eventually ruined her professional reputation and broke her marriage.
She swung between severe depression and mania. As is typical of many bipolar patients, Leigh abused alcohol. In addition, she had chronic insomnia. Lithium was not yet on the scene as a mood stabilizer. So, Leigh was treated with electroconvulsive therapy.
Vincent Van Gogh
Vincent van Gogh (1853–1890) was considered a madman and a failure during his lifetime. But, today, this Dutch painter is one of the most famous and influential figures in the history of Western art. He created around 2,100 artworks, including nearly 860 oil paintings, most of them in the last two years of his life. His paintings are characterized by bold colors and dramatic, impulsive and expressive brushwork, laying the foundations of modern art. He committed suicide at the young age of 37 after suffering for years from mental illness and poverty.
Born into an upper-middle-class family, Van Gogh drew even as a child. As an art dealer in his youth, he became depressed when he was transferred to London. He took solace in religion and even became a Protestant missionary for a little while in Belgium. He took up painting in 1881, having moved back home. He was supported financially by his younger brother Theo. The two corresponded regularly by writing letters to each other. He also spent some time in Paris, getting acquainted with the latest styles in painting.
Van Gogh suffered from psychotic episodes in the form of delusions and hallucinations. Though his mental health was a major concern for him, he often neglected his physical health. He did not eat properly and drank heavily. Once in a fit of rage, he severed part of his own left ear. He ended up spending time in psychiatric hospitals. However, his mental illness continued and on 27 July 1890, Van Gogh shot himself in the chest with a revolver, succumbing to the injuries two days later.
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Bipolar disorder is a mental illness marked by mood swings, from a mood of elation and euphoria (mania or hypomania) to a depressed mood (depression). Hence it was also known as manic-depressive illness.
A manic episode is one of abnormally and persistently expansive, elevated, or irritable mood and goal-directed activity or energy that lasts at least 1 week. These symptoms are present most of the day, nearly every day. Mood in a manic episode is often described as euphoric, excessively cheerful, high, or “feeling on top of the world.”
During the period of mania, three (or more) of the following symptoms (four if the mood is only irritable) are present:
- Inflated self-esteem or grandiosity.
- Decreased need for sleep (e.g., feels rested after only 3 hours of sleep).
- More talkative than usual or pressure to keep talking.
- Flight of ideas or racing thoughts.
- Distractibility (i.e., attention too easily drawn to unimportant or irrelevant external stimuli).
- Increased goal-directed activity (either socially, at work or school, or sexually) or purposeless activity (agitated mood and behavior).
- Excessive and impulsive involvement in risky activities (e.g., spending sprees, giving away possessions, reckless driving, foolish business investments, and sexual promiscuity).
The depressive episode is one where five (or more) of the following symptoms have been present during the same 2-week period (most of the day, nearly every day) and at least one of the symptoms is either (1) depressed mood or (2) loss of interest or pleasure:
- Feels sad, empty, or hopeless, or seen to be tearful.
- Markedly diminished interest in almost all activities that were once pleasurable.
- Significant weight loss when not dieting or weight gain, or decrease or increase in appetite.
- Sleeplessness or excessive sleep.
- Restlessness or being slowed down.
- Fatigue or loss of energy.
- Feelings of worthlessness or excessive or inappropriate guilt.
- Diminished ability to think or concentrate, or indecisiveness.
- Recurrent thoughts of death, recurrent suicidal ideation or a suicide attempt or a specific plan for committing suicide.
According to the National Institute of Mental Health, bipolar disorder affects 2.8 percent, or nearly 6.5 million adults.
Bipolar disorder is very common in artists, writers and other creative individuals, as will be seen from the following famous people and celebrities who suffered from it.
12 Celebrities Who Suffered From Bipolar Disorder
Mariah Carey (b. 1970) is an American singer, songwriter, actress, and record producer. Her eponymous debut album was released in 1990 and it topped the U.S. Billboard200 for eleven consecutive weeks, bringing her popularity and fame. She also achieved the distinction of being the only artist ever to have their first five singles reach number one on the U.S. Billboard100 chart.
She was first diagnosed with bipolar disorder in 2001 when she was hospitalized for a mental and physical breakdown. But, she went public with her diagnosis only in April 2018. She did this only when she felt she was “in a good place managing her mental health”. Initially she thought her symptoms were due to a sleep disorder, as she said to People magazine: “For a long time I thought I had a severe sleep disorder. But it wasn’t normal insomnia and I wasn’t lying awake counting sheep. I was working and working and working … I was irritable and in constant fear of letting people down. It turns out that I was experiencing a form of mania.”
She lived in “denial and isolation and in constant fear someone would expose” her for years together as she confessed in an interview to People magazine. At first, she “didn’t want to believe” the diagnosis, as she told the magazine, and “didn’t want to carry around the stigma of a lifelong disease that would define me and potentially end my career … I was so terrified of losing everything.”
“I’m hopeful we can get to a place where the stigma is lifted from people going through anything alone. It can be incredibly isolating,” she told in that 2018 interview to People magazine by way of signing off.
Carrie Fisher (1956–2016) was an American actress, writer, and comedian. She shot to fame as Princess Leia in the Star Wars movie franchise. Her other film credits include Shampoo (1975), The Blues Brothers (1980), Hannah and Her Sisters (1986), The Burbs (1989), When Harry Met Sally (1989), Soapdish (1991), and The Women (2008).
Fisher struggled with drug and alcohol problems, in part due to her tumultuous childhood. She first got diagnosed with bipolar disorder in her early 20s, following a near-fatal drug overdose. Her father, Eddie Fisher, was also bipolar. It is well-known that the disorder can run in families. In one of her manic phases, she hacked off her hair, got a tattoo, and even wanted to convert to Judaism.
Initially, she did not believe the psychiatrist when he told her she had hypomania. Over time, however, she came to terms with her condition. She even went on to become a bestselling author, writing books such as Postcards From the Edge.
On stage and in interviews, Fisher became outspoken about her disorder and a strong advocate for mental health. She told the Huffington Post, “At times, being bipolar can be an all-consuming challenge, requiring a lot of stamina and even more courage, so if you’re living with this illness and functioning at all, it’s something to be proud of, not ashamed of.”
She died of a heart attack in 2016. Her urn was a giant Prozac pill, keeping in tune with her sense of humor and activism in the mental health community.
“I had really good highs but some very low lows,” is how Mel Gibson described his illness when he announced in 2008 that “he had recently been diagnosed with manic depression [bipolar disorder]”.
Mel Gibson (b. 1956) is an American actor and filmmaker. He is best known for his action hero roles as Max Rockatansky in the trilogy of Mad Max, and as Martin Riggs in the film series Lethal Weapon. Born in Peekskill, New York, Gibson moved to Australia when he was 12 years old.
Gibson has won several awards and honors, including the Chevalier des Arts et Lettres from the French government in 1995, which he declined as a protest against France’s resumption of nuclear testing in the Southwest Pacific, and two Academy Award nominations. People magazine named Gibson the “sexiest man alive” in 1985. He has been embroiled in a few controversies as when he berated a police officer during a drunken driving arrest in 2006. He pleaded “no contest” to domestic abuse charges in 2012.
While doubts have been cast on whether Gibson really has bipolar disorder, what we can piece together from his voicemails to his ex-girlfriend, laced with profanity, racial epithets, and threats, is that he seems to be someone who was in a lot of emotional pain and distress, and very, very angry. So, he certainly has mental health issues.
Demetria Lovato (b. 1992) is an American singer, songwriter, actress, and television personality. She rose to prominence for essaying the role of Mitchie Torres in the television film Camp Rock (2008) and its sequel (2010). She has also appeared on several other TV programs and serials.
This singer and actress has released six studio albums, all of which debuted in the top five of the Billboard200. She has had good success as a singer, selling over two million albums and 20 million singles in the United States.
Lovato learned she had bipolar disorder in 2010 when she admitted herself into a clinic for drug addiction and self-harm. “I was dealing with bipolar depression and didn’t know what was wrong with me. Little did I know, there was a chemical imbalance in my brain,” she said.
After successful therapy and treatment, Lovato said, “Now I live well with bipolar disorder. Happiness is a choice. Life is a roller coaster. You can make the highs as amazing as possible, and you can control how low the lows go.”
Given the significant media attention she received in the 2010s for her personal struggles, she published the book Staying Strong: 365 Days a Year (2013), and released Demi Lovato: Simply Complicated (2017), a YouTube documentary about her life and career.
She has used her fame to decrease the stigma around mental illness and advocate for treatment, by taking part in the campaign “Be Vocal: Speak Up for Mental Health” in 2015. Lovato once told WomensHealthMag.com that she wants women to know that “it’s possible to live well, feel well, and also find happiness with bipolar disorder or any other mental illness they’re struggling with.”
Ernest Hemingway (1899–1961) was an American journalist, novelist, short-story writer, and sportsman. He published seven novels, six short-story collections, and two nonfiction works. Many of his works are considered classics of American literature. His economical and understated style—“iceberg theory” as per him—influenced 20th-century fiction significantly. He led an adventurous life and his public image brought him admiration from later generations. Hemingway won the Nobel Prize in Literature in 1954.
But, this Nobel Prize-winning author was also prone to manic-depressive behavior throughout his life. In fact, his entire family was prone to bipolar disorder, a family trait shared by his parents, son, and granddaughter. Hemingway had spells of paranoia and depression. He eventually shot himself to death in 1961.
Dr. Christopher Martin, a psychiatrist at Baylor College of Medicine, diagnosed Hemingway as having “bipolar disorder, alcohol dependence, traumatic brain injury, and probably borderline and narcissistic personality traits” after researching 15 different biographies.
In the memoir “Winston Churchill: The Struggle for Survival”, Churchill’s doctor, Lord Moran, wrote that Churchill had bipolar disorder. Despite or because of his personal battles, Churchill was a man of tremendous accomplishments.
Of mixed English and American parentage, Winston Churchill (1874–1965) was born in Oxfordshire into a wealthy, aristocratic family. He joined the British Army in 1895, and saw action in several battlefronts. He gained fame as a war correspondent and even wrote books about his campaigns. He became an MP in 1900, on the Conservative ticket, later defecting to the Liberals party in 1904.
Churchill became prime minister of Britain in 1940, and led Britain to victory in World War Two. He often referred to his bouts of depression as his “black dog.” When not depressed he had incredible energy and was highly productive. He often capitalized on episodes of sleeplessness by channeling his energy into his work. He published 43 books during his time as prime minister. He went on to win the Nobel Prize in Literature in 1953.
Robert Edward Turner III (b. 1938) is an American media proprietor, producer, and philanthropist. His claim to fame is as the founder of the Cable News Network (CNN), the first 24-hour cable news channel and now a global media conglomerate. The public charity UN Foundation was founded on his $1 billion gift to the UN to broaden domestic support for the UN. At one point, he owned the Atlanta Braves and Hawks, and won the America’s Cup.
But, as luck would have it, Ted has spent much of his life trying to cope with bipolar disorder. His father struggled with the same disorder and actually committed suicide. It was also reported that when his third marriage ended in 2001, Ted contemplated suicide. Ted Turner is one of the most brilliant entrepreneurs and businessmen of the 20th century, in spite of or because of his bipolar disorder. What perhaps explains his success is that people with bipolar disorder are incredibly ambitious and extroverted and don’t need more than four or five hours of sleep a night.
This Welsh-born (b. 1969) and Academy Award winning actress has bipolar II disorder, a form that has longer down periods, following a difficult time in her personal life. Her bipolar disorder came to light in 2011 when she experienced mood swings on account of the stress caused by her husband Michael Douglas’s battle with tongue cancer. The stress was only worsened because of her fight with Douglas’ first wife over royalties from the actor’s movie, “Wall Street: Money Never Sleeps.”
Talking about her mental illness to Good Housekeeping, Zeta-Jones said, “Finding out that it was called something was the best thing that ever happened to me! The fact that there was a name for my emotions and that a professional could talk me through my symptoms was very liberating. There are amazing highs and very low lows. My goal is to be consistently in the middle.”
Zeta-Jones has been very vocal about her bipolar disorder. She has turned an advocate for eliminating the stigma around mental illness. She hopes that she can inspire more and more people to seek therapy and support.
“With my bipolar becoming public, I hope fellow sufferers will know it’s completely controllable,” Zeta-Jones said. “I hope I can help remove any stigma attached to it, and that those who don’t have it under control will seek help with all that is available to treat it.”
Kurt Cobain (1967–1994) sent shock waves through the music industry and general public when he committed suicide at the tender age of 27 in 1994 with a self-inflicted shotgun wound to his head. There was also a history of suicide in his family.
This co-founder of the rock band Nirvana, which appears at number thirty on Rolling Stone magazine’s list of the 100 Greatest Artists, had suffered from attention deficit disorder in childhood. Later he was diagnosed with bipolar disorder. These facts are attested to in an interview of Kurt’s cousin Bev Cobain, who is a registered nurse with work experience in mental health. Other signs pointing in this direction are Cobain’s pressured writing and inordinate production of written declarations, poetry and artwork, his abuse of alcohol and drugs, his high productivity and frenetic energy on stage, and his impulsiveness and lack of inhibition as displayed in his angry letters and his demolitions of stage sets and hotel rooms.
Sadly, however, Cobain did not seek treatment for these mental conditions. Kurt Cobain also battled substance abuse and heroin addiction in the years leading up to his death.
It is perhaps no exaggeration to say that, “In rock guitar, there are but two eras—before Hendrix and after Hendrix”. Jimi Hendrix (1942–1970) was an American rock guitarist, singer, and songwriter. His mainstream career lasted only four years. Still, he is considered a very influential guitarist and a celebrated musician of the last century. This rock guitar legend faced early setbacks. He got expelled from high school, and lasted only a year in the Army, getting discharged early. He talked about his travails with mood swings in his song “Manic Depression”.
Hendrix’s performances at Woodstock and Monterey still get talked about today. He died at age 27 in 1970 from barbiturate-related asphyxia. Rolling Stone ranked Hendrix the greatest guitarist and the sixth greatest artist of all time.
Vivien Leigh (1913–1967) is best known for her iconic portrayal of Scarlett O’Hara in Gone With The Wind. She was the wife of acclaimed actor Laurence Olivier.
Leigh had a reputation for being difficult on the set. Her erratic behavior eventually ruined her professional reputation and broke her marriage.
She swung between severe depression and mania. As is typical of many bipolar patients, Leigh abused alcohol. In addition, she had chronic insomnia. Lithium was not yet on the scene as a mood stabilizer. So, Leigh was treated with electroconvulsive therapy.
Vincent Van Gogh
Vincent van Gogh (1853–1890) was considered a madman and a failure during his lifetime. But, today, this Dutch painter is one of the most famous and influential figures in the history of Western art. He created around 2,100 artworks, including nearly 860 oil paintings, most of them in the last two years of his life. His paintings are characterized by bold colors and dramatic, impulsive and expressive brushwork, laying the foundations of modern art. He committed suicide at the young age of 37 after suffering for years from mental illness and poverty.
Born into an upper-middle-class family, Van Gogh drew even as a child. As an art dealer in his youth, he became depressed when he was transferred to London. He took solace in religion and even became a Protestant missionary for a little while in Belgium. He took up painting in 1881, having moved back home. He was supported financially by his younger brother Theo. The two corresponded regularly by writing letters to each other. He also spent some time in Paris, getting acquainted with the latest styles in painting.
Van Gogh suffered from psychotic episodes in the form of delusions and hallucinations. Though his mental health was a major concern for him, he often neglected his physical health. He did not eat properly and drank heavily. Once in a fit of rage, he severed part of his own left ear. He ended up spending time in psychiatric hospitals. However, his mental illness continued and on 27 July 1890, Van Gogh shot himself in the chest with a revolver, succumbing to the injuries two days later.
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The Sumerians lived in Mesopotamia around 4000 BC. Mesopotamia or "the Fertile Crescent" was a region in the Middle East between the Tigris and Euphrates rivers, in the territory of modern Iraq, Iran and Syria. Ancient Sumeria was very small: it occupied only a narrow stretch of this territory, where the Tigris and Euphrates rivers reach the Persian Gulf. Their territory was mostly inside the modern-day borders of Iraq, with small stretches of land in Kuwait, Iran and Arabia. Sumerian traders are known to have sailed down the Gulf as far as modern-day Qatar and Bahrain, and to have traveled upstream to Haran, in the neighborhood of the modern-day cities of Mosul and Tikirit.
Since the land between these two rivers was very fertile, people first started practising agriculture (farming), there. Sumer became home to the first civilizations and cities. In the beginning these cities were independent, each city being a state or nation of its own. Each city had its own king, laws, gods, and calendar. The biggest cities were Eridu, Kish, Lagash, Uruk, Ur, and Nippur. The rulers of these cities led constant wars
Architecture[edit | edit source]
The Sumerians built houses, palaces and temples using mud bricks. Good stone is not found in the Euphrates delta, so it had to be transported at great expense over long distances. Small quantities of precious stone would be used to cover the brick in places, but most Sumerian buildings were brick.
Sumerians made bricks by scooping wet mud into a wooden frame. The bricks would be all of the same size, but slightly rounded on top. The Sumerians preferred low, wide bricks to the standard shape we use today. Sunshine would evaporate most of the water from the brick, which hardened. Builders only rarely fired their bricks to make them totally hard. This meant that heavy rains and floods would usually destroy Sumerian buildings. Fired bricks would be decorated with paints or glazes, and assembled to form pictures on walls. Sometimes the Sumerians covered walls of brick with an added layer of mud, into which they would push cones of colored clay to decorate walls.
The most famous type of Sumerian architecture was the Ziggurat. Ziggurats were many-storied structures like pyramids, or wedding cakes. Each layer was square, with a smaller layer built on top. Stairs on the outside of the ziggurat led up the sides to the top of the building. This put the top platform of the ziggurat high in the air. There the Sumerian priests put temples to their gods. It is possible they also watched the movements of the stars from observatories there, built very high on a platform of mud brick. On these large platforms were built smaller and smaller platforms, creating a pyramid shape. Originally they were made out of mud brick but Ziggurats from later times were made out of fired bricks, which were glazed and adorned with pictures or faced with stone carvings.
Most people's houses did not look like this. They were simple mud brick huts, similar to those found all over the Middle and Near East. Many of them had courtyards at the center, with chambers for eating and working on the main floor, and rooms for sleeping either at the back or upstairs. We do not know what the roofs of these houses were like, but we can guess. They were built of heavy sticks set into the wall in one direction, and lighter sticks laid over them in another direction, and covered with a layer of mud.
Food[edit | edit source]
As Sumerians were mostly agricultural people, they ate what they farmed: wheat, barley, lentils, beans, garlic, onions, milk and milk products. They made bread and beer from grains. Meat, usually from goats or sheep and occasionally cattle, was probably rare in their diets; the animals were too expensive to kill. They ate apples and other kinds of foods.
Records of ancient Sumerian laws show that oxen — cattle bred, de-horned and neutered for work — were valuable but potentially dangerous animals. When they escaped, they did damage to fields and sometimes injured or killed people. Sheep and goats were probably more common. The wool and leather from the animals was also useful, because it could be turned into clothing or armor or tools.
Clothing[edit | edit source]
Their clothing was mostly made out of wool and flax. flax is a plant with blue flowers. the stem of flax was used in making the clothing. clothing was also made out of other products they could grow themselves.
The men of Sumer often had long hair with a parting in the middle. Many had long beards as well, although some men preferred to be clean-shaven. The mens attire consisted of long skirts and no shirts. woman wore floor-length gowns that covered the left shoulder. The right shoulder and arm were left bare.
Sumerian women also wore their hair long. Most women would braid their locks into one long braid which they then wrapped around the top of their heads. when there were guests around women would wear a headdress.
princesses wore bright colored clothes and expensive jewelry made out of gold, silver, lapis lazuli, and carnelian.
heavier clothing was worn in the winter and lighter clothing was worn in the summer.
social status was determined by the quantity and quality of jewelry and clothing a person owned but they did not need a lot of clothing because of where they lived (in a warm, dry climate).
Writing[edit | edit source]
Sumerians were the first to invent writing. They wrote with sharpened sticks made of reed – a plant that grows on the banks of rivers. One of these sticks is called a stylus. When you push this kind of pen into a tablet of raw clay, you’ll get lines that look like wedges: thicker on one side, thinner on the other. That is why their writing is called Cuneiform, which means "wedge-shaped".
Writing consisted of small pictures. At first, these pictures were drawn into the clay with the stylus. There was a different picture for each word. That meant that a person had to know thousands of these pictures to read and write. Only very educated people, called scribes, were able to read and write. The scribes found drawing pictures to be very hard even in smooth wet clay, so they invented standard ways to combine wedges to form the pictures. After many centuries, they created very quick combinations of wedges that formed the pictures.
Children went to schools to learn how to be scribes. They began by reciting prayers to their gods and promises to their teachers to study hard and learn well. Then they learned to shape clay into many kinds of tablets — rounded squares for legal contracts, and large oblongs for poetry, and cylinders or prisms for royal decrees. They also copied out word lists — rows of symbols that belonged to specific categories, like the names of kings, and the words for different kinds of jobs, and words for different products available in the markets of the city. The teachers used sticks to beat slow learners, but also gave special tutoring to the students of parents who paid extra. After learning many words, scribes practised making whole documents by copying out famous laws, poems and songs. This made them fast and accurate scribes.
Scribes wrote numbers with the back end of the stylus, and used different symbols for 1, 5, 10, 20, and 60. So the number "157" would be written with two 60s, a 20, a 10, a 5 and two 1s (60+60= 120 + 20 = 140 + 10 = 150 + 5 = 155 + 1 +1 = 157). Scribes could add and subtract. Some seem to have known how to multiply and divide, but most did not. Highly trained scribes appear to have known some geometry and some astronomy, but the Sumerians did not have an accurate calendar.
Religion[edit | edit source]
Sumerians had many gods. An was the god of the sky, Enki the god of water, Enlil the god of air, Ki the goddess of the earth, Inanna the goddess of fertility and many more. Plus, they had lots of local deities; each town had its own.
The sky god An was very important, but not always very smart. In one story, he decided to destroy all humans one day, because their noise was tremendous and it kept him awake. An ordered Enki to send a flood to destroy everyone, and Enki did so. But An had forgotten that people give the gods sacrifices of food, drink, and incense. Because of this, the gods nearly starved because An was upset about a little noise.
Fortunately, a Sumerian named Utnapishtim had gotten warning of the flood from Enlil, the god of air. Enlil told Utnapishtim to build a boat, and sail away on the flood with useful plants and animals in the boat. The old Sumerian man had done so, and when the flood waters receded, he sacrificed to the gods. The food revived An and the others, and they recognized their folly at last. Never again, they promised, would they try to wipe out humans.
A version of this story is recorded in the Hebrew Bible, which is repeated in the Christian Bible.
History[edit | edit source]
The Sumerians began as a series of powerful city-states. Each city had its own god and looked after itself and ruled the surrounding countryside. They fought each other as well as made alliances. This culture lasted from about 2900 - 2400 BC. They had a very distinct culture and their style of architecture, writing and religion spread throughout the Middle East.
The Akkadians settled North of Sumer along the Tigris and Euphrates rivers and copied many of the Sumerians' ideas. Later on, one of the Akkadian kings, Sargon I conquered all the city states of Sumer and Akkad and created the world's first empire. His reign lasted about 60 years (2371 - 2316 BC) and his empire stretched from the coast of Lebanon to Iran. When Sargon died, his empire broke up and the Sumerians and Akkadians were invaded by other groups of tribesmen from the mountains.
After this, the dominant forces in the Middle East were the Babylonians and Assyrians. These two civilizations were descendents of the Akkadians who had ruled over the whole area, but they split into separate empires. The Assyrians were in the North and the Babylonians were in the South. The Sumerians as a people no longer existed, though their writing, architecture and religion influenced the civilizations in this area for centuries after. They had over 100 gods.
Sumerian legends[edit | edit source]
The most famous of Sumerians is Gilgamesh, legendary king of Uruk. He is known due to the Epic of Gilgamesh, a collection of Sumerian legends, later translated and written down in Akkadian. It tells about the adventure of Gilgamesh, his friendship with Enkidu, a wild man raised by animals, and his journey to obtain the secret of immortality.
In the Epic, Gilgamesh is portrayed as a young king full of arrogance and pride. Gilgamesh is a bully, and has no friends. The gods are worried because Gilgamesh is so unkind to his people, so they send Enkidu, a wild man every bit Gilgamesh's equal, to be his friend. When they meet each other, Gilgamesh starts a fight, but he discovers that Enkidu is so strong that he cannot win; but Enkidu discovers the same thing about Gilgamesh. As soon as they have tired each other out, without one or the other winning, they become fast friends. Enkidu teaches Gilgamesh kindness, while Gilgamesh teaches Enkidu to be civilized. Both grow up to be very handsome.
Gilgamesh decides he needs a tree for the roof of his palace, so he proposes a quest to the cedar forest to cut down a tree. Enkidu is horrified and warns Gilgamesh of the terrifying monster Humbaba who guards the forest. Gilgamesh manages to persuade his friend to go anyway, and they go on the quest in search of the tree. Together they meet and kill the monster, and chop down the tree.
But the death of Humbaba makes the gods angry. Further, the goddess Inanna sees Gilgamesh and wants him for her husband. But Gilgamesh tells her that she has already had too many husbands, and she has used them all up — she even kills them when she tires of them! Gilgamesh prefers being a bachelor, thank you. Angered, Inanna persuades her father to release the Bull of Heaven in Uruk, to destroy Gilgamesh and his people. The Bull runs wild in the streets, for to touch it is death. Many are slain by the touch of the Bull, its horns or its flanks or its tail.
Enkidu and Gilgamesh go out to destroy the Bull, and they succeed in killing it. But the Bull manages to touch Enkidu, who sickens and dies. Gilgamesh is heartbroken, and refuses to let anyone care for the body or bury his friend. He delays so long that maggots begin falling out of Enkidu's eye sockets and nostrils. Finally, Gilgamesh consents to the burial of his friend, but he cannot bear the thought of dying himself. His mother tries to console him and tell him that death is normal, but the king of Uruk will not hear it. He resolves to go to the ends of the earth in search of a cure for dying — a way to become immortal.
He faces many perils on his trip. First he travels through the tunnel that the Sun uses when traveling underneath the earth. He enters it at sunrise, and races to the other end, hoping to get out before the hot sun comes in at sunset, and burns him alive. He makes it, but then he must confront the scorpion monster. However, the scorpion monster's wife tells her husband to leave the human alone, he is so tired. The scorpion monster allows Gilgamesh to live, and guides him to Sudri, a woman who keeps a tavern for the gods at the end of the earth. Sudri refuses to give Gilgamesh the secret of eternal life, but the boatman offers to guide Gilgamesh to Utnapishtim, who lives forever. Together, Gilgamesh and the boatman cross the Waters of Death, though not without some trouble.
The next chapters of this epic form the story of Utnapishtim, the king who saved humankind of the Great Flood. His tale is very similar to the Biblical story of Noah's Ark. Utnapishtim tells Gilgamesh that he cannot handle living forever, because he cannot even stay awake seven days. Despite his weariness, Gilgamesh agrees to stay awake for seven days. Mrs. Utnapishtim promises to bring Gilgamesh a loaf of bread every day so that he can eat. No sooner than she goes away to prepare the loaf for the first day, but Gilgamesh falls asleep! He sleeps all through all seven days. When he wakes, he insists to Utnapishtim that he only dozed a moment — but the seven stale and moldy loaves of bread beside him prove otherwise. Utnapishtim denies Gilgamesh the secret, and takes him back to the boatman.
The boatman is sympathetic to Gilgamesh, though, and tells the king of Uruk that Utnapishtim gets his eternal life from a plant under the water. If Gilgamesh only dives into the water and brings up the plant, he will have eternal life. Gilgamesh, now thinking of home, decides to get the plant and bring it home to his royal gardens in Uruk. There, it will make everyone immortal, and the whole city will thank him. He dives into the water, retrieves the plant, and returns across the water. There, while he sleeps, a snake comes along and devours the plant. Not until he is within sight of the walls of his home city, Uruk, does Gilgamesh realize that his journey was for nothing. He weeps, but consoles himself with the knowledge that he has built a strong city which will endure long after he is dead and gone.
What is left of them today?[edit | edit source]
Though Sumerians do not exist anymore, they left many technological inventions, like the wheel (which made transport easier and quicker), the potter’s wheel, baked clay, the cuneiform script, and lots of agricultural inventions: irrigation systems, agricultural tools and even beer-brewing. They may have been the first people to fit sails to boats. They made astronomical observations, and were also the first to measure time in 60-minute hours and 60-second minutes. Their priests invented clocks too, some were just like kinds of sundials and others were a type of water clock, with water dripping slowly from a pottery jar. The peasants in Sumeria were the first ones to find out how to harness animals to plows, instead of cultivating the land with hand hoes, and this allowed people to grow much more grain.
Recent collaboration between archeologists and DNA analysts tell that there is a strong connection between the marsh Arabs of Iraq and Iran and the Sumerian culture.
|History Portal — All articles about history.|
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The Sumerians lived in Mesopotamia around 4000 BC. Mesopotamia or "the Fertile Crescent" was a region in the Middle East between the Tigris and Euphrates rivers, in the territory of modern Iraq, Iran and Syria. Ancient Sumeria was very small: it occupied only a narrow stretch of this territory, where the Tigris and Euphrates rivers reach the Persian Gulf. Their territory was mostly inside the modern-day borders of Iraq, with small stretches of land in Kuwait, Iran and Arabia. Sumerian traders are known to have sailed down the Gulf as far as modern-day Qatar and Bahrain, and to have traveled upstream to Haran, in the neighborhood of the modern-day cities of Mosul and Tikirit.
Since the land between these two rivers was very fertile, people first started practising agriculture (farming), there. Sumer became home to the first civilizations and cities. In the beginning these cities were independent, each city being a state or nation of its own. Each city had its own king, laws, gods, and calendar. The biggest cities were Eridu, Kish, Lagash, Uruk, Ur, and Nippur. The rulers of these cities led constant wars
Architecture[edit | edit source]
The Sumerians built houses, palaces and temples using mud bricks. Good stone is not found in the Euphrates delta, so it had to be transported at great expense over long distances. Small quantities of precious stone would be used to cover the brick in places, but most Sumerian buildings were brick.
Sumerians made bricks by scooping wet mud into a wooden frame. The bricks would be all of the same size, but slightly rounded on top. The Sumerians preferred low, wide bricks to the standard shape we use today. Sunshine would evaporate most of the water from the brick, which hardened. Builders only rarely fired their bricks to make them totally hard. This meant that heavy rains and floods would usually destroy Sumerian buildings. Fired bricks would be decorated with paints or glazes, and assembled to form pictures on walls. Sometimes the Sumerians covered walls of brick with an added layer of mud, into which they would push cones of colored clay to decorate walls.
The most famous type of Sumerian architecture was the Ziggurat. Ziggurats were many-storied structures like pyramids, or wedding cakes. Each layer was square, with a smaller layer built on top. Stairs on the outside of the ziggurat led up the sides to the top of the building. This put the top platform of the ziggurat high in the air. There the Sumerian priests put temples to their gods. It is possible they also watched the movements of the stars from observatories there, built very high on a platform of mud brick. On these large platforms were built smaller and smaller platforms, creating a pyramid shape. Originally they were made out of mud brick but Ziggurats from later times were made out of fired bricks, which were glazed and adorned with pictures or faced with stone carvings.
Most people's houses did not look like this. They were simple mud brick huts, similar to those found all over the Middle and Near East. Many of them had courtyards at the center, with chambers for eating and working on the main floor, and rooms for sleeping either at the back or upstairs. We do not know what the roofs of these houses were like, but we can guess. They were built of heavy sticks set into the wall in one direction, and lighter sticks laid over them in another direction, and covered with a layer of mud.
Food[edit | edit source]
As Sumerians were mostly agricultural people, they ate what they farmed: wheat, barley, lentils, beans, garlic, onions, milk and milk products. They made bread and beer from grains. Meat, usually from goats or sheep and occasionally cattle, was probably rare in their diets; the animals were too expensive to kill. They ate apples and other kinds of foods.
Records of ancient Sumerian laws show that oxen — cattle bred, de-horned and neutered for work — were valuable but potentially dangerous animals. When they escaped, they did damage to fields and sometimes injured or killed people. Sheep and goats were probably more common. The wool and leather from the animals was also useful, because it could be turned into clothing or armor or tools.
Clothing[edit | edit source]
Their clothing was mostly made out of wool and flax. flax is a plant with blue flowers. the stem of flax was used in making the clothing. clothing was also made out of other products they could grow themselves.
The men of Sumer often had long hair with a parting in the middle. Many had long beards as well, although some men preferred to be clean-shaven. The mens attire consisted of long skirts and no shirts. woman wore floor-length gowns that covered the left shoulder. The right shoulder and arm were left bare.
Sumerian women also wore their hair long. Most women would braid their locks into one long braid which they then wrapped around the top of their heads. when there were guests around women would wear a headdress.
princesses wore bright colored clothes and expensive jewelry made out of gold, silver, lapis lazuli, and carnelian.
heavier clothing was worn in the winter and lighter clothing was worn in the summer.
social status was determined by the quantity and quality of jewelry and clothing a person owned but they did not need a lot of clothing because of where they lived (in a warm, dry climate).
Writing[edit | edit source]
Sumerians were the first to invent writing. They wrote with sharpened sticks made of reed – a plant that grows on the banks of rivers. One of these sticks is called a stylus. When you push this kind of pen into a tablet of raw clay, you’ll get lines that look like wedges: thicker on one side, thinner on the other. That is why their writing is called Cuneiform, which means "wedge-shaped".
Writing consisted of small pictures. At first, these pictures were drawn into the clay with the stylus. There was a different picture for each word. That meant that a person had to know thousands of these pictures to read and write. Only very educated people, called scribes, were able to read and write. The scribes found drawing pictures to be very hard even in smooth wet clay, so they invented standard ways to combine wedges to form the pictures. After many centuries, they created very quick combinations of wedges that formed the pictures.
Children went to schools to learn how to be scribes. They began by reciting prayers to their gods and promises to their teachers to study hard and learn well. Then they learned to shape clay into many kinds of tablets — rounded squares for legal contracts, and large oblongs for poetry, and cylinders or prisms for royal decrees. They also copied out word lists — rows of symbols that belonged to specific categories, like the names of kings, and the words for different kinds of jobs, and words for different products available in the markets of the city. The teachers used sticks to beat slow learners, but also gave special tutoring to the students of parents who paid extra. After learning many words, scribes practised making whole documents by copying out famous laws, poems and songs. This made them fast and accurate scribes.
Scribes wrote numbers with the back end of the stylus, and used different symbols for 1, 5, 10, 20, and 60. So the number "157" would be written with two 60s, a 20, a 10, a 5 and two 1s (60+60= 120 + 20 = 140 + 10 = 150 + 5 = 155 + 1 +1 = 157). Scribes could add and subtract. Some seem to have known how to multiply and divide, but most did not. Highly trained scribes appear to have known some geometry and some astronomy, but the Sumerians did not have an accurate calendar.
Religion[edit | edit source]
Sumerians had many gods. An was the god of the sky, Enki the god of water, Enlil the god of air, Ki the goddess of the earth, Inanna the goddess of fertility and many more. Plus, they had lots of local deities; each town had its own.
The sky god An was very important, but not always very smart. In one story, he decided to destroy all humans one day, because their noise was tremendous and it kept him awake. An ordered Enki to send a flood to destroy everyone, and Enki did so. But An had forgotten that people give the gods sacrifices of food, drink, and incense. Because of this, the gods nearly starved because An was upset about a little noise.
Fortunately, a Sumerian named Utnapishtim had gotten warning of the flood from Enlil, the god of air. Enlil told Utnapishtim to build a boat, and sail away on the flood with useful plants and animals in the boat. The old Sumerian man had done so, and when the flood waters receded, he sacrificed to the gods. The food revived An and the others, and they recognized their folly at last. Never again, they promised, would they try to wipe out humans.
A version of this story is recorded in the Hebrew Bible, which is repeated in the Christian Bible.
History[edit | edit source]
The Sumerians began as a series of powerful city-states. Each city had its own god and looked after itself and ruled the surrounding countryside. They fought each other as well as made alliances. This culture lasted from about 2900 - 2400 BC. They had a very distinct culture and their style of architecture, writing and religion spread throughout the Middle East.
The Akkadians settled North of Sumer along the Tigris and Euphrates rivers and copied many of the Sumerians' ideas. Later on, one of the Akkadian kings, Sargon I conquered all the city states of Sumer and Akkad and created the world's first empire. His reign lasted about 60 years (2371 - 2316 BC) and his empire stretched from the coast of Lebanon to Iran. When Sargon died, his empire broke up and the Sumerians and Akkadians were invaded by other groups of tribesmen from the mountains.
After this, the dominant forces in the Middle East were the Babylonians and Assyrians. These two civilizations were descendents of the Akkadians who had ruled over the whole area, but they split into separate empires. The Assyrians were in the North and the Babylonians were in the South. The Sumerians as a people no longer existed, though their writing, architecture and religion influenced the civilizations in this area for centuries after. They had over 100 gods.
Sumerian legends[edit | edit source]
The most famous of Sumerians is Gilgamesh, legendary king of Uruk. He is known due to the Epic of Gilgamesh, a collection of Sumerian legends, later translated and written down in Akkadian. It tells about the adventure of Gilgamesh, his friendship with Enkidu, a wild man raised by animals, and his journey to obtain the secret of immortality.
In the Epic, Gilgamesh is portrayed as a young king full of arrogance and pride. Gilgamesh is a bully, and has no friends. The gods are worried because Gilgamesh is so unkind to his people, so they send Enkidu, a wild man every bit Gilgamesh's equal, to be his friend. When they meet each other, Gilgamesh starts a fight, but he discovers that Enkidu is so strong that he cannot win; but Enkidu discovers the same thing about Gilgamesh. As soon as they have tired each other out, without one or the other winning, they become fast friends. Enkidu teaches Gilgamesh kindness, while Gilgamesh teaches Enkidu to be civilized. Both grow up to be very handsome.
Gilgamesh decides he needs a tree for the roof of his palace, so he proposes a quest to the cedar forest to cut down a tree. Enkidu is horrified and warns Gilgamesh of the terrifying monster Humbaba who guards the forest. Gilgamesh manages to persuade his friend to go anyway, and they go on the quest in search of the tree. Together they meet and kill the monster, and chop down the tree.
But the death of Humbaba makes the gods angry. Further, the goddess Inanna sees Gilgamesh and wants him for her husband. But Gilgamesh tells her that she has already had too many husbands, and she has used them all up — she even kills them when she tires of them! Gilgamesh prefers being a bachelor, thank you. Angered, Inanna persuades her father to release the Bull of Heaven in Uruk, to destroy Gilgamesh and his people. The Bull runs wild in the streets, for to touch it is death. Many are slain by the touch of the Bull, its horns or its flanks or its tail.
Enkidu and Gilgamesh go out to destroy the Bull, and they succeed in killing it. But the Bull manages to touch Enkidu, who sickens and dies. Gilgamesh is heartbroken, and refuses to let anyone care for the body or bury his friend. He delays so long that maggots begin falling out of Enkidu's eye sockets and nostrils. Finally, Gilgamesh consents to the burial of his friend, but he cannot bear the thought of dying himself. His mother tries to console him and tell him that death is normal, but the king of Uruk will not hear it. He resolves to go to the ends of the earth in search of a cure for dying — a way to become immortal.
He faces many perils on his trip. First he travels through the tunnel that the Sun uses when traveling underneath the earth. He enters it at sunrise, and races to the other end, hoping to get out before the hot sun comes in at sunset, and burns him alive. He makes it, but then he must confront the scorpion monster. However, the scorpion monster's wife tells her husband to leave the human alone, he is so tired. The scorpion monster allows Gilgamesh to live, and guides him to Sudri, a woman who keeps a tavern for the gods at the end of the earth. Sudri refuses to give Gilgamesh the secret of eternal life, but the boatman offers to guide Gilgamesh to Utnapishtim, who lives forever. Together, Gilgamesh and the boatman cross the Waters of Death, though not without some trouble.
The next chapters of this epic form the story of Utnapishtim, the king who saved humankind of the Great Flood. His tale is very similar to the Biblical story of Noah's Ark. Utnapishtim tells Gilgamesh that he cannot handle living forever, because he cannot even stay awake seven days. Despite his weariness, Gilgamesh agrees to stay awake for seven days. Mrs. Utnapishtim promises to bring Gilgamesh a loaf of bread every day so that he can eat. No sooner than she goes away to prepare the loaf for the first day, but Gilgamesh falls asleep! He sleeps all through all seven days. When he wakes, he insists to Utnapishtim that he only dozed a moment — but the seven stale and moldy loaves of bread beside him prove otherwise. Utnapishtim denies Gilgamesh the secret, and takes him back to the boatman.
The boatman is sympathetic to Gilgamesh, though, and tells the king of Uruk that Utnapishtim gets his eternal life from a plant under the water. If Gilgamesh only dives into the water and brings up the plant, he will have eternal life. Gilgamesh, now thinking of home, decides to get the plant and bring it home to his royal gardens in Uruk. There, it will make everyone immortal, and the whole city will thank him. He dives into the water, retrieves the plant, and returns across the water. There, while he sleeps, a snake comes along and devours the plant. Not until he is within sight of the walls of his home city, Uruk, does Gilgamesh realize that his journey was for nothing. He weeps, but consoles himself with the knowledge that he has built a strong city which will endure long after he is dead and gone.
What is left of them today?[edit | edit source]
Though Sumerians do not exist anymore, they left many technological inventions, like the wheel (which made transport easier and quicker), the potter’s wheel, baked clay, the cuneiform script, and lots of agricultural inventions: irrigation systems, agricultural tools and even beer-brewing. They may have been the first people to fit sails to boats. They made astronomical observations, and were also the first to measure time in 60-minute hours and 60-second minutes. Their priests invented clocks too, some were just like kinds of sundials and others were a type of water clock, with water dripping slowly from a pottery jar. The peasants in Sumeria were the first ones to find out how to harness animals to plows, instead of cultivating the land with hand hoes, and this allowed people to grow much more grain.
Recent collaboration between archeologists and DNA analysts tell that there is a strong connection between the marsh Arabs of Iraq and Iran and the Sumerian culture.
|History Portal — All articles about history.|
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I teach grammar in school for Class III. Students have ideally had two years of exposure to grammar before they step into my class. They should have nouns and verbs in place to a very large extent so that I can go into details of kinds of nouns and tenses. In a class of 40, only 10 students know that boy is a noun and run is a verb! The others take a lucky guess. Can you suggest any activities to help me and other teachers instruct students in a fun way, so that we as teachers are not helpless, and students ‘try’ to understand?
Yes, your ordeal is by no means an exaggeration. This kind of situation has exploded in my face even when handling Class IV! Let me describe a game that I devised for Class I and II. I got the students to run around in class while doing grammar. This could also have been the primary reason for their having picked up the concepts quickly. Students normally associate grammar with unfamiliarity, writing, and an answer script with dreaded red markings!
Let me tell you how I began. I went back to basic grammar, and started with nouns. I asked each student to give me an example of a noun. That was easy enough because they understand that a noun is something that you can see and in many cases, touch. I then divided nouns into proper and common nouns. Getting them to understand this took longer, because this is what a child understands:
- Animal is a common noun. The names of specific animals are proper nouns. Hence, students write Giraffe, Snake, Lion, etc.
- Family is a common noun. The specific members of the family are proper nouns. Hence, students write Mother, Father, Grandmother, Grandfather, etc.
Good analysis actually, but that is not the way grammar works. So, students have to understand that if the animal is given a name (like they do for their pet cat or pet dog), then it is a proper noun, and it begins with a capital letter. A friend is not a proper noun (but he/she is a different kind of person is the argument!) unless the friend is given a particular name like Raja, Mary, Sheela, Shyam, etc.
From the point of view of composition and correction, students lose fewer marks if they get the common and proper nouns in place. They see less red (figuratively and literally!) when they get back their test papers. Students who used to write, Today my Grandfather and Sister came with me to School (school is the name of a building!) understood that all the above nouns are common and they need not be written with a capital letter.
Let me tell you how I went about the game with my class, and you can accordingly fine-tune it for your class. I had a class of 14 students.
I made 140 cards the size of playing cards. I took a print out on an A4 size paper, cut it to size and pasted the paper on to a cardboard sheet. You could even write it out on chart paper and cut it to size.
Some other words that I included were table, chocolate, christmas, diwali, pencil, paper, monday, april, birthday (normally written Birthday by students because it is a special day!), car, etc. I did not capitalize the proper nouns, because that would have been stating the obvious!
After a thorough explanation and one or two worksheets done in class, we played a game. I divided the class into two teams, A and B. There were 7 students on each team. Here’s what I did:
- I divided the cards into two packs and gave each team 70 cards.
- The cards were placed on a chair facedown at one end of the room.
- Two boxes were placed at the other end of the room. Each box had a tag. One read: common nouns, and the other read: proper nouns.
- Team A stood in a line, one behind the other next to the chair.
- Each student picked up a card from the pile, looked at it, ran across to the boxes and dropped the card into the appropriate box.
- Having dropped the card, the student would take his place at the end of the line behind his own team.
- Each student thus had ten chances to think as quickly as possible and do the needful.
- Students were also timed! This is what made it more exciting and got them to do some swift thinking.
- At the end of the round, we had a look to see if the cards had been dropped in the correct box, and points were awarded accordingly.
- Team B then did the same, with much more excitement because they were under pressure to finish more quickly (if possible!) and more correctly!
- At the end of their round, the cards were again checked. The team that had the maximum number of correct cards in the right box and within the minimum amount of time was deemed the winner.
Children learned much more quickly than normally because it was played more like a game. There was also physical movement. Students, who normally did not care about performance, were put under friendly pressure by the other students. They were warned ‘not to mess up’ or they would lose the game!
There was always a chorus of “Ma’am, once more!” So, why can’t we have fun with grammar?
The author is a teacher educator and language trainer based in Chennai. She can be reached at [email protected].
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I teach grammar in school for Class III. Students have ideally had two years of exposure to grammar before they step into my class. They should have nouns and verbs in place to a very large extent so that I can go into details of kinds of nouns and tenses. In a class of 40, only 10 students know that boy is a noun and run is a verb! The others take a lucky guess. Can you suggest any activities to help me and other teachers instruct students in a fun way, so that we as teachers are not helpless, and students ‘try’ to understand?
Yes, your ordeal is by no means an exaggeration. This kind of situation has exploded in my face even when handling Class IV! Let me describe a game that I devised for Class I and II. I got the students to run around in class while doing grammar. This could also have been the primary reason for their having picked up the concepts quickly. Students normally associate grammar with unfamiliarity, writing, and an answer script with dreaded red markings!
Let me tell you how I began. I went back to basic grammar, and started with nouns. I asked each student to give me an example of a noun. That was easy enough because they understand that a noun is something that you can see and in many cases, touch. I then divided nouns into proper and common nouns. Getting them to understand this took longer, because this is what a child understands:
- Animal is a common noun. The names of specific animals are proper nouns. Hence, students write Giraffe, Snake, Lion, etc.
- Family is a common noun. The specific members of the family are proper nouns. Hence, students write Mother, Father, Grandmother, Grandfather, etc.
Good analysis actually, but that is not the way grammar works. So, students have to understand that if the animal is given a name (like they do for their pet cat or pet dog), then it is a proper noun, and it begins with a capital letter. A friend is not a proper noun (but he/she is a different kind of person is the argument!) unless the friend is given a particular name like Raja, Mary, Sheela, Shyam, etc.
From the point of view of composition and correction, students lose fewer marks if they get the common and proper nouns in place. They see less red (figuratively and literally!) when they get back their test papers. Students who used to write, Today my Grandfather and Sister came with me to School (school is the name of a building!) understood that all the above nouns are common and they need not be written with a capital letter.
Let me tell you how I went about the game with my class, and you can accordingly fine-tune it for your class. I had a class of 14 students.
I made 140 cards the size of playing cards. I took a print out on an A4 size paper, cut it to size and pasted the paper on to a cardboard sheet. You could even write it out on chart paper and cut it to size.
Some other words that I included were table, chocolate, christmas, diwali, pencil, paper, monday, april, birthday (normally written Birthday by students because it is a special day!), car, etc. I did not capitalize the proper nouns, because that would have been stating the obvious!
After a thorough explanation and one or two worksheets done in class, we played a game. I divided the class into two teams, A and B. There were 7 students on each team. Here’s what I did:
- I divided the cards into two packs and gave each team 70 cards.
- The cards were placed on a chair facedown at one end of the room.
- Two boxes were placed at the other end of the room. Each box had a tag. One read: common nouns, and the other read: proper nouns.
- Team A stood in a line, one behind the other next to the chair.
- Each student picked up a card from the pile, looked at it, ran across to the boxes and dropped the card into the appropriate box.
- Having dropped the card, the student would take his place at the end of the line behind his own team.
- Each student thus had ten chances to think as quickly as possible and do the needful.
- Students were also timed! This is what made it more exciting and got them to do some swift thinking.
- At the end of the round, we had a look to see if the cards had been dropped in the correct box, and points were awarded accordingly.
- Team B then did the same, with much more excitement because they were under pressure to finish more quickly (if possible!) and more correctly!
- At the end of their round, the cards were again checked. The team that had the maximum number of correct cards in the right box and within the minimum amount of time was deemed the winner.
Children learned much more quickly than normally because it was played more like a game. There was also physical movement. Students, who normally did not care about performance, were put under friendly pressure by the other students. They were warned ‘not to mess up’ or they would lose the game!
There was always a chorus of “Ma’am, once more!” So, why can’t we have fun with grammar?
The author is a teacher educator and language trainer based in Chennai. She can be reached at [email protected].
| 1,119
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ENGLISH
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Dining Room, 1811 by Katie Bickham
Setting aside their own personal convictions, children many times compromise their principles in an effort to please their parents. The internal struggle between what is right and what is expected often clouds the minds of many adolescents. Thus, during an era that promotes racism and discrimination, a young man’s choice to kill may not be his own. In the poem “Dining Room, 1811,” Katie Bickham uses various literary techniques such as imagery, tone, and allusions to expose the horrific consequences of slavery and the inequality among men and women.
Bickham uses imagery to persuade the reader to take place in the atmosphere of the characters in the poem. Graphic imagery is used to help the readers understand what the setting was actually like: “They drove the heads of the last set onto pikes at the levee (21). Bickham also uses a sense of smell, “The gunpowder stench from the sleeves of his fine militia jacket still hung heavily on his side of the table, even after Adellaide (the slave) had washed it twice (1), which can also be imagery, to help us know that he may have just got done shooting a weapon and no matter how many times the salve may wash the jacket the stench will remain.
Towards the end, in the sixth stanza, the boy starts to become tense ” The son flexed his shoulders until the seams tensed. He wished the smell would wash out. ” A fine thing, he echoed (22-24). The author uses tone to bring forth the opposing feelings of slaves, their masters, and children during slavery days. The wife and daughter weren’t really aware of everything that was going on; they were lost in the conversation between the husband and son.
As the father started to talk about the trials he states that trials are fines thing, the boy starts to become tense and scared ” A fine thing, he echoed. 24). As the little sister starts to ask question, the brother wishes that no one answers her question, ” Who ran away Asked his small sister. (18). The last stanza makes readers feel as if the brother wanted to keep his sister “sheltered from everything ” Pike The little one asked. The son held the food in his mouth, unable to swallow until he was certain no one would give her an answer. (27-30). In the previous statement, the family seems to avoid answering the little girl because they want to protect her from the corrupt world she will one day inhabit.
Bickham, a Louisiana native, offers several allusions to her home state in an effort to show that Louisiana struggles with slavery in the 1800s. From the poem, it is clear that the setting is St. Charles Parish, Louisiana: “I’ve heard they’re all accounted for from St. Charles Parish (7-8). Bickham also references the levees in New Orleans when she states, “They drove the heads of the last set onto pikes at the levee (20-21). The overall message of the poem isn’t to relive the slavery days, but to inform readers that the actions of children many times compromise their principles in an effort to please their parents.
In the poem, the boy “hunts the slaves to impress to the father ” And all five of them your kills, his father said, toasting his son with his spoon (9-11). Although the father praises his son for the work he just completed, the son know what he had done was wrong so he becomes tense wishing everything would just go away: ” He wished the smell would wash out (23-24). During the slavery days the females didn’t really have much to do with the slaves, they were more sheltered. Throughout the poem the females had very little knowledge about what was going on: ” A trial His mother asked (16).
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Dining Room, 1811 by Katie Bickham
Setting aside their own personal convictions, children many times compromise their principles in an effort to please their parents. The internal struggle between what is right and what is expected often clouds the minds of many adolescents. Thus, during an era that promotes racism and discrimination, a young man’s choice to kill may not be his own. In the poem “Dining Room, 1811,” Katie Bickham uses various literary techniques such as imagery, tone, and allusions to expose the horrific consequences of slavery and the inequality among men and women.
Bickham uses imagery to persuade the reader to take place in the atmosphere of the characters in the poem. Graphic imagery is used to help the readers understand what the setting was actually like: “They drove the heads of the last set onto pikes at the levee (21). Bickham also uses a sense of smell, “The gunpowder stench from the sleeves of his fine militia jacket still hung heavily on his side of the table, even after Adellaide (the slave) had washed it twice (1), which can also be imagery, to help us know that he may have just got done shooting a weapon and no matter how many times the salve may wash the jacket the stench will remain.
Towards the end, in the sixth stanza, the boy starts to become tense ” The son flexed his shoulders until the seams tensed. He wished the smell would wash out. ” A fine thing, he echoed (22-24). The author uses tone to bring forth the opposing feelings of slaves, their masters, and children during slavery days. The wife and daughter weren’t really aware of everything that was going on; they were lost in the conversation between the husband and son.
As the father started to talk about the trials he states that trials are fines thing, the boy starts to become tense and scared ” A fine thing, he echoed. 24). As the little sister starts to ask question, the brother wishes that no one answers her question, ” Who ran away Asked his small sister. (18). The last stanza makes readers feel as if the brother wanted to keep his sister “sheltered from everything ” Pike The little one asked. The son held the food in his mouth, unable to swallow until he was certain no one would give her an answer. (27-30). In the previous statement, the family seems to avoid answering the little girl because they want to protect her from the corrupt world she will one day inhabit.
Bickham, a Louisiana native, offers several allusions to her home state in an effort to show that Louisiana struggles with slavery in the 1800s. From the poem, it is clear that the setting is St. Charles Parish, Louisiana: “I’ve heard they’re all accounted for from St. Charles Parish (7-8). Bickham also references the levees in New Orleans when she states, “They drove the heads of the last set onto pikes at the levee (20-21). The overall message of the poem isn’t to relive the slavery days, but to inform readers that the actions of children many times compromise their principles in an effort to please their parents.
In the poem, the boy “hunts the slaves to impress to the father ” And all five of them your kills, his father said, toasting his son with his spoon (9-11). Although the father praises his son for the work he just completed, the son know what he had done was wrong so he becomes tense wishing everything would just go away: ” He wished the smell would wash out (23-24). During the slavery days the females didn’t really have much to do with the slaves, they were more sheltered. Throughout the poem the females had very little knowledge about what was going on: ” A trial His mother asked (16).
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Rankin won, and the Englishman went away.
The Supression of the English monasteries From any point of view the destruction of the English monasteries by Henry VIII must be regarded as one of the great events of the sixteenth century. The King sought to abolish the entire monastic system in order to add to the royal coffers and to break down opposition to royal supremacy.
The Dissolution of the Monasteries which term includes abbeys and conventscovers the four years between Apr and Apr In Aprthere were over monasteries, abbeys, nunneries and friaries that were home to over 10, monks, nuns, Essay king henry viii and canons. By April there were none left. Much of the property was bought by or granted to landowners; monastery churches were sometimes converted to parish churches, while some buildings, such as Tintern Abbey, were left to ruin.
Monastic life is bound by ascetical practices expressed typically in the vows of celibacy, poverty, and obedience, called the evangelical counsels. Monasticism is traditionally of two kinds: The Reformation saw the sudden end of monasticism in the Protestant countries of Europe.
The Rule of Saint Benedict c. By the 12th Century, many people felt the Benedictines no longer followed the Rule of Saint Benedict, becoming lax in their prayers and work and so the Cistercian order was founded.
The Cistercian's favoured solitude and so built their monasteries in the middle of moors and mountain valleys. The Augustinian order was also founded at around this time, and they were dedicated to evangelism, teaching and working with the poor and sick, and so lived near towns and castles.
In the 13th Century, orders of Friars were founded and they depended upon the charity of the people they ministered to. Monasticism is a form of religious life, usually conducted in a community under a common rule. Although individual monks took a vow of poverty, monasteries were usually very wealthy because rich barons gave them land and endowments.
They used their resources to help the sick and the poor. Some monasteries had hospitals and all had sick bays for monks who fell ill. Monks often experimented with herbs and plants which they made into medicines.
The primary function and responsibility of religious orders was to maintain a daily cycle of prayer, praying together eight times a day between midnight and 7.
The monks and nuns would live in spartan conditions in individual cells. They led humble lives, devoting themselves to the worship of God and to the care of the sick and poor. They would copy out books and manuscripts; often acted as teachers to boys from local families; baptised the local children; and occassionally farmed the land or tending sheep.
King Henry VIII decided to divorce Queen Catherine when he realized she could not produce a son. The King decided to take on a new Queen; Anne Boleyn. He hoped Anne would be the answer to his prayers and would give him the son that he so desperately longed for. + free ebooks online. Did you know that you can help us produce ebooks by proof-reading just one page a day? Go to: Distributed Proofreaders. When Henry VIII became King of England, he was a Catholic and had no problems with the rules of the church. However he was a man lustful for power and wanted this power to last so of course he would need a son, which his wife couldn’t give him at the time.
The rules and regulations of the monastery were set by the prior and chapter, the head of the monastery and his chosen council. Such matters were discussed at special meetings within the splendidly decorated Chapter House.
The monks were given job titles for their day to day activities: Scribes copied out maunscripts; Librarians cared for the books, the Sacrist looked after the monastery's church, the job of the Almoner was to feed and cloth his fellow monks and to look after the ill and poor who turned up at the gates, while the Hosteller cared for any guests that stayed within the monastery itself.
With life in England during the Medieval and Tudor periods extremely hard for many, the numbers of poor and ill people in the towns and villages was large.
The life of a monk was mainly devoted to prayer. For each day the monks would stop whatever they were doing at certain hours, or 'offices', to attend church for prayers. There were 8 offices per day, with the first beginning very early in the morning.Henry VIII is the most famous king in English history.
Like all fame, Henry’s is a mix of fact and myth. He is most famous for having six wives, which he did. He is also famous for composing “Greensleeves,” which he did not. He is famous for breaking from Rome and becoming the head of the.
King Henry Viii Essay King Henry VIII Henry VIII (born , ruled ).
The second son of Henry VII and Elizabeth of York was one of England's strongest and least popular monarchs. He was born at Greenwich on June 28, The first English ruler to be educated under the influence of the Renaissance, he was a gifted scholar, linguist.
Free Essay: How far did Henry VIII achieve his aims as king between ? To an extent Henry VIII achieved his aims as King between Whilst he. Free Essay: The Strengths And Weaknesses Of Henry VIII There are many differing views of Henry VIII, some people see him as a scholar and others as.
Henry VIII, King of England Essay. Henry VIII () was the King of England from to He was a unique king with talent in music and sports. He married six wives during his life, and he influenced England a lot during his reign. Henry VIII was King of England from to He is probably most well-known for having six wives and for being very over-weight towards the end of his reign, but there’s much more to the man than that.
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Rankin won, and the Englishman went away.
The Supression of the English monasteries From any point of view the destruction of the English monasteries by Henry VIII must be regarded as one of the great events of the sixteenth century. The King sought to abolish the entire monastic system in order to add to the royal coffers and to break down opposition to royal supremacy.
The Dissolution of the Monasteries which term includes abbeys and conventscovers the four years between Apr and Apr In Aprthere were over monasteries, abbeys, nunneries and friaries that were home to over 10, monks, nuns, Essay king henry viii and canons. By April there were none left. Much of the property was bought by or granted to landowners; monastery churches were sometimes converted to parish churches, while some buildings, such as Tintern Abbey, were left to ruin.
Monastic life is bound by ascetical practices expressed typically in the vows of celibacy, poverty, and obedience, called the evangelical counsels. Monasticism is traditionally of two kinds: The Reformation saw the sudden end of monasticism in the Protestant countries of Europe.
The Rule of Saint Benedict c. By the 12th Century, many people felt the Benedictines no longer followed the Rule of Saint Benedict, becoming lax in their prayers and work and so the Cistercian order was founded.
The Cistercian's favoured solitude and so built their monasteries in the middle of moors and mountain valleys. The Augustinian order was also founded at around this time, and they were dedicated to evangelism, teaching and working with the poor and sick, and so lived near towns and castles.
In the 13th Century, orders of Friars were founded and they depended upon the charity of the people they ministered to. Monasticism is a form of religious life, usually conducted in a community under a common rule. Although individual monks took a vow of poverty, monasteries were usually very wealthy because rich barons gave them land and endowments.
They used their resources to help the sick and the poor. Some monasteries had hospitals and all had sick bays for monks who fell ill. Monks often experimented with herbs and plants which they made into medicines.
The primary function and responsibility of religious orders was to maintain a daily cycle of prayer, praying together eight times a day between midnight and 7.
The monks and nuns would live in spartan conditions in individual cells. They led humble lives, devoting themselves to the worship of God and to the care of the sick and poor. They would copy out books and manuscripts; often acted as teachers to boys from local families; baptised the local children; and occassionally farmed the land or tending sheep.
King Henry VIII decided to divorce Queen Catherine when he realized she could not produce a son. The King decided to take on a new Queen; Anne Boleyn. He hoped Anne would be the answer to his prayers and would give him the son that he so desperately longed for. + free ebooks online. Did you know that you can help us produce ebooks by proof-reading just one page a day? Go to: Distributed Proofreaders. When Henry VIII became King of England, he was a Catholic and had no problems with the rules of the church. However he was a man lustful for power and wanted this power to last so of course he would need a son, which his wife couldn’t give him at the time.
The rules and regulations of the monastery were set by the prior and chapter, the head of the monastery and his chosen council. Such matters were discussed at special meetings within the splendidly decorated Chapter House.
The monks were given job titles for their day to day activities: Scribes copied out maunscripts; Librarians cared for the books, the Sacrist looked after the monastery's church, the job of the Almoner was to feed and cloth his fellow monks and to look after the ill and poor who turned up at the gates, while the Hosteller cared for any guests that stayed within the monastery itself.
With life in England during the Medieval and Tudor periods extremely hard for many, the numbers of poor and ill people in the towns and villages was large.
The life of a monk was mainly devoted to prayer. For each day the monks would stop whatever they were doing at certain hours, or 'offices', to attend church for prayers. There were 8 offices per day, with the first beginning very early in the morning.Henry VIII is the most famous king in English history.
Like all fame, Henry’s is a mix of fact and myth. He is most famous for having six wives, which he did. He is also famous for composing “Greensleeves,” which he did not. He is famous for breaking from Rome and becoming the head of the.
King Henry Viii Essay King Henry VIII Henry VIII (born , ruled ).
The second son of Henry VII and Elizabeth of York was one of England's strongest and least popular monarchs. He was born at Greenwich on June 28, The first English ruler to be educated under the influence of the Renaissance, he was a gifted scholar, linguist.
Free Essay: How far did Henry VIII achieve his aims as king between ? To an extent Henry VIII achieved his aims as King between Whilst he. Free Essay: The Strengths And Weaknesses Of Henry VIII There are many differing views of Henry VIII, some people see him as a scholar and others as.
Henry VIII, King of England Essay. Henry VIII () was the King of England from to He was a unique king with talent in music and sports. He married six wives during his life, and he influenced England a lot during his reign. Henry VIII was King of England from to He is probably most well-known for having six wives and for being very over-weight towards the end of his reign, but there’s much more to the man than that.
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I think all the time, 'How did I survive?' —Judy
1929 — 1940
Before the War
- February 7, 1929: Judy Beker was born in Lithuania in a small town known as Josvainiai, the youngest of three children.
- Judy’s father, Osser, worked as a lumber merchant. Osser died suddenly while on a business trip when Judy was 8 years old.
- Judy’s mother, Mina, moved Judy and her siblings (sister, Rachel, and brother, Abe) to the city of Kovno (Kaunus) in 1938. Mina began working as a seamstress to support the family.
- In Fall 1939 Nazi Germany invaded Poland, beginning World War II.
- In 1940 Soviet Russia occupied Lithuania. Mina warned her children to carefully conceal their Jewish identities as it became increasingly dangerous to practice their traditions in public. The Nazis set up concentration camps and ghettos in occupied Poland, and the first transport of Polish political prisoners arrived at Auschwitz in June. Judy heard rumors that “they are burning the Jews in Poland” circulated in the community.
They are burning the Jews.
1941 — 1944
The Kovno Ghetto
- Anti-Semitism grew to a fever pitch as Germany invaded neighboring countries.
- In 1941 Germany invaded Lithuania. More than 140 members of Judy’s family in Josvainiai were killed by the Nazis and their Lithuanian collaborators. According to the Holocaust Memorial Museum, "the Einsatzgruppen organized and helped to carry out the shooting of more than half a million people, the vast majority of them Jews, in the first nine months of the war."
- Kovno was one of the first Lithuanian cities to be occupied by the Nazis and they established a ghetto segregating Jews in August 1941. About 35,000 Jews were confined to the ghetto located in a suburb of Kovno called Slabodka. Judy and her family were forced to live in the ghetto with three other families in a single apartment. The ghetto was enclosed by a fence that prevented Jews from leaving. Within the first three months of its existence, 12,000 Jews were killed in the Kovno ghetto. Many others died from starvation.
- Because of her blonde hair and blue eyes, Judy was selected and trained to sneak out of the ghetto to bring back bread and supplies. Her brother Abe also took part in these dangerous missions. They were at constant risk of being caught and punishment would have likely been death.
- While in the ghetto, the Jews were forced to work as slave labor in a factory making rubber boots for the German army.
- The Nazis began transporting Jews from the ghetto to concentration camps, either to be killed in gas chambers or forced into more slave labor and tortured. When Kovno was liberated by Soviet forces on August 1, 1944 only a few hundred Jews remained there.
Stutthof Concentration Camp
- In 1944 Judy, Rachel, Abe and their mother Mina were deported from the Kovno ghetto. They were packed into a train destined for a German Nazi concentration camp called Stutthof, located 22 miles east of Danzig (now the Polish city of Gdańsk). The women were helpless as Abe was transferred to a train and sent to Dachau concentration camp. Judy, her sister Rachel, and their mother Mina had no idea where they sent him.
- Upon arrival at Stutthof, SS guards tore Judy’s hair out by hand. Judy, Rachel and Mina were assigned to the women's barracks, and each day they were forced to stand long hours for Appell (German for "roll call"). The Appell could last for as long as half a day and be called at any time, day or night. Judy was beaten and tortured by the SS guards and forced to work in the assembly line of a heavy metal factory operated on the Stutthof premises.
- In late 1944, Judy's mother Mina was murdered in the gas chamber at Stutthof. Judy was in line with Mina to enter the gas chamber when a guard ordered her to run back to the barrack and so she did. She found Rachel and told her they don't have a mother anymore.
- As the Russian army advanced closer to Stutthof, the Germans began evacuating the area and sent the prisoners of Stutthof on a "death march." In January 1945, Judy, her sister, and around 1,000 other female prisoners from Stutthof were forced to march in the freezing cold headed for the umschlagplatz (a place where prisoners were killed or put on transports to other camps) in Nickelswaide, about 8 miles away.
- Allied forces began bombing nearby and amidst the chaos Judy and Rachel managed to take cover in a ditch. After the bombing stopped, and the march continued, the girls waited until it was safe to run away. They found a coal bin near a house and fell asleep inside. They were awakened by a Russian POW who was working on the farm owned by an SS official. He took them inside the house, fed them, and they took a bath for the first time in years. He told them they were not safe there and if they were found they would be taken immediately to the umschlagplatz. He found them new clothes and told them to pretend they were Lithuanian Catholics named Uta and Anna. Following a path in the snow made by the Russian POW on horseback, the girls crossed the frozen Vistula river where they found refuge in a convent with a cloister of nuns.
- Rachel was sick with typhus and in her delirium spoke her native Yiddish aloud, revealing to the nuns that they were Jews. The nuns took great care of Rachel until she regained her health. The nuns insisted that the girls pray every day with them in the chapel and at night locked the girls' door to keep them from leaving. The nuns wanted Judy and Rachel to convert. Believing they were the only two Jews left alive, Judy and Rachel decided to leave the convent. By then Judy was very ill, so Rachel took her to a hospital in Gdansk and left her there to get treatment.
- A few days later, Rachel returned to Judy in the hospital accompanied by a German woman. The woman’s husband was an SS officer but the family agreed to give the girls housing and food if they work as their servants. Judy and Rachel pretended to be Anna and Uta, Lithuanian Catholics.
- Judy and Rachel worked for this German family at a Wehrmacht station supporting German troops and keeping their fake identities. They were forced to live in the barn and eat like animals from the floor.
- As Allied forces began liberating areas of Poland, Germans began to evacuate and flee to other German occupied territories. The German family arranged for Judy and Rachel to travel with them by boat to Denmark.
- On the way to Denmark their boat was struck by a torpedo and the sisters survived by clinging to debris until rescued by another fishing boat. They were brought to Denmark and given shelter in a refugee center.
- Judy and Rachel maintained false identities while living in the German displaced persons camp in Denmark until the country was liberated from Nazi rule on May 5, 1945. They came forward to the Red Cross as Jewish survivors. Stunned that two Jews were hiding in the refugee center, a Red Cross nurse asked the girls to sign their name in Hebrew to prove their Jewish identity.
- The girls initially remained in Denmark where they regained their health and were taken in by a Danish couple, Paula and Svend Jensen.
- Judy and Rachel met another survivor from Stutthof and the woman told them she had learned her husband survived Dachau and was living in a displaced persons camp in Italy. Judy and Rachel sent a poster with their photos and contact information to the same camp in Italy. Their brother Abe saw the poster and sent them a postcard telling them he had tried to get to Israel but could not because of the British blockade. He soon after emigrated to Toronto, Canada and asked them to join him there.
- Judy decided to leave Denmark and traveled to Canada to be reunited with her brother in 1949. Judy met her first husband, Gabe Cohen, on the boat to Canada. Gabe was returning from Israel where he had been fighting in Israel's War Of Independence. They married and had three children, Mina, Michael and Debby.
- Rachel married a Dane, Yosfa Levitin, had a son Oscar, and then also moved to Toronto to be near her brother Abe.
- While living in Philadelphia, Judy became involved in various Civil Rights actions.
- In 1963, days after attending Martin Luther King Jr.'s "I Have A Dream" speech, Judy saw on the news that a black family moving into a white neighborhood in Folcroft, PA was facing violent riots and protests at their new home. More than 1,500 people had gathered, throwing rocks and molotov cocktails at the Baker family.
- Judy baked her favorite merengue cookies and drove to the Baker house to deliver a care package and show them her support.
- Judy began speaking and teaching about her experiences as a way to inspire others to stand up to hatred, bigotry and prejudice.
When I saw a mob of people hunting a family that moved into a neighborhood that was all white, written on the house, 'N- go home,' that to me was repeating the Holocaust all over. —Judy
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I think all the time, 'How did I survive?' —Judy
1929 — 1940
Before the War
- February 7, 1929: Judy Beker was born in Lithuania in a small town known as Josvainiai, the youngest of three children.
- Judy’s father, Osser, worked as a lumber merchant. Osser died suddenly while on a business trip when Judy was 8 years old.
- Judy’s mother, Mina, moved Judy and her siblings (sister, Rachel, and brother, Abe) to the city of Kovno (Kaunus) in 1938. Mina began working as a seamstress to support the family.
- In Fall 1939 Nazi Germany invaded Poland, beginning World War II.
- In 1940 Soviet Russia occupied Lithuania. Mina warned her children to carefully conceal their Jewish identities as it became increasingly dangerous to practice their traditions in public. The Nazis set up concentration camps and ghettos in occupied Poland, and the first transport of Polish political prisoners arrived at Auschwitz in June. Judy heard rumors that “they are burning the Jews in Poland” circulated in the community.
They are burning the Jews.
1941 — 1944
The Kovno Ghetto
- Anti-Semitism grew to a fever pitch as Germany invaded neighboring countries.
- In 1941 Germany invaded Lithuania. More than 140 members of Judy’s family in Josvainiai were killed by the Nazis and their Lithuanian collaborators. According to the Holocaust Memorial Museum, "the Einsatzgruppen organized and helped to carry out the shooting of more than half a million people, the vast majority of them Jews, in the first nine months of the war."
- Kovno was one of the first Lithuanian cities to be occupied by the Nazis and they established a ghetto segregating Jews in August 1941. About 35,000 Jews were confined to the ghetto located in a suburb of Kovno called Slabodka. Judy and her family were forced to live in the ghetto with three other families in a single apartment. The ghetto was enclosed by a fence that prevented Jews from leaving. Within the first three months of its existence, 12,000 Jews were killed in the Kovno ghetto. Many others died from starvation.
- Because of her blonde hair and blue eyes, Judy was selected and trained to sneak out of the ghetto to bring back bread and supplies. Her brother Abe also took part in these dangerous missions. They were at constant risk of being caught and punishment would have likely been death.
- While in the ghetto, the Jews were forced to work as slave labor in a factory making rubber boots for the German army.
- The Nazis began transporting Jews from the ghetto to concentration camps, either to be killed in gas chambers or forced into more slave labor and tortured. When Kovno was liberated by Soviet forces on August 1, 1944 only a few hundred Jews remained there.
Stutthof Concentration Camp
- In 1944 Judy, Rachel, Abe and their mother Mina were deported from the Kovno ghetto. They were packed into a train destined for a German Nazi concentration camp called Stutthof, located 22 miles east of Danzig (now the Polish city of Gdańsk). The women were helpless as Abe was transferred to a train and sent to Dachau concentration camp. Judy, her sister Rachel, and their mother Mina had no idea where they sent him.
- Upon arrival at Stutthof, SS guards tore Judy’s hair out by hand. Judy, Rachel and Mina were assigned to the women's barracks, and each day they were forced to stand long hours for Appell (German for "roll call"). The Appell could last for as long as half a day and be called at any time, day or night. Judy was beaten and tortured by the SS guards and forced to work in the assembly line of a heavy metal factory operated on the Stutthof premises.
- In late 1944, Judy's mother Mina was murdered in the gas chamber at Stutthof. Judy was in line with Mina to enter the gas chamber when a guard ordered her to run back to the barrack and so she did. She found Rachel and told her they don't have a mother anymore.
- As the Russian army advanced closer to Stutthof, the Germans began evacuating the area and sent the prisoners of Stutthof on a "death march." In January 1945, Judy, her sister, and around 1,000 other female prisoners from Stutthof were forced to march in the freezing cold headed for the umschlagplatz (a place where prisoners were killed or put on transports to other camps) in Nickelswaide, about 8 miles away.
- Allied forces began bombing nearby and amidst the chaos Judy and Rachel managed to take cover in a ditch. After the bombing stopped, and the march continued, the girls waited until it was safe to run away. They found a coal bin near a house and fell asleep inside. They were awakened by a Russian POW who was working on the farm owned by an SS official. He took them inside the house, fed them, and they took a bath for the first time in years. He told them they were not safe there and if they were found they would be taken immediately to the umschlagplatz. He found them new clothes and told them to pretend they were Lithuanian Catholics named Uta and Anna. Following a path in the snow made by the Russian POW on horseback, the girls crossed the frozen Vistula river where they found refuge in a convent with a cloister of nuns.
- Rachel was sick with typhus and in her delirium spoke her native Yiddish aloud, revealing to the nuns that they were Jews. The nuns took great care of Rachel until she regained her health. The nuns insisted that the girls pray every day with them in the chapel and at night locked the girls' door to keep them from leaving. The nuns wanted Judy and Rachel to convert. Believing they were the only two Jews left alive, Judy and Rachel decided to leave the convent. By then Judy was very ill, so Rachel took her to a hospital in Gdansk and left her there to get treatment.
- A few days later, Rachel returned to Judy in the hospital accompanied by a German woman. The woman’s husband was an SS officer but the family agreed to give the girls housing and food if they work as their servants. Judy and Rachel pretended to be Anna and Uta, Lithuanian Catholics.
- Judy and Rachel worked for this German family at a Wehrmacht station supporting German troops and keeping their fake identities. They were forced to live in the barn and eat like animals from the floor.
- As Allied forces began liberating areas of Poland, Germans began to evacuate and flee to other German occupied territories. The German family arranged for Judy and Rachel to travel with them by boat to Denmark.
- On the way to Denmark their boat was struck by a torpedo and the sisters survived by clinging to debris until rescued by another fishing boat. They were brought to Denmark and given shelter in a refugee center.
- Judy and Rachel maintained false identities while living in the German displaced persons camp in Denmark until the country was liberated from Nazi rule on May 5, 1945. They came forward to the Red Cross as Jewish survivors. Stunned that two Jews were hiding in the refugee center, a Red Cross nurse asked the girls to sign their name in Hebrew to prove their Jewish identity.
- The girls initially remained in Denmark where they regained their health and were taken in by a Danish couple, Paula and Svend Jensen.
- Judy and Rachel met another survivor from Stutthof and the woman told them she had learned her husband survived Dachau and was living in a displaced persons camp in Italy. Judy and Rachel sent a poster with their photos and contact information to the same camp in Italy. Their brother Abe saw the poster and sent them a postcard telling them he had tried to get to Israel but could not because of the British blockade. He soon after emigrated to Toronto, Canada and asked them to join him there.
- Judy decided to leave Denmark and traveled to Canada to be reunited with her brother in 1949. Judy met her first husband, Gabe Cohen, on the boat to Canada. Gabe was returning from Israel where he had been fighting in Israel's War Of Independence. They married and had three children, Mina, Michael and Debby.
- Rachel married a Dane, Yosfa Levitin, had a son Oscar, and then also moved to Toronto to be near her brother Abe.
- While living in Philadelphia, Judy became involved in various Civil Rights actions.
- In 1963, days after attending Martin Luther King Jr.'s "I Have A Dream" speech, Judy saw on the news that a black family moving into a white neighborhood in Folcroft, PA was facing violent riots and protests at their new home. More than 1,500 people had gathered, throwing rocks and molotov cocktails at the Baker family.
- Judy baked her favorite merengue cookies and drove to the Baker house to deliver a care package and show them her support.
- Judy began speaking and teaching about her experiences as a way to inspire others to stand up to hatred, bigotry and prejudice.
When I saw a mob of people hunting a family that moved into a neighborhood that was all white, written on the house, 'N- go home,' that to me was repeating the Holocaust all over. —Judy
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A Biography Of A Nobel Prize Winner Writer John Ernst Steinbeck (Essay Sample)
The task was about covering john steinbeck's biography.source..
Student’s name Instructor’s name Course Date John Steinbeck’s Biography John Ernst Steinbeck (27th Feb 1902) was born in Salinas, California. His family belonged to the German immigrants living in small rural towns of California. Just like any other person, he received a modest and comfortable upbringing. John Steinbeck became famous for his novel Of Mice and Men, The Grapes of Wrath, and the East of Eden among other several books (Pettinger). The talented writer has done more than 16 novels through linking them up summing into a total of more than 27 publications. As a Nobel Prize winner, Steinbeck took much of his time to achieve the success seen in his life, though difficulties emerged along the way but did not hamper his determinations. Most of his works take the setting of California where he was born and raised. He developed an inspiring character after interacting with multiple persons and characters in his daily life. More specifically, some of his friends were influential, an example being Ed Rickets (The Editors of Encyclopaedia). His first successful book was Tortilla Flat from which then, his literary work achieved success after being famous. Based on the tones of his books, he novels have been subject to controversy with some being discouraged from use in schools for making use of obscene language. In the latest years, 20th century, the author’s works have been banned most of the times around the world. Most of his holidays were spent working in ranches as a harvester so that he could earn some money (The Biography.com). While working at the farms, he gained insights about the plights of migrant workers; his experiences thus contributed to materials that were seen used in some of his greatest works. Childhood and early life John Steinbeck's mother was Olive Hamilton, and his father was John. His father worked in the Salinas Municipality at Monterey County in California. His father also worked as a government treasurer for the same county. As a young child, he was raised as an Episcopal Christian but later turned out to be a sceptic. The rural areas he grew it became the backbone and played some of the most critical roles in literary works that he would later do in life He received his education at Salinas High School which he completed in 1919 before proceeding to Stanford for higher learning to do a degree in Literature. Despite spending five good years in the institution, he still left without a degree. After 1925, he left his learning institution and moved to New York where he wanted to be a writer; he, therefore, resorted to running small errands for survival. Since he was unable to secure a career for himself after failing to complete his education, he resorted to menial jobs for survival. He got so discouraged that he returned to California in 1928 where he would secure a job as a caretaker (The Biography.com). He had failed to find a job s a writer and started guiding tourists, at the same time being a mannequin manufacturer. It is during the period when the global economic crisis emerged and was characterized by The Great Depression. During the time, he was a struggling man to make a living both for himself and the family Working full time,, he managed t0 secure some time to publish his first book in 1929, Cup of Gold (Pettinger). A few years afterward, he receives a financial aid from his father that enabled him to quit his full-time job. He had a lot of time and therefore devoted much of his time to writing from his father's cottage. In 1930, he came across a writer specializing in marine biology, and they developed a close friendship. He was instrumental in modeling multiple characters in John Steinbeck. John Steinbeck’s books In his entire writing career, Steinbeck managed to write 31 books in total with the most popular being Of Mice and Men in 1937, East of Eden in 1952, and Grapes of Wrath (Biography). After doing Grapes of Wrath which was the best-selling book by then, Steinbeck went to Mexico to have some experience with a freelance biologist Edward F.; the two joined hands in writing Sea of Cortez published in 1941. His writing was not limited to one subject, and he wrote on different issues including pieces on propaganda during the Second World War. The last pieces of writings he did were about the experiences he had while touring across the United States. Later, he was interspersed with conscientious attempts of asserting himself as a novelist. The critical opinion l his later writings were seen not to equal his earlier achievements. East of Eden was done as an ambitious story focusing on two sons of a farmer, with its film being made later in 1955 (The Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica). Other outstanding stories were done by Steinbeck between 1941 and 1952. Most of his reputation is attributed to naturalistic novels having proletarian themes that he wrote in the early 1930s. His books, mostly Of Mice and Men, and The Grapes of Wrath captured the cost of Great Depression. For example, The Grapes of Wrath provided a discussion of social, economic and cultural implications of the movement. The book also gave focus to low-income family tenants who face difficulties during the beginning of the Great Depression. The literature also offers a sympathetic account of the experiences of migrant workers as a critical component of capitalism. In the same book, his subtle opinion on the politics of the world was also controversial. At some point, his book, The Grapes of Wrath was banned between 1939 and 1941since he was a loyal and active supporter of new deals by FDR, he also had a lasting relationship with writers labor unions (The Famous People). When he relocated to Vietnam in 1967, he had to write in support of the war which many people considered a challenge to the new liberal ideas. At the same time, he complained of government drafting measures to harass him. It’s the time when he did works with the best symbolic structures through his attempts to communicate the archetypical qualities of his attributes as being effective. Career life Steinbeck started his career by bringing a debut novel name Cup of Gold in 1929. The book wasn’t famous since it was not received well by readers within the country. In 1932, he published a book going buy the name The Pastures of Heaven that consisted of twelve short stories related to each other. In the subsequent year, he wrote The Red Pony as his second work followed by o a God Unknown, all of them being moderately successful. In 1935, he tasted the success of his novel Tortilla Flat that made use of California as the setting. The novel was done after the Second World War and was the main subject for both the readers and critics. In the same year, he joined American League of Writers where he received inspirations to work with communist writers such as Ella Winter and Lincoln Steffen (The Famous People) In 1936, Dustbowl’ trilogy his first work under the communism influence and the book talked of protests by California workers. The second book afterwards was Of Mice and Men that was published one year later. The book takes the form of a drama touching on the controversial issues evident at the time such as discrimination against the workers with mental instabilities, apartheid and fight for independence. Two years later, he printed the final third part of Dustbowl trilogy, taking the name Grapes of Wrath. The literature majorly supported the working class while condemning capitalist moves. As a result, the book was banned for multiple years including a recent period when Mississippi school discouraged the use of book for too much use of expletives. In 1943, he became a prolific writer for the New York Herald Tribune and was mainly reporting the major events in the Second World War. During the time, he had some connections with the CIA (The Famous People). He returned home soon after the end of war to take care of depression and physical injuries he received at the war. In 1945, he came up with Cannery Row which gave a wider focus to the lives of people in Monterey. Two years later, he did The Pearl assuming it would turn into a movie. He published several novels till 1961 with the lates being Travels with Charley; a novel describing the adventures that he takes with his dog, Charley while working to rediscover America. Marriage and family life In 1942, he remarried after divorcing his first wife whom she married in 1930. He was married three times and gave birth to three children; both were males. Her first wife was Carol Henning whom; they spent a decade before choosing to be writer under her wife's support. He divorced his first wife in 1942 before marrying his second wife, Gwyndolin Conger (1948). The second marriage resulted into the couples having two sons together; Thomas and John born two years apart in 1944 and 1946 respectively. He later conducted a wedding to his third wife, Elaine Anderson Scott in 1950. The couple chose to live together for 18 years. Three years after divorcing his first wife, Steinbeck decided to write a novel on the experiences of the Second World War. The novel was entirely based on the resistance of the soldiers to German control and occupation. In his book The Moon is Down, he revealed the experiences of serving as a respondent to the war. During the time of war, he witnessed the actions both in the Mediterranean and in North Africa. In 1944, he was a victim of an explosion at war, making him unfit in the environment and so he went back home. Few years after the war, he paid a visit to the Soviet Union with his photographer to publish war experiences in a journal. It was rare American participation in Russian relationships after the war. Awards and Achievements In...
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8 pages/≈2200 words
A Biography Of A Nobel Prize Winner Writer John Ernst Steinbeck (Essay Sample)
The task was about covering john steinbeck's biography.source..
Student’s name Instructor’s name Course Date John Steinbeck’s Biography John Ernst Steinbeck (27th Feb 1902) was born in Salinas, California. His family belonged to the German immigrants living in small rural towns of California. Just like any other person, he received a modest and comfortable upbringing. John Steinbeck became famous for his novel Of Mice and Men, The Grapes of Wrath, and the East of Eden among other several books (Pettinger). The talented writer has done more than 16 novels through linking them up summing into a total of more than 27 publications. As a Nobel Prize winner, Steinbeck took much of his time to achieve the success seen in his life, though difficulties emerged along the way but did not hamper his determinations. Most of his works take the setting of California where he was born and raised. He developed an inspiring character after interacting with multiple persons and characters in his daily life. More specifically, some of his friends were influential, an example being Ed Rickets (The Editors of Encyclopaedia). His first successful book was Tortilla Flat from which then, his literary work achieved success after being famous. Based on the tones of his books, he novels have been subject to controversy with some being discouraged from use in schools for making use of obscene language. In the latest years, 20th century, the author’s works have been banned most of the times around the world. Most of his holidays were spent working in ranches as a harvester so that he could earn some money (The Biography.com). While working at the farms, he gained insights about the plights of migrant workers; his experiences thus contributed to materials that were seen used in some of his greatest works. Childhood and early life John Steinbeck's mother was Olive Hamilton, and his father was John. His father worked in the Salinas Municipality at Monterey County in California. His father also worked as a government treasurer for the same county. As a young child, he was raised as an Episcopal Christian but later turned out to be a sceptic. The rural areas he grew it became the backbone and played some of the most critical roles in literary works that he would later do in life He received his education at Salinas High School which he completed in 1919 before proceeding to Stanford for higher learning to do a degree in Literature. Despite spending five good years in the institution, he still left without a degree. After 1925, he left his learning institution and moved to New York where he wanted to be a writer; he, therefore, resorted to running small errands for survival. Since he was unable to secure a career for himself after failing to complete his education, he resorted to menial jobs for survival. He got so discouraged that he returned to California in 1928 where he would secure a job as a caretaker (The Biography.com). He had failed to find a job s a writer and started guiding tourists, at the same time being a mannequin manufacturer. It is during the period when the global economic crisis emerged and was characterized by The Great Depression. During the time, he was a struggling man to make a living both for himself and the family Working full time,, he managed t0 secure some time to publish his first book in 1929, Cup of Gold (Pettinger). A few years afterward, he receives a financial aid from his father that enabled him to quit his full-time job. He had a lot of time and therefore devoted much of his time to writing from his father's cottage. In 1930, he came across a writer specializing in marine biology, and they developed a close friendship. He was instrumental in modeling multiple characters in John Steinbeck. John Steinbeck’s books In his entire writing career, Steinbeck managed to write 31 books in total with the most popular being Of Mice and Men in 1937, East of Eden in 1952, and Grapes of Wrath (Biography). After doing Grapes of Wrath which was the best-selling book by then, Steinbeck went to Mexico to have some experience with a freelance biologist Edward F.; the two joined hands in writing Sea of Cortez published in 1941. His writing was not limited to one subject, and he wrote on different issues including pieces on propaganda during the Second World War. The last pieces of writings he did were about the experiences he had while touring across the United States. Later, he was interspersed with conscientious attempts of asserting himself as a novelist. The critical opinion l his later writings were seen not to equal his earlier achievements. East of Eden was done as an ambitious story focusing on two sons of a farmer, with its film being made later in 1955 (The Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica). Other outstanding stories were done by Steinbeck between 1941 and 1952. Most of his reputation is attributed to naturalistic novels having proletarian themes that he wrote in the early 1930s. His books, mostly Of Mice and Men, and The Grapes of Wrath captured the cost of Great Depression. For example, The Grapes of Wrath provided a discussion of social, economic and cultural implications of the movement. The book also gave focus to low-income family tenants who face difficulties during the beginning of the Great Depression. The literature also offers a sympathetic account of the experiences of migrant workers as a critical component of capitalism. In the same book, his subtle opinion on the politics of the world was also controversial. At some point, his book, The Grapes of Wrath was banned between 1939 and 1941since he was a loyal and active supporter of new deals by FDR, he also had a lasting relationship with writers labor unions (The Famous People). When he relocated to Vietnam in 1967, he had to write in support of the war which many people considered a challenge to the new liberal ideas. At the same time, he complained of government drafting measures to harass him. It’s the time when he did works with the best symbolic structures through his attempts to communicate the archetypical qualities of his attributes as being effective. Career life Steinbeck started his career by bringing a debut novel name Cup of Gold in 1929. The book wasn’t famous since it was not received well by readers within the country. In 1932, he published a book going buy the name The Pastures of Heaven that consisted of twelve short stories related to each other. In the subsequent year, he wrote The Red Pony as his second work followed by o a God Unknown, all of them being moderately successful. In 1935, he tasted the success of his novel Tortilla Flat that made use of California as the setting. The novel was done after the Second World War and was the main subject for both the readers and critics. In the same year, he joined American League of Writers where he received inspirations to work with communist writers such as Ella Winter and Lincoln Steffen (The Famous People) In 1936, Dustbowl’ trilogy his first work under the communism influence and the book talked of protests by California workers. The second book afterwards was Of Mice and Men that was published one year later. The book takes the form of a drama touching on the controversial issues evident at the time such as discrimination against the workers with mental instabilities, apartheid and fight for independence. Two years later, he printed the final third part of Dustbowl trilogy, taking the name Grapes of Wrath. The literature majorly supported the working class while condemning capitalist moves. As a result, the book was banned for multiple years including a recent period when Mississippi school discouraged the use of book for too much use of expletives. In 1943, he became a prolific writer for the New York Herald Tribune and was mainly reporting the major events in the Second World War. During the time, he had some connections with the CIA (The Famous People). He returned home soon after the end of war to take care of depression and physical injuries he received at the war. In 1945, he came up with Cannery Row which gave a wider focus to the lives of people in Monterey. Two years later, he did The Pearl assuming it would turn into a movie. He published several novels till 1961 with the lates being Travels with Charley; a novel describing the adventures that he takes with his dog, Charley while working to rediscover America. Marriage and family life In 1942, he remarried after divorcing his first wife whom she married in 1930. He was married three times and gave birth to three children; both were males. Her first wife was Carol Henning whom; they spent a decade before choosing to be writer under her wife's support. He divorced his first wife in 1942 before marrying his second wife, Gwyndolin Conger (1948). The second marriage resulted into the couples having two sons together; Thomas and John born two years apart in 1944 and 1946 respectively. He later conducted a wedding to his third wife, Elaine Anderson Scott in 1950. The couple chose to live together for 18 years. Three years after divorcing his first wife, Steinbeck decided to write a novel on the experiences of the Second World War. The novel was entirely based on the resistance of the soldiers to German control and occupation. In his book The Moon is Down, he revealed the experiences of serving as a respondent to the war. During the time of war, he witnessed the actions both in the Mediterranean and in North Africa. In 1944, he was a victim of an explosion at war, making him unfit in the environment and so he went back home. Few years after the war, he paid a visit to the Soviet Union with his photographer to publish war experiences in a journal. It was rare American participation in Russian relationships after the war. Awards and Achievements In...
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In this documentary, Jane Elliott, a third grade teacher divided her class into two groups based on their eye color; one group had blue eyes and the other had brown eyes. On the first day of the experiment, Elliott told the children who had blue eyes that they were superior to the children with brown eyes; that they were better, nicer and smarter. Throughout that day, she praised and encouraged them and gave them various privileges like being first in line and having an extended amount of time for recess. The brown eyed children were forced to wear collars, as a means of identifying them as the inferior group, and they were criticized and told that they had to be separated from the blue eyed group during recess. On the second day, the superiority was reversed.
Illusory correlation refers to when people see a relationship between two variables, even when there is none. This occurred quite a lot throughout this documentary. On the first day, when the blue eyed group was superior to the brown eyed group, both Elliott and the students made illusory correlations between brown eyed people and different variables. For example, Elliott made connection between being slow, referring to being prepared to start the lesson, and having brown eyes. More of these correlations were made between blue eyed people when they were inferior. The superior group, the brown eyes, made correlation between having blue eyes and being forgetful, violent and wasteful.
Social identity theory is a concept that is based on the assumption that people strive to improve their self-image by trying to enhance their self-esteem based on personal or social identities. This theory is proven to be true throughout the experiment. An example of social identity theory is when the kids were taking their recess; one of the boys in the blue eyed group tried to improve his self-esteem by calling one of his classmates an offensive name; ‘brown eyes.’
Stereotype threat is the effect of stereotypes on an individual’s performance. The experiment showed the different effects that stereotypes had on the children’s performance depending on the status of their group; whether they were superior or inferior. In a phonics card exercise, we are able to see the effect that stereotypes have on the children’s performance. On the first day, it took the brown eyed people 5 and a half minutes to go through the cards. On the second day, however, they were able to finish the same cards in a fraction of the time, it took them only 2 and a half minutes. This improvement is based purely on the change in stereotype.
In-group and out-group favouritism involves an “us versus them” mentality which is plainly displayed throughout the experiment. Elliott, for example, displayed in group favouritism when she chose the blue eyed children to be the superior group—purely because she had blue eyes herself. Whichever group was superior exhibited these two terms. Whichever group was superior, they perceived their group to be good and smart while they thought that the out group was bad and unintelligent.
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In this documentary, Jane Elliott, a third grade teacher divided her class into two groups based on their eye color; one group had blue eyes and the other had brown eyes. On the first day of the experiment, Elliott told the children who had blue eyes that they were superior to the children with brown eyes; that they were better, nicer and smarter. Throughout that day, she praised and encouraged them and gave them various privileges like being first in line and having an extended amount of time for recess. The brown eyed children were forced to wear collars, as a means of identifying them as the inferior group, and they were criticized and told that they had to be separated from the blue eyed group during recess. On the second day, the superiority was reversed.
Illusory correlation refers to when people see a relationship between two variables, even when there is none. This occurred quite a lot throughout this documentary. On the first day, when the blue eyed group was superior to the brown eyed group, both Elliott and the students made illusory correlations between brown eyed people and different variables. For example, Elliott made connection between being slow, referring to being prepared to start the lesson, and having brown eyes. More of these correlations were made between blue eyed people when they were inferior. The superior group, the brown eyes, made correlation between having blue eyes and being forgetful, violent and wasteful.
Social identity theory is a concept that is based on the assumption that people strive to improve their self-image by trying to enhance their self-esteem based on personal or social identities. This theory is proven to be true throughout the experiment. An example of social identity theory is when the kids were taking their recess; one of the boys in the blue eyed group tried to improve his self-esteem by calling one of his classmates an offensive name; ‘brown eyes.’
Stereotype threat is the effect of stereotypes on an individual’s performance. The experiment showed the different effects that stereotypes had on the children’s performance depending on the status of their group; whether they were superior or inferior. In a phonics card exercise, we are able to see the effect that stereotypes have on the children’s performance. On the first day, it took the brown eyed people 5 and a half minutes to go through the cards. On the second day, however, they were able to finish the same cards in a fraction of the time, it took them only 2 and a half minutes. This improvement is based purely on the change in stereotype.
In-group and out-group favouritism involves an “us versus them” mentality which is plainly displayed throughout the experiment. Elliott, for example, displayed in group favouritism when she chose the blue eyed children to be the superior group—purely because she had blue eyes herself. Whichever group was superior exhibited these two terms. Whichever group was superior, they perceived their group to be good and smart while they thought that the out group was bad and unintelligent.
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RBG is the nickname of Ruth Bader Ginsberg, one of the nine justices on the U.S. Supreme Court and the second woman to ever be on the court. She is also sometimes called the Notorious R.B.G., a play on the name of rapper Biggie Smalls, knows as the Notorious B.I.G. That nickname was coined by a woman on Tumblr after the case Shelby County v. Holder, which declared part of the Voting Rights Act unconstitutional. Ginsberg was a dissenting opinion in the case.
Ginsberg’s life started in 1933 in Brooklyn, New York, as Joan Ruth Bader. When she enrolled in school there were several other Joans in her class, so it was suggested that she go by Ruth. Ginsberg’s mother was a staunch advocate for education, even though she’d dropped out of school at 15 to help fund her brother’s advance to college. She supported her daughter’s efforts, and Ginsberg performed well during her school years. Sadly, her mother died from cancer the day before her high school graduation.
At Cornell University Ginsberg excelled, ranking highest in her class and graduating with a bachelor of arts degree in Government. It was there that she met Martin Ginsberg, whom she married just after graduation. Her husband was drafted into the Army and the couple were stationed at Fort Sill, Oklahoma. As Martin fulfilled his military duties Ginsberg found work through the civil service. Her pay was cut when her boss learned she was pregnant with her first child, a daughter they named Jane.
Early Career Years
The Ginsberg’s moved to Massachusetts where both attended Harvard Law School and she served as an editor for the law review. She later transferred to Columbia Law School, also working on the law review, and in 1959 she graduated tied for first place in her class.
Ginsberg’s journey into employment was difficult, however, as there were so few female lawyers at the time and even fewer who were mothers. She eventually found work at Rutgers School of Law as an assistant professor and gave birth to a son named James. At Rutgers, she was the first woman to earn tenure as a professor. During this time she became intimately involved in the issue of gender discrimination and was founding counsel for the ACLU’s Women’s Rights Project. In that role she took cases that affected both men and women, proving herself a fair and balanced advocate for equality.
U.S. Court of Appeals
President Jimmy Carter appointed Ginsberg to the U.S. Court of Appeals in 1980 where she served until President Bill Clinton nominated her to the Supreme Court in 1993. Her Senate confirmation hearings were notable as being relatively peaceful and she was voted onto the court 96-3.
As a Supreme Court Justice Ginsberg has become well-known for her reasoned, practical application of the law. She works to follow precedent rather than stretch the constitution. Her habit of reading strongly written dissenting opinions from the bench has earned her a reputation as a formidable member of the court. In 2019 she is the oldest member of the court at age 86.
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RBG is the nickname of Ruth Bader Ginsberg, one of the nine justices on the U.S. Supreme Court and the second woman to ever be on the court. She is also sometimes called the Notorious R.B.G., a play on the name of rapper Biggie Smalls, knows as the Notorious B.I.G. That nickname was coined by a woman on Tumblr after the case Shelby County v. Holder, which declared part of the Voting Rights Act unconstitutional. Ginsberg was a dissenting opinion in the case.
Ginsberg’s life started in 1933 in Brooklyn, New York, as Joan Ruth Bader. When she enrolled in school there were several other Joans in her class, so it was suggested that she go by Ruth. Ginsberg’s mother was a staunch advocate for education, even though she’d dropped out of school at 15 to help fund her brother’s advance to college. She supported her daughter’s efforts, and Ginsberg performed well during her school years. Sadly, her mother died from cancer the day before her high school graduation.
At Cornell University Ginsberg excelled, ranking highest in her class and graduating with a bachelor of arts degree in Government. It was there that she met Martin Ginsberg, whom she married just after graduation. Her husband was drafted into the Army and the couple were stationed at Fort Sill, Oklahoma. As Martin fulfilled his military duties Ginsberg found work through the civil service. Her pay was cut when her boss learned she was pregnant with her first child, a daughter they named Jane.
Early Career Years
The Ginsberg’s moved to Massachusetts where both attended Harvard Law School and she served as an editor for the law review. She later transferred to Columbia Law School, also working on the law review, and in 1959 she graduated tied for first place in her class.
Ginsberg’s journey into employment was difficult, however, as there were so few female lawyers at the time and even fewer who were mothers. She eventually found work at Rutgers School of Law as an assistant professor and gave birth to a son named James. At Rutgers, she was the first woman to earn tenure as a professor. During this time she became intimately involved in the issue of gender discrimination and was founding counsel for the ACLU’s Women’s Rights Project. In that role she took cases that affected both men and women, proving herself a fair and balanced advocate for equality.
U.S. Court of Appeals
President Jimmy Carter appointed Ginsberg to the U.S. Court of Appeals in 1980 where she served until President Bill Clinton nominated her to the Supreme Court in 1993. Her Senate confirmation hearings were notable as being relatively peaceful and she was voted onto the court 96-3.
As a Supreme Court Justice Ginsberg has become well-known for her reasoned, practical application of the law. She works to follow precedent rather than stretch the constitution. Her habit of reading strongly written dissenting opinions from the bench has earned her a reputation as a formidable member of the court. In 2019 she is the oldest member of the court at age 86.
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ENGLISH
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Nicknamed 'Lumbering Lib' the B-24 was one of the most produced aircraft during the Second World War, with a total of over 18,000 manufactured. The Consolidated B-24 Liberator would serve
with the Allied forces in all theatres of war and would help close the Mid-Atlantic gap.
The B-24 Liberator came to life during 1939, when in January of that year the United States Army Air Corps asked Consolidated to produce a design study of a heavy bomber whose range, speed
and service ceiling in particular as well as overall performance being an improvement on the B-17 Flying Fortress.
Consolidated named their design the Model 32 and it was the second plane to use the 'Davis wing', the flying boat the company was working on for commercial and later military use, the Model 31,
was the first. With Consolidated speeding ahead with the heavy bomber project the USAAC were keen to keep the pace going and on the 30th March 1939, just two months after the design study
began, a contract to build a prototype, known as the XB-24, was awarded, but this had to be produced by the end of the year. So with two days to spare, on the 29th December 1939 the
prototype Liberator made its maiden flight. Powered by four 1,200-hp Pratt & Whitney R-1830-33 Twin Wasps engines and featuring tricycle landing gear, roller shutter style bomb-bay doors which could
contain a bomb load of 8,000lb, nearly twice that of early B-17s.
Flight testing showed the aircraft to have potential and although a few changes were needed to meet the specification set out by the United States Army Air Corps, it was good news for
Consolidated especially as a French purchasing mission had order 120 and the USAAC had ordered seven YB-24s for service testing and thirty six B-24As before the prototype flew. The
YB-24s were delivered in 1940, but unlike the prototype, featured pneumatic de-icing boots on the leading edges of the wings, tailplane and fins.
Despite France being the first export order, when the first B-24s were ready France had surrendered to Germany so the Royal Air Force would receive the 120 ordered on top of the 164 ordered
by the RAF already. The first one, re-designated LB-30A, flying on the 17th January 1941 with the initial batch of six being received by the RAF two months later in March. These six
aircraft were unarmed and used as transport, firstly by British Overseas Airways Corporation and secondly by Ferry Command, to fly back pilots and crews who had delivered aircraft. A role
the United States Army Air Corps would also use their B-24As for. The next delivery of planes occurred in June 1941 and saw the name Liberator given to the plane by the RAF and the Mk I
saw service with Coastal Command. These planes included four 20mm cannons as additions to the five 0.30-in machine guns and the installation of ASV (Air-to-Surface Vessel) radar.
It was to be the Liberator II which was to be the first bomber version and as such had increased armament in the form of eight 0.303-in machine-guns, four a piece in Boulton Paul turrets,
and had an increase in space to accommodate upto ten crew members. As with the Liberator I Coastal Command used the type and it was whilst with Nos 159 and 160 Squadron, who were based in
the Middle East, during June 1942 that the type was first used in its intended role as a bomber, and although the Royal Air Force made use of this Mk the United States Army Air Corps did
A sole XB-24B prototype appeared featuring a number of changes and re-engined with turbocharged R-1830-41 engines. Other changes included dorsal and tail turrets with a pair of 0.50-in
machine-guns in each. Nine of these aircraft were manufactured as the B-24C for the USAAC.
It was to be the next Mk, the B-24D, which became the first Liberator to be mass produced. Power would be supplied by four Pratt & Whitney R-1830-43 engines and as production progressed
each batch of B-24Ds featured various changes over the previous batch produced. So it would be the B-24D that the United States Army Air Corps would use for the first time in the
aircraft's intended role as a bomber and deliveries of the type to Squadrons based in the Middle East began in June 1942.
One of the earliest raids the B-24 undertook for the USAAC was on the 12th June when thirteen were dispatched, for what was to be considered an unsuccessful attack, to Ploiesti, Romania to
attack the oilfields there. One hundred and seventy seven B-24s would take part the following year in the Ploiesti raid on the 1st August 1943 but suffered very heavy losses with 29%, fifty
three, B-24s lost. 1943 also saw Very Long Range (VLR) Liberators start to enter service and along with escort carriers helped to close the Mid-Atlantic gap which had previously suffered
from no air cover leading to increased shipping losses in this area due to U-boat activity.
The B-24E was next to be produced and featured minor changes and new propellers, whilst some had R-1830-55 engines installed. These were followed by the B-24G which had the fuselage nose
lengthened by 10 inches and a gun turret installed in the upper nose, except for the first twenty five produced and these were exclusively built by North American Aircraft with a B-24H
designation given to similar B-24s built by other manufacturers.
The next Liberator version to follow was the B-24J and this differed very little from the B-24H, with the major change being the design of the B-24D being re-engineered so it could have
the A.6 tail turret modified to fit in the nose. The re-design was required due to the Emerson nose turrets being in short supply, although not all B-24Js were modified in this way.
A B-24D would provide the basis for the XB-24K which had its own twin tail replaced with the single tail from a Douglas N-23 Dragon. This improved both the handling and stability of the
The B-24L and M were to become the final production variants featuring differences in the tail turrets over their predecessors. The planned B-24N was to feature the single tail as tested
on the XB-24K and just over 5,000 were ordered but with the Second World War coming to an end only the prototype, designation XB-24N, and seven YB-24N test aircraft were built by the time
production ended on the 31st May 1945.
The United States Navy also used the type under the designation PB4Y-1 Liberator which lead to a fully navalised version coming to life known as the Consolidated PB4Y-2 Privateer. A
special fuel tanker version of the type was also produced, known as the C-109, to deliver aviation fuel for B-29 Superfortresses operating in China. The B-24 was also used by the Royal
Australian Air Force and Royal Canadian Air Force. Captured B-24s were also used by Kampfgeschwader 200 (KG 200), the special operations unit of the Luftwaffe. British Prime Minster
Winston Churchill would also use a B-24 (AL505) named 'Commando' as transport.
With over 18,475 Liberators rolling of the production line the aircraft would be found in all theatres of war up until the end of World War 2 and post-war the B-24 was used in the
Berlin Airlift (1948 – 1949).
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] | 1
|
Nicknamed 'Lumbering Lib' the B-24 was one of the most produced aircraft during the Second World War, with a total of over 18,000 manufactured. The Consolidated B-24 Liberator would serve
with the Allied forces in all theatres of war and would help close the Mid-Atlantic gap.
The B-24 Liberator came to life during 1939, when in January of that year the United States Army Air Corps asked Consolidated to produce a design study of a heavy bomber whose range, speed
and service ceiling in particular as well as overall performance being an improvement on the B-17 Flying Fortress.
Consolidated named their design the Model 32 and it was the second plane to use the 'Davis wing', the flying boat the company was working on for commercial and later military use, the Model 31,
was the first. With Consolidated speeding ahead with the heavy bomber project the USAAC were keen to keep the pace going and on the 30th March 1939, just two months after the design study
began, a contract to build a prototype, known as the XB-24, was awarded, but this had to be produced by the end of the year. So with two days to spare, on the 29th December 1939 the
prototype Liberator made its maiden flight. Powered by four 1,200-hp Pratt & Whitney R-1830-33 Twin Wasps engines and featuring tricycle landing gear, roller shutter style bomb-bay doors which could
contain a bomb load of 8,000lb, nearly twice that of early B-17s.
Flight testing showed the aircraft to have potential and although a few changes were needed to meet the specification set out by the United States Army Air Corps, it was good news for
Consolidated especially as a French purchasing mission had order 120 and the USAAC had ordered seven YB-24s for service testing and thirty six B-24As before the prototype flew. The
YB-24s were delivered in 1940, but unlike the prototype, featured pneumatic de-icing boots on the leading edges of the wings, tailplane and fins.
Despite France being the first export order, when the first B-24s were ready France had surrendered to Germany so the Royal Air Force would receive the 120 ordered on top of the 164 ordered
by the RAF already. The first one, re-designated LB-30A, flying on the 17th January 1941 with the initial batch of six being received by the RAF two months later in March. These six
aircraft were unarmed and used as transport, firstly by British Overseas Airways Corporation and secondly by Ferry Command, to fly back pilots and crews who had delivered aircraft. A role
the United States Army Air Corps would also use their B-24As for. The next delivery of planes occurred in June 1941 and saw the name Liberator given to the plane by the RAF and the Mk I
saw service with Coastal Command. These planes included four 20mm cannons as additions to the five 0.30-in machine guns and the installation of ASV (Air-to-Surface Vessel) radar.
It was to be the Liberator II which was to be the first bomber version and as such had increased armament in the form of eight 0.303-in machine-guns, four a piece in Boulton Paul turrets,
and had an increase in space to accommodate upto ten crew members. As with the Liberator I Coastal Command used the type and it was whilst with Nos 159 and 160 Squadron, who were based in
the Middle East, during June 1942 that the type was first used in its intended role as a bomber, and although the Royal Air Force made use of this Mk the United States Army Air Corps did
A sole XB-24B prototype appeared featuring a number of changes and re-engined with turbocharged R-1830-41 engines. Other changes included dorsal and tail turrets with a pair of 0.50-in
machine-guns in each. Nine of these aircraft were manufactured as the B-24C for the USAAC.
It was to be the next Mk, the B-24D, which became the first Liberator to be mass produced. Power would be supplied by four Pratt & Whitney R-1830-43 engines and as production progressed
each batch of B-24Ds featured various changes over the previous batch produced. So it would be the B-24D that the United States Army Air Corps would use for the first time in the
aircraft's intended role as a bomber and deliveries of the type to Squadrons based in the Middle East began in June 1942.
One of the earliest raids the B-24 undertook for the USAAC was on the 12th June when thirteen were dispatched, for what was to be considered an unsuccessful attack, to Ploiesti, Romania to
attack the oilfields there. One hundred and seventy seven B-24s would take part the following year in the Ploiesti raid on the 1st August 1943 but suffered very heavy losses with 29%, fifty
three, B-24s lost. 1943 also saw Very Long Range (VLR) Liberators start to enter service and along with escort carriers helped to close the Mid-Atlantic gap which had previously suffered
from no air cover leading to increased shipping losses in this area due to U-boat activity.
The B-24E was next to be produced and featured minor changes and new propellers, whilst some had R-1830-55 engines installed. These were followed by the B-24G which had the fuselage nose
lengthened by 10 inches and a gun turret installed in the upper nose, except for the first twenty five produced and these were exclusively built by North American Aircraft with a B-24H
designation given to similar B-24s built by other manufacturers.
The next Liberator version to follow was the B-24J and this differed very little from the B-24H, with the major change being the design of the B-24D being re-engineered so it could have
the A.6 tail turret modified to fit in the nose. The re-design was required due to the Emerson nose turrets being in short supply, although not all B-24Js were modified in this way.
A B-24D would provide the basis for the XB-24K which had its own twin tail replaced with the single tail from a Douglas N-23 Dragon. This improved both the handling and stability of the
The B-24L and M were to become the final production variants featuring differences in the tail turrets over their predecessors. The planned B-24N was to feature the single tail as tested
on the XB-24K and just over 5,000 were ordered but with the Second World War coming to an end only the prototype, designation XB-24N, and seven YB-24N test aircraft were built by the time
production ended on the 31st May 1945.
The United States Navy also used the type under the designation PB4Y-1 Liberator which lead to a fully navalised version coming to life known as the Consolidated PB4Y-2 Privateer. A
special fuel tanker version of the type was also produced, known as the C-109, to deliver aviation fuel for B-29 Superfortresses operating in China. The B-24 was also used by the Royal
Australian Air Force and Royal Canadian Air Force. Captured B-24s were also used by Kampfgeschwader 200 (KG 200), the special operations unit of the Luftwaffe. British Prime Minster
Winston Churchill would also use a B-24 (AL505) named 'Commando' as transport.
With over 18,475 Liberators rolling of the production line the aircraft would be found in all theatres of war up until the end of World War 2 and post-war the B-24 was used in the
Berlin Airlift (1948 – 1949).
| 1,807
|
ENGLISH
| 1
|
ABOUT THE BOOK
J. R. R. Tolkien is generally considered the most important fantasy writer of the twentieth century. Tolkien's famous Lord of the Rings trilogy is considered a work of great literary import and has enjoyed wild popularity in recent years, since the tales were made into a series of blockbuster movies. Tolkien is also well known for writing The Hobbit, a prequel to the Lord of the Rings tales.
Tolkien's works are known for their emphasis on mythical races and fantasy languages. He created a rich world called Middle Earth for his readers, complete with dragons, Hobbits, Elves, Dwarves and men. His works also involved sociological themes, covering war, religion, and the epic struggle between good and evil.
Tolkien worked as a university professor for many years while writing his most famous works. His voracious appetite for literature and linguistics gave him fodder for his stories. Tolkien cited such ancient tales as Beowulf and the Nibelungenlied as inspirations for his stories about Middle Earth. Nibelungenlied is an ancient Norse tale made into a famous opera, Der Ring des Nibelungen, by Richard Wagner. Some scholars believe that this story of a powerful ring may have had a profound influence on Tolkien's work.
EXCERPT FROM THE BOOK
World War One broke out in 1914, while Tolkien was still at Oxford. He completed his degree in 1915, and then he enlisted in the British army as a Second Lieutenant. While in the military, Tolkien continued to develop his writing style as well as his fanciful languages. After four months of war, Tolkien contracted a serious infection that forced him to return home to England.
Tolkien's harrowing experiences on the battlefield during World War One also seem to have had a profound influence on his greatest writings. Tolkien experienced what was known at that time as "shell shock," a period of depression and erratic behavior that was due to the emotional and psychological stresses of war.
Scholar Janet Brennan Croft writes of Tolkien's experience with and understanding of conflict, "Such experiences and events led Tolkien to a complex attitude toward war and military leadership, the themes of which find their way into his most important writings. His fiction, criticism, and letters demonstrate a range of attitudes that would change over the course of his life. In the end, his philosophy on human nature and evil, and the inevitability of conflict, would appear to be pragmatic and rational, if regretful and pessimistic. Still, we are able to uncover a strain of hopefulness, as befitted his Catholicism, about the ultimate fate of the human soul."
Buy a copy to keep reading!
Be the first to review this e-book.
Write your review
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] | 3
|
ABOUT THE BOOK
J. R. R. Tolkien is generally considered the most important fantasy writer of the twentieth century. Tolkien's famous Lord of the Rings trilogy is considered a work of great literary import and has enjoyed wild popularity in recent years, since the tales were made into a series of blockbuster movies. Tolkien is also well known for writing The Hobbit, a prequel to the Lord of the Rings tales.
Tolkien's works are known for their emphasis on mythical races and fantasy languages. He created a rich world called Middle Earth for his readers, complete with dragons, Hobbits, Elves, Dwarves and men. His works also involved sociological themes, covering war, religion, and the epic struggle between good and evil.
Tolkien worked as a university professor for many years while writing his most famous works. His voracious appetite for literature and linguistics gave him fodder for his stories. Tolkien cited such ancient tales as Beowulf and the Nibelungenlied as inspirations for his stories about Middle Earth. Nibelungenlied is an ancient Norse tale made into a famous opera, Der Ring des Nibelungen, by Richard Wagner. Some scholars believe that this story of a powerful ring may have had a profound influence on Tolkien's work.
EXCERPT FROM THE BOOK
World War One broke out in 1914, while Tolkien was still at Oxford. He completed his degree in 1915, and then he enlisted in the British army as a Second Lieutenant. While in the military, Tolkien continued to develop his writing style as well as his fanciful languages. After four months of war, Tolkien contracted a serious infection that forced him to return home to England.
Tolkien's harrowing experiences on the battlefield during World War One also seem to have had a profound influence on his greatest writings. Tolkien experienced what was known at that time as "shell shock," a period of depression and erratic behavior that was due to the emotional and psychological stresses of war.
Scholar Janet Brennan Croft writes of Tolkien's experience with and understanding of conflict, "Such experiences and events led Tolkien to a complex attitude toward war and military leadership, the themes of which find their way into his most important writings. His fiction, criticism, and letters demonstrate a range of attitudes that would change over the course of his life. In the end, his philosophy on human nature and evil, and the inevitability of conflict, would appear to be pragmatic and rational, if regretful and pessimistic. Still, we are able to uncover a strain of hopefulness, as befitted his Catholicism, about the ultimate fate of the human soul."
Buy a copy to keep reading!
Be the first to review this e-book.
Write your review
Wanna review this e-book? Please Sign in to start your review.
| 572
|
ENGLISH
| 1
|
What were the differences between Stalin and Lenin?
Lenin was a revolutionary who believed in Marxism whole heartedly and understood the social principles behind it. He applied communism to Russia, proper social communism, where the working classes took over the running of the country and the country’s industry to make sure everyone was treated equal, essentially to get rid of the class system. He harnesses the power of the working classes and created a state where everyone worked for each other and not for themselves or a particular person. Stalin took over Russia and began to run the communist state as a fascist state, where he controlled everything and everyone worked for him. (There is not a great deal between communism and fascist as totalitarian states.) Stalin kept the people poor whilst he grew rich. Whilst many will call Stalin’s Russia, communist, it was far from it and very removed from the original ideals of Marxism. If you want a social overview of what happened read Animal Farm by George Orwell. In short, Lenin was a Marxi
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What were the differences between Stalin and Lenin?
Lenin was a revolutionary who believed in Marxism whole heartedly and understood the social principles behind it. He applied communism to Russia, proper social communism, where the working classes took over the running of the country and the country’s industry to make sure everyone was treated equal, essentially to get rid of the class system. He harnesses the power of the working classes and created a state where everyone worked for each other and not for themselves or a particular person. Stalin took over Russia and began to run the communist state as a fascist state, where he controlled everything and everyone worked for him. (There is not a great deal between communism and fascist as totalitarian states.) Stalin kept the people poor whilst he grew rich. Whilst many will call Stalin’s Russia, communist, it was far from it and very removed from the original ideals of Marxism. If you want a social overview of what happened read Animal Farm by George Orwell. In short, Lenin was a Marxi
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Child labor is the idea of forcing adolescent children into hazardous tasks working under ruthless circumstances and surrounded by an unsafe environment. Children are valuable and precious therefore, they should not be mistreated and allowed to experience misery and suffering at such a young age. Problems, disagreements, injuries, and death have all been caused by child labor. Child labor was the worst issue that provoked acute social, mental, and physical damage to America.
“We the people of the United States, in order to form a more perfect union, establish justice, insure domestic tranquility, provide for the common defense, promote the general welfare, and secure the blessings of liberty to ourselves and our posterity, do ordain and establish this Constitution for the United States of America.” (The United States Constitution) The preamble of the U.S. constitution was made for plenty of reasons; one of those reasons was to prevent practices such as child labor to somehow disappear in America.
Residents of the United States of America want a “more perfect union”. Words in the preamble such as justice, defense, tranquility, and liberty are the absolute opposite of child labor. Why would America be referred to as an almost “perfect” nation while child labor still progresses? Why would the fellow citizens of America say there is justice in America when there's child labor practiced there? These notable questions apply from the height of child labor in the 19th Century until today of the 21st century.
Children labored around perilous machinery and went through arduous conditions at a very young age, usually 16 years and under. Adolescent children were forced to work intense hours and were paid low wages or no payments at all which eliminates the purpose of having the U.S. preamble in the constitution since people hope to “establish justice”. Employers were foul and did an awful attempt to supply the children at work with a safe and healthy surrounding. The circumstances children persisted brought several forms of harm toward the children.
They were paralyzed by industrial incidents, defaulted appropriate movement and clean fresh air, and became vulnerable to diseases. These children took the risk at death enduring cruel conditions to support their families. Overseers also practiced physical punishment by having whipping rooms for children that misbehaved, slept while working, and were too slow. In coal mines, children were filthy, harnessed like animals, and had to drag heavy loads on their fragile backs behind them.
They suffered pain for all day and tolerated injured hands, aching backs, the fear of getting squashed to death by coal, and sickness from breathing in coal dust. Breaker boys worked above ground, picking slate and other blemishes from coal. By doing so they often got a skin condition called “red tips” caused by sulfur from the coal contacting with skin, making their hands cracked, bloody, and swollen. Breaker boys also inhaled coal dust because of the process of coal mining released poisonous gases which could result in throat trouble or respiratory illness.
Their faces were black and filthy covered with coal dust. Machinery in the mines, especially coal crushers were menacingly noisy and often led to hearing loss and on those rare unfortunate days, a boy fell into the coal crusher. Mining tunnels have collapsed as well, hindering and disabling workers to their death while spreading disease from rat infestation. “Joseph Martonik, about 15 years of age. Caught in the machinery and horribly mangled. Aug. 31, 1910 Cranberry Colliery. If he had obeyed instructions, or if the machinery had been properly protected, the accident might not have happened.” (Hindman 101)
Besides breaker boys in the mines there were hippers, boys who opened doors from mining cars that were often ran over. There were also spraggers, boys that kept the mining cars moving and once in a while boys got an arm or leg jammed in and sliced off. In factories, machines ran so quickly and rapidly that tiny fingers, arms, and legs were entangled in them. Since factories put out odors and toxins, it destroyed the pure air nearby which caused illness and metronomic conditions. In canneries, children as young as 4 years labored in festering surroundings for long hours and received little pay.
They had to peel shrimp from their shells that gave a spiteful chemical, making their gentle hands bleed and peel. In textile mills life was woeful and unhealthy. The mills were freezing in the winter and humid in the summer. Girls in the textile mills did the more skillful work as spinners which “was to watch rotating bobbins for breaks in the cotton. When the cotton broke the little girl had to quickly mend it and then brush the lint from the machine frame.” (Greene 55) Boys did the simple job as doffers which was to replace empty bobbins.
Children lost fingers or hands in the machinery that spun the bobbins. In rural areas such as farms, children harvested crops in extreme temperatures, carried stacks of produce, and used ominous farming equipment. Children were doing menacing tasks by topping beets. They held a beet against the knee and cut off the top with a 16 inch knife that had a sharp prong on the end. Too often, children accidentally hooked themselves in the leg with the knife. (58) Street trades, working on the streets, faced children into the wrong direction with physical dangers and bad influences.
These children worked early in the morning for long hours outdoors all season in the worst weather which could cause illness and or death. Standing on the ground for hours led to orthopedic defects. They took the risks of muggings, terrible weather, and car or bike injuries. Young girls sold flowers, gum, fruits, and vegetables on the streets. Newsboys were on the streets as early as 5 am. and sometimes worked in the evening past midnight which was unhealthy for their age. These children worked about 16 hours a day instead of attending school.
There were two kinds of sweatshops. The first kind was composed of compact manufacturing businesses in vile establishments. Many people died in fires because workers were locked in the rooms they labored in to guarantee that they would work for the entire 10-12 hours mandated and could not escape no matter the situation. In those rooms, children finished embroiders and sewed pieces of garments or piecework. Workers were paid by what they completed rather than the numbers of hours.
The other kind of sweatshop was located in tenement houses which were crowded, insufficiently vaporized buildings overrun with rodents. It isn't necessary to actually see the children laboring under repulsive conditions in pictures or in reality to feel their pain, to give them compassion, and to realize how inferior the idea of child labor really is. Just by reading or hearing about the details of children laboring in poor circumstances can enable one to see beyond their teary eyes. The history of child labor begins in the late 19th century when the Industrial Revolution triggered in England which eventually arrived in America.
The Industrial Revolution was the time when hand tools were replaced by machines and farming was substituted by manufacturing. Discoveries in science and technology fueled a significant change in the society. Sequences of inventions entered America, altering the textile industry. The textile industry was the first business to become industrial. The inventions introduced at this time period brought changes upon commerce and peoples' lives. With these new adjustments in the populace, children became exploited by employers and were misused extensively.
Children were often targeted even in the modern-world. The growth of factories obliged people to endow them, therefore, employers ventured young children into factories. There was an abundant amount of children which made them easily exchangeable if they died or quit Adults usually have more power amongst children because of age and probably wealth. Thus, adults can easily manipulate or force children into employment.
The children from poor families which was the majority, were mostly aimed at since they were in need of money to keep their family above poverty level. Even children as young as three made an effort to help their families by working. Children have always worked ever since the beginning of refinement like chores around the household. At first, the general population believed that hiring children was beneficial to the child and the community. The child would stay out of troubles and won't be a burden. Children can become more independent and gain maturity.
America presumptively accepts child labor because “the government didn't record the national statistics on employed children” so people weren't involved on what was happening. (20) Working children also kept production prices short which evoked the nation to be economical beyond the sea. Child labor assumed to be a national trend. However, while employing children became such an interest, adults were losing their jobs to children because they were hired for less money compared to adults, but with the same, possibly more hours.
As industrialization of child labor continued to evolve, people began to acknowledge the evils of it. This generated the idea of reforming child labor. Reformers formed the Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Children. The SPCC prepared a restrictive factory bill for the New York state council. They wanted to forbid factory work for children under 14 years young. Moreover there was too much disagreement to this consideration but this downfall gave the organization more hope and motivation to sustain. Soon, New York passed the Factory Act of 1886 which restricted children below the age of 13 from working in factories and farms.
Unfortunately this policy was inadequate and unenforceable. There would only be one inspector that had to examine all the factories in the state and was indulged to report violations just once a year. In addition the evidence of a child's age was determined without an official document. In 1904, residents in America collaborated to compose the National Child Labor Committee. This committee believed that children needed to enjoy a vigorous and delightful puerility instead of being roused to work. If not, they would be denied the opportunities that every American deserved. (38)
The NCLC constructed the Uniform Child Labor Law in 1910 which demanded a minimum age of 14 years for manufacturing employment and 16 years of age mining. They also encouraged restraint of night-work for children below 16 years young. Dramatic photography, photographed by Lewis W. Hine who was the photographer of the NCLC, rotated around the states, giving mankind access to see America's children acted under brutal milestones. The photographs of young children at work helped the NCLC acquire the public's attention.
With their concern, 39 states passed child labor policies which definitely satisfied them, but the laws were not enforced and were misunderstood from it's intentional purpose. The reform of child labor arose tensions against those who opposed the idea, in particularly the South. The South feared that if the NCLC became successful, employers would have to hire adults which were paid more than children and would decrease stock prices. People argued that child labor rules would dissuade manufacturing and the children wouldn't be able to gain maturity in preparation of adulthood.
In between the middle of the war to eliminate child labor, a Great Depression commenced. It changed political perspectives in America and availed Child labor reform. In 1938, Congress passed the Fair Labor Standards Act also known as the FLSA. This act forbid employment in mining or manufacturing for children under 16 years of age while children below 14 years of age were able to work as long as it did not counteract with their education or health. In actual fact, the law only protected about 25% working children. (69)
In 1944, the United States joined World War II and at this time, laboring provisions slightly improved. Younger children barely worked because school was in session. The toils the children did were much less odious and adverse than before.
Children also became curtailed to work in coal mines or glass factories. The war ended in 1945 yet child labor still flourished. However, after the war, Congress passed the Occupational Safety and Health Act and organized the Occupational Safety and Health Administration. OSHA was assigned to oversee the country's industries and ensure that they followed the regulations. Enforcing child labor laws had frequently been tough since there were not enough inspectors who were supposed to authorize the FLSA which means the Department of Labor inspects only half of the businesses in America.
Furthermore, penalties have never been sufficient enough to hinder felons. In 1989, violators paid only a $165 fine that can easily be recovered by doing more business. Presently, Congress changed the FLSA on November 5, 1990 which made the utmost penalty for child labor violations be increased to $10,000. The federal government endured a explicit deal to evict child labor and restore peace to the children of America.
“Child labor as it once was no longer exists.” (73) Several of the events that happened in America during the 19th century impacted America positively. There was the Louisiana Purchase and the new states added into the Union which provided more land in the U.S. There was also the elimination of slavery, gaining woman’s rights, and the new inventions that were created. The wars such as the War of 1812 and the Mexican War were not as meaningful as the issue of child labor. When men died in battle, they died with honor.
When children died in factories by the horrid conditions, they died with despair. Men have already passed their childhood, unlike children who have obviously not. Child labor, although it is outlawed and isn't as commonly used as before, still exists. Children are still determined to work just as adults are. They choose to work to earn their own money to be able to purchase items independently and most importantly to support their families. Now, teenagers work under youth employment where children work around a healthy environment with fair wages.
Most teenagerswork in the food industry or the entertainment industry. Nowadays, there are still sweatshops in America that violate the child labor laws and neglects the health and safety of their workers. The conditions from the 19th century is similar to the working conditions today. Youngsters labor in crowded, squalid buildings with horrible ventilation. Even though the law restrains children under 18 years old from using powered machines, inspectors saw children in New York enduring around dangerous machinery in factories for very small earnings.
Toilets were also improperly functioned and workers ate their lunch on the cluttered, untidy workshop ground beside machinery that released chemicals. Newspapers are still sold on the streets by children usually in their own neighborhood. Even today, children are constantly prone to pesticides on their human flesh when they make contact against leaves and inhale toxins that surround them at work, without having access to medication or sanitation. “Today no society anywhere in the word advocates child labor. Indeed most nations have laws outlawing it.
Yet child labor continues and, according to a United Nations report, is a growing evil.” (10) Will child labor still occur in America? How can any nation like the Untied States completely end child labor? When will child labor no longer exist? Is there hope for the future in becoming “perfect”? Perhaps the answers will come very soon. In a nation that people tend to believe is “perfect”, still contains flaws and imperfections.
Child labor was definitely the most ghastly, heinous dilemma in America during the Industrial Revolution that stimulated rigorous damage both psychologically and morally. Hopefully sometime in the future, the world can officially announce the end of child labor.
Eastern Illinois Universaty.10 February 2012 <http://eiu.edu/eiutps/childhood.php> Foner, Eric., and Garraty, John. 10 February 2012 <http://history.com/topics/child-labor> Gourley, Catherine. Good Girl Work. Brookfield, Connecticut: The Millbrooke Press, 1999. Greene, Laura Offenhartz. Child Labor: Then and Now. New York: Franklin Watts, 1992. Hindman, Hugh. Child Labor. An American History. Armonk, New York: M. E. Sharpe, 2002.
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https://lawaspect.com/child-labor-industrial-revolution-2/
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Child labor is the idea of forcing adolescent children into hazardous tasks working under ruthless circumstances and surrounded by an unsafe environment. Children are valuable and precious therefore, they should not be mistreated and allowed to experience misery and suffering at such a young age. Problems, disagreements, injuries, and death have all been caused by child labor. Child labor was the worst issue that provoked acute social, mental, and physical damage to America.
“We the people of the United States, in order to form a more perfect union, establish justice, insure domestic tranquility, provide for the common defense, promote the general welfare, and secure the blessings of liberty to ourselves and our posterity, do ordain and establish this Constitution for the United States of America.” (The United States Constitution) The preamble of the U.S. constitution was made for plenty of reasons; one of those reasons was to prevent practices such as child labor to somehow disappear in America.
Residents of the United States of America want a “more perfect union”. Words in the preamble such as justice, defense, tranquility, and liberty are the absolute opposite of child labor. Why would America be referred to as an almost “perfect” nation while child labor still progresses? Why would the fellow citizens of America say there is justice in America when there's child labor practiced there? These notable questions apply from the height of child labor in the 19th Century until today of the 21st century.
Children labored around perilous machinery and went through arduous conditions at a very young age, usually 16 years and under. Adolescent children were forced to work intense hours and were paid low wages or no payments at all which eliminates the purpose of having the U.S. preamble in the constitution since people hope to “establish justice”. Employers were foul and did an awful attempt to supply the children at work with a safe and healthy surrounding. The circumstances children persisted brought several forms of harm toward the children.
They were paralyzed by industrial incidents, defaulted appropriate movement and clean fresh air, and became vulnerable to diseases. These children took the risk at death enduring cruel conditions to support their families. Overseers also practiced physical punishment by having whipping rooms for children that misbehaved, slept while working, and were too slow. In coal mines, children were filthy, harnessed like animals, and had to drag heavy loads on their fragile backs behind them.
They suffered pain for all day and tolerated injured hands, aching backs, the fear of getting squashed to death by coal, and sickness from breathing in coal dust. Breaker boys worked above ground, picking slate and other blemishes from coal. By doing so they often got a skin condition called “red tips” caused by sulfur from the coal contacting with skin, making their hands cracked, bloody, and swollen. Breaker boys also inhaled coal dust because of the process of coal mining released poisonous gases which could result in throat trouble or respiratory illness.
Their faces were black and filthy covered with coal dust. Machinery in the mines, especially coal crushers were menacingly noisy and often led to hearing loss and on those rare unfortunate days, a boy fell into the coal crusher. Mining tunnels have collapsed as well, hindering and disabling workers to their death while spreading disease from rat infestation. “Joseph Martonik, about 15 years of age. Caught in the machinery and horribly mangled. Aug. 31, 1910 Cranberry Colliery. If he had obeyed instructions, or if the machinery had been properly protected, the accident might not have happened.” (Hindman 101)
Besides breaker boys in the mines there were hippers, boys who opened doors from mining cars that were often ran over. There were also spraggers, boys that kept the mining cars moving and once in a while boys got an arm or leg jammed in and sliced off. In factories, machines ran so quickly and rapidly that tiny fingers, arms, and legs were entangled in them. Since factories put out odors and toxins, it destroyed the pure air nearby which caused illness and metronomic conditions. In canneries, children as young as 4 years labored in festering surroundings for long hours and received little pay.
They had to peel shrimp from their shells that gave a spiteful chemical, making their gentle hands bleed and peel. In textile mills life was woeful and unhealthy. The mills were freezing in the winter and humid in the summer. Girls in the textile mills did the more skillful work as spinners which “was to watch rotating bobbins for breaks in the cotton. When the cotton broke the little girl had to quickly mend it and then brush the lint from the machine frame.” (Greene 55) Boys did the simple job as doffers which was to replace empty bobbins.
Children lost fingers or hands in the machinery that spun the bobbins. In rural areas such as farms, children harvested crops in extreme temperatures, carried stacks of produce, and used ominous farming equipment. Children were doing menacing tasks by topping beets. They held a beet against the knee and cut off the top with a 16 inch knife that had a sharp prong on the end. Too often, children accidentally hooked themselves in the leg with the knife. (58) Street trades, working on the streets, faced children into the wrong direction with physical dangers and bad influences.
These children worked early in the morning for long hours outdoors all season in the worst weather which could cause illness and or death. Standing on the ground for hours led to orthopedic defects. They took the risks of muggings, terrible weather, and car or bike injuries. Young girls sold flowers, gum, fruits, and vegetables on the streets. Newsboys were on the streets as early as 5 am. and sometimes worked in the evening past midnight which was unhealthy for their age. These children worked about 16 hours a day instead of attending school.
There were two kinds of sweatshops. The first kind was composed of compact manufacturing businesses in vile establishments. Many people died in fires because workers were locked in the rooms they labored in to guarantee that they would work for the entire 10-12 hours mandated and could not escape no matter the situation. In those rooms, children finished embroiders and sewed pieces of garments or piecework. Workers were paid by what they completed rather than the numbers of hours.
The other kind of sweatshop was located in tenement houses which were crowded, insufficiently vaporized buildings overrun with rodents. It isn't necessary to actually see the children laboring under repulsive conditions in pictures or in reality to feel their pain, to give them compassion, and to realize how inferior the idea of child labor really is. Just by reading or hearing about the details of children laboring in poor circumstances can enable one to see beyond their teary eyes. The history of child labor begins in the late 19th century when the Industrial Revolution triggered in England which eventually arrived in America.
The Industrial Revolution was the time when hand tools were replaced by machines and farming was substituted by manufacturing. Discoveries in science and technology fueled a significant change in the society. Sequences of inventions entered America, altering the textile industry. The textile industry was the first business to become industrial. The inventions introduced at this time period brought changes upon commerce and peoples' lives. With these new adjustments in the populace, children became exploited by employers and were misused extensively.
Children were often targeted even in the modern-world. The growth of factories obliged people to endow them, therefore, employers ventured young children into factories. There was an abundant amount of children which made them easily exchangeable if they died or quit Adults usually have more power amongst children because of age and probably wealth. Thus, adults can easily manipulate or force children into employment.
The children from poor families which was the majority, were mostly aimed at since they were in need of money to keep their family above poverty level. Even children as young as three made an effort to help their families by working. Children have always worked ever since the beginning of refinement like chores around the household. At first, the general population believed that hiring children was beneficial to the child and the community. The child would stay out of troubles and won't be a burden. Children can become more independent and gain maturity.
America presumptively accepts child labor because “the government didn't record the national statistics on employed children” so people weren't involved on what was happening. (20) Working children also kept production prices short which evoked the nation to be economical beyond the sea. Child labor assumed to be a national trend. However, while employing children became such an interest, adults were losing their jobs to children because they were hired for less money compared to adults, but with the same, possibly more hours.
As industrialization of child labor continued to evolve, people began to acknowledge the evils of it. This generated the idea of reforming child labor. Reformers formed the Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Children. The SPCC prepared a restrictive factory bill for the New York state council. They wanted to forbid factory work for children under 14 years young. Moreover there was too much disagreement to this consideration but this downfall gave the organization more hope and motivation to sustain. Soon, New York passed the Factory Act of 1886 which restricted children below the age of 13 from working in factories and farms.
Unfortunately this policy was inadequate and unenforceable. There would only be one inspector that had to examine all the factories in the state and was indulged to report violations just once a year. In addition the evidence of a child's age was determined without an official document. In 1904, residents in America collaborated to compose the National Child Labor Committee. This committee believed that children needed to enjoy a vigorous and delightful puerility instead of being roused to work. If not, they would be denied the opportunities that every American deserved. (38)
The NCLC constructed the Uniform Child Labor Law in 1910 which demanded a minimum age of 14 years for manufacturing employment and 16 years of age mining. They also encouraged restraint of night-work for children below 16 years young. Dramatic photography, photographed by Lewis W. Hine who was the photographer of the NCLC, rotated around the states, giving mankind access to see America's children acted under brutal milestones. The photographs of young children at work helped the NCLC acquire the public's attention.
With their concern, 39 states passed child labor policies which definitely satisfied them, but the laws were not enforced and were misunderstood from it's intentional purpose. The reform of child labor arose tensions against those who opposed the idea, in particularly the South. The South feared that if the NCLC became successful, employers would have to hire adults which were paid more than children and would decrease stock prices. People argued that child labor rules would dissuade manufacturing and the children wouldn't be able to gain maturity in preparation of adulthood.
In between the middle of the war to eliminate child labor, a Great Depression commenced. It changed political perspectives in America and availed Child labor reform. In 1938, Congress passed the Fair Labor Standards Act also known as the FLSA. This act forbid employment in mining or manufacturing for children under 16 years of age while children below 14 years of age were able to work as long as it did not counteract with their education or health. In actual fact, the law only protected about 25% working children. (69)
In 1944, the United States joined World War II and at this time, laboring provisions slightly improved. Younger children barely worked because school was in session. The toils the children did were much less odious and adverse than before.
Children also became curtailed to work in coal mines or glass factories. The war ended in 1945 yet child labor still flourished. However, after the war, Congress passed the Occupational Safety and Health Act and organized the Occupational Safety and Health Administration. OSHA was assigned to oversee the country's industries and ensure that they followed the regulations. Enforcing child labor laws had frequently been tough since there were not enough inspectors who were supposed to authorize the FLSA which means the Department of Labor inspects only half of the businesses in America.
Furthermore, penalties have never been sufficient enough to hinder felons. In 1989, violators paid only a $165 fine that can easily be recovered by doing more business. Presently, Congress changed the FLSA on November 5, 1990 which made the utmost penalty for child labor violations be increased to $10,000. The federal government endured a explicit deal to evict child labor and restore peace to the children of America.
“Child labor as it once was no longer exists.” (73) Several of the events that happened in America during the 19th century impacted America positively. There was the Louisiana Purchase and the new states added into the Union which provided more land in the U.S. There was also the elimination of slavery, gaining woman’s rights, and the new inventions that were created. The wars such as the War of 1812 and the Mexican War were not as meaningful as the issue of child labor. When men died in battle, they died with honor.
When children died in factories by the horrid conditions, they died with despair. Men have already passed their childhood, unlike children who have obviously not. Child labor, although it is outlawed and isn't as commonly used as before, still exists. Children are still determined to work just as adults are. They choose to work to earn their own money to be able to purchase items independently and most importantly to support their families. Now, teenagers work under youth employment where children work around a healthy environment with fair wages.
Most teenagerswork in the food industry or the entertainment industry. Nowadays, there are still sweatshops in America that violate the child labor laws and neglects the health and safety of their workers. The conditions from the 19th century is similar to the working conditions today. Youngsters labor in crowded, squalid buildings with horrible ventilation. Even though the law restrains children under 18 years old from using powered machines, inspectors saw children in New York enduring around dangerous machinery in factories for very small earnings.
Toilets were also improperly functioned and workers ate their lunch on the cluttered, untidy workshop ground beside machinery that released chemicals. Newspapers are still sold on the streets by children usually in their own neighborhood. Even today, children are constantly prone to pesticides on their human flesh when they make contact against leaves and inhale toxins that surround them at work, without having access to medication or sanitation. “Today no society anywhere in the word advocates child labor. Indeed most nations have laws outlawing it.
Yet child labor continues and, according to a United Nations report, is a growing evil.” (10) Will child labor still occur in America? How can any nation like the Untied States completely end child labor? When will child labor no longer exist? Is there hope for the future in becoming “perfect”? Perhaps the answers will come very soon. In a nation that people tend to believe is “perfect”, still contains flaws and imperfections.
Child labor was definitely the most ghastly, heinous dilemma in America during the Industrial Revolution that stimulated rigorous damage both psychologically and morally. Hopefully sometime in the future, the world can officially announce the end of child labor.
Eastern Illinois Universaty.10 February 2012 <http://eiu.edu/eiutps/childhood.php> Foner, Eric., and Garraty, John. 10 February 2012 <http://history.com/topics/child-labor> Gourley, Catherine. Good Girl Work. Brookfield, Connecticut: The Millbrooke Press, 1999. Greene, Laura Offenhartz. Child Labor: Then and Now. New York: Franklin Watts, 1992. Hindman, Hugh. Child Labor. An American History. Armonk, New York: M. E. Sharpe, 2002.
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America’s Three Cent Note
Towards the end of the Civil War, the value of the Yankee greenback dollar had fallen considerably in value, to around 46 cents by January 1865. Inflation was the main culprit, which was caused by the huge military expenditures necessary to fund the previous four years of war.
All of this excessive spending had ravaged the Northern economy causing most prices to double. Except for Indian Head cents and two-cent pieces, most coinage of the day was scarce. In fact coins were virtually unavailable for small daily transactions. Federal fractional currency had filled some of the gap caused by the shortage of silver coinage. Many types of private tokens and coins circulated as well, even though the Federal government had tried to suppress their usage.
The Treasury Department issued an even smaller fractional note. This would be the smallest denomination ever o be issued with a face value of only three cents. You might think that this was a rather odd denomination to issue, but it was actually a very useful value for the times.
One would be surprised to find out just what three cents could buy before the Civil War. For mere pennies, you could buy a newspaper, a draught of beer, or many other smaller items. Three cents could mail a letter. Unfortunately a saloon wouldn’t accept a stamp for the purchase of their wares. This is where the Federal three cent note came into play.
The three-cent notes were acceptable to most businesses and the Post Office, as the notes were deemed to be “legal tender.” These notes soon became a boon to merchants and the citizens laboring on the home front as well as for the soldiers in the field.
These notes were “Exchangeable for United States Notes by Assistant Treasurer’s and Designated Depositories of the United States.” These notes could be used to buy postage stamps and could be spent most anywhere. Their only limitation was that the government reserved the right to receive them for taxes in sums of not less than three dollars.
The notes bore a portrait of George Washington on the face, and the date of the authorization of Fractional Currency, which was generally March 3, 1863. More than 20 million of these notes were issued by April 5, 1865.
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Content copyright © 2019 by Gary Eggleston. All rights reserved.
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] | 3
|
America’s Three Cent Note
Towards the end of the Civil War, the value of the Yankee greenback dollar had fallen considerably in value, to around 46 cents by January 1865. Inflation was the main culprit, which was caused by the huge military expenditures necessary to fund the previous four years of war.
All of this excessive spending had ravaged the Northern economy causing most prices to double. Except for Indian Head cents and two-cent pieces, most coinage of the day was scarce. In fact coins were virtually unavailable for small daily transactions. Federal fractional currency had filled some of the gap caused by the shortage of silver coinage. Many types of private tokens and coins circulated as well, even though the Federal government had tried to suppress their usage.
The Treasury Department issued an even smaller fractional note. This would be the smallest denomination ever o be issued with a face value of only three cents. You might think that this was a rather odd denomination to issue, but it was actually a very useful value for the times.
One would be surprised to find out just what three cents could buy before the Civil War. For mere pennies, you could buy a newspaper, a draught of beer, or many other smaller items. Three cents could mail a letter. Unfortunately a saloon wouldn’t accept a stamp for the purchase of their wares. This is where the Federal three cent note came into play.
The three-cent notes were acceptable to most businesses and the Post Office, as the notes were deemed to be “legal tender.” These notes soon became a boon to merchants and the citizens laboring on the home front as well as for the soldiers in the field.
These notes were “Exchangeable for United States Notes by Assistant Treasurer’s and Designated Depositories of the United States.” These notes could be used to buy postage stamps and could be spent most anywhere. Their only limitation was that the government reserved the right to receive them for taxes in sums of not less than three dollars.
The notes bore a portrait of George Washington on the face, and the date of the authorization of Fractional Currency, which was generally March 3, 1863. More than 20 million of these notes were issued by April 5, 1865.
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Content copyright © 2019 by Gary Eggleston. All rights reserved.
This content was written by Gary Eggleston. If you wish to use this content in any manner, you need written permission. Contact Gary Eggleston for details.
| 521
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| 1
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“We cannot be separated in interest or divided in purpose,” declared President Woodrow Wilson, “We (must) stand together until the end” (Wilson 2). These powerful proclamations were voiced by Wilson in one of his most famous addresses, the “Fourteen Points” on January 8, 1918. As the world was in the midst of the Great War, violence, starvation, and the beginnings of communism plagued Europe. The question that kept lingering in the minds of everyone affected was what was to come in the future. President Wilson wanted to offer relief to the crumbling world. He realized that if war was to end, and lasting peace was to work, “the victors must swallow their pride and offer relief to the vanquished” (Lodge 1). In an effort to get this notion going, he outlined a plan that sought to “make the world fit and safe to live in” (Lodge 1). It included everything from freedom of the seas to creating an international organization that would help mediate any upcoming disputes between member nations. Wilson presented his innovative formula with a confident, high moral tone to his European counterparts using logical and ethical appeal, as well as repetition, to accentuate a thesis that carried a theme of freedom and democracy throughout. In the long run, he could not convince his opposition entirely, however, his work established a foundation for today’s system of peaceful negotiating.
When World War I began in 1914, the majority of the United States wanted to remain isolated. However,
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“We cannot be separated in interest or divided in purpose,” declared President Woodrow Wilson, “We (must) stand together until the end” (Wilson 2). These powerful proclamations were voiced by Wilson in one of his most famous addresses, the “Fourteen Points” on January 8, 1918. As the world was in the midst of the Great War, violence, starvation, and the beginnings of communism plagued Europe. The question that kept lingering in the minds of everyone affected was what was to come in the future. President Wilson wanted to offer relief to the crumbling world. He realized that if war was to end, and lasting peace was to work, “the victors must swallow their pride and offer relief to the vanquished” (Lodge 1). In an effort to get this notion going, he outlined a plan that sought to “make the world fit and safe to live in” (Lodge 1). It included everything from freedom of the seas to creating an international organization that would help mediate any upcoming disputes between member nations. Wilson presented his innovative formula with a confident, high moral tone to his European counterparts using logical and ethical appeal, as well as repetition, to accentuate a thesis that carried a theme of freedom and democracy throughout. In the long run, he could not convince his opposition entirely, however, his work established a foundation for today’s system of peaceful negotiating.
When World War I began in 1914, the majority of the United States wanted to remain isolated. However,
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ENGLISH
| 1
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Elizabeth I was born in 1533 as the daughter to King Henry VIII and Anne Boleyn. However, within a couple of years of Elizabeth’s birth her mother, Anne was executed and she was declared as an illegitimate child. Elizabeth became the Queen of England in 1558, after the death of Mary I.
Elizabeth was the last monarch belonging to the Tudor dynasty. With the death of Elizabeth I, ended the long ruled Tudor’s reign who had strived for so long for the betterment of England.
Henry VIII was the King of England in the 1500’s. Henry’s first wife was Catherine of Aragon and together they had a daughter named Mary. However, after coming to know that a daughter is born to him, he annulled his marriage with Catherine of Aragon as he was desperately seeking a son who would succeed him to the throne.
As a result of the annulment, Mary lost her status as a legitimate heir to the throne. King Henry married Anne Boleyn and again, he was blessed with a daughter. They named their daughter Elizabeth after her two grandmothers, Elizabeth of York and Elizabeth Howard.
Elizabeth was the second child of King Henry from his second marriage. At this time, Henry was very determinate to have a son who would carry on the Tudor name. After the birth of Elizabeth, Anne was pregnant twice but unfortunately both the times she had a miscarriage.
King Henry by this time was fed up with Anne as she failed to give him his heir. In order to get rid of her, Henry got Anne arrested on the basis of some falsely implanted charges. During the trial, these charges were proved and Anne was executed in the Tower of London in 1536.
After the death of her mother, Elizabeth was declared as an illegitimate child of Henry and thus lost her position as a legitimate heir, like her older half-sister Mary. Barely eleven days had passed since the death of Anne when Henry VIII married his third wife, Jane Seymour. Finally, his third wife bore him a son who was named Edward.
Family of Queen Elizabeth I
Jane did not survive for a long time after the birth of her son and passed away after twelve days of his birth. After the death of his third wife, Henry married thrice. His marriage to his fourth wife Anne of Cleves was annulled as both of them did not find each other agreeable.
Henry’s fifth wife, Katharine Howard was Elizabeth’s cousin and she influenced Elizabeth’s life to a certain extent. At the time of Katharine’s first public diner, she made the little Elizabeth sit next to her. Katharine Parr, the sixth and the last wife of King Henry VIII, had the greatest impact on Elizabeth’s life.
She was very fond of the Tudor siblings and would always want them to be around her. However, their younger sister, Mary was not so influenced by Katharine. It was Katharine who laid the foundation of education in Elizabeth’s life and made her realize the importance of education. She also appointed the best tutors to educate Elizabeth. It can be said that Elizabeth’s love for reading was because of Katharine.
Death of Henry VIII
King Henry VIII died in 1547 and the young children were thus orphaned. Edward VI succeeded his father to become the King at the age of nine years. However, he died soon because of an illness. After the death of her husband, Katharine Parr married almost immediately Thomas Seymour of Sudeley, Edward’s uncle. This newly married couple took Elizabeth to stay with them at their house at Chelsea.
By this time, Thomas, who was nearing his forties had developed some feelings for the young Elizabeth. It is said that he would even go to her bedroom in his nightgown after she would fall asleep. Katharine came to know about this when she was heavily pregnant with Thomas’s child and decided to send Elizabeth away. Katharine however, did not live for a long time after the birth of her child.
After the death of Katharine, Thomas again focused on Elizabeth, this time with an intention to marry her and control England. His plans did not materialize and he was beheaded in 1549. Elizabeth had to see the death of her half-brother Edward VI, with whom she shared a close relationship. She also underwent imprisonment so that her Catholic sister, Mary I could become the Queen. Despite all the odds, Elizabeth survived her near execution and was eventually crowned the Queen of England after the death of her sister Mary I.
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Elizabeth I was born in 1533 as the daughter to King Henry VIII and Anne Boleyn. However, within a couple of years of Elizabeth’s birth her mother, Anne was executed and she was declared as an illegitimate child. Elizabeth became the Queen of England in 1558, after the death of Mary I.
Elizabeth was the last monarch belonging to the Tudor dynasty. With the death of Elizabeth I, ended the long ruled Tudor’s reign who had strived for so long for the betterment of England.
Henry VIII was the King of England in the 1500’s. Henry’s first wife was Catherine of Aragon and together they had a daughter named Mary. However, after coming to know that a daughter is born to him, he annulled his marriage with Catherine of Aragon as he was desperately seeking a son who would succeed him to the throne.
As a result of the annulment, Mary lost her status as a legitimate heir to the throne. King Henry married Anne Boleyn and again, he was blessed with a daughter. They named their daughter Elizabeth after her two grandmothers, Elizabeth of York and Elizabeth Howard.
Elizabeth was the second child of King Henry from his second marriage. At this time, Henry was very determinate to have a son who would carry on the Tudor name. After the birth of Elizabeth, Anne was pregnant twice but unfortunately both the times she had a miscarriage.
King Henry by this time was fed up with Anne as she failed to give him his heir. In order to get rid of her, Henry got Anne arrested on the basis of some falsely implanted charges. During the trial, these charges were proved and Anne was executed in the Tower of London in 1536.
After the death of her mother, Elizabeth was declared as an illegitimate child of Henry and thus lost her position as a legitimate heir, like her older half-sister Mary. Barely eleven days had passed since the death of Anne when Henry VIII married his third wife, Jane Seymour. Finally, his third wife bore him a son who was named Edward.
Family of Queen Elizabeth I
Jane did not survive for a long time after the birth of her son and passed away after twelve days of his birth. After the death of his third wife, Henry married thrice. His marriage to his fourth wife Anne of Cleves was annulled as both of them did not find each other agreeable.
Henry’s fifth wife, Katharine Howard was Elizabeth’s cousin and she influenced Elizabeth’s life to a certain extent. At the time of Katharine’s first public diner, she made the little Elizabeth sit next to her. Katharine Parr, the sixth and the last wife of King Henry VIII, had the greatest impact on Elizabeth’s life.
She was very fond of the Tudor siblings and would always want them to be around her. However, their younger sister, Mary was not so influenced by Katharine. It was Katharine who laid the foundation of education in Elizabeth’s life and made her realize the importance of education. She also appointed the best tutors to educate Elizabeth. It can be said that Elizabeth’s love for reading was because of Katharine.
Death of Henry VIII
King Henry VIII died in 1547 and the young children were thus orphaned. Edward VI succeeded his father to become the King at the age of nine years. However, he died soon because of an illness. After the death of her husband, Katharine Parr married almost immediately Thomas Seymour of Sudeley, Edward’s uncle. This newly married couple took Elizabeth to stay with them at their house at Chelsea.
By this time, Thomas, who was nearing his forties had developed some feelings for the young Elizabeth. It is said that he would even go to her bedroom in his nightgown after she would fall asleep. Katharine came to know about this when she was heavily pregnant with Thomas’s child and decided to send Elizabeth away. Katharine however, did not live for a long time after the birth of her child.
After the death of Katharine, Thomas again focused on Elizabeth, this time with an intention to marry her and control England. His plans did not materialize and he was beheaded in 1549. Elizabeth had to see the death of her half-brother Edward VI, with whom she shared a close relationship. She also underwent imprisonment so that her Catholic sister, Mary I could become the Queen. Despite all the odds, Elizabeth survived her near execution and was eventually crowned the Queen of England after the death of her sister Mary I.
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ENGLISH
| 1
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Daughter of Zeus and Goddess of War, Athena has been held in high esteem for centuries as a paragon of wisdom and strength. Athena had many personality traits and characteristics, including courage, morality, intelligence, diplomacy, justice, and education. Let’s look at her many attributes.
Daughter of Zeus
Greek legend shows that Athena was not born in the usual way, but emerged as an adult, fully formed from the head of Zeus. Zeus had been with Metis and was warned that any child born to Metis (aka wisdom) would become more powerful than Zeus himself. Zeus decided to circumvent this and chose to swallow Metis before she could give birth to any child. Later, terrible headaches began to plague Zeus. The pain grew so unbearable that Zeus asked Hephaestus, the Greek god of fire and metalworking, to cut open his head for an examination. Upon doing this, Athena came out of Zeus’s head, a full-grown warrior ready for battle.
Goddess of War
Armed with strength, wisdom, and strategy, Athena was known for excellence in the ways of war. Athena’s work on and off the battlefield helped her become renowned in the land.
In the Trojan War, which occurred between 1260-1250 B.C., battles were being fought over trade routes that divided Greece and the Trojans. Due to Athena’s beauty, cunning, and strategy, she was able to inspire Odysseus and others to use a secret method to gain entrance into the city. Athena counseled the soldiers to conceal themselves and ride in a large wooden horse as a decoy. When the city was fast asleep, the Trojan horse opened, and the soldiers took the city by surprise.
City Goddess of Athens
Using her wisdom to become the namesake for the greatest city in Greece was also one of Athena’s personality traits. Legend infers that Athens’ founder and first king Cecrops was seeking a patron god or goddess for the city. Poseidon was interested in the honor, as was Athena. The competition became intense, and Poseidon and Athena almost came to blows. Instead, the king announced a contest that the two could battle for the city. The contest was to determine who could bring the most beneficial gift to the city. Poseidon brought forth water with a blast of his trident, but the water was salty, limiting its use to the people of the city. Athena, meanwhile, buried a seed into the ground. The seed was for an olive tree, which eventually yielded far more use than saltwater. Thus, her name, Athena (later Athens), was given as the name of the city.
Goddess of Counsel
Athena also used his wisdom in assisting Perseus in the death of Medusa as well as working with Hercules to complete his laborious endeavors.
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Daughter of Zeus and Goddess of War, Athena has been held in high esteem for centuries as a paragon of wisdom and strength. Athena had many personality traits and characteristics, including courage, morality, intelligence, diplomacy, justice, and education. Let’s look at her many attributes.
Daughter of Zeus
Greek legend shows that Athena was not born in the usual way, but emerged as an adult, fully formed from the head of Zeus. Zeus had been with Metis and was warned that any child born to Metis (aka wisdom) would become more powerful than Zeus himself. Zeus decided to circumvent this and chose to swallow Metis before she could give birth to any child. Later, terrible headaches began to plague Zeus. The pain grew so unbearable that Zeus asked Hephaestus, the Greek god of fire and metalworking, to cut open his head for an examination. Upon doing this, Athena came out of Zeus’s head, a full-grown warrior ready for battle.
Goddess of War
Armed with strength, wisdom, and strategy, Athena was known for excellence in the ways of war. Athena’s work on and off the battlefield helped her become renowned in the land.
In the Trojan War, which occurred between 1260-1250 B.C., battles were being fought over trade routes that divided Greece and the Trojans. Due to Athena’s beauty, cunning, and strategy, she was able to inspire Odysseus and others to use a secret method to gain entrance into the city. Athena counseled the soldiers to conceal themselves and ride in a large wooden horse as a decoy. When the city was fast asleep, the Trojan horse opened, and the soldiers took the city by surprise.
City Goddess of Athens
Using her wisdom to become the namesake for the greatest city in Greece was also one of Athena’s personality traits. Legend infers that Athens’ founder and first king Cecrops was seeking a patron god or goddess for the city. Poseidon was interested in the honor, as was Athena. The competition became intense, and Poseidon and Athena almost came to blows. Instead, the king announced a contest that the two could battle for the city. The contest was to determine who could bring the most beneficial gift to the city. Poseidon brought forth water with a blast of his trident, but the water was salty, limiting its use to the people of the city. Athena, meanwhile, buried a seed into the ground. The seed was for an olive tree, which eventually yielded far more use than saltwater. Thus, her name, Athena (later Athens), was given as the name of the city.
Goddess of Counsel
Athena also used his wisdom in assisting Perseus in the death of Medusa as well as working with Hercules to complete his laborious endeavors.
| 579
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ENGLISH
| 1
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Post by Jesse Boone
As most of you know I like to expose students to other cultures through art. Currently my student studied the Mayan and Aztec Cultures. Focusing on their achievements such as the calendar, number system and glyphs. I took this opportunity to introduce shape and form into the student’s art vocabulary. We looked at various reproductions of Aztec work, discovering that the designs were not literal and very stylized.
Even though Aztec art was designed to send a message, document an event or worship the gods. Students discovered that not every shape or drawing within their art was meant to be a symbol, but rather used as decoration to complete the composition.
Students were asked to create a mural using both Aztec symbology and current symbology. They were also encouraged to create a symmetrical design. I reminded them that they were drawing a message.
In the process, students learned the difference between organic and geometric shape. They used shading around the shapes to create the illusion of depth.
Overall the project was a success, students learned to use pictures and symbols as forms of communications, while having fun in the process.
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] | 2
|
Post by Jesse Boone
As most of you know I like to expose students to other cultures through art. Currently my student studied the Mayan and Aztec Cultures. Focusing on their achievements such as the calendar, number system and glyphs. I took this opportunity to introduce shape and form into the student’s art vocabulary. We looked at various reproductions of Aztec work, discovering that the designs were not literal and very stylized.
Even though Aztec art was designed to send a message, document an event or worship the gods. Students discovered that not every shape or drawing within their art was meant to be a symbol, but rather used as decoration to complete the composition.
Students were asked to create a mural using both Aztec symbology and current symbology. They were also encouraged to create a symmetrical design. I reminded them that they were drawing a message.
In the process, students learned the difference between organic and geometric shape. They used shading around the shapes to create the illusion of depth.
Overall the project was a success, students learned to use pictures and symbols as forms of communications, while having fun in the process.
| 228
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ENGLISH
| 1
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Battle of the Berezina
Also known as: Beresina
November 26, 1812 - November 28, 1812
As the French army retreated from Russia, they were faced with the troubling prospect of crossing the Berezina River. Usually frozen by that time of the year, an unseasonable thaw kept the 100 yard wide river flowing strong, forcing the French to find a bridge. Directly in the path of the French army and determined to keep the French from crossing the river was Admiral Chichagov with 34,000 soldiers. Further north, General Wittgenstein with 30,000 soldiers was moving to join with Chichagov to hold the French back, while Field Marshal Kutusov with the main Russian army pursued the French army from the east, but was falling behind and needed time to catch up. All the Russians had to do was block a crossing for a few days until Kutusov's force arrived and they could annihilate the weakened French from three sides.
The French weren't going to give up without a fight though. Polish General Dombrowski successfully seized a bridge for the French over the river at Borisov, but Chichagov's forces quickly moved in and their superior numbers forced Dombrowski to withdraw. As the French II Corps arrived in force to retake the bridge, the Russians pulled back to the west bank and destroyed the bridge. Realizing the stark reality of the situation, Napoleon ordered his papers burned and many of the standards destroyed to prevent them from falling into Russian hands. Luckily for the French, General Corbineau discovered a ford across the river at Studyanka north of Borisov and General Eblé had a few days earlier disobeyed direct orders and not destroyed all of his bridging equipment.
Unfortunately, Russian Admiral Chichagov, who had retaken the bridge at Borisov from Dombrowski, was spread out on the opposite side of the river. The first step for the French was to distract the Russians so they could build the bridges and get across without too much difficulty. On the 25th, a large group of French soldiers from II Corps and camp followers moved south of Borisov and attempted to create as much noise as to convince the Russians the main effort would be much further south. French officers also intentionally brought in Russian peasants for questioning about crossings to the south and then released them, and a few peasants duly reported to the Russian soldiers about the interviews. The French were further assisted in their plan by the Russian high command, as both Wittgenstein and Kutusov wrote Admiral Chichagov suggesting that the French were going to cross further south. Before long, many of Chichagov's forces began to shift southward in anticipation of a crossing to the south. The French who watched these movements were elated, and Corbineau quickly crossed the river at Studyanka and drove away the token force that had been left to watch that stretch of the river. Eblé and his engineers then plunged into the freezing waters and began constructing the bridges with their limited supplies.
By one in the afternoon on the 26th, the first bridge was complete. Oudinot, Dombrowski, and Doumerc crossed the river and set up a covering force. Two hours later, the second bridge was done and the artillery began to cross on this bridge. The crossings went well until one of the bridges broke on the 26th, causing a mass panic in which many people died. Eblé reestablished order and his engineers quickly fixed the bridge, enabling the crossings to continue. By the 27th the Russians had realized what was happening, and Chichagov attacked on the west side of the river, but Oudinot successfully beat off his attacks. At the same time, Russian General Wittgenstein and his 30,000 men attacked halfheartedly on the east side of the river, but Victor's corps managed to hold back the Russian attack. Throughout each of these days, the main army and some of the camp followers continued to cross the bridge as quickly as possible.
The 28th dawned and did not go as well for the French. One of Victor's divisions, that of General Partouneaux, had formed the rearguard and was still at Borisov. Partouneaux was ordered to fall back to the crossing at Studyanka, but delayed this for unknown reasons. When his forces finally began their march, they were in danger of being cut off from the main army by Wittgenstein's forces. Unfortunately, Partouneaux took the wrong road at an unmarked intersection, and ended up marching his division towards the Russians. As he began to realize he was on the wrong road, he halted his division and went ahead with his staff to scout out where they were. A Russian cavalry force suddenly appeared and took them all prisoner. Unaware of their general's plight, the division waited for his return, and then began to fight off the growing Russian attacks as the Russians surrounded them. As things went from bad to worse, the remains of the division attempted to break through, and when that failed, to fall back on Borisov, but that also failed. When faced with the hopelessness of the situation, the remains of the division surrendered.
Due to the loss of that division in Victor's corps, Victor began to have trouble holding back the continuous Russian onslaught, especially on his left flank. The situation worsened to the point that Napoleon ordered an entire brigade, the Baden brigade, back across the river to support Victor. Getting across the bridges back to the other side was easier said than done, as the brigade was going against the flow of everyone else on the bridges, but after some time they successfully crossed and supported Victor.
On the other side, Chichagov's major attack was steadily pushing Oudinot back, but he was able to rally his men and hold the line. Marshal Oudinot was severely wounded shortly thereafter, but Marshal Ney was nearby and immediately assumed command and continued to hold the line. Doumerc's cuirassiers then charged the Russians at an opportune moment and were so effective that the Russians fell back and did not attempt to attack on that side of the river again.
Back on the east bank, Victor continued to be pushed back until Napoleon ordered a massive artillery battery on the west bank to take aim at the Russians on the east bank attacking Victor's left flank. This shattered the momentum of the Russian attack, and General Fournier charged with his cavalry, pushing the Russians further back. The Russians had had enough for one day, and did not attack again, instead preferring to renew the attack the next morning.
Throughout the night the rest of the French army crossed the river, with the last troops getting across at dawn on the 29th. Throughout the many days of the battle, Eblé and many others had urged the camp followers to cross when the soldiers were not crossing, but thousands did not take advantage of these lulls in traffic over the bridge. Reluctantly, Eblé ordered the bridges burned to keep the Russians on the east side of the river from pursuing them. Only now realizing the dire situation, the camp followers who had not crossed panicked and began to attempt to cross the burning bridge. Thousands died as they were burned, crushed by the others, fell into the river and drowned, or left to the Russians.
Russian Marshal Kutusov's army had failed to make an appearance throughout the battle, and Admiral Chichagov's forces were not strong enough to prevent the French army from continuing their march westward to safety. The Battle of the Berezina was a strategic success for the French as they had successfully evaded the Russian envelopment and preserved at least some of the army. Unfortunately, the battle had worse costs than many others, as so many of the camp followers died, and Eblé himself was dead within a few weeks from his exertions. Eblé wasn't alone in sacrificing himself for the army, only forty of Eblé's four hundred engineers survived. Nonetheless, the extraordinary performance and sacrifice of so many in the French army enabled it to continue to exist and have a framework from which to build a new army in the coming months.
Recommended Reading: The Battle of the Berezina: Napoleon's Great Escape by Alexander Mikaberidze.
- Chandler, David G. The Campaigns of Napoleon. New York: Macmillan Publishing, 1966.
- Chandler, David G. Dictionary of the Napoleonic Wars. New York: Macmillan Publishing, 1979.
- Mikaberidze, Alexander. The Battle of the Berezina: Napoleon's Great Escape. Barnsley: Pen & Sword Military, 2010.
Updated June 2018
© Nathan D. Jensen
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Battle of the Berezina
Also known as: Beresina
November 26, 1812 - November 28, 1812
As the French army retreated from Russia, they were faced with the troubling prospect of crossing the Berezina River. Usually frozen by that time of the year, an unseasonable thaw kept the 100 yard wide river flowing strong, forcing the French to find a bridge. Directly in the path of the French army and determined to keep the French from crossing the river was Admiral Chichagov with 34,000 soldiers. Further north, General Wittgenstein with 30,000 soldiers was moving to join with Chichagov to hold the French back, while Field Marshal Kutusov with the main Russian army pursued the French army from the east, but was falling behind and needed time to catch up. All the Russians had to do was block a crossing for a few days until Kutusov's force arrived and they could annihilate the weakened French from three sides.
The French weren't going to give up without a fight though. Polish General Dombrowski successfully seized a bridge for the French over the river at Borisov, but Chichagov's forces quickly moved in and their superior numbers forced Dombrowski to withdraw. As the French II Corps arrived in force to retake the bridge, the Russians pulled back to the west bank and destroyed the bridge. Realizing the stark reality of the situation, Napoleon ordered his papers burned and many of the standards destroyed to prevent them from falling into Russian hands. Luckily for the French, General Corbineau discovered a ford across the river at Studyanka north of Borisov and General Eblé had a few days earlier disobeyed direct orders and not destroyed all of his bridging equipment.
Unfortunately, Russian Admiral Chichagov, who had retaken the bridge at Borisov from Dombrowski, was spread out on the opposite side of the river. The first step for the French was to distract the Russians so they could build the bridges and get across without too much difficulty. On the 25th, a large group of French soldiers from II Corps and camp followers moved south of Borisov and attempted to create as much noise as to convince the Russians the main effort would be much further south. French officers also intentionally brought in Russian peasants for questioning about crossings to the south and then released them, and a few peasants duly reported to the Russian soldiers about the interviews. The French were further assisted in their plan by the Russian high command, as both Wittgenstein and Kutusov wrote Admiral Chichagov suggesting that the French were going to cross further south. Before long, many of Chichagov's forces began to shift southward in anticipation of a crossing to the south. The French who watched these movements were elated, and Corbineau quickly crossed the river at Studyanka and drove away the token force that had been left to watch that stretch of the river. Eblé and his engineers then plunged into the freezing waters and began constructing the bridges with their limited supplies.
By one in the afternoon on the 26th, the first bridge was complete. Oudinot, Dombrowski, and Doumerc crossed the river and set up a covering force. Two hours later, the second bridge was done and the artillery began to cross on this bridge. The crossings went well until one of the bridges broke on the 26th, causing a mass panic in which many people died. Eblé reestablished order and his engineers quickly fixed the bridge, enabling the crossings to continue. By the 27th the Russians had realized what was happening, and Chichagov attacked on the west side of the river, but Oudinot successfully beat off his attacks. At the same time, Russian General Wittgenstein and his 30,000 men attacked halfheartedly on the east side of the river, but Victor's corps managed to hold back the Russian attack. Throughout each of these days, the main army and some of the camp followers continued to cross the bridge as quickly as possible.
The 28th dawned and did not go as well for the French. One of Victor's divisions, that of General Partouneaux, had formed the rearguard and was still at Borisov. Partouneaux was ordered to fall back to the crossing at Studyanka, but delayed this for unknown reasons. When his forces finally began their march, they were in danger of being cut off from the main army by Wittgenstein's forces. Unfortunately, Partouneaux took the wrong road at an unmarked intersection, and ended up marching his division towards the Russians. As he began to realize he was on the wrong road, he halted his division and went ahead with his staff to scout out where they were. A Russian cavalry force suddenly appeared and took them all prisoner. Unaware of their general's plight, the division waited for his return, and then began to fight off the growing Russian attacks as the Russians surrounded them. As things went from bad to worse, the remains of the division attempted to break through, and when that failed, to fall back on Borisov, but that also failed. When faced with the hopelessness of the situation, the remains of the division surrendered.
Due to the loss of that division in Victor's corps, Victor began to have trouble holding back the continuous Russian onslaught, especially on his left flank. The situation worsened to the point that Napoleon ordered an entire brigade, the Baden brigade, back across the river to support Victor. Getting across the bridges back to the other side was easier said than done, as the brigade was going against the flow of everyone else on the bridges, but after some time they successfully crossed and supported Victor.
On the other side, Chichagov's major attack was steadily pushing Oudinot back, but he was able to rally his men and hold the line. Marshal Oudinot was severely wounded shortly thereafter, but Marshal Ney was nearby and immediately assumed command and continued to hold the line. Doumerc's cuirassiers then charged the Russians at an opportune moment and were so effective that the Russians fell back and did not attempt to attack on that side of the river again.
Back on the east bank, Victor continued to be pushed back until Napoleon ordered a massive artillery battery on the west bank to take aim at the Russians on the east bank attacking Victor's left flank. This shattered the momentum of the Russian attack, and General Fournier charged with his cavalry, pushing the Russians further back. The Russians had had enough for one day, and did not attack again, instead preferring to renew the attack the next morning.
Throughout the night the rest of the French army crossed the river, with the last troops getting across at dawn on the 29th. Throughout the many days of the battle, Eblé and many others had urged the camp followers to cross when the soldiers were not crossing, but thousands did not take advantage of these lulls in traffic over the bridge. Reluctantly, Eblé ordered the bridges burned to keep the Russians on the east side of the river from pursuing them. Only now realizing the dire situation, the camp followers who had not crossed panicked and began to attempt to cross the burning bridge. Thousands died as they were burned, crushed by the others, fell into the river and drowned, or left to the Russians.
Russian Marshal Kutusov's army had failed to make an appearance throughout the battle, and Admiral Chichagov's forces were not strong enough to prevent the French army from continuing their march westward to safety. The Battle of the Berezina was a strategic success for the French as they had successfully evaded the Russian envelopment and preserved at least some of the army. Unfortunately, the battle had worse costs than many others, as so many of the camp followers died, and Eblé himself was dead within a few weeks from his exertions. Eblé wasn't alone in sacrificing himself for the army, only forty of Eblé's four hundred engineers survived. Nonetheless, the extraordinary performance and sacrifice of so many in the French army enabled it to continue to exist and have a framework from which to build a new army in the coming months.
Recommended Reading: The Battle of the Berezina: Napoleon's Great Escape by Alexander Mikaberidze.
- Chandler, David G. The Campaigns of Napoleon. New York: Macmillan Publishing, 1966.
- Chandler, David G. Dictionary of the Napoleonic Wars. New York: Macmillan Publishing, 1979.
- Mikaberidze, Alexander. The Battle of the Berezina: Napoleon's Great Escape. Barnsley: Pen & Sword Military, 2010.
Updated June 2018
© Nathan D. Jensen
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What orangutan's "wookiee" sound teaches us
It was a sound unlike any Rob Shumaker had heard an orangutan make in his years of working with the great apes. But this was his first time meeting Rocky, a three-year-old orangutan who had spent his life around humans. Rocky would continue to make the noise — akin to the “Wookiee” sound from Star Wars — as he moved under Shumaker’s aegis first to a primate center in Iowa and then to Indianapolis.
Shumaker, director of the Indianapolis Zoo, continued to wonder about the vocalization, one that Rocky might make when trying to attract a human’s attention. Shumaker reached out to other researchers, those who had more experience with orangutans in the wild, and asked if they had ever heard an orangutan make a similar sound. They said no.
"The logical conclusion was that he had to learn it,” Shumaker said. “We don’t know how he learned it, but we know he had to learn it. … If he had learned it, presumably he must be able to control it.”
Conventional wisdom among primatologists and evolutionists held that great apes produce sounds reflexively. But if Rocky, now 11, has the ability to learn a new vocalization and modulate that sound, that would suggest spoken language or its precursor may have evolved much earlier than previously thought — perhaps 10 million instead of 2 million years ago.
Four years ago, Shumaker and colleagues from Europe gathered at the zoo to study Rocky and his unusual vocalization. They tested whether he could control his voice and imitate the sounds a human made that varied in pitch. Rocky could indeed do just that, copying both pitch and tone of noises that the human researchers made.
This finding proves, Shumaker and his co-authors report in a recent scientific journal, that great apes have more control over their vocal folds — known in the vernacular as the voice box — than imagined.
A check of the largest database of orangutan calls, which catalogs sounds made by 120 individuals from 15 wild and captive populations, showed Rocky’s sounds were unique. The scientists published their findings in the journal Scientific Reports.
Rocky “was clearly replicating to a remarkable degree what the human demonstrator was producing,” Shumaker said. “I wouldn’t be so quick to say it’s not speech.”
Not that Shumaker thinks there was any meaning behind the sound other than to grab attention.
But thanks to Rocky, Shumaker and his human colleagues have new insight into the capabilities of great apes that shows we humans may not be quite as unique as we thought when it comes to our vocal abilities.
None of this would be possible without Rocky’s help and the environment at the Simon-Skjodt International Orangutan Center, Shumaker said.
“We do not treat apes as research subjects. We treat them as research partners,” he said.
So has Rocky taught any of his fellow orangutans at the zoo how to make his signature sound? Shumaker and his colleagues are currently exploring that very question.
Call IndyStar reporter Shari Rudavsky at (317) 444-6354. Follow her on Twitter: @srudavsky.
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What orangutan's "wookiee" sound teaches us
It was a sound unlike any Rob Shumaker had heard an orangutan make in his years of working with the great apes. But this was his first time meeting Rocky, a three-year-old orangutan who had spent his life around humans. Rocky would continue to make the noise — akin to the “Wookiee” sound from Star Wars — as he moved under Shumaker’s aegis first to a primate center in Iowa and then to Indianapolis.
Shumaker, director of the Indianapolis Zoo, continued to wonder about the vocalization, one that Rocky might make when trying to attract a human’s attention. Shumaker reached out to other researchers, those who had more experience with orangutans in the wild, and asked if they had ever heard an orangutan make a similar sound. They said no.
"The logical conclusion was that he had to learn it,” Shumaker said. “We don’t know how he learned it, but we know he had to learn it. … If he had learned it, presumably he must be able to control it.”
Conventional wisdom among primatologists and evolutionists held that great apes produce sounds reflexively. But if Rocky, now 11, has the ability to learn a new vocalization and modulate that sound, that would suggest spoken language or its precursor may have evolved much earlier than previously thought — perhaps 10 million instead of 2 million years ago.
Four years ago, Shumaker and colleagues from Europe gathered at the zoo to study Rocky and his unusual vocalization. They tested whether he could control his voice and imitate the sounds a human made that varied in pitch. Rocky could indeed do just that, copying both pitch and tone of noises that the human researchers made.
This finding proves, Shumaker and his co-authors report in a recent scientific journal, that great apes have more control over their vocal folds — known in the vernacular as the voice box — than imagined.
A check of the largest database of orangutan calls, which catalogs sounds made by 120 individuals from 15 wild and captive populations, showed Rocky’s sounds were unique. The scientists published their findings in the journal Scientific Reports.
Rocky “was clearly replicating to a remarkable degree what the human demonstrator was producing,” Shumaker said. “I wouldn’t be so quick to say it’s not speech.”
Not that Shumaker thinks there was any meaning behind the sound other than to grab attention.
But thanks to Rocky, Shumaker and his human colleagues have new insight into the capabilities of great apes that shows we humans may not be quite as unique as we thought when it comes to our vocal abilities.
None of this would be possible without Rocky’s help and the environment at the Simon-Skjodt International Orangutan Center, Shumaker said.
“We do not treat apes as research subjects. We treat them as research partners,” he said.
So has Rocky taught any of his fellow orangutans at the zoo how to make his signature sound? Shumaker and his colleagues are currently exploring that very question.
Call IndyStar reporter Shari Rudavsky at (317) 444-6354. Follow her on Twitter: @srudavsky.
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Morocco was once the western extreme of the Arab world. In fact, its name in Arabic al-magrib means "the west." As with any edge of an empire, it represented the most rugged elements of its parent culture. There were located the most intrepid explorers. There the most exotic combinations of local culture combined with that brought from afar. The indigenous people of Morocco (and of northern Africa) are known as the Berber. Among the traditions of the Berber that thrived with the coming of the Islamic conquering of northern Africa in the seventh century was their rug making. In fact, Berber carpet has come to mean a particular type of weave used in carpet manufacturing that dates back millennia to those indigenous people of northern Africa and Morocco, and is considered by many to be one of the more luxurious types of floor covering available.
No history of Moroccan rugs would be complete without including some of the history of the people who first made them. The ancient Berber people had both large populations that had settled in villages as well as nomadic populations. The Phoenicians interacted with the Berbers as they traded with the Iberian Peninsula, and imparted some elements of their culture and structure to the Berbers who strove to remain independent from Punic/Carthaginian culture. In fact, the Berbers were so numerous and such skilled horsemen and warriors that Carthage had to pay tribute to their kingdoms to be able to trade in their territories. As time passed, the Carthaginians grew to be the dominant culture and the Berbers were not able to continue their complete independence. They became a lower class of people in Phoenician culture, but they did not entirely assimilate (Berber culture is still celebrated today). As Rome grew to prominence in Northern Africa, they recognized the Berbers as a powerful group and allied with them militarily. Carthage was hard on the Berbers and did not "bind her subjects to herself, as Rome did", thus leading to revolts and unrest among the Berbers.
In the middle of the seventh century, the Arabian spread of Islam began in the Maghreb (what would later be called Morocco). Many of the Berbers converted to Islam and aided the new caliphate both militarily and societally. The Arabs turned out to have many of the same attributes as the Phoenicians had so many centuries before: they enslaved the Berbers and treated them as lower class Muslims. This treatment lead to an inevitable revolt under a sect of Islam that promised a more egalitarian culture. Muslim Berbers invaded the Iberian Peninsula and the relationship between Islamic Arab culture and indigenous Berber culture continues to the modern period and the current day. As North African countries established their independence from their European colonists, they codified Arabic as their official language, yet Berber is now an official language in Morocco and taught as a mandatory subject in all schools in the country.
So…how does this complex history relate to Moroccan rugs? In various ways, the history of the Berber culture can be seen in its weaving and its rugs. Because the Berber culture was largely based around herding, there was always wide access to wool for weaving and the plants needed for creating dyes for the wool. Each individual tribe had its own images and designs, colors and names for the rugs they would weave. The influx of cultures and peoples from the Mediterranean and Arab worlds brought styles and colors and patterns to differentiate the traditional Berber work from the influence of international designs. The distinction between Urban (Arab and international) and Rural (traditional and local) Berber rugs was well defined and is still seen in their imagery and design. Berber carpets were not popular in European and American markets until recently, so their authenticity of design and manufacture is more intact than many other styles of rugs. The commercialism that has made designs from other parts of the world more popular, and thus more mass-produced, has not plagued Berber and Moroccan rugs.
Urban examples have influences from the Middle East and Anatolia and show both pile and flat weave techniques. These were designed to be used in the houses of western Arabs. In contrast, the Rural rugs were designed for and made by nomadic peoples, so they would be lain upon the earth and their weave would depend on the environment in which the people who made them lived. They retain the colors and patterns of specific tribes to whose lineage they can be traced.
Berber carpet has become synonymous with high quality and durable weaving techniques. It is mentioned by name on television programs and in movies to inform the audience of the quality and heritage and value being displayed. From Craig T. Nelson to Kelsey Grammer, actors have portrayed characters who have referred to their Berber with reverence and respect. While what is thought of as Moroccan rugs and Berber carpet are certainly two separate images, they come from the same place: the Berber people in north western Africa dating back millennia and incorporating native and indigenous cultures and patterns and colors as well as the influences of multiple cultures from the Punic to the Arabic. In common to both, Berber carpet and Moroccan rugs are high quality, beautifully designed and colorful, replete with a rich history, lineage and culture. Come to The Rug Warehouse to explore our selection of old, antique, vintage and new Moroccan designs and let yourself enjoy the heritage and craftsmanship of a truly useful piece of art.
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Morocco was once the western extreme of the Arab world. In fact, its name in Arabic al-magrib means "the west." As with any edge of an empire, it represented the most rugged elements of its parent culture. There were located the most intrepid explorers. There the most exotic combinations of local culture combined with that brought from afar. The indigenous people of Morocco (and of northern Africa) are known as the Berber. Among the traditions of the Berber that thrived with the coming of the Islamic conquering of northern Africa in the seventh century was their rug making. In fact, Berber carpet has come to mean a particular type of weave used in carpet manufacturing that dates back millennia to those indigenous people of northern Africa and Morocco, and is considered by many to be one of the more luxurious types of floor covering available.
No history of Moroccan rugs would be complete without including some of the history of the people who first made them. The ancient Berber people had both large populations that had settled in villages as well as nomadic populations. The Phoenicians interacted with the Berbers as they traded with the Iberian Peninsula, and imparted some elements of their culture and structure to the Berbers who strove to remain independent from Punic/Carthaginian culture. In fact, the Berbers were so numerous and such skilled horsemen and warriors that Carthage had to pay tribute to their kingdoms to be able to trade in their territories. As time passed, the Carthaginians grew to be the dominant culture and the Berbers were not able to continue their complete independence. They became a lower class of people in Phoenician culture, but they did not entirely assimilate (Berber culture is still celebrated today). As Rome grew to prominence in Northern Africa, they recognized the Berbers as a powerful group and allied with them militarily. Carthage was hard on the Berbers and did not "bind her subjects to herself, as Rome did", thus leading to revolts and unrest among the Berbers.
In the middle of the seventh century, the Arabian spread of Islam began in the Maghreb (what would later be called Morocco). Many of the Berbers converted to Islam and aided the new caliphate both militarily and societally. The Arabs turned out to have many of the same attributes as the Phoenicians had so many centuries before: they enslaved the Berbers and treated them as lower class Muslims. This treatment lead to an inevitable revolt under a sect of Islam that promised a more egalitarian culture. Muslim Berbers invaded the Iberian Peninsula and the relationship between Islamic Arab culture and indigenous Berber culture continues to the modern period and the current day. As North African countries established their independence from their European colonists, they codified Arabic as their official language, yet Berber is now an official language in Morocco and taught as a mandatory subject in all schools in the country.
So…how does this complex history relate to Moroccan rugs? In various ways, the history of the Berber culture can be seen in its weaving and its rugs. Because the Berber culture was largely based around herding, there was always wide access to wool for weaving and the plants needed for creating dyes for the wool. Each individual tribe had its own images and designs, colors and names for the rugs they would weave. The influx of cultures and peoples from the Mediterranean and Arab worlds brought styles and colors and patterns to differentiate the traditional Berber work from the influence of international designs. The distinction between Urban (Arab and international) and Rural (traditional and local) Berber rugs was well defined and is still seen in their imagery and design. Berber carpets were not popular in European and American markets until recently, so their authenticity of design and manufacture is more intact than many other styles of rugs. The commercialism that has made designs from other parts of the world more popular, and thus more mass-produced, has not plagued Berber and Moroccan rugs.
Urban examples have influences from the Middle East and Anatolia and show both pile and flat weave techniques. These were designed to be used in the houses of western Arabs. In contrast, the Rural rugs were designed for and made by nomadic peoples, so they would be lain upon the earth and their weave would depend on the environment in which the people who made them lived. They retain the colors and patterns of specific tribes to whose lineage they can be traced.
Berber carpet has become synonymous with high quality and durable weaving techniques. It is mentioned by name on television programs and in movies to inform the audience of the quality and heritage and value being displayed. From Craig T. Nelson to Kelsey Grammer, actors have portrayed characters who have referred to their Berber with reverence and respect. While what is thought of as Moroccan rugs and Berber carpet are certainly two separate images, they come from the same place: the Berber people in north western Africa dating back millennia and incorporating native and indigenous cultures and patterns and colors as well as the influences of multiple cultures from the Punic to the Arabic. In common to both, Berber carpet and Moroccan rugs are high quality, beautifully designed and colorful, replete with a rich history, lineage and culture. Come to The Rug Warehouse to explore our selection of old, antique, vintage and new Moroccan designs and let yourself enjoy the heritage and craftsmanship of a truly useful piece of art.
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ENGLISH
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It's also important to distinguish between the type of slavery discussed here and chattel slavery as it was practiced in the US or other places in the past five hundred years. These rules were primarily regarding an individual selling themselves into servitude for a period not to exceed six years. Unable to provide for themselves, they would become slaves, exchanging their work for provision of food and shelter, and would go free without further payment in the seventh year. If they considered living under the protection and provision of their boss preferable to trying to make it on their own, they could declare themselves a slave for life by piercing their ear as described in Deuteronomy 15. But verse 16 expressly prohibits stealing a person to sell into slavery, or owning a person who has been sold in this way.
At least if the person were a man and a Hebrew.
Women, who were sold as concubines, and foreigners, who were captured during war, didn't have these rights. To our modern minds, we find it hard to stomach this treatment, but in the context of this period in history, the commands in this chapter provided for improved treatment. For example, they required the man to provide for his concubine - even if he took another wife - without diminishing her provisions and released her without penalty if he failed to provide.
There are also some important foundations for law, such as taking responsibility for actions that hurt others even when they were not intentional. Ignoring the risk of an animal that has injured people in the past and paying for damage done by your animal are examples.
Even as we bristle at the notion that God didn't simply declare all slavery to be an abomination, we need to be mindful that there are more human beings held in slavery today than ever before in history. It is estimated that over 400,000 Americans are being trafficked today. Another 15,000 or more foreign nationals are being held as slaves in America.
There are many organizations that work to educate the public to recognize the signs of trafficking and to help women and children, who comprise 80% of all slaves, to escape and find safety.
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|
It's also important to distinguish between the type of slavery discussed here and chattel slavery as it was practiced in the US or other places in the past five hundred years. These rules were primarily regarding an individual selling themselves into servitude for a period not to exceed six years. Unable to provide for themselves, they would become slaves, exchanging their work for provision of food and shelter, and would go free without further payment in the seventh year. If they considered living under the protection and provision of their boss preferable to trying to make it on their own, they could declare themselves a slave for life by piercing their ear as described in Deuteronomy 15. But verse 16 expressly prohibits stealing a person to sell into slavery, or owning a person who has been sold in this way.
At least if the person were a man and a Hebrew.
Women, who were sold as concubines, and foreigners, who were captured during war, didn't have these rights. To our modern minds, we find it hard to stomach this treatment, but in the context of this period in history, the commands in this chapter provided for improved treatment. For example, they required the man to provide for his concubine - even if he took another wife - without diminishing her provisions and released her without penalty if he failed to provide.
There are also some important foundations for law, such as taking responsibility for actions that hurt others even when they were not intentional. Ignoring the risk of an animal that has injured people in the past and paying for damage done by your animal are examples.
Even as we bristle at the notion that God didn't simply declare all slavery to be an abomination, we need to be mindful that there are more human beings held in slavery today than ever before in history. It is estimated that over 400,000 Americans are being trafficked today. Another 15,000 or more foreign nationals are being held as slaves in America.
There are many organizations that work to educate the public to recognize the signs of trafficking and to help women and children, who comprise 80% of all slaves, to escape and find safety.
| 439
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ENGLISH
| 1
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A Project of the Miles Lerman Center
Samuel Gruber (ne Munyo Gruber) was born in 1913, in Podhajce, Poland (Pidhaitsi, Ukraine). As a youth, Samuel belonged to the Zionist organizations Ha-Shomer ha-Tza'ir and He-halutz. When he was 14, Samuel went to Lvov, Poland (Lviv, Ukraine) to attend high school. After graduation, Samuel remained in Lvov for about two years. He then returned to Podhajce where he worked as a bookkeeper for a company that manufactured farm equipment and bicycles.
Though very few Jews served in the Polish military, Samuel was drafted when he was 18 or 19. He served for a year and a half in Tarnopol, Ukraine. Two or three weeks before World War II broke out in 1939, Samuel was called into the reserves. While training in Nowy Sacz, Poland, Samuel's unit was unaware that the Germans had penetrated deep into Poland. The Germans surrounded Samuel's unit and fighting broke out. Samuel was shot in the arm and taken as a prisoner of war.
After a month in the hospital, Samuel and the other prisoners were transported to Stalag 13, a camp in Langwasser, Germany, near Nuremberg, Germany. On the second day, Jews were ordered to present themselves. Samuel hesitated, but two of his Polish “friends” shoved him forwards saying, “Here is a Jew.” The prisoners were transported from Nuremberg to Ludwigsburg and then to Munzinger, Germany. Because of his injured arm, Samuel was assigned to work in the kitchen. Samuel spoke fluent German, so he also helped out in the German offices.
In 1941, Samuel and the other prisoners were transported to Gleiwitz (Gliwice), Poland and then to Lipowa Seven, a camp in Lublin, Poland. There, Samuel was forced to help build the Majdanek camp. Later that year, Soviet prisoners of war became the first inmates. Samuel recalls that the Russians were treated horribly. A typhus epidemic broke out and Samuel, along with 400 others, was quarantined in a synagogue. A doctor with whom Samuel was acquainted gave Samuel a shot that saved his life. Three hundred people died during the typhus outbreak.
Samuel was assigned to work in an office of a hospital that distributed uniforms, rifles and pistols to German soldiers coming from the front. He was able to steal weapons, which were eventually sold to partisans. A Polish man advised Samuel to escape because eventually everyone in the camps would be killed. On October 28, 1942, Samuel walked through Lublin to the forest on the outskirts of town. Two partisans met Samuel and 22 other people, whom he had convinced to leave with him. Samuel was the leader of his partisan group. He changed his first name to Mietek, a typical Polish name, so that the Polish farmers would not know that he was Jewish.
The partisans burnt villages and fought the Germans. Samuel was liberated when the Russians liberated Lublin, Poland, in 1944. He married in 1945. In 1946, Samuel left Poland. He was made head of a displaced persons camp for children at Prien am Chiemsee, Germany in 1947. Samuel immigrated to the United States in 1949.
Series: Resistance in the Smaller Ghettos of Eastern Europe
Critical Thinking Questions
- What obstacles and limitations did Jews face when considering resistance?
- What pressures and motivations may have influenced Samuel Gruber's decisions and actions? Are these factors unique to this history or universal?
- How can societies, communities, and individuals reinforce and strengthen the willingness to stand up for others?
|
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] | 20
|
A Project of the Miles Lerman Center
Samuel Gruber (ne Munyo Gruber) was born in 1913, in Podhajce, Poland (Pidhaitsi, Ukraine). As a youth, Samuel belonged to the Zionist organizations Ha-Shomer ha-Tza'ir and He-halutz. When he was 14, Samuel went to Lvov, Poland (Lviv, Ukraine) to attend high school. After graduation, Samuel remained in Lvov for about two years. He then returned to Podhajce where he worked as a bookkeeper for a company that manufactured farm equipment and bicycles.
Though very few Jews served in the Polish military, Samuel was drafted when he was 18 or 19. He served for a year and a half in Tarnopol, Ukraine. Two or three weeks before World War II broke out in 1939, Samuel was called into the reserves. While training in Nowy Sacz, Poland, Samuel's unit was unaware that the Germans had penetrated deep into Poland. The Germans surrounded Samuel's unit and fighting broke out. Samuel was shot in the arm and taken as a prisoner of war.
After a month in the hospital, Samuel and the other prisoners were transported to Stalag 13, a camp in Langwasser, Germany, near Nuremberg, Germany. On the second day, Jews were ordered to present themselves. Samuel hesitated, but two of his Polish “friends” shoved him forwards saying, “Here is a Jew.” The prisoners were transported from Nuremberg to Ludwigsburg and then to Munzinger, Germany. Because of his injured arm, Samuel was assigned to work in the kitchen. Samuel spoke fluent German, so he also helped out in the German offices.
In 1941, Samuel and the other prisoners were transported to Gleiwitz (Gliwice), Poland and then to Lipowa Seven, a camp in Lublin, Poland. There, Samuel was forced to help build the Majdanek camp. Later that year, Soviet prisoners of war became the first inmates. Samuel recalls that the Russians were treated horribly. A typhus epidemic broke out and Samuel, along with 400 others, was quarantined in a synagogue. A doctor with whom Samuel was acquainted gave Samuel a shot that saved his life. Three hundred people died during the typhus outbreak.
Samuel was assigned to work in an office of a hospital that distributed uniforms, rifles and pistols to German soldiers coming from the front. He was able to steal weapons, which were eventually sold to partisans. A Polish man advised Samuel to escape because eventually everyone in the camps would be killed. On October 28, 1942, Samuel walked through Lublin to the forest on the outskirts of town. Two partisans met Samuel and 22 other people, whom he had convinced to leave with him. Samuel was the leader of his partisan group. He changed his first name to Mietek, a typical Polish name, so that the Polish farmers would not know that he was Jewish.
The partisans burnt villages and fought the Germans. Samuel was liberated when the Russians liberated Lublin, Poland, in 1944. He married in 1945. In 1946, Samuel left Poland. He was made head of a displaced persons camp for children at Prien am Chiemsee, Germany in 1947. Samuel immigrated to the United States in 1949.
Series: Resistance in the Smaller Ghettos of Eastern Europe
Critical Thinking Questions
- What obstacles and limitations did Jews face when considering resistance?
- What pressures and motivations may have influenced Samuel Gruber's decisions and actions? Are these factors unique to this history or universal?
- How can societies, communities, and individuals reinforce and strengthen the willingness to stand up for others?
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