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King Narmer was an ancient Egyptian pharaoh from the Early Dynastic Era. The majority of Egyptologists believe that Narmer was the same person as Menes, the founder of the First Dynasty, and the unifier of Egypt.
The first pharaoh of ancient Egypt and founder of the First Dynasty in 3050 BC, is an important figure in Egyptian history. He called him Menes, His reign lasted 62 years and he married Queen Neithhotep of Naqada
Narmer was the unifier of Egypt. He appears wearing the white war crown, which is unique to the Kingdom of the South, as he attacks an enemy. He also appears wearing the red crown of the Northern Kingdom, which many interpret as a testimony to his military unification of both countries.
He unified the country and annexed the Kingdom of the North and the Kingdom of the South. He sent military campaigns to Egypt and neighboring countries such as Nubia and established a new city of Memphis. There was an interest in the art of writing, sculpture, and agriculture.
The length of the Narmer painting is about 64 cm. It depicts the achievements of Narmer wearing the two crowns of Egypt, the “upper and lower crowns,” which were combined into one crown called the “double crown.” The painting also shows clothes and writings related to that period, and King Menes was the first king of Upper Egypt. The great peaceful unification of Egypt is depicted on the Narmer Stela and at the top of the stela there are heads of bulls that can be interpreted as heads of cows, representing the goddess Hathor. The painting was discovered by British archaeologists. This painting of King Narmer is now in the Egyptian Museum in Cairo.
A dam was built in Memphis to transform the Nile Canal into a lake, and the city of Shedit was built, located in Lake Maurice (currently Lake Qarun), which is today called Fayoum. A temple was built in Memphis (Ptah).
The name Narmer was found in many places in Egypt, in the Nile Valley, the desert, and southern Canaan Cylinder seals, in Naqada, the eastern Nile Delta, and southern Canaan, were written in hieroglyphics.
Pottery vessels have been discovered in several sites, both made in Egypt and made in the Egyptian style from local materials. Twenty serekhs have been found in Canaan that may belong to Narmer, but seven are unconfirmed or controversial.
It is located in the Umm el-Qa’ab area of Abydos. It consists of two rooms. It was rebuilt, reinforced with bricks, and painted white.
Finally, Narmer is one of the greatest kings of Egypt, as the country witnessed great social and political development. His reign added the distinctive features of Egypt’s past, his famous painting, and the royal tombs in Abydos.
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King Narmer was an ancient Egyptian pharaoh from the Early Dynastic Era. The majority of Egyptologists believe that Narmer was the same person as Menes, the founder of the First Dynasty, and the unifier of Egypt.
The first pharaoh of ancient Egypt and founder of the First Dynasty in 3050 BC, is an important figure in Egyptian history. He called him Menes, His reign lasted 62 years and he married Queen Neithhotep of Naqada
Narmer was the unifier of Egypt. He appears wearing the white war crown, which is unique to the Kingdom of the South, as he attacks an enemy. He also appears wearing the red crown of the Northern Kingdom, which many interpret as a testimony to his military unification of both countries.
He unified the country and annexed the Kingdom of the North and the Kingdom of the South. He sent military campaigns to Egypt and neighboring countries such as Nubia and established a new city of Memphis. There was an interest in the art of writing, sculpture, and agriculture.
The length of the Narmer painting is about 64 cm. It depicts the achievements of Narmer wearing the two crowns of Egypt, the “upper and lower crowns,” which were combined into one crown called the “double crown.” The painting also shows clothes and writings related to that period, and King Menes was the first king of Upper Egypt. The great peaceful unification of Egypt is depicted on the Narmer Stela and at the top of the stela there are heads of bulls that can be interpreted as heads of cows, representing the goddess Hathor. The painting was discovered by British archaeologists. This painting of King Narmer is now in the Egyptian Museum in Cairo.
A dam was built in Memphis to transform the Nile Canal into a lake, and the city of Shedit was built, located in Lake Maurice (currently Lake Qarun), which is today called Fayoum. A temple was built in Memphis (Ptah).
The name Narmer was found in many places in Egypt, in the Nile Valley, the desert, and southern Canaan Cylinder seals, in Naqada, the eastern Nile Delta, and southern Canaan, were written in hieroglyphics.
Pottery vessels have been discovered in several sites, both made in Egypt and made in the Egyptian style from local materials. Twenty serekhs have been found in Canaan that may belong to Narmer, but seven are unconfirmed or controversial.
It is located in the Umm el-Qa’ab area of Abydos. It consists of two rooms. It was rebuilt, reinforced with bricks, and painted white.
Finally, Narmer is one of the greatest kings of Egypt, as the country witnessed great social and political development. His reign added the distinctive features of Egypt’s past, his famous painting, and the royal tombs in Abydos.
| 595
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ENGLISH
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Historic Hood River
The Museum has many old family photo albums, and most of them start with a few tintype such as this. The tintype was an important step in the democratization of photography. The earlier daguerreotypes were expensive and fragile, involving a silver-plated polished copper plate which had to be sandwiched in glass to protect the fragile image. The tintype was made by exposing a wet emulsion on a backing of blackened iron (not really tin). From the 1850’s until they faded from popularity in the 1890s they were an affordable way for families to share keepsakes. They could be sent through the mail, so many Civil War soldiers sent tintypes back home.
It was very common for tintype portraits to be touched up as we see here. After developing the wet plate, the photographer would add a little blush to the cheeks and a dab of gold, in this case to the chain on his vest. The image was then varnished and ready to take home– an early “while you wait” photo process. The tintype was a direct (no intermediate negative) process, so if you have a tintype in your family album you can be sure no one else has a copy. This also means that most tintypes are laterally reversed, like looking at yourself in the mirror.
Most of the tintypes in the Museum’s collection are of unknown ancestors. We know little more than the location of the studio where it was prepared. If you have any tintypes in your album, try to identify the subject. It won’t get any easier.
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] | 1
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Historic Hood River
The Museum has many old family photo albums, and most of them start with a few tintype such as this. The tintype was an important step in the democratization of photography. The earlier daguerreotypes were expensive and fragile, involving a silver-plated polished copper plate which had to be sandwiched in glass to protect the fragile image. The tintype was made by exposing a wet emulsion on a backing of blackened iron (not really tin). From the 1850’s until they faded from popularity in the 1890s they were an affordable way for families to share keepsakes. They could be sent through the mail, so many Civil War soldiers sent tintypes back home.
It was very common for tintype portraits to be touched up as we see here. After developing the wet plate, the photographer would add a little blush to the cheeks and a dab of gold, in this case to the chain on his vest. The image was then varnished and ready to take home– an early “while you wait” photo process. The tintype was a direct (no intermediate negative) process, so if you have a tintype in your family album you can be sure no one else has a copy. This also means that most tintypes are laterally reversed, like looking at yourself in the mirror.
Most of the tintypes in the Museum’s collection are of unknown ancestors. We know little more than the location of the studio where it was prepared. If you have any tintypes in your album, try to identify the subject. It won’t get any easier.
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Professor Keith Mayes: celebrations like Juneteenth 'speak to what it means to be Black in the United States'
by Jill Riley
June 19, 2020
To commemorate Juneteenth, Morning Show host Jill Riley invited Dr. Keith Mayes, a professor in the department of African-American and African studies at the University of Minnesota, to have a conversation about the history of the holiday, as well as the necessity for more extensive Black history to be present in the curriculum taught in K-12 classrooms.
JILL RILEY: Dr. Keith Mayes, how are you doing?
KEITH MAYES: I'm doing OK.
I'm glad that you are on the line. Coming up for the Coffee Break, we're going to get to a bunch of songs of the topic of freedom because, really, that's what today is all about and what today is celebrating. There is such a heightened awareness of Juneteenth. I wonder if you could start of by giving some background and history to Juneteenth.
Juneteenth is a celebration that began on June 19, 1865. It was a commemoration or holiday that began when General Granger came into Galveston, Texas, on that day to announce to many of the enslaved Africans that the war was essentially coming to an end and that they were free; they no longer had to toil on plantations.
Although, there had been something called the Emancipation Proclamation, which was issued on September 22, 1862, but it, of course, went into effect on January 1, 1863. Many of the slaves in the South had not received word of that, because they were either in remote locations, the Confederate military effort was maybe not as pronounced in certain areas, the Union army may not have come through, so by the time they did come through, as the war was closing down, they ran across many Africans who were still enslaved on a lot of plantations in East Texas, and they proclaimed that slavery had ended. That was the day that African Americans in that location began to celebrate something that was called Jubilee Day, in the beginning, and then it turned into Juneteenth. The first celebration was June 19, 1866, a year after.
We have to think about the time, the late 1800s, and it's not like information was able to spread like wildfire. People were relying on each other to pass information, and not all of the information always got passed. There's that question of, "How did it take so long between the Emancipation Proclamation and Juneteenth?" It's a pretty complicated history there.
Yeah, and in the day of social media that we live in now, we just can't imagine — we can't quite fathom how information would have traveled that slow, but just think about being in a rural part of a country, in a state where you have hundreds of acres of agricultural fields and plantations, and you are hemmed in there as a worker and not really receiving any information. You may have, actually, received glimpses of what was going on, but not really, certainly not information that would impact your freedom and your daily life.
You can imagine what happened when many, many African Americans who were enslaved received the news of being free. They just couldn't believe it. They had to test their freedom by maybe going to the next plantation and seeing if it was true, walking around, moving out and about. We think of those as mundane activities, but those were revolutionary acts on a part of the people who were enslaved for hundreds of years. Just the ability to go about [their] business, that was radical. Of course, this was in the age of print media, but no broadcast media, and certainly no social media, so yes, news traveled very slowly.
Here we are in the year 2020. There is such a heightened awareness of this holiday right now.
Yes. It's so fascinating to me that commemorations — I call it the Black holiday tradition, and Juneteenth is just one of many, what we call "freedom days." There were days that were associated with January 1 and September 22. There were days associated with great heroic figures in Black history, and as you get into the 20th century, you start to find holidays like Black History Month, which was first Negro History Week, and then Martin Luther King Day, Kwanzaa… These kinds of celebrations are important because they do speak to what it means to be Black in the United States.
What's great about them, or maybe not so great, depending on how you argue the question, [is that] we can have an annual conversation about race in his country, about African-Americans, about the plight of the people who are still experiencing racism at a very high rate. The nice thing about holidays and commemoration is that we will have another opportunity, the next year, to have that same conversation. You see this with Martin Luther King Day. You see this with Kwanzaa. You see this with Black History Month, and all those people say, "They minimize it. It's only 28 days. It's only a day. It's only a week. It's not enough time. Not enough moments are given to African Americans to talk about their history and their experience in the United States." It's perennial. It's annual, and it's going to come around again, to have these conversations.
The mere fact that the murder of George Floyd took place on Memorial Day, three weeks before Juneteenth, inevitably, we were going to have a conversation about police violence, historical inequalities and disparities. We're going to keep that conversation going throughout the year as we hit these important on the calendar.
Juneteenth and the conversation about the holiday and it's spirit is very celebratory.
Yes. Yes it is. Many of the holidays are. You gather in the community. Of course, you engage in communication and dialogue. You talk about the past, the present, the future. You have food. It's a very festive atmosphere, as well as it being something that's reflective about where we were yesterday, where we are today, and where we're going tomorrow.
I certainly remember learning about the Emancipation Proclamation in school. I was in elementary school in the '80s and early '90s, and I don't ever remember having a conversation or it being a part of the curriculum to talk about Juneteenth. The hope is, going forward, that it won't just be this year, that there's a heightened awareness, that these kind of conversations and this history can be told in classrooms.
Yes. I think that that's one of the reasons why there's a push for ethnic studies in the K-12 classrooms. I've been involved in that in the last few years. Various districts in the Twin Cities metro area are trying to change the curriculum so that it can be more reflective of the people who live in the Twin Cities, and whose kids go to these schools. You're right. If we find any critical history or uncritical history of people of color, it's often those watershed moments that we've come to know: The Emancipation Proclamation, Rosa Parks, Martin Luther King, and not really even diving deeply into those subjects, because there's a lot more to know than what they give you on the surface. Certainly, there's nothing that would be akin to a comprehensive study of the people and their experience in the curriculum, and so we have to much better when it comes to that because we are talking about American history, and American history includes all the groups that are here.
I always say that people don't realize that people of color have been in the United States as long, if not longer, than most white people. African American history stretches all the way — we just celebrated last year our 400-year anniversary, 1619 to 2019. That's 400 years. It's 401 years in 2020. Same thing with Asian Americans and Natives, who obviously go back further than anybody. People of color built America. They are responsible for building the country, but you would not see that reflected in the curriculum to any large extent. We have to change that.
There are stories to be told about, let's just say, the American Industrial Revolution. [There were] people that participated in that scientific, technological revolution who were Black and brown. They may reduce Black history in the Industrial Revolution to Black inventors, and minimize it. They won't say that the larger contribution that Black folks made to every single major development in U.S. history is there, if you look for it. Of course, the reason why we have something called African American history, Native history, and so forth, is because those narratives have been left out of U.S. history. Hence, we need these parallel, separate histories, but if we really told the true story of the United States, we wouldn't even need them.
Keith Mayes - University of Minnesota faculty page
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Professor Keith Mayes: celebrations like Juneteenth 'speak to what it means to be Black in the United States'
by Jill Riley
June 19, 2020
To commemorate Juneteenth, Morning Show host Jill Riley invited Dr. Keith Mayes, a professor in the department of African-American and African studies at the University of Minnesota, to have a conversation about the history of the holiday, as well as the necessity for more extensive Black history to be present in the curriculum taught in K-12 classrooms.
JILL RILEY: Dr. Keith Mayes, how are you doing?
KEITH MAYES: I'm doing OK.
I'm glad that you are on the line. Coming up for the Coffee Break, we're going to get to a bunch of songs of the topic of freedom because, really, that's what today is all about and what today is celebrating. There is such a heightened awareness of Juneteenth. I wonder if you could start of by giving some background and history to Juneteenth.
Juneteenth is a celebration that began on June 19, 1865. It was a commemoration or holiday that began when General Granger came into Galveston, Texas, on that day to announce to many of the enslaved Africans that the war was essentially coming to an end and that they were free; they no longer had to toil on plantations.
Although, there had been something called the Emancipation Proclamation, which was issued on September 22, 1862, but it, of course, went into effect on January 1, 1863. Many of the slaves in the South had not received word of that, because they were either in remote locations, the Confederate military effort was maybe not as pronounced in certain areas, the Union army may not have come through, so by the time they did come through, as the war was closing down, they ran across many Africans who were still enslaved on a lot of plantations in East Texas, and they proclaimed that slavery had ended. That was the day that African Americans in that location began to celebrate something that was called Jubilee Day, in the beginning, and then it turned into Juneteenth. The first celebration was June 19, 1866, a year after.
We have to think about the time, the late 1800s, and it's not like information was able to spread like wildfire. People were relying on each other to pass information, and not all of the information always got passed. There's that question of, "How did it take so long between the Emancipation Proclamation and Juneteenth?" It's a pretty complicated history there.
Yeah, and in the day of social media that we live in now, we just can't imagine — we can't quite fathom how information would have traveled that slow, but just think about being in a rural part of a country, in a state where you have hundreds of acres of agricultural fields and plantations, and you are hemmed in there as a worker and not really receiving any information. You may have, actually, received glimpses of what was going on, but not really, certainly not information that would impact your freedom and your daily life.
You can imagine what happened when many, many African Americans who were enslaved received the news of being free. They just couldn't believe it. They had to test their freedom by maybe going to the next plantation and seeing if it was true, walking around, moving out and about. We think of those as mundane activities, but those were revolutionary acts on a part of the people who were enslaved for hundreds of years. Just the ability to go about [their] business, that was radical. Of course, this was in the age of print media, but no broadcast media, and certainly no social media, so yes, news traveled very slowly.
Here we are in the year 2020. There is such a heightened awareness of this holiday right now.
Yes. It's so fascinating to me that commemorations — I call it the Black holiday tradition, and Juneteenth is just one of many, what we call "freedom days." There were days that were associated with January 1 and September 22. There were days associated with great heroic figures in Black history, and as you get into the 20th century, you start to find holidays like Black History Month, which was first Negro History Week, and then Martin Luther King Day, Kwanzaa… These kinds of celebrations are important because they do speak to what it means to be Black in the United States.
What's great about them, or maybe not so great, depending on how you argue the question, [is that] we can have an annual conversation about race in his country, about African-Americans, about the plight of the people who are still experiencing racism at a very high rate. The nice thing about holidays and commemoration is that we will have another opportunity, the next year, to have that same conversation. You see this with Martin Luther King Day. You see this with Kwanzaa. You see this with Black History Month, and all those people say, "They minimize it. It's only 28 days. It's only a day. It's only a week. It's not enough time. Not enough moments are given to African Americans to talk about their history and their experience in the United States." It's perennial. It's annual, and it's going to come around again, to have these conversations.
The mere fact that the murder of George Floyd took place on Memorial Day, three weeks before Juneteenth, inevitably, we were going to have a conversation about police violence, historical inequalities and disparities. We're going to keep that conversation going throughout the year as we hit these important on the calendar.
Juneteenth and the conversation about the holiday and it's spirit is very celebratory.
Yes. Yes it is. Many of the holidays are. You gather in the community. Of course, you engage in communication and dialogue. You talk about the past, the present, the future. You have food. It's a very festive atmosphere, as well as it being something that's reflective about where we were yesterday, where we are today, and where we're going tomorrow.
I certainly remember learning about the Emancipation Proclamation in school. I was in elementary school in the '80s and early '90s, and I don't ever remember having a conversation or it being a part of the curriculum to talk about Juneteenth. The hope is, going forward, that it won't just be this year, that there's a heightened awareness, that these kind of conversations and this history can be told in classrooms.
Yes. I think that that's one of the reasons why there's a push for ethnic studies in the K-12 classrooms. I've been involved in that in the last few years. Various districts in the Twin Cities metro area are trying to change the curriculum so that it can be more reflective of the people who live in the Twin Cities, and whose kids go to these schools. You're right. If we find any critical history or uncritical history of people of color, it's often those watershed moments that we've come to know: The Emancipation Proclamation, Rosa Parks, Martin Luther King, and not really even diving deeply into those subjects, because there's a lot more to know than what they give you on the surface. Certainly, there's nothing that would be akin to a comprehensive study of the people and their experience in the curriculum, and so we have to much better when it comes to that because we are talking about American history, and American history includes all the groups that are here.
I always say that people don't realize that people of color have been in the United States as long, if not longer, than most white people. African American history stretches all the way — we just celebrated last year our 400-year anniversary, 1619 to 2019. That's 400 years. It's 401 years in 2020. Same thing with Asian Americans and Natives, who obviously go back further than anybody. People of color built America. They are responsible for building the country, but you would not see that reflected in the curriculum to any large extent. We have to change that.
There are stories to be told about, let's just say, the American Industrial Revolution. [There were] people that participated in that scientific, technological revolution who were Black and brown. They may reduce Black history in the Industrial Revolution to Black inventors, and minimize it. They won't say that the larger contribution that Black folks made to every single major development in U.S. history is there, if you look for it. Of course, the reason why we have something called African American history, Native history, and so forth, is because those narratives have been left out of U.S. history. Hence, we need these parallel, separate histories, but if we really told the true story of the United States, we wouldn't even need them.
Keith Mayes - University of Minnesota faculty page
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The ancient world of Rome and Greece have been the center of debate when it comes to historical hotspots. To understand the differences between these two historically influential cities, one must take a look at each culture, its locations, lifestyles, and beliefs. Through this research, one can make a conclusion as to which city was a better place to live in.
First and foremost, Rome was a superpower of its era. It was an empire that reached its peak in its political, economic, and cultural dominance. It was surrounded by a solid wall that gave it a sense of security and safety, allowed it access to vast resources, and an ideal location to serve as a center of the economy. Moreover, Rome had strong political and military leaders with secure structures of governance that provided stability and growth. In addition, its access to an abundance of natural resources, including wheat, timber, and hydropower, provided the locals with an adequate standard of living.
On the other hand, there was Greece, a city renowned for its many city-states. As opposed to Rome, Greece was more of an individual experience. Citizens had more autonomy to make decisions because each city was run by its own government. This allowed citizens to create their own laws and traditions for their communities. Although it was not as powerful as Rome, Greek citizens still lived a well-rounded existence. Most importantly, Greek philosophy served as the basis for many of their ideas, values, and beliefs. This thinking enhanced the flavor of their culture and gave their citizens a sense of purpose.
In terms of lifestyle and culture, Rome had more diversity compared to Greece. This is mainly because Rome was home to many immigrants and slaves, as well as native populations. This diversity made it a cultural melting pot and allowed it access to many superior and required goods, services, and technology. On the other hand, the citizens of Greece were more unified, with more of a focus on community and culture. This homogeneity gave Greece a unique edge that was much simpler than the culture of Rome.
So which city was better to live in? Ultimately, it depends on one’s personal preference. Greece was a more unified community, with an emphasis on philosophy and tradition, while Rome was a much more diverse and vibrant melting pot, with access to many resources and advancements. Both cities had their positives, leaving the decision as to which was a better place to live for the individual.
When it comes to economic opportunities, Rome was the clear winner. As mentioned earlier, the city was encompassed by a solid wall. This wall, along with the wealth and resources of Rome, provided for a strong economic base that provided many financial opportunities for citizens. As such, it was much easier for people to start businesses, invest, and find ways to make money. Additionally, opportunities were available in the public and private sector.
With Greece, the opportunities were more limited in comparison to Rome. Since the city was spread out in small states, there were fewer economic opportunities. This is due to the smaller population of the city and the fact that resources were harder to come by, making it harder to find legitimate and profitable businesses. Furthermore, those that existed were mainly located in the larger cities, such as Athens and Sparta.
In conclusion, Rome was the superior city when it came to economic opportunities due to its strong wall, resources, and wealth. It was much easier to start and sustain a business in Rome than it was in Greece, making it the better option for economic gains.
When it comes to architecture, both cities were great in their individual aspects. Rome was known for its many splendid buildings such as the Colosseum, Pantheon, and other monumental structures. These buildings and structures served to symbolize Rome’s greatness and power, making it known as one of the most impressive cities of its time.
Similarly, Greece was home to many distinct buildings and structures. One of the most famous is the Parthenon, the temple of Athena, which was the center of the Acropolis of Athens. In addition, there were the Temple of Zeus and many other monuments, all of which showcased the architectural talent of the Greeks.
In conclusion, both Rome and Greece had impressive architecture. Rome was known for its lavish monuments, while Greece had its many temples that showcased its immense talent for architecture. As such, it is up to the individual to determine which city is more suitable for their personal taste in architecture.
When it comes to culture, there are many differences between Rome and Greece. First and foremost, the religion that each city followed was quite distinct. Rome was largely polytheistic and its citizens were devoted to many gods. On the other hand, Greece was home to the worshippers of the many gods of the Olympian pantheon and Zeus was the head of the pantheon.
In addition, the language and literature of each city varied significantly. The Latin language, spoken in Rome, was the language of the empire and one of the most important languages in the world. Meanwhile, the ancient Greek language was the language of the philosophers, poets, and playwrights of its time. As for literature, Rome was home to the likes of Virgil, Ovid, and Horace, while Greece gave us authors such as Homer and Plato.
In conclusion, both Rome and Greece have distinct religions, languages, and literature that make them unique from one another. Each city has its own set of beliefs, practices, and literature that make it a great place to live and experience the culture.
When it comes to education, both Rome and Greece had highly advanced systems of learning. Rome was home to many different schools, such as grammar school and law school, that taught the study of literature, mathematics, philosophy, and rhetoric. On the other hand, Greece had an educational system known as the Trivium, which focused on the areas of grammar, logic, and rhetoric.
In addition, both cities also had access to libraries filled with works of great scholars. Rome was home to the largest library in the world, the Library of Alexandria, which was one of the main sources of information for scholars at the time. Similarly, the library of Athens was one of the most renowned libraries of Ancient Greece, and it was the first library to be founded in Europe.
In conclusion, both cities had highly advanced systems of education and access to a wealth of knowledge. This made them both ideal places for individuals seeking to learn and learn more about the world.
Overall, both Rome and Greece were great places to live in their own right. They both had great benefits, such as economic opportunities, strong architecture, unique cultures, and advanced educational systems. Ultimately, each city had something unique to offer and it is up to the individual to determine which city they believe is the better place to live.
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The ancient world of Rome and Greece have been the center of debate when it comes to historical hotspots. To understand the differences between these two historically influential cities, one must take a look at each culture, its locations, lifestyles, and beliefs. Through this research, one can make a conclusion as to which city was a better place to live in.
First and foremost, Rome was a superpower of its era. It was an empire that reached its peak in its political, economic, and cultural dominance. It was surrounded by a solid wall that gave it a sense of security and safety, allowed it access to vast resources, and an ideal location to serve as a center of the economy. Moreover, Rome had strong political and military leaders with secure structures of governance that provided stability and growth. In addition, its access to an abundance of natural resources, including wheat, timber, and hydropower, provided the locals with an adequate standard of living.
On the other hand, there was Greece, a city renowned for its many city-states. As opposed to Rome, Greece was more of an individual experience. Citizens had more autonomy to make decisions because each city was run by its own government. This allowed citizens to create their own laws and traditions for their communities. Although it was not as powerful as Rome, Greek citizens still lived a well-rounded existence. Most importantly, Greek philosophy served as the basis for many of their ideas, values, and beliefs. This thinking enhanced the flavor of their culture and gave their citizens a sense of purpose.
In terms of lifestyle and culture, Rome had more diversity compared to Greece. This is mainly because Rome was home to many immigrants and slaves, as well as native populations. This diversity made it a cultural melting pot and allowed it access to many superior and required goods, services, and technology. On the other hand, the citizens of Greece were more unified, with more of a focus on community and culture. This homogeneity gave Greece a unique edge that was much simpler than the culture of Rome.
So which city was better to live in? Ultimately, it depends on one’s personal preference. Greece was a more unified community, with an emphasis on philosophy and tradition, while Rome was a much more diverse and vibrant melting pot, with access to many resources and advancements. Both cities had their positives, leaving the decision as to which was a better place to live for the individual.
When it comes to economic opportunities, Rome was the clear winner. As mentioned earlier, the city was encompassed by a solid wall. This wall, along with the wealth and resources of Rome, provided for a strong economic base that provided many financial opportunities for citizens. As such, it was much easier for people to start businesses, invest, and find ways to make money. Additionally, opportunities were available in the public and private sector.
With Greece, the opportunities were more limited in comparison to Rome. Since the city was spread out in small states, there were fewer economic opportunities. This is due to the smaller population of the city and the fact that resources were harder to come by, making it harder to find legitimate and profitable businesses. Furthermore, those that existed were mainly located in the larger cities, such as Athens and Sparta.
In conclusion, Rome was the superior city when it came to economic opportunities due to its strong wall, resources, and wealth. It was much easier to start and sustain a business in Rome than it was in Greece, making it the better option for economic gains.
When it comes to architecture, both cities were great in their individual aspects. Rome was known for its many splendid buildings such as the Colosseum, Pantheon, and other monumental structures. These buildings and structures served to symbolize Rome’s greatness and power, making it known as one of the most impressive cities of its time.
Similarly, Greece was home to many distinct buildings and structures. One of the most famous is the Parthenon, the temple of Athena, which was the center of the Acropolis of Athens. In addition, there were the Temple of Zeus and many other monuments, all of which showcased the architectural talent of the Greeks.
In conclusion, both Rome and Greece had impressive architecture. Rome was known for its lavish monuments, while Greece had its many temples that showcased its immense talent for architecture. As such, it is up to the individual to determine which city is more suitable for their personal taste in architecture.
When it comes to culture, there are many differences between Rome and Greece. First and foremost, the religion that each city followed was quite distinct. Rome was largely polytheistic and its citizens were devoted to many gods. On the other hand, Greece was home to the worshippers of the many gods of the Olympian pantheon and Zeus was the head of the pantheon.
In addition, the language and literature of each city varied significantly. The Latin language, spoken in Rome, was the language of the empire and one of the most important languages in the world. Meanwhile, the ancient Greek language was the language of the philosophers, poets, and playwrights of its time. As for literature, Rome was home to the likes of Virgil, Ovid, and Horace, while Greece gave us authors such as Homer and Plato.
In conclusion, both Rome and Greece have distinct religions, languages, and literature that make them unique from one another. Each city has its own set of beliefs, practices, and literature that make it a great place to live and experience the culture.
When it comes to education, both Rome and Greece had highly advanced systems of learning. Rome was home to many different schools, such as grammar school and law school, that taught the study of literature, mathematics, philosophy, and rhetoric. On the other hand, Greece had an educational system known as the Trivium, which focused on the areas of grammar, logic, and rhetoric.
In addition, both cities also had access to libraries filled with works of great scholars. Rome was home to the largest library in the world, the Library of Alexandria, which was one of the main sources of information for scholars at the time. Similarly, the library of Athens was one of the most renowned libraries of Ancient Greece, and it was the first library to be founded in Europe.
In conclusion, both cities had highly advanced systems of education and access to a wealth of knowledge. This made them both ideal places for individuals seeking to learn and learn more about the world.
Overall, both Rome and Greece were great places to live in their own right. They both had great benefits, such as economic opportunities, strong architecture, unique cultures, and advanced educational systems. Ultimately, each city had something unique to offer and it is up to the individual to determine which city they believe is the better place to live.
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Contemporary artwork, created by Isa, Named
Femme, “années 70”
Drawing: art and means of communication!
Both an art and a means of communication, drawing has been mastered for more than 67,000 years by men, while they have only been able to write for 5,500 years. Children also often draw before they can even speak. The first sketches were made by the Romans. Subsequently, it was during the Renaissance that this art was revolutionized. In the 17th century, contemporary artists Rembrandt and Poussin brought modernization and a new vision. Formerly called a contemporary artist, today the designer expresses himself in comics, manga, illustrations, press cartoons...Learn more
The pastel technique has been used by artists since the Renaissance. Leonardo da Vinci used it and gave it its credentials. He appreciates in this process the fact of being able to give relief to the works.
However, it was later in the 18th century that painters specialized in this discipline. A big name from this era associated with this know-how is Quentin de la Tour. After them, many impressionists such as Mary Cassatt, Édouard Manet, Edgar Degas were also seduced by pastel. Then the Nabis with Édouard Vuillard.Learn more
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Contemporary artwork, created by Isa, Named
Femme, “années 70”
Drawing: art and means of communication!
Both an art and a means of communication, drawing has been mastered for more than 67,000 years by men, while they have only been able to write for 5,500 years. Children also often draw before they can even speak. The first sketches were made by the Romans. Subsequently, it was during the Renaissance that this art was revolutionized. In the 17th century, contemporary artists Rembrandt and Poussin brought modernization and a new vision. Formerly called a contemporary artist, today the designer expresses himself in comics, manga, illustrations, press cartoons...Learn more
The pastel technique has been used by artists since the Renaissance. Leonardo da Vinci used it and gave it its credentials. He appreciates in this process the fact of being able to give relief to the works.
However, it was later in the 18th century that painters specialized in this discipline. A big name from this era associated with this know-how is Quentin de la Tour. After them, many impressionists such as Mary Cassatt, Édouard Manet, Edgar Degas were also seduced by pastel. Then the Nabis with Édouard Vuillard.Learn more
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ENGLISH
| 1
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Weltpolitik could be argued to be a factor relating to the breakout of the First World War in August 1914. Although, it could be said that the war was avoidable and not inevitable, supported by Geiss in source 2 and Mombauer in source 3. On the other hand there are a two other main views which the sources suggest could be accountable for the outbreak of the war, with Deist source 1 mainly pushing for the political decision makers in the Kaiser and his military cabinet, such as Molkte and Tiripitz. The final factor that all three sources partially suggest is the impact of the tensions in the Balkans, mainly between the Austro-Hungarians and the Russians. Altogether, the idea that Weltpolitik made the First World War inevitable by August 1914 is short sighted as this is not entirely accountable for the war but was a contribution.
Source 2, even though it agrees with the statement also disagrees to an extent as well and supports source 3, blaming the immobilisation of Russia for the outbreak of war, linking to source 3 as Russia would have carefully thought out the plan to immobilise and rearm. Source 1 also slightly blames the Austrians for the start of the war due to the conflict between Austria-Hungary and Serbia in relation to the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand which is an important reason that should not be overlooked. Another reason for the outbreak of war is also the triple entente between Britain, France and Russia which caused Germany to feel encircled due to these countries geographical location, this could disprove source 2 about the schlieffen plan, arguing it was done in order to knock France out before war began officially and put ends to a 2 front war. Source 1 agrees with the statement that war broke out as a result of decisions made by the German military. ‘German military which ultimately secured by a combination of persuasion and defiance, the mobilisation orders, the ultimata and declarations of war which unleashed the conflict’ This shows the German military were the ones who ordered the mobilisation and rearmament of Germany and the use of the word ‘defiance’ means source 1
Although both authors agree on the fact that Germany bears much of the responsibility, this author emphasizes that it is all Germany’s fault. Berghahn’s main point was that the decision made by the Kaiser to activate the “Schlieffen Plan” was one that changed everything. This plan called for a small troop deployment against Russia while the rest of the German army would invade western France, by way of Belgium. When France was defeated, the plan was then for the German army to deploy to the east, against Russia. However, because of the ultimatum given to Belgium on August 2, 1914, by France, war was declared between the two countries on August 3.
A somewhat controversial notion is that Germany was responsible for the outbreak of the war, evident in the country’s aggressive actions towards foreign policy and their non hesitant approach to the devision of the military planning and developments. It is difficult to conclude whether this opinion is totally reliable due to the strong part Germany did play in the build up to the war. Whether their actions were protective, in attempt to gain higher power status or preparatory for war, Germany cannot wholly be to blame. As many historians have less controversially said, the fragile alliance systems; the Triple Entente and the Triple Alliance; in the setting of early twentieth century Europe meant that several countries were involved in the issues occurring in this time. Britain, France, Russia, Austria-Hungary and Germany all had a significant part play in the the outbreak of the first world war.
Source 1 seems to suggest that the Kaiser was the main cause of many of the problems apparent in Germany were due to the unchallengeable authority of the Kaiser. “It was the Kaiser…who insisted on exercising that authority” suggests that the dominance of the Kaiser was responsible for creating a lot of the problems in early 20th century Germany. This view is also shared by the historian John Rohl, who argued that Germany “was run as a ‘functioning monarchy’ with power concentrated in the hands of one man”, and therefore the Kaiser alone was responsible for successes or problems. Source one also suggests that the Kaiser “was responsible for ruining Germany’s relationship with Britain”. A key example of this would be the “Kruger telegram”, in which the Kaiser sent a personal telegram to President Kruger of the South African Republic, congratulating him on defeating British raiders.
This shows that appeasement, in which is designed to avoid conflict, war and death was causing it anyway by letting a country being invaded by an Aggressive leader such as Hitler. This factor of surrendering the Sudentland under appeasement is key to why British Foreign Policy was a disaster. The factor that War had broke out in 1939 despite the actions under the British Foreign Policy shows that the policy was a disaster. It had failed the main achievement of avoiding war in Europe, however with the aggressive leaders such as Hitler and Mussolini in Europe; many believed they needed to be confronted with rather than given what they wanted. Source 4 is an extract from a speech by Winston
The Treaty of Versailles in the mind of the Germans stabbed them in the back, especially the guilt clause that made them take blame for the First World War. Hitler capitalized on these sentiments and used them to rally the German people for his own Nazi Party. This is made obvious in his books “Mein Kampf” and its unnamed sequel. Another example is found in Triumph of the Will, in one of the speeches made during the movie. Without the Treaty of Versailles Germany would not have been in bad shape to begin with, thus not needing Hitler and second without it, Hitler would have lost a major public relations tool.
The three powers did not consult with Benes and the Czechs, nor with Russia. This made once again increased tension. Hitler had again achieved his aim by threatening force. Although Chamberlain declared that the appeasement meant ‘peace in our time’, he had at the same time authorized a great increase in arms spending. Hitler’s policies had led to a renewed arms race in Europe.
This treaty placed blame solely on Germany resulting in loss of the Rhineland, also Germany had to demilitarize and pay back billions to allies as part of war reparations. This push by the Allied powers left Germany defeated but not destroyed as this loss offered a starting point for a political push away from the imperial government of the past to a new republic as Germans began to revolt. Named the Weimar Republic, the new government in place was incapable of dealing with the complex problems via the Treaty of Versailles. Hyperinflation and political revolts began to affect the country. The sanctions of the treaty placed Germany was in dismay, this offered neighboring European countries the ability to take advantage of Germany.
This highlights the perception of Russia as a protector of the Slav people. This was the most significant reason for Russia going to war in 1914, and since Russia had vowed to protect Serbia, when she was threatened, Russia was required to become involved. This therefore shows that the assassination of Franz Ferdinand was the most important cause of Russia’s involvement in the war. Another important reason for Russia’s entry into the First World War was the mobilisation plans. This was important because the signing of them meant that Germany and Austria-Hungary felt threatened, and joined together in attacking Serbia.
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Weltpolitik could be argued to be a factor relating to the breakout of the First World War in August 1914. Although, it could be said that the war was avoidable and not inevitable, supported by Geiss in source 2 and Mombauer in source 3. On the other hand there are a two other main views which the sources suggest could be accountable for the outbreak of the war, with Deist source 1 mainly pushing for the political decision makers in the Kaiser and his military cabinet, such as Molkte and Tiripitz. The final factor that all three sources partially suggest is the impact of the tensions in the Balkans, mainly between the Austro-Hungarians and the Russians. Altogether, the idea that Weltpolitik made the First World War inevitable by August 1914 is short sighted as this is not entirely accountable for the war but was a contribution.
Source 2, even though it agrees with the statement also disagrees to an extent as well and supports source 3, blaming the immobilisation of Russia for the outbreak of war, linking to source 3 as Russia would have carefully thought out the plan to immobilise and rearm. Source 1 also slightly blames the Austrians for the start of the war due to the conflict between Austria-Hungary and Serbia in relation to the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand which is an important reason that should not be overlooked. Another reason for the outbreak of war is also the triple entente between Britain, France and Russia which caused Germany to feel encircled due to these countries geographical location, this could disprove source 2 about the schlieffen plan, arguing it was done in order to knock France out before war began officially and put ends to a 2 front war. Source 1 agrees with the statement that war broke out as a result of decisions made by the German military. ‘German military which ultimately secured by a combination of persuasion and defiance, the mobilisation orders, the ultimata and declarations of war which unleashed the conflict’ This shows the German military were the ones who ordered the mobilisation and rearmament of Germany and the use of the word ‘defiance’ means source 1
Although both authors agree on the fact that Germany bears much of the responsibility, this author emphasizes that it is all Germany’s fault. Berghahn’s main point was that the decision made by the Kaiser to activate the “Schlieffen Plan” was one that changed everything. This plan called for a small troop deployment against Russia while the rest of the German army would invade western France, by way of Belgium. When France was defeated, the plan was then for the German army to deploy to the east, against Russia. However, because of the ultimatum given to Belgium on August 2, 1914, by France, war was declared between the two countries on August 3.
A somewhat controversial notion is that Germany was responsible for the outbreak of the war, evident in the country’s aggressive actions towards foreign policy and their non hesitant approach to the devision of the military planning and developments. It is difficult to conclude whether this opinion is totally reliable due to the strong part Germany did play in the build up to the war. Whether their actions were protective, in attempt to gain higher power status or preparatory for war, Germany cannot wholly be to blame. As many historians have less controversially said, the fragile alliance systems; the Triple Entente and the Triple Alliance; in the setting of early twentieth century Europe meant that several countries were involved in the issues occurring in this time. Britain, France, Russia, Austria-Hungary and Germany all had a significant part play in the the outbreak of the first world war.
Source 1 seems to suggest that the Kaiser was the main cause of many of the problems apparent in Germany were due to the unchallengeable authority of the Kaiser. “It was the Kaiser…who insisted on exercising that authority” suggests that the dominance of the Kaiser was responsible for creating a lot of the problems in early 20th century Germany. This view is also shared by the historian John Rohl, who argued that Germany “was run as a ‘functioning monarchy’ with power concentrated in the hands of one man”, and therefore the Kaiser alone was responsible for successes or problems. Source one also suggests that the Kaiser “was responsible for ruining Germany’s relationship with Britain”. A key example of this would be the “Kruger telegram”, in which the Kaiser sent a personal telegram to President Kruger of the South African Republic, congratulating him on defeating British raiders.
This shows that appeasement, in which is designed to avoid conflict, war and death was causing it anyway by letting a country being invaded by an Aggressive leader such as Hitler. This factor of surrendering the Sudentland under appeasement is key to why British Foreign Policy was a disaster. The factor that War had broke out in 1939 despite the actions under the British Foreign Policy shows that the policy was a disaster. It had failed the main achievement of avoiding war in Europe, however with the aggressive leaders such as Hitler and Mussolini in Europe; many believed they needed to be confronted with rather than given what they wanted. Source 4 is an extract from a speech by Winston
The Treaty of Versailles in the mind of the Germans stabbed them in the back, especially the guilt clause that made them take blame for the First World War. Hitler capitalized on these sentiments and used them to rally the German people for his own Nazi Party. This is made obvious in his books “Mein Kampf” and its unnamed sequel. Another example is found in Triumph of the Will, in one of the speeches made during the movie. Without the Treaty of Versailles Germany would not have been in bad shape to begin with, thus not needing Hitler and second without it, Hitler would have lost a major public relations tool.
The three powers did not consult with Benes and the Czechs, nor with Russia. This made once again increased tension. Hitler had again achieved his aim by threatening force. Although Chamberlain declared that the appeasement meant ‘peace in our time’, he had at the same time authorized a great increase in arms spending. Hitler’s policies had led to a renewed arms race in Europe.
This treaty placed blame solely on Germany resulting in loss of the Rhineland, also Germany had to demilitarize and pay back billions to allies as part of war reparations. This push by the Allied powers left Germany defeated but not destroyed as this loss offered a starting point for a political push away from the imperial government of the past to a new republic as Germans began to revolt. Named the Weimar Republic, the new government in place was incapable of dealing with the complex problems via the Treaty of Versailles. Hyperinflation and political revolts began to affect the country. The sanctions of the treaty placed Germany was in dismay, this offered neighboring European countries the ability to take advantage of Germany.
This highlights the perception of Russia as a protector of the Slav people. This was the most significant reason for Russia going to war in 1914, and since Russia had vowed to protect Serbia, when she was threatened, Russia was required to become involved. This therefore shows that the assassination of Franz Ferdinand was the most important cause of Russia’s involvement in the war. Another important reason for Russia’s entry into the First World War was the mobilisation plans. This was important because the signing of them meant that Germany and Austria-Hungary felt threatened, and joined together in attacking Serbia.
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Thomas Andrews was the principal architect for the infamous RMS Titanic. He died in the sinking, on April 15, 1912.
Born on February 7, 1873, Thomas Andrews left school to become an apprentice at his uncle’s shipbuilding company, and later became the principal architect for the infamous RMS Titanic. In 1912, Andrews boarded the ship for her maiden voyage. When the ship hit an iceberg on April 14, 1912, he calculated that the damage would sink in it two hours. He went from cabin to cabin, urging women and children to get aboard the lifeboats. He died in the sinking on April 15, 1912, at age 39.
Shipbuilder and Titanic victim Thomas Andrews Jr. was born on February 7, 1873, in Comber, Northern Ireland. The nephew of Lord Pirrie, the owner of the shipbuilding firm Harland and Wolff, Thomas Andrews left school at age 16 to become an apprentice at his uncle's company. In time, Andrews rose through the ranks to become the managing director at Harland & Wolff, in charge of design. He became a member of the Institution of Naval Architects in 1901.
Principal Architect for the 'Titanic'
Andrews was the principal architect for Harland & Wolff's new superliner, the RMS Titanic. In 1912, he boarded the Titanic for her maiden voyage to America, as he made it a practice to accompany all of his ships' debuts for research purposes. When the ship collided with an iceberg on April 14, 1912, Captain Edward J. Smith consulted Andrews, who deemed that the damaged ship would sink in less than two hours. Andrews immediately went from cabin to cabin, urging women and children to get aboard the lifeboats, while knowing full well that there were not enough lifeboats to accommodate all of the passengers and crew.
Thomas Andrews was last seen near the first-class smoking room shortly before the Titanic sank, on April 15, 1912. Andrews died in the sinking, at age 39. He was survived by his wife, Helen Reilly Barbour, and their daughter, Elizabeth.
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Thomas Andrews was the principal architect for the infamous RMS Titanic. He died in the sinking, on April 15, 1912.
Born on February 7, 1873, Thomas Andrews left school to become an apprentice at his uncle’s shipbuilding company, and later became the principal architect for the infamous RMS Titanic. In 1912, Andrews boarded the ship for her maiden voyage. When the ship hit an iceberg on April 14, 1912, he calculated that the damage would sink in it two hours. He went from cabin to cabin, urging women and children to get aboard the lifeboats. He died in the sinking on April 15, 1912, at age 39.
Shipbuilder and Titanic victim Thomas Andrews Jr. was born on February 7, 1873, in Comber, Northern Ireland. The nephew of Lord Pirrie, the owner of the shipbuilding firm Harland and Wolff, Thomas Andrews left school at age 16 to become an apprentice at his uncle's company. In time, Andrews rose through the ranks to become the managing director at Harland & Wolff, in charge of design. He became a member of the Institution of Naval Architects in 1901.
Principal Architect for the 'Titanic'
Andrews was the principal architect for Harland & Wolff's new superliner, the RMS Titanic. In 1912, he boarded the Titanic for her maiden voyage to America, as he made it a practice to accompany all of his ships' debuts for research purposes. When the ship collided with an iceberg on April 14, 1912, Captain Edward J. Smith consulted Andrews, who deemed that the damaged ship would sink in less than two hours. Andrews immediately went from cabin to cabin, urging women and children to get aboard the lifeboats, while knowing full well that there were not enough lifeboats to accommodate all of the passengers and crew.
Thomas Andrews was last seen near the first-class smoking room shortly before the Titanic sank, on April 15, 1912. Andrews died in the sinking, at age 39. He was survived by his wife, Helen Reilly Barbour, and their daughter, Elizabeth.
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ENGLISH
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Text: Marit Synnøve Vea
King Half/Halv was the great great grandson of King Augvald. He probably lived some time during the 8th century. The name Half (Old Norse Halfr) is believed to come from ON há alfr = high elf. Others have suggested that the name is derived from the ancient Scandinavian word for war wolf (Haþuwulafr.)
It is first and foremost in the ancient Saga of Half & His Heroes that we read about Half the Viking hero who was certainly famous in his own time, but we also find traces of him in other Norse literature:
In the skaldic poem Ynglingatal (probably from around 900), Half’s death is used as a symbol for fire. (Half was burnt to death by his stepfather). This indicates that Half was still well known in the century following his death.
The Edda poem Hyndluljod says (depending on the particular translation we are reading) … and Hild gave birth to Halfr/Hild was Half’s mother/but the eldest brother was called (H)Alf. In the ancient poem Gudrunkvida (lay about Gudrun), we learn that Gudrun, grieving for the death of Sigurd Fåvnesbane, goes into the mountains: for five whole days until I could see Half’s high hall. In the Flatey Book, we find an account of the magnificent gold ring that Half apparently owned. The Faroese poem Alvur kongur (King Alf) is also about Half.
How Half chose the crew for his Viking raids
The Saga of Half & His Heroes relates that when Half was 12 years old, he was bigger and stronger than anyone else. He had a fine new ship and intended to go on a Viking raid, but he wanted to take only the very best of men with him. He therefore laid down strict conditions for those who were to be allowed onto the ship.
The first to be chosen was Innstein from Hordaland. Innstein’s son, Ottar, is the main character in the Edda poem Hyndluljod. Innstein was 18 years old and became Half’s counsellor; nobody younger than he was to go on the raid, apart from Half himself.
Back home at the manor, there was a large stone and only those who managed to lift this stone from the ground were included in the crew of the ship. Only those who were so courageous that they never showed fear, gave voice to desperation or complained about their wounds were selected. Amongst those chosen were two brothers named Rok the black and Rok the white. Rok the black later wrote a poem about King Half and his men.
In the end, there were 23 men from 11 different counties and these were the first to be chosen to accompany Half on his Viking raid, along with one other: Stein, the brother of Innstein.
Stein was no older than Half and because of his age was precluded from accompanying the others. He therefore made his way to a peninsula and waited until Half’s ship came sailing towards him in a rough sea. Stein begged to be taken on board. He was then allowed to board the ship and Half gave him the task of steering the ship. From then on, Stein was called Utstein (Outstein), because he stood out and waited. There were now 24 men on board the ship.
The crew on King Half’s ship were called Half’s heroes. Each one of them had the strength of 12 ordinary men put together. It is said that Half never wanted to have more than 60 men on board his ship.
Half and his men plied the Eas Way (Austerveg) for 18 years. They fought many battles and were always victorious.
The story goes that Half and his warriors never lowered the sail and never sought shelter in a harbour, even in a storm, but lay anchor on the outermost tip of land. On one occasion, they sailed into a terrible storm at sea. The usual practice was to cast lots as to who should be the first to jump into the sea, but Half’s men all fought to be the first and cried: “We won’t have to lay sick on our deathbed if we jump over the ship’s side.”
Half and his warriors waited for a whole day before tending any wounds they had and they used short, single-edged Saxon swords in order to get close to their enemy. However, it was said that Half and his heroes never abused women or children and that Half instructed his men to bestow gifts on the woman they married. In other words, they were told to treat women in a courtly manner.
Half is betrayed by his stepfather
Half was the son of Hjorleiv the woman-lover. When Hjorleiv was killed on a Viking raid, Hild the slim married King Åsmund, who became foster father to Hjorleiv’s sons. Half’s kingdom was in Rogaland and Hordaland. After his Viking raids, he returned home to his kingdom and was met by his stepfather. Åsmund swore allegiance to Half and invited him and his army to a banquet.
Innstein, whose dreams came true, warned Half and told him that he had had a nightmare that Åsmund would betray them, but Half thought it was dishonourable for a king not to believe in the oath sworn by another king.
So Half and his men went to Åsmund’s manor, where they were given a magnificent reception, with plenty of food and drink. So much drink was poured into their horns that they soon all fell asleep. Åsmund then locked the doors and set fire to the hall.
Half died laughing
Half and his men did not wake up before the hall was full of smoke and flames. Half called to his men to fling themselves onto the walls, to break them down. They did so and managed to escape.
But outside the hall, Åsmund and his army stood waiting for the half-suffocated men as they rushed out. One by one, they were slain. Those of Half’s men who had remained on the ship also came to the scene and the battle raged all night long. But this was one battle that the heroes could not win – they were outnumbered.
Innstein was one of those killed – together with Rok the white, he fell to the ground beside Half. Before he died, Innstein said that Half laughed as he died.
I’ve been at sea
a bold boss I served,
stained shaft with blood.
I’ll never find
more gallant in war,
nor grow old now.
So here Innstein
sinks to the ground,
lays himself down
by his leader’s head.
In latter times
at the telling of sagas,
they’ll hear of how
King Half died laughing. (Translation by Peter Tunstall)
Half is avenged
Rok the black and Utstein survived the battle and together with Half’s son Hjør, they went to avenge Åsmund’s betrayal of Half and his men. In the Historia rerum Norvegicarum, Tormod Torfæus tells the story as follows:
The following summer, Hjor, King Half’s son, summoned Solve, the King of Sweden, Half’s uncle, Hake, the King of Skåne, together with his son-in-law Rok, and Øystein, King of part of Denmark, followed by Utstein. With their armies, they sailed with an enormous fleet to Hordaland in order to avenge the murder of Half. It was easy to see how powerful Åsmund was, when so many powerful kings, led by Solve, had combined forces to fight him. And Åsmund was neither unprepared nor afraid, but did battle with them with great zeal and fought for a long time against the attack of these powerful kings.
We may reasonably believe that he was supported by allies, but in the end, the strongest and largest side had to win, and Åsmund was slain in battle.
Rok the black: the Viking and skald who tells the story of King Half
According to the saga, Rok and Utstein lived long lives as Vikings. Rok served under King Hake of Skåne, without anyone knowing who he really was. He was often mournful and had to swallow many patronising remarks from people who did not know who he was. Finally, Rok could stand it no longer and he told them that he was one of Half’s men.
Rok was also a skald and many of the verses that we believe he wrote are in the Saga of Half & His Heroes.
Half I saw hew
no shield sheltered
our chief that day.
A worthier warrior
you wouldn’t find,
though hard you hunt,
or stouter-hearted. (Translation by Peter Tunstall)
While Rok resided at the court of Skåne, he fell in love with the king’s daughter, Brynhild, whom he married.
The family tree of King Augvald
|Kåre (Vind)- Loge
|Nor – Goe
|Augvald(ca 600 e.Kr.?)
|Hjørleiv den kvinnekjære
|Geirmund og Håmund Heljarskinn (Settlers in Island)
Main photos/illustrations: Eva Gjerde, Historisk Museum, Bergen
|
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CC-MAIN-2024-10
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https://avaldsnes.info/en/informasjon/halv/
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s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2024-10/segments/1707947476205.65/warc/CC-MAIN-20240303043351-20240303073351-00501.warc.gz
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Text: Marit Synnøve Vea
King Half/Halv was the great great grandson of King Augvald. He probably lived some time during the 8th century. The name Half (Old Norse Halfr) is believed to come from ON há alfr = high elf. Others have suggested that the name is derived from the ancient Scandinavian word for war wolf (Haþuwulafr.)
It is first and foremost in the ancient Saga of Half & His Heroes that we read about Half the Viking hero who was certainly famous in his own time, but we also find traces of him in other Norse literature:
In the skaldic poem Ynglingatal (probably from around 900), Half’s death is used as a symbol for fire. (Half was burnt to death by his stepfather). This indicates that Half was still well known in the century following his death.
The Edda poem Hyndluljod says (depending on the particular translation we are reading) … and Hild gave birth to Halfr/Hild was Half’s mother/but the eldest brother was called (H)Alf. In the ancient poem Gudrunkvida (lay about Gudrun), we learn that Gudrun, grieving for the death of Sigurd Fåvnesbane, goes into the mountains: for five whole days until I could see Half’s high hall. In the Flatey Book, we find an account of the magnificent gold ring that Half apparently owned. The Faroese poem Alvur kongur (King Alf) is also about Half.
How Half chose the crew for his Viking raids
The Saga of Half & His Heroes relates that when Half was 12 years old, he was bigger and stronger than anyone else. He had a fine new ship and intended to go on a Viking raid, but he wanted to take only the very best of men with him. He therefore laid down strict conditions for those who were to be allowed onto the ship.
The first to be chosen was Innstein from Hordaland. Innstein’s son, Ottar, is the main character in the Edda poem Hyndluljod. Innstein was 18 years old and became Half’s counsellor; nobody younger than he was to go on the raid, apart from Half himself.
Back home at the manor, there was a large stone and only those who managed to lift this stone from the ground were included in the crew of the ship. Only those who were so courageous that they never showed fear, gave voice to desperation or complained about their wounds were selected. Amongst those chosen were two brothers named Rok the black and Rok the white. Rok the black later wrote a poem about King Half and his men.
In the end, there were 23 men from 11 different counties and these were the first to be chosen to accompany Half on his Viking raid, along with one other: Stein, the brother of Innstein.
Stein was no older than Half and because of his age was precluded from accompanying the others. He therefore made his way to a peninsula and waited until Half’s ship came sailing towards him in a rough sea. Stein begged to be taken on board. He was then allowed to board the ship and Half gave him the task of steering the ship. From then on, Stein was called Utstein (Outstein), because he stood out and waited. There were now 24 men on board the ship.
The crew on King Half’s ship were called Half’s heroes. Each one of them had the strength of 12 ordinary men put together. It is said that Half never wanted to have more than 60 men on board his ship.
Half and his men plied the Eas Way (Austerveg) for 18 years. They fought many battles and were always victorious.
The story goes that Half and his warriors never lowered the sail and never sought shelter in a harbour, even in a storm, but lay anchor on the outermost tip of land. On one occasion, they sailed into a terrible storm at sea. The usual practice was to cast lots as to who should be the first to jump into the sea, but Half’s men all fought to be the first and cried: “We won’t have to lay sick on our deathbed if we jump over the ship’s side.”
Half and his warriors waited for a whole day before tending any wounds they had and they used short, single-edged Saxon swords in order to get close to their enemy. However, it was said that Half and his heroes never abused women or children and that Half instructed his men to bestow gifts on the woman they married. In other words, they were told to treat women in a courtly manner.
Half is betrayed by his stepfather
Half was the son of Hjorleiv the woman-lover. When Hjorleiv was killed on a Viking raid, Hild the slim married King Åsmund, who became foster father to Hjorleiv’s sons. Half’s kingdom was in Rogaland and Hordaland. After his Viking raids, he returned home to his kingdom and was met by his stepfather. Åsmund swore allegiance to Half and invited him and his army to a banquet.
Innstein, whose dreams came true, warned Half and told him that he had had a nightmare that Åsmund would betray them, but Half thought it was dishonourable for a king not to believe in the oath sworn by another king.
So Half and his men went to Åsmund’s manor, where they were given a magnificent reception, with plenty of food and drink. So much drink was poured into their horns that they soon all fell asleep. Åsmund then locked the doors and set fire to the hall.
Half died laughing
Half and his men did not wake up before the hall was full of smoke and flames. Half called to his men to fling themselves onto the walls, to break them down. They did so and managed to escape.
But outside the hall, Åsmund and his army stood waiting for the half-suffocated men as they rushed out. One by one, they were slain. Those of Half’s men who had remained on the ship also came to the scene and the battle raged all night long. But this was one battle that the heroes could not win – they were outnumbered.
Innstein was one of those killed – together with Rok the white, he fell to the ground beside Half. Before he died, Innstein said that Half laughed as he died.
I’ve been at sea
a bold boss I served,
stained shaft with blood.
I’ll never find
more gallant in war,
nor grow old now.
So here Innstein
sinks to the ground,
lays himself down
by his leader’s head.
In latter times
at the telling of sagas,
they’ll hear of how
King Half died laughing. (Translation by Peter Tunstall)
Half is avenged
Rok the black and Utstein survived the battle and together with Half’s son Hjør, they went to avenge Åsmund’s betrayal of Half and his men. In the Historia rerum Norvegicarum, Tormod Torfæus tells the story as follows:
The following summer, Hjor, King Half’s son, summoned Solve, the King of Sweden, Half’s uncle, Hake, the King of Skåne, together with his son-in-law Rok, and Øystein, King of part of Denmark, followed by Utstein. With their armies, they sailed with an enormous fleet to Hordaland in order to avenge the murder of Half. It was easy to see how powerful Åsmund was, when so many powerful kings, led by Solve, had combined forces to fight him. And Åsmund was neither unprepared nor afraid, but did battle with them with great zeal and fought for a long time against the attack of these powerful kings.
We may reasonably believe that he was supported by allies, but in the end, the strongest and largest side had to win, and Åsmund was slain in battle.
Rok the black: the Viking and skald who tells the story of King Half
According to the saga, Rok and Utstein lived long lives as Vikings. Rok served under King Hake of Skåne, without anyone knowing who he really was. He was often mournful and had to swallow many patronising remarks from people who did not know who he was. Finally, Rok could stand it no longer and he told them that he was one of Half’s men.
Rok was also a skald and many of the verses that we believe he wrote are in the Saga of Half & His Heroes.
Half I saw hew
no shield sheltered
our chief that day.
A worthier warrior
you wouldn’t find,
though hard you hunt,
or stouter-hearted. (Translation by Peter Tunstall)
While Rok resided at the court of Skåne, he fell in love with the king’s daughter, Brynhild, whom he married.
The family tree of King Augvald
|Kåre (Vind)- Loge
|Nor – Goe
|Augvald(ca 600 e.Kr.?)
|Hjørleiv den kvinnekjære
|Geirmund og Håmund Heljarskinn (Settlers in Island)
Main photos/illustrations: Eva Gjerde, Historisk Museum, Bergen
| 1,979
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Although men and women’s basketball are closer to being equal than softball and baseball, the leagues are still separate. America has a women’s league and a men’s league and never the two shall meet. A woman is not allowed in the NBA since she has the WNBA. The separation is strong, obvious, and seemingly permanent. Like basketball, they created softball to play indoors during the winter. The game earned the name softball and due to its easier properties was often “regarded as baseball’s stepchild” (Ring, p. 60). They passed the game down to women, as it seemed safe enough to limit the risk of injury. And so the separation began.
Astonishingly, sexism still exists and in 2002, columnist Stephen Moore expressed, allowing women to play in March Madness is “annoying” and the tournament would be better without them (McDonagh & Pappano, p. 237). He believes women in sports intrude and ruin “precious moments of bonding” (McDonagh & Pappano, p. 237). This all begins with the idea men are better than women. These mindsets believe men have superior talent and therefor deserve to have their own sports. They should not have to share with the lesser sex.
The main reason for keeping them separated? Money. While countless reports show the difference in male and female salaries, they are not required to know males create a larger profit than female athletics. The University of Oklahoma is famous for football and often men’s basketball. The stars of the sports grace the covers Sports
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Women in professional sports fits into the Sex and Power: Global Gender Inequality class because many female athletes have experienced the inequalities in a professional sports setting. Female athletes are being put down by gender inequalities, causing less females participating in athletic programs. Women athletes are being paid less than their male counterparts. Along with being paid less, female and males are receiving unequal benefits in the form of scholarship, media coverage, transportation, and stadium conditions. The professional sport’s world is filled with the obsession of body image and sexuality. Through this obsession, female athletes have been abused from the people they trust the most. There is an increasing inequality in women’s professional sports in the form of pay, sexuality, and abuse.
Women have struggled for more than two centuries to be taken serious as professionals. There should not be a double standard in sports especially if it is loved and played by both genders. Over the years, females have competed against the stereotype of being too fragile both mentally and physically to play strenuous sports. The passion and work ethic of the female professional athletes is just as strong as the males and everyone should be treated equal and be able to have a chance at making a better living for themselves as well as their family. One area that still faces a continual struggle in sports is gender equality. Female
The ladies are just as entertaining and competitive as the men in the NBA, but why aren’t they being seen and not getting paid as much. In 1973, the famous Title IX act was passed. This prohibited discrimination in school programs receiving federal funds. That meant girls had to be considered for those slots in law schools, medical schools, and engineering classes that led to the better paying jobs. It also meant girls’ sports should get a fair share of funding. It was no longer legal for schools to field six
The Women’s National Basketball Association, more commonly known as the WNBA, is a professional basketball league consisting of 12 teams spanning across the United States. The league was founded in 1996 but didn’t officially kick off until 1997. While it’s not the first major women’s professional basketball league in the United States, the WNBA is the only league that has received full backing from the National Basketball Association, more commonly, the NBA. Now in its 20th season under the direction of league president Lisa Borders, the regular season is played from June to September with the playoffs spanning through the remainder of September into the middle of October. Although they have the full backing from the NBA, there are still a few discrepancies between the two leagues. Even though WNBA games are not as exciting as NBA games, the players of the WNBA deserve equal pay because the team mindset makes the game more challenging, players continue to show their hard work in the offseason by playing overseas, and they inspire young girls by providing for charities as a result of their work.
What you have just read above is the “Prohibition of Sex Discrimination”, also known as Title IX. Title IX has been effective in the realm of education for nearly three decades, but has been a source a controversy in collegiate sports. Since the beginning of time, women were believed to be inferior to men in every way. Women were socialized to bear children and take care of the household when, and only when, the men were out hunting.
Money is usually a problem with many things in life, one of them also happens to be gender equality. Colleges and universities spend an average of $1.6 million on the men’s athletics program. Yet, the women’s athletic teams receive nearly half that amount (Almond 2). Women should not be receiving half the amount that a men’s team gets just because their sports are less ‘popular’ than men’s. A school’s main objective may be to promote the men’s team first, to get out of a deficit. Then they may be able to finance the women’s team with the money they make from the men’s sporting events. That is not an equal or fair solution. It would take years to pay off a deficit and then sufficiently finance the female athletic programs. Numerical equality would take a vast quantity of public tax money in addition to the financial assistance that now pays for most of women’s sports. Universities increased its support of women’s athletics over the years but according to Ellen Voelz,
It is the year 2016, the United States has had its first African American president, gay marriage is legalized, and women and men are supposedly seen as equals in the workplace and educational institutions. It is important to note that while steps to equality have been made through the Equal Pay Act and Title IX, gender discrimination is still prevalent in society. The NCAA reported since 1988, in the 2007-2008 academic year, institutions yielded a net gain of 2, 342 women’s teams added to varsity rosters (Pickett, Dawkins, Braddock, 2012). There are now more than 174,000 female collegiate athletes thanks to Title IX (Koller, 2010). Though there has been a substantial increase in female athletic participation, this number is still nowhere near the participation of male athletes. Many women still do not participate in sports due to discrimination and the concept of equality in Title IX could potentially affect women’s interest in athletic participation.
After researching and viewing different information about women in sports, I have learned a lot of great information that I didn’t know about women that are involved in sports. I really don’t watch too many women sports that much, but I didn’t know how there is more man who is coaches and owners in the WNBA than women are. I was very surprise once I learned that there are men in the WNBA have control over a lot of the teams, which I thought since it was a woman’s sport, the entire organization would be dominate with women just like men are with the NBA. I always known that there are very few women that have global recognition, but after working on my debate presentation, it really made me realize that men still dominate the sport. I think that
Women’s equality is an issue that has been around for awhile. While women have been given many rights to increase equality, including the right to vote and go to college, the problem hasn’t completely vanished. One area that still sees this is in sports. Women’s sports do not draw nearly as many fans and are not covered in the media as much as men’s sports, pay differences between male and female athletes are large, and female athletes have to wait longer to start their professional career than men, which risks their professional career before it even starts.
The sports world has been a new area where women are recognized. In previous times women’s sports were almost non-existent. In schools many girl teams did not receive adequate funds for uniforms and equipment. Boys sports were much more popular, such as football or basketball. If a girl wanted to play a guy sport she would be labeled as a
Sexism limits our country. In a world where sexism still exists, women face challenges every day as they choose to embark in athletic activities. Even with the efforts of Title IX, which was established in 1972, there is not equality in sports for men and women. Sexism is real with stereotypes and discrimination on the basis of sex. Even with the high level of success reached by numerous female athletes of many different sports, male athletes always seem to have the upper hand. Whether it is pay, media, support, gear, or playing grounds, one sex always has the better of the two. Male athletes dominate a field that truly is shared by both sexes. What if we treated male athletes the way we treat female athletes? That is a world hard to imagine, and honestly, it shouldn't be. Through female athletes sharing their stories of unfair treatment and pay, sexism and generations of inequality in sports can be overcome.
Basketball is one of the biggest sports in America. It is also popular around the worlds. Men’s basketball, in particular, is given much more preference in American society. Many would argue that the comparison of the two simply boils down to sexism in sports, where people downgrade the strength and athletic ability of women in our society according to typical gender roles. However, there may be more confounding factors that are generally overlooked.
As I dribbled through cones, performed numerous exercises on the agility ladder and meticulously gaged my form as I hurled up ball after ball trying to perfecting my jump shot at midnight, I knew copious other high school, college and NBA basketball players were exerting as much and, if not, more effort and energy in hope of making small strides in their game that would all accumulate and help be a transformed player next season. Basketball, in its purest form, is a team of players that use various plays, technique and strategies to outscore their opponent as well as to stop their opponent from scoring; however, after competitively playing basketball at the high school level and watching the NBA as a fanatic and enthused fan as well as examining other aspects a fan is bound to come across whiles watching the NBA, such as the reporters, seemingly excessive money and how the game is played, it’s as if high school basketball and the NBA are playing two distinct sports.
During this century women have been able to break out of the traditional female mold. Women have broken the chains that bond them to the home and have emerged into all sorts of male dominated arenas, including sports. Women have become athletes in their own right. In the last ten years there has been validation for the female athlete. The WNBA was created giving women a professional league in a mainstream traditionally male sport for the first time since the All American Girls Professional Baseball League went out of existence in the 1950s. And recently a woman made the cut and participated on the professional golf circuit with the men. Today, we see women athletes in the media regularly. Women's college basketball is given airtime on weekends just as men's is.
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Although men and women’s basketball are closer to being equal than softball and baseball, the leagues are still separate. America has a women’s league and a men’s league and never the two shall meet. A woman is not allowed in the NBA since she has the WNBA. The separation is strong, obvious, and seemingly permanent. Like basketball, they created softball to play indoors during the winter. The game earned the name softball and due to its easier properties was often “regarded as baseball’s stepchild” (Ring, p. 60). They passed the game down to women, as it seemed safe enough to limit the risk of injury. And so the separation began.
Astonishingly, sexism still exists and in 2002, columnist Stephen Moore expressed, allowing women to play in March Madness is “annoying” and the tournament would be better without them (McDonagh & Pappano, p. 237). He believes women in sports intrude and ruin “precious moments of bonding” (McDonagh & Pappano, p. 237). This all begins with the idea men are better than women. These mindsets believe men have superior talent and therefor deserve to have their own sports. They should not have to share with the lesser sex.
The main reason for keeping them separated? Money. While countless reports show the difference in male and female salaries, they are not required to know males create a larger profit than female athletics. The University of Oklahoma is famous for football and often men’s basketball. The stars of the sports grace the covers Sports
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Women in professional sports fits into the Sex and Power: Global Gender Inequality class because many female athletes have experienced the inequalities in a professional sports setting. Female athletes are being put down by gender inequalities, causing less females participating in athletic programs. Women athletes are being paid less than their male counterparts. Along with being paid less, female and males are receiving unequal benefits in the form of scholarship, media coverage, transportation, and stadium conditions. The professional sport’s world is filled with the obsession of body image and sexuality. Through this obsession, female athletes have been abused from the people they trust the most. There is an increasing inequality in women’s professional sports in the form of pay, sexuality, and abuse.
Women have struggled for more than two centuries to be taken serious as professionals. There should not be a double standard in sports especially if it is loved and played by both genders. Over the years, females have competed against the stereotype of being too fragile both mentally and physically to play strenuous sports. The passion and work ethic of the female professional athletes is just as strong as the males and everyone should be treated equal and be able to have a chance at making a better living for themselves as well as their family. One area that still faces a continual struggle in sports is gender equality. Female
The ladies are just as entertaining and competitive as the men in the NBA, but why aren’t they being seen and not getting paid as much. In 1973, the famous Title IX act was passed. This prohibited discrimination in school programs receiving federal funds. That meant girls had to be considered for those slots in law schools, medical schools, and engineering classes that led to the better paying jobs. It also meant girls’ sports should get a fair share of funding. It was no longer legal for schools to field six
The Women’s National Basketball Association, more commonly known as the WNBA, is a professional basketball league consisting of 12 teams spanning across the United States. The league was founded in 1996 but didn’t officially kick off until 1997. While it’s not the first major women’s professional basketball league in the United States, the WNBA is the only league that has received full backing from the National Basketball Association, more commonly, the NBA. Now in its 20th season under the direction of league president Lisa Borders, the regular season is played from June to September with the playoffs spanning through the remainder of September into the middle of October. Although they have the full backing from the NBA, there are still a few discrepancies between the two leagues. Even though WNBA games are not as exciting as NBA games, the players of the WNBA deserve equal pay because the team mindset makes the game more challenging, players continue to show their hard work in the offseason by playing overseas, and they inspire young girls by providing for charities as a result of their work.
What you have just read above is the “Prohibition of Sex Discrimination”, also known as Title IX. Title IX has been effective in the realm of education for nearly three decades, but has been a source a controversy in collegiate sports. Since the beginning of time, women were believed to be inferior to men in every way. Women were socialized to bear children and take care of the household when, and only when, the men were out hunting.
Money is usually a problem with many things in life, one of them also happens to be gender equality. Colleges and universities spend an average of $1.6 million on the men’s athletics program. Yet, the women’s athletic teams receive nearly half that amount (Almond 2). Women should not be receiving half the amount that a men’s team gets just because their sports are less ‘popular’ than men’s. A school’s main objective may be to promote the men’s team first, to get out of a deficit. Then they may be able to finance the women’s team with the money they make from the men’s sporting events. That is not an equal or fair solution. It would take years to pay off a deficit and then sufficiently finance the female athletic programs. Numerical equality would take a vast quantity of public tax money in addition to the financial assistance that now pays for most of women’s sports. Universities increased its support of women’s athletics over the years but according to Ellen Voelz,
It is the year 2016, the United States has had its first African American president, gay marriage is legalized, and women and men are supposedly seen as equals in the workplace and educational institutions. It is important to note that while steps to equality have been made through the Equal Pay Act and Title IX, gender discrimination is still prevalent in society. The NCAA reported since 1988, in the 2007-2008 academic year, institutions yielded a net gain of 2, 342 women’s teams added to varsity rosters (Pickett, Dawkins, Braddock, 2012). There are now more than 174,000 female collegiate athletes thanks to Title IX (Koller, 2010). Though there has been a substantial increase in female athletic participation, this number is still nowhere near the participation of male athletes. Many women still do not participate in sports due to discrimination and the concept of equality in Title IX could potentially affect women’s interest in athletic participation.
After researching and viewing different information about women in sports, I have learned a lot of great information that I didn’t know about women that are involved in sports. I really don’t watch too many women sports that much, but I didn’t know how there is more man who is coaches and owners in the WNBA than women are. I was very surprise once I learned that there are men in the WNBA have control over a lot of the teams, which I thought since it was a woman’s sport, the entire organization would be dominate with women just like men are with the NBA. I always known that there are very few women that have global recognition, but after working on my debate presentation, it really made me realize that men still dominate the sport. I think that
Women’s equality is an issue that has been around for awhile. While women have been given many rights to increase equality, including the right to vote and go to college, the problem hasn’t completely vanished. One area that still sees this is in sports. Women’s sports do not draw nearly as many fans and are not covered in the media as much as men’s sports, pay differences between male and female athletes are large, and female athletes have to wait longer to start their professional career than men, which risks their professional career before it even starts.
The sports world has been a new area where women are recognized. In previous times women’s sports were almost non-existent. In schools many girl teams did not receive adequate funds for uniforms and equipment. Boys sports were much more popular, such as football or basketball. If a girl wanted to play a guy sport she would be labeled as a
Sexism limits our country. In a world where sexism still exists, women face challenges every day as they choose to embark in athletic activities. Even with the efforts of Title IX, which was established in 1972, there is not equality in sports for men and women. Sexism is real with stereotypes and discrimination on the basis of sex. Even with the high level of success reached by numerous female athletes of many different sports, male athletes always seem to have the upper hand. Whether it is pay, media, support, gear, or playing grounds, one sex always has the better of the two. Male athletes dominate a field that truly is shared by both sexes. What if we treated male athletes the way we treat female athletes? That is a world hard to imagine, and honestly, it shouldn't be. Through female athletes sharing their stories of unfair treatment and pay, sexism and generations of inequality in sports can be overcome.
Basketball is one of the biggest sports in America. It is also popular around the worlds. Men’s basketball, in particular, is given much more preference in American society. Many would argue that the comparison of the two simply boils down to sexism in sports, where people downgrade the strength and athletic ability of women in our society according to typical gender roles. However, there may be more confounding factors that are generally overlooked.
As I dribbled through cones, performed numerous exercises on the agility ladder and meticulously gaged my form as I hurled up ball after ball trying to perfecting my jump shot at midnight, I knew copious other high school, college and NBA basketball players were exerting as much and, if not, more effort and energy in hope of making small strides in their game that would all accumulate and help be a transformed player next season. Basketball, in its purest form, is a team of players that use various plays, technique and strategies to outscore their opponent as well as to stop their opponent from scoring; however, after competitively playing basketball at the high school level and watching the NBA as a fanatic and enthused fan as well as examining other aspects a fan is bound to come across whiles watching the NBA, such as the reporters, seemingly excessive money and how the game is played, it’s as if high school basketball and the NBA are playing two distinct sports.
During this century women have been able to break out of the traditional female mold. Women have broken the chains that bond them to the home and have emerged into all sorts of male dominated arenas, including sports. Women have become athletes in their own right. In the last ten years there has been validation for the female athlete. The WNBA was created giving women a professional league in a mainstream traditionally male sport for the first time since the All American Girls Professional Baseball League went out of existence in the 1950s. And recently a woman made the cut and participated on the professional golf circuit with the men. Today, we see women athletes in the media regularly. Women's college basketball is given airtime on weekends just as men's is.
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The term Fireman now almost invariably refers to a Firefighter.
In the 19th century and early 20th century "Fireman" was also the designation for someone whose job it was to tend a fire, usually for running a steam engine. Steam locomotives, saw mills, etc would employ "Firemen". Often much of the job was hard physical labor, such as shoveling coal into the engine's burner.
Steam locomotive firemen were also usually responsible for cleaning the ash and dust from the burner prior to lighting the fire, adding water to the engine's boiler, making sure the a proper supply of fuel for the engine is on board before starting journeys, starting the fire, raising or banking the fire as appropriate for the amount of power needed along particular parts of the route, and performing other tasks for maintaing the locomotive according to the orders of the locomotive enineer. Some firemen served these duties as a form of apprenticeship, aspiring to be locomotive engineers themselves.
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] | 1
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The term Fireman now almost invariably refers to a Firefighter.
In the 19th century and early 20th century "Fireman" was also the designation for someone whose job it was to tend a fire, usually for running a steam engine. Steam locomotives, saw mills, etc would employ "Firemen". Often much of the job was hard physical labor, such as shoveling coal into the engine's burner.
Steam locomotive firemen were also usually responsible for cleaning the ash and dust from the burner prior to lighting the fire, adding water to the engine's boiler, making sure the a proper supply of fuel for the engine is on board before starting journeys, starting the fire, raising or banking the fire as appropriate for the amount of power needed along particular parts of the route, and performing other tasks for maintaing the locomotive according to the orders of the locomotive enineer. Some firemen served these duties as a form of apprenticeship, aspiring to be locomotive engineers themselves.
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Last updated: March 6, 2023
George Washington Carver’s remarkable life began on a homestead established by Moses Carver near Diamond Grove, Missouri. Moses purchased a woman, Mary, in 1855 who gave birth to George - later George Washington Carver - in the early 1860s. Moses had built a log cabin in 1838 for his family; it became Mary’s family’s home. A new cabin was constructed nearby by 1860, before a frame plantation house was erected farther away around 1890.
When George was about six weeks old, a gang of night riders kidnapped him and his mother. Moses sent a rescuing party after them, but they only recovered George. Moses adopted George into his own family and provided him with an education.
Locals later recalled George as being the most intelligent little boy they had ever met. When George was ten years old, he moved several miles away to attend school, which placed him on a path to becoming a renowned scientist and inventor. He is revered today for inventing hundreds of products - many peanut-based - including plastics, paints, dyes, and fuel; for teaching students at the Tuskegee Institute how to re-shape southern agriculture; and for being a great force in racial understanding.
George died on January 5, 1943. That July, Congress authorized the creation of George Washington Carver National Monument to celebrate his life. But by the time that the national monument was finally established in 1951, the cabin had long since deteriorated.
Locating Carver's Birthplace
NPS archeologists spoke with local residents who remembered where the cabin and other buildings had stood, because they had lived in them in the 20th century. They recalled that the cabin had one room and stood near a second cabin, on the north side of a creek in a clearing of trees. A nephew of Moses’s remembered that the log cabin in which George was born faced the east. It had a single window in the west wall and a chimney on the north side. It was built of hewn oak logs. The cracks were filled with clay or chinking. The cabin had a clapboard roof. Its plank door had wooden hinges.
Archeologists focused their excavation on the area identified by locals as having been the "slave cabin." Although they identified no structural evidence of the cabin, the combination of artifactual evidence and locals’ testimony convinced them that they had located George’s birthplace. Artifacts conveyed everyday in the mid-nineteenth century: fragments of chinking, glazed brick, crockery, plain white porcelain dishes, square nails, lamp chimneys, bottles, and tumblers as well as beads, buttons, a fragment of a school slate, and pieces of metal cookware. They wondered if George, who was interested in marbles as a boy, had used two marbles found during excavations near the plantation house.
George later said, “From a child I had an inordinate desire for knowledge, and especially music, painting, flowers, and the sciences.” Through archeology, we can visit the precise place where his extraordinary achievements have their roots.
For More Information
Beaubien, Paul L. and Merrill J. Mattes, "George Washington Carver National Monument: The Archeological Search for George Washington Carver's Birthplace," The Negro History Bulletin
Garrison, Ervan G. "Archaeologeophysical and Geochemical Studies at George Washington Carver National Monument, Diamond, Missouri," Historical Archaeology, 1996, 30(2):22-40.
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] | 1
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Last updated: March 6, 2023
George Washington Carver’s remarkable life began on a homestead established by Moses Carver near Diamond Grove, Missouri. Moses purchased a woman, Mary, in 1855 who gave birth to George - later George Washington Carver - in the early 1860s. Moses had built a log cabin in 1838 for his family; it became Mary’s family’s home. A new cabin was constructed nearby by 1860, before a frame plantation house was erected farther away around 1890.
When George was about six weeks old, a gang of night riders kidnapped him and his mother. Moses sent a rescuing party after them, but they only recovered George. Moses adopted George into his own family and provided him with an education.
Locals later recalled George as being the most intelligent little boy they had ever met. When George was ten years old, he moved several miles away to attend school, which placed him on a path to becoming a renowned scientist and inventor. He is revered today for inventing hundreds of products - many peanut-based - including plastics, paints, dyes, and fuel; for teaching students at the Tuskegee Institute how to re-shape southern agriculture; and for being a great force in racial understanding.
George died on January 5, 1943. That July, Congress authorized the creation of George Washington Carver National Monument to celebrate his life. But by the time that the national monument was finally established in 1951, the cabin had long since deteriorated.
Locating Carver's Birthplace
NPS archeologists spoke with local residents who remembered where the cabin and other buildings had stood, because they had lived in them in the 20th century. They recalled that the cabin had one room and stood near a second cabin, on the north side of a creek in a clearing of trees. A nephew of Moses’s remembered that the log cabin in which George was born faced the east. It had a single window in the west wall and a chimney on the north side. It was built of hewn oak logs. The cracks were filled with clay or chinking. The cabin had a clapboard roof. Its plank door had wooden hinges.
Archeologists focused their excavation on the area identified by locals as having been the "slave cabin." Although they identified no structural evidence of the cabin, the combination of artifactual evidence and locals’ testimony convinced them that they had located George’s birthplace. Artifacts conveyed everyday in the mid-nineteenth century: fragments of chinking, glazed brick, crockery, plain white porcelain dishes, square nails, lamp chimneys, bottles, and tumblers as well as beads, buttons, a fragment of a school slate, and pieces of metal cookware. They wondered if George, who was interested in marbles as a boy, had used two marbles found during excavations near the plantation house.
George later said, “From a child I had an inordinate desire for knowledge, and especially music, painting, flowers, and the sciences.” Through archeology, we can visit the precise place where his extraordinary achievements have their roots.
For More Information
Beaubien, Paul L. and Merrill J. Mattes, "George Washington Carver National Monument: The Archeological Search for George Washington Carver's Birthplace," The Negro History Bulletin
Garrison, Ervan G. "Archaeologeophysical and Geochemical Studies at George Washington Carver National Monument, Diamond, Missouri," Historical Archaeology, 1996, 30(2):22-40.
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Burns had a gift for putting himself into the shoes of others and sympathising with their plight. His greatest works were a vivid insight into the aspirations and anguishes of the less-privileged, his hopes for equality and a better world. Words that maintain their powerful meaning today.
Robert Burns Death and Legacy
Robert Burns died in Dumfries on 26 July 1796, on the same day that his wife gave birth to their ninth child, a son, Maxwell. He succumbed to a form of rheumatic fever, which would have been easily treatable today. In those days, however, the cause and remedy of his ailment were unknown, and his demise was likely hastened by a course of sea-bathing in icy salt waters.
To make matters worse, Burns died in debt, borrowing from a cousin and an old patron, George Thomson, to bail himself and his pregnant wife out of trouble.
The fact is that Burns had lived in near poverty most of his life. He had been engaged in heavy physical farm work since he was a young boy, in a harsh climate and on a very limited diet had taken its toll. He was only thirty-seven years old when he died.
He was buried with full military honours as a member of the local volunteer militia, the Fencibles. Burns had joined up the year before as Britain was at war with France and there was a fear of invasion. Sadly, as is so often the case, Burns' genius was only widely recognised after his death.
Nowadays, Burns night is celebrated across the globe. People often come together to celebrate his life by singing songs, reading poems and addressing Scotland’s national dish with Burns’ poem ‘Address to a Haggis’.
Robert Burns Famous Poems
In his short life, Burns wrote hundreds of poems and songs that would become cherished throughout the world. His words would reach far beyond his native Scotland and continue to resonate over two centuries later words about the human spirit and condition, about nature, love, life and death that are as meaningful now as they were in Burns' time.
His most famous poems include:
- Auld Lang Syne
- Tam o' Shanter
- Ae Fond Kiss
- Red, Red Rose
- Scots Wha Hae
- A Man's a Man for A' That
But who was this man who died young and in poverty in a small provincial town, who was almost instantly mourned by an entire nation and who is still revered over 250 years after his birth?
Where Was Robert Burns Born?
Burns was born on a wild and windy night in Alloway on the Ayrshire coast of Scotland, in the family house his father, William, had built with his own hands. Robert was the eldest of seven children. Burns' Cottage, now a museum, still stands today, although no longer set in rolling fields, but in the new affluent suburbs of the town of Ayr.
Who Were Robert Burns’ Parents?
Robert's parents were small tenant farmers. William and his wife, Agnes, struggled to make a living on poor soil. But despite their hardships they were keen to educate their offspring, so in 1765 Robert and his brother, Gilbert, were sent to a school two miles away at Alloway Mill.
William then clubbed together with three local families to share a private tutor, a young man called John Murdoch, who taught Robert English grammar. He also made the children sing Psalms but, ironically, for someone who went on to pen some of the most well-known songs ever written, Robert's voice was, according to Murdoch, "untuneable". When Murdoch took up a post at Ayr Academy in 1772, Burns' father tutored the boys at home, although they continued taking lessons at various other schools nearby.
The following year the family moved to another farm at Mount Oliphant, high on a hillside two miles from Alloway. The rent was steep, and the sour upland ground was difficult to cultivate. Life was tough on the new farm. Since the family couldn't afford hired help, Robert did a full day's work in the field and farmyard on a diet of oatmeal and skimmed milk even though they lived on a farm, meat was much too expensive.
On the long, dark, bitterly cold Scottish winter nights Robert was often to be found huddled under a single candle, with his nose buried in a book. By the time he was 21 he had read Shakespeare, David Hume, his favourite philosopher Adam Smith and everything in between. These books helped to fuel his already burgeoning imagination.
Robert Burns' Personal Life
He had already written his first love poems when he was fifteen, to a farmer's daughter from Dalrymple. It was the beginning of his lifelong love of women and his celebration of them in poems and songs. Burns had many affairs throughout his life and enjoyed drinking with friends, but he was far from the over-sexed, booze-sodden farmhand of yore, a slightly misleading myth that has tended to overshadow his literary legacy.
Robert Burns fathered over a dozen children to various women, and his sexual behaviour was radical, especially in 18th-century society. The handsome, charismatic poet undoubtedly enjoyed the company of women, from society ladies to servant girls.
Burns' first child was by a servant, Elizabeth Paton, who worked at Lochlea farm in Tarbolton (the family had moved to the village when Robert was nineteen), and one of his most famous love affairs, though never consummated, was with the upper-class Agnes McLehose, for whom he wrote the beautiful parting song Ae Fond Kiss.
Burns acknowledged women as individuals who had valuable insights and opinions and were stimulating. He started a life-long correspondence with sometime patron, Mrs Frances Anna Dunlop, a well-to-do Ayrshire widow who admired his poems. In his work, he managed to combine descriptions of his prurient exploits with the tenderest of emotions, memorably and simply expressed. Love (and lust!) and poetry were always to run together for Burns.
Robert Burns Poetry
By the time his first collection of poetry, 'Poems, Chiefly in the Scottish Dialect' was published in July 1786 he had founded the debating society, the Tarbolton Bachelors' Club, gained a reputation locally as an outspoken critic of the church and became a freemason.
He had started writing seriously after his father's death in 1784 and this first collection, known as the Kilmarnock edition because that was where it was printed, emerged from the poems that had been passed around locally in manuscript form during 1784-85, gaining him regional notoriety.
The collection included some of his best writing, including 'The Twa Dogs', 'Address to the Deil', 'Hallowe'en', 'The Cotter's Saturday Night', 'To a Mouse', and 'To a Mountain Daisy', many of which had been written at Mossgiel farm, where the family had moved in 1785. Having already written a handful of poems in English, Burns found his true voice in the Scots language, writing in words that did not come from the classical dictionary but from everyday speech.
The Themes of Robert Burns’ Poems
Burns’ poems touched on themes of injustice, hypocrisy, the hard life of the countryman, radicalism, anticlericalism, sexuality, gender roles, Scottish cultural identity and man's inhumanity to his fellow man. He wrote scathing satires and tender love songs delivered in a direct, playful, yet sympathetic voice that spoke to all walks of life.
Throughout his life, Burns was on the side of the poor and the downtrodden and was always anxious to speak up for them. Inequality made him angry. He was an enthusiastic supporter of the French revolution in 1789 before it turned into a bloodbath and supported the American struggle for democracy led by George Washington.
Poetry was in Burns' blood, but the book was also born of financial necessity. The farm at Lochlea, where he worked with his younger brother, Gilbert, provided little money and an increasingly desperate Burns had considered leaving for the West Indies to find a job as an employee on the slave plantations. He had even booked a berth on a boat to Jamaica but had postponed the trip on several occasions.
The Kilmarnock edition got 612 advance subscriptions, mostly concentrated on around a dozen individuals who sold them to other admirers.
Robert Burns’ Life and Fame
By this time Burns had met and married Jean Armour, who bore him twins in September 1786, despite the strenuous attempts by Jean's father to prevent his daughter having anything to do with the poet owing to his opprobrious reputation.
After an enforced separation, Robert and Jean were reunited, and she remained his long-suffering wife until his death. She had nine of his children and took in and nursed one of his several illegitimate offspring.
Burns arrived in Edinburgh, Scotland's cultural capital, in November 1786 as the sensation of the season. In a review of his poems in the literary periodical, 'The Lounger', Henry Mackenzie coined for Burns the famous epithet of the "heaven-taught ploughman". It was a sentimental moniker that stuck, the image of the rustic bard with plough in one hand and quill in the other composing poems in the Ayrshire fields. But it was far removed from the reality of Burns' life, which had been one of toil and hardship.
Burns knew he was different and special and held centre stage in Edinburgh with his powerful charisma and passionate way with words. However, he was also aware of his low social standing in polite Edinburgh society. Poets were certainly not meant to be peasants and he found the drawing rooms of literary Edinburgh reeking with pretension, which he derided memorably in his famous poem 'Address to a Haggis'.
In April 1787 an Edinburgh edition of 'Poems, Chiefly in the Scottish Dialect' was published, containing 22 additional poems to the Kilmarnock edition, and was subscribed to by over 1300 individuals. But Burns sold the copyright of the book to William Creech for 100 guineas and despite further editions appearing in London, Dublin, New York and Philadelphia, he made no money from these.
That same year the first volume of James Johnston's 'Scots Musical Museum', a collection of Scottish folk songs, appeared, including three songs by Burns. Burns would go on to contribute nearly 200 songs to future volumes of the publication, many published posthumously. He toured the Highlands and the Scottish Borders collecting old Scottish tunes to which he set his verses, thus helping to preserve the songs and keep a cultural tradition alive. Some of his bawdier lyrics were collected in a notorious volume entitled 'The Merry Muses of Caledonia'.
Despite his new-found fame in Edinburgh and beyond, Burns was struggling to support his family from either his poetry or the small farm he had leased in Ellisland, Dumfriesshire and he was forced to take a public service job in 1788. After a lifetime of unrewarded toil, he abandoned farming altogether in 1791 to become a full-time employee in the Dumfries excise, moving to a house in the town.
Undeterred by ailing health during the winter of 1790, and depression about the fading prospects of the farm, his muse remained undimmed and he continued his prolific output of songs and poems, completing his most famous poem and arguably his masterpiece, Tam o' Shanter, in November that year. Every year on the night of Burns' birthday, 25 January, or an evening close to it, his life and work are celebrated as Burns clubs all over the world host traditional Burns Suppers.
The Traditional Burns Supper
These informal suppers vary from club to club, but the general format has remained the same since Burns' friends hosted the first recorded night in his honour around the anniversary of his birth in 1801.
Guests gather as at any informal function and the host says a few words of introduction before everyone is seated and the Selkirk Grace is said. A starter of soup, usually a Scotch broth or Cock-a-Leekie, is eaten, before the centrepiece of the meal, a haggis, is brought in while a piper plays the bagpipes.
The host then recites 'Address to a Haggis' and at the lines 'His knife see rustic Labour dicht, An' cut you up wi' ready slicht', draws and cleans a knife before plunging it into the haggis, slicing it open from end to end in dramatic fashion. A toast is then proposed to the haggis. Mashed potatoes (champit tatties) and turnips (bashed neeps) traditionally accompany the haggis.
When the meal is over, one of the guests makes a speech commemorating Burns and proposes a toast to the great man, known as the Immortal Memory. A toast is then made to the lassies' in recognition of Burns' fondness for the fairer sex and sometimes a female guest will reply with a humorous toast to the laddies'. Following the speeches there may be singing of songs by Burns and occasionally guests take to the floor in a whirl of Burns Scottish country dancing known as a ceilidh, although this is not a normal part of a Burns supper.
The most important thing about a Burns Supper is to have fun. After all, the man you're paying tribute to was certainly not averse to a wee party himself!
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Burns had a gift for putting himself into the shoes of others and sympathising with their plight. His greatest works were a vivid insight into the aspirations and anguishes of the less-privileged, his hopes for equality and a better world. Words that maintain their powerful meaning today.
Robert Burns Death and Legacy
Robert Burns died in Dumfries on 26 July 1796, on the same day that his wife gave birth to their ninth child, a son, Maxwell. He succumbed to a form of rheumatic fever, which would have been easily treatable today. In those days, however, the cause and remedy of his ailment were unknown, and his demise was likely hastened by a course of sea-bathing in icy salt waters.
To make matters worse, Burns died in debt, borrowing from a cousin and an old patron, George Thomson, to bail himself and his pregnant wife out of trouble.
The fact is that Burns had lived in near poverty most of his life. He had been engaged in heavy physical farm work since he was a young boy, in a harsh climate and on a very limited diet had taken its toll. He was only thirty-seven years old when he died.
He was buried with full military honours as a member of the local volunteer militia, the Fencibles. Burns had joined up the year before as Britain was at war with France and there was a fear of invasion. Sadly, as is so often the case, Burns' genius was only widely recognised after his death.
Nowadays, Burns night is celebrated across the globe. People often come together to celebrate his life by singing songs, reading poems and addressing Scotland’s national dish with Burns’ poem ‘Address to a Haggis’.
Robert Burns Famous Poems
In his short life, Burns wrote hundreds of poems and songs that would become cherished throughout the world. His words would reach far beyond his native Scotland and continue to resonate over two centuries later words about the human spirit and condition, about nature, love, life and death that are as meaningful now as they were in Burns' time.
His most famous poems include:
- Auld Lang Syne
- Tam o' Shanter
- Ae Fond Kiss
- Red, Red Rose
- Scots Wha Hae
- A Man's a Man for A' That
But who was this man who died young and in poverty in a small provincial town, who was almost instantly mourned by an entire nation and who is still revered over 250 years after his birth?
Where Was Robert Burns Born?
Burns was born on a wild and windy night in Alloway on the Ayrshire coast of Scotland, in the family house his father, William, had built with his own hands. Robert was the eldest of seven children. Burns' Cottage, now a museum, still stands today, although no longer set in rolling fields, but in the new affluent suburbs of the town of Ayr.
Who Were Robert Burns’ Parents?
Robert's parents were small tenant farmers. William and his wife, Agnes, struggled to make a living on poor soil. But despite their hardships they were keen to educate their offspring, so in 1765 Robert and his brother, Gilbert, were sent to a school two miles away at Alloway Mill.
William then clubbed together with three local families to share a private tutor, a young man called John Murdoch, who taught Robert English grammar. He also made the children sing Psalms but, ironically, for someone who went on to pen some of the most well-known songs ever written, Robert's voice was, according to Murdoch, "untuneable". When Murdoch took up a post at Ayr Academy in 1772, Burns' father tutored the boys at home, although they continued taking lessons at various other schools nearby.
The following year the family moved to another farm at Mount Oliphant, high on a hillside two miles from Alloway. The rent was steep, and the sour upland ground was difficult to cultivate. Life was tough on the new farm. Since the family couldn't afford hired help, Robert did a full day's work in the field and farmyard on a diet of oatmeal and skimmed milk even though they lived on a farm, meat was much too expensive.
On the long, dark, bitterly cold Scottish winter nights Robert was often to be found huddled under a single candle, with his nose buried in a book. By the time he was 21 he had read Shakespeare, David Hume, his favourite philosopher Adam Smith and everything in between. These books helped to fuel his already burgeoning imagination.
Robert Burns' Personal Life
He had already written his first love poems when he was fifteen, to a farmer's daughter from Dalrymple. It was the beginning of his lifelong love of women and his celebration of them in poems and songs. Burns had many affairs throughout his life and enjoyed drinking with friends, but he was far from the over-sexed, booze-sodden farmhand of yore, a slightly misleading myth that has tended to overshadow his literary legacy.
Robert Burns fathered over a dozen children to various women, and his sexual behaviour was radical, especially in 18th-century society. The handsome, charismatic poet undoubtedly enjoyed the company of women, from society ladies to servant girls.
Burns' first child was by a servant, Elizabeth Paton, who worked at Lochlea farm in Tarbolton (the family had moved to the village when Robert was nineteen), and one of his most famous love affairs, though never consummated, was with the upper-class Agnes McLehose, for whom he wrote the beautiful parting song Ae Fond Kiss.
Burns acknowledged women as individuals who had valuable insights and opinions and were stimulating. He started a life-long correspondence with sometime patron, Mrs Frances Anna Dunlop, a well-to-do Ayrshire widow who admired his poems. In his work, he managed to combine descriptions of his prurient exploits with the tenderest of emotions, memorably and simply expressed. Love (and lust!) and poetry were always to run together for Burns.
Robert Burns Poetry
By the time his first collection of poetry, 'Poems, Chiefly in the Scottish Dialect' was published in July 1786 he had founded the debating society, the Tarbolton Bachelors' Club, gained a reputation locally as an outspoken critic of the church and became a freemason.
He had started writing seriously after his father's death in 1784 and this first collection, known as the Kilmarnock edition because that was where it was printed, emerged from the poems that had been passed around locally in manuscript form during 1784-85, gaining him regional notoriety.
The collection included some of his best writing, including 'The Twa Dogs', 'Address to the Deil', 'Hallowe'en', 'The Cotter's Saturday Night', 'To a Mouse', and 'To a Mountain Daisy', many of which had been written at Mossgiel farm, where the family had moved in 1785. Having already written a handful of poems in English, Burns found his true voice in the Scots language, writing in words that did not come from the classical dictionary but from everyday speech.
The Themes of Robert Burns’ Poems
Burns’ poems touched on themes of injustice, hypocrisy, the hard life of the countryman, radicalism, anticlericalism, sexuality, gender roles, Scottish cultural identity and man's inhumanity to his fellow man. He wrote scathing satires and tender love songs delivered in a direct, playful, yet sympathetic voice that spoke to all walks of life.
Throughout his life, Burns was on the side of the poor and the downtrodden and was always anxious to speak up for them. Inequality made him angry. He was an enthusiastic supporter of the French revolution in 1789 before it turned into a bloodbath and supported the American struggle for democracy led by George Washington.
Poetry was in Burns' blood, but the book was also born of financial necessity. The farm at Lochlea, where he worked with his younger brother, Gilbert, provided little money and an increasingly desperate Burns had considered leaving for the West Indies to find a job as an employee on the slave plantations. He had even booked a berth on a boat to Jamaica but had postponed the trip on several occasions.
The Kilmarnock edition got 612 advance subscriptions, mostly concentrated on around a dozen individuals who sold them to other admirers.
Robert Burns’ Life and Fame
By this time Burns had met and married Jean Armour, who bore him twins in September 1786, despite the strenuous attempts by Jean's father to prevent his daughter having anything to do with the poet owing to his opprobrious reputation.
After an enforced separation, Robert and Jean were reunited, and she remained his long-suffering wife until his death. She had nine of his children and took in and nursed one of his several illegitimate offspring.
Burns arrived in Edinburgh, Scotland's cultural capital, in November 1786 as the sensation of the season. In a review of his poems in the literary periodical, 'The Lounger', Henry Mackenzie coined for Burns the famous epithet of the "heaven-taught ploughman". It was a sentimental moniker that stuck, the image of the rustic bard with plough in one hand and quill in the other composing poems in the Ayrshire fields. But it was far removed from the reality of Burns' life, which had been one of toil and hardship.
Burns knew he was different and special and held centre stage in Edinburgh with his powerful charisma and passionate way with words. However, he was also aware of his low social standing in polite Edinburgh society. Poets were certainly not meant to be peasants and he found the drawing rooms of literary Edinburgh reeking with pretension, which he derided memorably in his famous poem 'Address to a Haggis'.
In April 1787 an Edinburgh edition of 'Poems, Chiefly in the Scottish Dialect' was published, containing 22 additional poems to the Kilmarnock edition, and was subscribed to by over 1300 individuals. But Burns sold the copyright of the book to William Creech for 100 guineas and despite further editions appearing in London, Dublin, New York and Philadelphia, he made no money from these.
That same year the first volume of James Johnston's 'Scots Musical Museum', a collection of Scottish folk songs, appeared, including three songs by Burns. Burns would go on to contribute nearly 200 songs to future volumes of the publication, many published posthumously. He toured the Highlands and the Scottish Borders collecting old Scottish tunes to which he set his verses, thus helping to preserve the songs and keep a cultural tradition alive. Some of his bawdier lyrics were collected in a notorious volume entitled 'The Merry Muses of Caledonia'.
Despite his new-found fame in Edinburgh and beyond, Burns was struggling to support his family from either his poetry or the small farm he had leased in Ellisland, Dumfriesshire and he was forced to take a public service job in 1788. After a lifetime of unrewarded toil, he abandoned farming altogether in 1791 to become a full-time employee in the Dumfries excise, moving to a house in the town.
Undeterred by ailing health during the winter of 1790, and depression about the fading prospects of the farm, his muse remained undimmed and he continued his prolific output of songs and poems, completing his most famous poem and arguably his masterpiece, Tam o' Shanter, in November that year. Every year on the night of Burns' birthday, 25 January, or an evening close to it, his life and work are celebrated as Burns clubs all over the world host traditional Burns Suppers.
The Traditional Burns Supper
These informal suppers vary from club to club, but the general format has remained the same since Burns' friends hosted the first recorded night in his honour around the anniversary of his birth in 1801.
Guests gather as at any informal function and the host says a few words of introduction before everyone is seated and the Selkirk Grace is said. A starter of soup, usually a Scotch broth or Cock-a-Leekie, is eaten, before the centrepiece of the meal, a haggis, is brought in while a piper plays the bagpipes.
The host then recites 'Address to a Haggis' and at the lines 'His knife see rustic Labour dicht, An' cut you up wi' ready slicht', draws and cleans a knife before plunging it into the haggis, slicing it open from end to end in dramatic fashion. A toast is then proposed to the haggis. Mashed potatoes (champit tatties) and turnips (bashed neeps) traditionally accompany the haggis.
When the meal is over, one of the guests makes a speech commemorating Burns and proposes a toast to the great man, known as the Immortal Memory. A toast is then made to the lassies' in recognition of Burns' fondness for the fairer sex and sometimes a female guest will reply with a humorous toast to the laddies'. Following the speeches there may be singing of songs by Burns and occasionally guests take to the floor in a whirl of Burns Scottish country dancing known as a ceilidh, although this is not a normal part of a Burns supper.
The most important thing about a Burns Supper is to have fun. After all, the man you're paying tribute to was certainly not averse to a wee party himself!
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Dost Mohammed was the strong leader of Kabul who had been keen on reaquiring his old lands of Peshawar from his rival Ranjit Singh. Singh had already ingratiated himself with the British and when Dost Mohammed received no encouragement from the British he turned to the Russians and invited them to send a representative to Kabul for further talks. The British were concerned that the Russians might be making inroads in Persia and now in Afghanistan which would bring their influence up to the frontier with India. They therefore decided to replace Dost Mohammed with Shah Shujah who was already in their custody. Dost Mohammed surrendered to the British and was taken into comfortable custody himself. It was his son that led the revolt that crushed the British delegation and force in Kabul.
After the war, the British released Dost Mohammed who resumed his position in Kabul. He would later become a surprisingly strong bulwark for the British. He ensured a peaceful frontier for much of his reign. He did dabble in the post Ranjit Singh kingdom of the Sikhs but after their defeat he kept his kingdom out of trouble. This was particularly important to Britain during the Indian Mutiny when it was feared that the Afghans would take advantage of the chaos in the colony to swoop down and take territory from the British. Dost Mohammed ensured that no such course of action was followed. Its stability allowed the British to withdraw troops from the frontier to regain control of India proper.
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Dost Mohammed was the strong leader of Kabul who had been keen on reaquiring his old lands of Peshawar from his rival Ranjit Singh. Singh had already ingratiated himself with the British and when Dost Mohammed received no encouragement from the British he turned to the Russians and invited them to send a representative to Kabul for further talks. The British were concerned that the Russians might be making inroads in Persia and now in Afghanistan which would bring their influence up to the frontier with India. They therefore decided to replace Dost Mohammed with Shah Shujah who was already in their custody. Dost Mohammed surrendered to the British and was taken into comfortable custody himself. It was his son that led the revolt that crushed the British delegation and force in Kabul.
After the war, the British released Dost Mohammed who resumed his position in Kabul. He would later become a surprisingly strong bulwark for the British. He ensured a peaceful frontier for much of his reign. He did dabble in the post Ranjit Singh kingdom of the Sikhs but after their defeat he kept his kingdom out of trouble. This was particularly important to Britain during the Indian Mutiny when it was feared that the Afghans would take advantage of the chaos in the colony to swoop down and take territory from the British. Dost Mohammed ensured that no such course of action was followed. Its stability allowed the British to withdraw troops from the frontier to regain control of India proper.
First Afghan War | Significant Individuals
Armed Forces | Art and Culture | Articles | Biographies | Colonies | Discussion | Glossary | Home | Library | Links | Map Room | Sources and Media | Science and Technology | Search | Student Zone | Timelines | TV & Film | Wargames
| 355
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The Influence of the Church
The Church had helped create the Renaissance by commissioning artists. An unintended consequence was that it also made people question old beliefs:
- As more people learned to read, they were able to read the Bible for themselves instead of having to accept everything told to them by priests and bishops. Their interpretations of the Bible often differed from those of the Church.
- The invention of the printing press meant that the ideas of the reforms could spread around Europe quickly and this encouraged people to support them and challenge the Church.
The Wealth of the Church
- Bishops and cardinals were huge land owners. An estimated one-third of all the land in Germany belonged to the Church. This wealth was resented by kings and nobles.
- Everyone had to pay their annual tithe to their local bishop. This was greatly resented by ordinary people, especially whenever they saw these bishops and cardinals living extravagant lives.
Abuses within the Church
There were many abuses of power within the Catholic Church which made people believe that the popes, bishops and priests were more interested in their own wealth and power than serving God. Some of these abuses were:
- Simony: the buying or selling of positions within the Church.
- Nepotism: the appointing of relatives to Church jobs regardless of merit.
- Pluralism: having more than one Church job at the same time.
- Absenteeism: a priest or bishop being absent from their parish or diocese for long periods of time.
- The sale of indulgences: The Church began to sell special prayers which were said to reduce the time a person spent in purgatory.
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The Influence of the Church
The Church had helped create the Renaissance by commissioning artists. An unintended consequence was that it also made people question old beliefs:
- As more people learned to read, they were able to read the Bible for themselves instead of having to accept everything told to them by priests and bishops. Their interpretations of the Bible often differed from those of the Church.
- The invention of the printing press meant that the ideas of the reforms could spread around Europe quickly and this encouraged people to support them and challenge the Church.
The Wealth of the Church
- Bishops and cardinals were huge land owners. An estimated one-third of all the land in Germany belonged to the Church. This wealth was resented by kings and nobles.
- Everyone had to pay their annual tithe to their local bishop. This was greatly resented by ordinary people, especially whenever they saw these bishops and cardinals living extravagant lives.
Abuses within the Church
There were many abuses of power within the Catholic Church which made people believe that the popes, bishops and priests were more interested in their own wealth and power than serving God. Some of these abuses were:
- Simony: the buying or selling of positions within the Church.
- Nepotism: the appointing of relatives to Church jobs regardless of merit.
- Pluralism: having more than one Church job at the same time.
- Absenteeism: a priest or bishop being absent from their parish or diocese for long periods of time.
- The sale of indulgences: The Church began to sell special prayers which were said to reduce the time a person spent in purgatory.
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ENGLISH
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The family of Augustus, shown in a bas-relief on the Ara Pacis Augustae (Alter of Peace). Left: two priests; center (with toga over his head): Agrippa; the boy Gaius; Julia (behind); his wife Livia; and Tiberius.
Octavian obtained supreme power over Roman Empire by defeating first the murders of his adoptive father Julius Caesar and then his great rival Mark Antony. He strengthened that power, and gave the Empire a constitution (body of fundamental principles according to which a state is governed) that survived with little change (except of emphasis) for over two centuries. See also Caesar to Augustus.
|State of Augustus, dressed as a priest
After his victory over Antony at Actium in 31 BC, Octavian had several advantages. Most people had realized by now that the old Republican constitution, which had served Rome well enough when it was a small city-state, was inadequate for the needs of a large empire.
Moreover, most of the leading men (principes) from great Republican families, who would have opposed any constitutional change, were now dead: they had perished either in the battles of the Civil Wars, from Pharsalus to Actium, or in exile. In their place were new men, many of them from leading families throughout Italy. These new men had prospered under Octavian's rule and were determined to keep what they had gained. Octavian knew, therefore, that he could count on their solid support - quite apart from the oath of loyalty to himself which all Italy had been induced to take before the battle of Actium.
But, above all, there was a universal desire for peace, and for an end to the unsettled conditions of the past 40 years.
Augustus' first constitutional settlement Because of the Romans' intense dislike of changes being introduced into their established systems, Octavian wanted to make his power strong and stable by wielding it as far as possible within the framework of the Republican constitution.
On 13 January 27 BC Octavian formally resigned all his powers to the Senate. In theory, the Republic was thus restored. But the Senate, full of his own supporters, insisted that he should take a special command with proconsular power (imperium) for ten years over Spain, Gaul, and Syria. The Senate also gave him the title Augustus (a Latin word meaning majestic, stately, or highly admirable): it is by this name that he was known from this time onwards.
By accepting this proconsular command, Augustus became in theory no more than a Republican magistrate with a commission such as Caesar and Pompey had held. In practice Augustus was taking over three areas that held large armies. None of these was to be governed by some other proconsul, powerful enough to threaten Augustus's supremacy and the peace of the Empire. Moreover, Augustus retained sufficient power in Rome by being consul himself continuously from 31 to 23 BC, the other consul being one or other of his most trusted supporters.
This system worked fairly well for some years. But in 23 BC, after a very serious illness, Augustus decided for various reasons to give up the consulate, and to assume instead two less obvious but actually much wider powers:
Augustus held, in fact, the power of a king, and is considered the first Roman Emperor. Wisely concealing this fact, he preferred to be called the Princeps, the leading citizen.
Augustus was responsible for a great program of public building in Rome. He claimed that he found Rome a city of brick, and left it a city of marble. He was also responsible for giving the Roman Empire good government, and stable and defensible frontiers. He encouraged literature; and he attempted a moral and religious revival.
From the time of his illness in 23 BC, Augustus was deeply concerned that after his death there should be a successor to his power who would continue his system: if possible, a successor from his own family. But from his three marriages he had only one daughter, Julia. He married her first to his nephew Marcellus (but he died in 22 BC), then to his trusted friend Agrippa (but he died in 13 BC). When Agrippa's sons Gaius and Lucius, whom Augustus had adopted, died in their turn (In AD 4 and AD 2 respectively), Augustus adopted his stepson Tiberius, who succeeded Augustus after his death in AD 14. Like his adoptive father Julius Caesar, after death Augustus was worshipped as a god.
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The family of Augustus, shown in a bas-relief on the Ara Pacis Augustae (Alter of Peace). Left: two priests; center (with toga over his head): Agrippa; the boy Gaius; Julia (behind); his wife Livia; and Tiberius.
Octavian obtained supreme power over Roman Empire by defeating first the murders of his adoptive father Julius Caesar and then his great rival Mark Antony. He strengthened that power, and gave the Empire a constitution (body of fundamental principles according to which a state is governed) that survived with little change (except of emphasis) for over two centuries. See also Caesar to Augustus.
|State of Augustus, dressed as a priest
After his victory over Antony at Actium in 31 BC, Octavian had several advantages. Most people had realized by now that the old Republican constitution, which had served Rome well enough when it was a small city-state, was inadequate for the needs of a large empire.
Moreover, most of the leading men (principes) from great Republican families, who would have opposed any constitutional change, were now dead: they had perished either in the battles of the Civil Wars, from Pharsalus to Actium, or in exile. In their place were new men, many of them from leading families throughout Italy. These new men had prospered under Octavian's rule and were determined to keep what they had gained. Octavian knew, therefore, that he could count on their solid support - quite apart from the oath of loyalty to himself which all Italy had been induced to take before the battle of Actium.
But, above all, there was a universal desire for peace, and for an end to the unsettled conditions of the past 40 years.
Augustus' first constitutional settlement Because of the Romans' intense dislike of changes being introduced into their established systems, Octavian wanted to make his power strong and stable by wielding it as far as possible within the framework of the Republican constitution.
On 13 January 27 BC Octavian formally resigned all his powers to the Senate. In theory, the Republic was thus restored. But the Senate, full of his own supporters, insisted that he should take a special command with proconsular power (imperium) for ten years over Spain, Gaul, and Syria. The Senate also gave him the title Augustus (a Latin word meaning majestic, stately, or highly admirable): it is by this name that he was known from this time onwards.
By accepting this proconsular command, Augustus became in theory no more than a Republican magistrate with a commission such as Caesar and Pompey had held. In practice Augustus was taking over three areas that held large armies. None of these was to be governed by some other proconsul, powerful enough to threaten Augustus's supremacy and the peace of the Empire. Moreover, Augustus retained sufficient power in Rome by being consul himself continuously from 31 to 23 BC, the other consul being one or other of his most trusted supporters.
This system worked fairly well for some years. But in 23 BC, after a very serious illness, Augustus decided for various reasons to give up the consulate, and to assume instead two less obvious but actually much wider powers:
Augustus held, in fact, the power of a king, and is considered the first Roman Emperor. Wisely concealing this fact, he preferred to be called the Princeps, the leading citizen.
Augustus was responsible for a great program of public building in Rome. He claimed that he found Rome a city of brick, and left it a city of marble. He was also responsible for giving the Roman Empire good government, and stable and defensible frontiers. He encouraged literature; and he attempted a moral and religious revival.
From the time of his illness in 23 BC, Augustus was deeply concerned that after his death there should be a successor to his power who would continue his system: if possible, a successor from his own family. But from his three marriages he had only one daughter, Julia. He married her first to his nephew Marcellus (but he died in 22 BC), then to his trusted friend Agrippa (but he died in 13 BC). When Agrippa's sons Gaius and Lucius, whom Augustus had adopted, died in their turn (In AD 4 and AD 2 respectively), Augustus adopted his stepson Tiberius, who succeeded Augustus after his death in AD 14. Like his adoptive father Julius Caesar, after death Augustus was worshipped as a god.
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Confucius | Brief Biography
Confucius was an ancient Chinese teacher, philosopher, and politician. He is considered one of the most important figures in Chinese history and is revered as a great sage and teacher. He lived in the eastern Zhou dynasty and his teachings, known as Confucianism, continue to influence Chinese culture, politics and thought today.
Confucius was born in 551 BCE in Qufu, a small state in what is now the Shandong province of China. He was born into a poor family and grew up with a love of learning. He showed a great aptitude for knowledge and was said to have had a love of poetry, music, and history.
Confucius began his career as a teacher and quickly gained a reputation for his wisdom and knowledge. He became a popular teacher and attracted many students, who would later become his disciples. He also worked as a minister in various government positions but was often dissatisfied with the corrupt political climate of his time.
Confucius believed in the importance of education and the cultivation of virtue. He taught that individuals should strive to become virtuous and that this was the path to both personal and social harmony. He emphasized the importance of the five relationships: ruler and subject, father and son, elder brother and younger brother, husband and wife, and friend and friend. He also taught the importance of ancestor worship and the role of rulers in setting an example of good conduct for their subjects.
Confucius’ teachings were later compiled and recorded by his disciples in the Analects, a collection of sayings and conversations. These teachings formed the basis of Confucianism, which became one of the most influential philosophical systems in Chinese history. Confucianism stresses the importance of morality, ethics, and social order, and its teachings have been widely adopted by the Chinese government and educated elite over the centuries.
Confucius’ influence extends far beyond his time, and his teachings continue to be studied and respected in China and other parts of East Asia. Today, Confucius is considered one of the greatest thinkers in Chinese history, and his teachings have had a profound impact on Chinese culture, thought, and political systems.
He died in 479 BCE, and his tomb is located in Qufu, Shandong province, where it remains a popular tourist destination and pilgrimage site. The Temple of Confucius, which was built in honor of the sage, has also been designated as a UNESCO World Heritage Site.
In conclusion, Confucius’ legacy continues to endure and his teachings remain relevant even after more than 2,000 years. He is remembered as a wise teacher and philosopher, and his influence on Chinese culture and thought is immeasurable. 0 0 0.
N. B. This article originally belongs to the book, ‘Brief Biographies of Ancient Thinkers and Writers‘ by Menonim Menonimus.
Books of Biography by M. Menonimus:
- The World Writers-Brief Biographies
- Introduction to World Writers
- Introduction to World Personalities
- Love of Reputed Persons ..
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Confucius | Brief Biography
Confucius was an ancient Chinese teacher, philosopher, and politician. He is considered one of the most important figures in Chinese history and is revered as a great sage and teacher. He lived in the eastern Zhou dynasty and his teachings, known as Confucianism, continue to influence Chinese culture, politics and thought today.
Confucius was born in 551 BCE in Qufu, a small state in what is now the Shandong province of China. He was born into a poor family and grew up with a love of learning. He showed a great aptitude for knowledge and was said to have had a love of poetry, music, and history.
Confucius began his career as a teacher and quickly gained a reputation for his wisdom and knowledge. He became a popular teacher and attracted many students, who would later become his disciples. He also worked as a minister in various government positions but was often dissatisfied with the corrupt political climate of his time.
Confucius believed in the importance of education and the cultivation of virtue. He taught that individuals should strive to become virtuous and that this was the path to both personal and social harmony. He emphasized the importance of the five relationships: ruler and subject, father and son, elder brother and younger brother, husband and wife, and friend and friend. He also taught the importance of ancestor worship and the role of rulers in setting an example of good conduct for their subjects.
Confucius’ teachings were later compiled and recorded by his disciples in the Analects, a collection of sayings and conversations. These teachings formed the basis of Confucianism, which became one of the most influential philosophical systems in Chinese history. Confucianism stresses the importance of morality, ethics, and social order, and its teachings have been widely adopted by the Chinese government and educated elite over the centuries.
Confucius’ influence extends far beyond his time, and his teachings continue to be studied and respected in China and other parts of East Asia. Today, Confucius is considered one of the greatest thinkers in Chinese history, and his teachings have had a profound impact on Chinese culture, thought, and political systems.
He died in 479 BCE, and his tomb is located in Qufu, Shandong province, where it remains a popular tourist destination and pilgrimage site. The Temple of Confucius, which was built in honor of the sage, has also been designated as a UNESCO World Heritage Site.
In conclusion, Confucius’ legacy continues to endure and his teachings remain relevant even after more than 2,000 years. He is remembered as a wise teacher and philosopher, and his influence on Chinese culture and thought is immeasurable. 0 0 0.
N. B. This article originally belongs to the book, ‘Brief Biographies of Ancient Thinkers and Writers‘ by Menonim Menonimus.
Books of Biography by M. Menonimus:
- The World Writers-Brief Biographies
- Introduction to World Writers
- Introduction to World Personalities
- Love of Reputed Persons ..
| 636
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ENGLISH
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The story that the king presented the newborn child to the Welsh as their future native prince is unfounded. Its earliest appearance was in the work of a 16th century Welsh "antiquary", David Powel. In fact, Edward was only made Prince of Wales in the Lincoln Parliament of February 7, 1301. Edward was, however, the first English prince to hold the title.
When Edward was a few months old, his elder brother, Alfonso, died, and he became heir to the throne. From childhood, his father, a notable military leader, made a point of training him in warfare and statecraft. The prince took part in several Scots campaigns, but "all his father's efforts could not prevent his acquiring the habits of extravagance and frivolity which he retained all through his life". The king attributed his son's defects to the bad influence of friends such as the Gascon knight Piers Gaveston, and the favourite was exiled. When Edward I died, on July 7, 1307, the first act of the prince, now Edward II, was to recall Gaveston. His next was to abandon the Scots campaign on which his father had set his heart.
The new king was physically as impressive as his father. He was, however, lacking in drive and ambition and was "the first king after the Conquest who was not a man of business" (Dr Stubbs). His main interest was in entertainment, though he also took pleasure in athletics and in the practice of mechanical crafts. He had been so dominated by his father that he had little confidence in himself, and was always in the hands of some favourite with a stronger will than his own. In the early years of his reign Gaveston held this role, acting as regent when Edward went to France, where, on January 25, 1308, he married Isabella of France, the daughter of Philip the Fair. The marriage was doomed to failure almost from the beginning. Isabella was neglected by her husband, who appeared to prefer the company of his male favourites, and was rumoured to be homosexual. Their marriage nevertheless produced two sons, Edward, and John of Eltham, earl of Cornwall (1316-1336), and two daughters, Isabella and Joanna (1321-1362), wife of David II of Scotland.
Gaveston received the earldom of Cornwall with the hand of the king's niece, Margaret of Gloucester. The barons grew resentful of Gaveston and twice insisted on his banishment. On each occasion Edward recalled his friend, whereupon the barons, headed by the king's cousin Thomas, Earl of Lancaster, went to war against king and favourite and in 1312 assassinated Gaveston. Edward was not strong enough to avenge his loss. He stood aside, allowing the country to come under the rule of a baronial committee of twenty-one lords ordainers, who, in 1311, had drawn up a series of ordinances, which substituted ordainers for the king as the effective government of the country.
Parliament meant to the new rulers an assembly of barons just as it had done to the opponents of Edward's grandfather, Henry III, in 1258. The commons was excluded. The effect was to transform England from a monarchy to a narrow oligarchy.
During the quarrels between Edward and the "ordainers", (Robert the Bruce) was steadily re-conquering Scotland. His progress was so great that he had occupied all the fortresses save Stirling, which he besieged. The danger of losing Stirling shamed Edward and the barons into an attempt to retrieve their lost ground. In June 1314 Edward led a huge army into Scotland in the hope of relieving Stirling. On June 24, his ill-disciplined and badly led force was completely defeated by Bruce at the Battle of Bannockburn. Henceforth Bruce was sure of his position as king of Scots, and took vengeance for Edward I's activities by devastating the northern counties of England.
Edward II's disgraceful defeat made him more dependent on his barons than ever. Thomas of Lancaster now had an opportunity of saving England from the consequences of the king's incompetence. He had shown some ability as a leader of opposition, but lacked creativity. In the hope of keeping the king weak, he was suspected of having made a secret understanding with Bruce. Before long the opposition split into fiercely contending factions. Under Aymer of Valence, earl of Pembroke, a middle party arose, which hated Lancaster so much that it supported the king. After 1318, the effect of its influence was to restore Edward to some portion of his authority. However, the king hated Pembroke almost as much as Lancaster, and now found a competent alternative adviser in Hugh le Despenser, a baron of great experience. What was more important to him, he had in Despenser's son, Hugh le Despenser the younger, a personal friend and favourite, who effectively replaced Gaveston. The fierce hatred which the barons had for the Despensers was equal to that with which they had hated his previous favourite. They were indignant at the privileges Edward lavished upon father and son, especially when the younger Despenser strove to procure for himself the earldom of Gloucester in right of his wife, Edward's niece.
In 1321, the barons met in parliament, and under Lancaster's guidance had Hugh le Despenser and his son banished. This inspired Edward to act. In 1322 he recalled the Despensers from exile, and waged war against the barons on their behalf. Lancaster, defeated at Boroughbridge, was executed at Pontefract. For the next five years the Despensers ruled England. Unlike the ordainers, they took pains to get the Commons on their side, and a parliament held at York in 1322 revoked the ordinances because they encroached upon the rights of the crown. From this time no statute was technically valid unless the Commons had agreed to it. This marks the most important step forward in Edward II's reign. But the rule of the Despensers soon became corrupt. Their first thought was for themselves, and they stirred up universal indignation. In particular, they excited the ill-will of the queen, Isabella of France.
Queen Isabella kept silence until 1325, when she went to France in company with her eldest son, Edward of Windsor, who was sent to do homage for Aquitaine to her brother, the new French king. When her business was over, Isabella declined to return to her husband as long as the Despensers remained his favourites. She formed a liaison with Roger Mortimer of Wigmore, one of the baronial exiles, and in September 1326 landed in Essex accompanied by Mortimer and her son, declaring that she was come to avenge the murder of Lancaster, and to expel the Despensers. Edward's followers deserted him, and on October 2 he fled from London to the west, where he took refuge in the younger Despenser's estates in Glamorgan. His wife followed him, put to death both Despensers, and, after a futile effort to escape by sea, Edward was captured on November 6. He was imprisoned at Kenilworth Castle, and a parliament met at Westminster in January 1327, which chose his son to be king as Edward III. It was thought prudent to compel the captive king to resign the crown, and on January 20 Edward was forced to renounce his office before a committee of the estates.
The government of Isabella and Mortimer was so precarious that they dared not leave the deposed king alive. On April 3 he was secretly removed from Kenilworth and entrusted to the custody of two dependants of Mortimer. After various wanderings be was imprisoned at Berkeley Castle in Gloucestershire. Every indignity was inflicted upon him, and he was systematically ill-treated in the hope that he would die of disease. When his strong constitution seemed likely to prevail he was secretly put to death on September 21. The popular legend is that his murder was by a red-hot poker thrust up his anus, considered by his captors as an appropriate punishment for his homosexuality, which would show no outward signs of violence. It was announced that he had died a natural death, and he was buried in St Peter's Abbey at Gloucester, now the cathedral, where his son afterwards erected a magnificent tomb.
An alternative version of events, which has received little attention from historians, suggests that the body buried at Gloucester is not that of King Edward, but that he was allowed to escape to the Continent and survived many more years.
Following the king's death, the rule of Isabella and Mortimer did not
last long. As soon as Edward III came of age, he executed Roger Mortimer,
but spared his mother on condition that she leave the court. In 1330, Isabella
retired from public life; she died, either at Hertford or at Castle Rising
in Norfolk on August 23, 1358.
|List of British Monarchs
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The story that the king presented the newborn child to the Welsh as their future native prince is unfounded. Its earliest appearance was in the work of a 16th century Welsh "antiquary", David Powel. In fact, Edward was only made Prince of Wales in the Lincoln Parliament of February 7, 1301. Edward was, however, the first English prince to hold the title.
When Edward was a few months old, his elder brother, Alfonso, died, and he became heir to the throne. From childhood, his father, a notable military leader, made a point of training him in warfare and statecraft. The prince took part in several Scots campaigns, but "all his father's efforts could not prevent his acquiring the habits of extravagance and frivolity which he retained all through his life". The king attributed his son's defects to the bad influence of friends such as the Gascon knight Piers Gaveston, and the favourite was exiled. When Edward I died, on July 7, 1307, the first act of the prince, now Edward II, was to recall Gaveston. His next was to abandon the Scots campaign on which his father had set his heart.
The new king was physically as impressive as his father. He was, however, lacking in drive and ambition and was "the first king after the Conquest who was not a man of business" (Dr Stubbs). His main interest was in entertainment, though he also took pleasure in athletics and in the practice of mechanical crafts. He had been so dominated by his father that he had little confidence in himself, and was always in the hands of some favourite with a stronger will than his own. In the early years of his reign Gaveston held this role, acting as regent when Edward went to France, where, on January 25, 1308, he married Isabella of France, the daughter of Philip the Fair. The marriage was doomed to failure almost from the beginning. Isabella was neglected by her husband, who appeared to prefer the company of his male favourites, and was rumoured to be homosexual. Their marriage nevertheless produced two sons, Edward, and John of Eltham, earl of Cornwall (1316-1336), and two daughters, Isabella and Joanna (1321-1362), wife of David II of Scotland.
Gaveston received the earldom of Cornwall with the hand of the king's niece, Margaret of Gloucester. The barons grew resentful of Gaveston and twice insisted on his banishment. On each occasion Edward recalled his friend, whereupon the barons, headed by the king's cousin Thomas, Earl of Lancaster, went to war against king and favourite and in 1312 assassinated Gaveston. Edward was not strong enough to avenge his loss. He stood aside, allowing the country to come under the rule of a baronial committee of twenty-one lords ordainers, who, in 1311, had drawn up a series of ordinances, which substituted ordainers for the king as the effective government of the country.
Parliament meant to the new rulers an assembly of barons just as it had done to the opponents of Edward's grandfather, Henry III, in 1258. The commons was excluded. The effect was to transform England from a monarchy to a narrow oligarchy.
During the quarrels between Edward and the "ordainers", (Robert the Bruce) was steadily re-conquering Scotland. His progress was so great that he had occupied all the fortresses save Stirling, which he besieged. The danger of losing Stirling shamed Edward and the barons into an attempt to retrieve their lost ground. In June 1314 Edward led a huge army into Scotland in the hope of relieving Stirling. On June 24, his ill-disciplined and badly led force was completely defeated by Bruce at the Battle of Bannockburn. Henceforth Bruce was sure of his position as king of Scots, and took vengeance for Edward I's activities by devastating the northern counties of England.
Edward II's disgraceful defeat made him more dependent on his barons than ever. Thomas of Lancaster now had an opportunity of saving England from the consequences of the king's incompetence. He had shown some ability as a leader of opposition, but lacked creativity. In the hope of keeping the king weak, he was suspected of having made a secret understanding with Bruce. Before long the opposition split into fiercely contending factions. Under Aymer of Valence, earl of Pembroke, a middle party arose, which hated Lancaster so much that it supported the king. After 1318, the effect of its influence was to restore Edward to some portion of his authority. However, the king hated Pembroke almost as much as Lancaster, and now found a competent alternative adviser in Hugh le Despenser, a baron of great experience. What was more important to him, he had in Despenser's son, Hugh le Despenser the younger, a personal friend and favourite, who effectively replaced Gaveston. The fierce hatred which the barons had for the Despensers was equal to that with which they had hated his previous favourite. They were indignant at the privileges Edward lavished upon father and son, especially when the younger Despenser strove to procure for himself the earldom of Gloucester in right of his wife, Edward's niece.
In 1321, the barons met in parliament, and under Lancaster's guidance had Hugh le Despenser and his son banished. This inspired Edward to act. In 1322 he recalled the Despensers from exile, and waged war against the barons on their behalf. Lancaster, defeated at Boroughbridge, was executed at Pontefract. For the next five years the Despensers ruled England. Unlike the ordainers, they took pains to get the Commons on their side, and a parliament held at York in 1322 revoked the ordinances because they encroached upon the rights of the crown. From this time no statute was technically valid unless the Commons had agreed to it. This marks the most important step forward in Edward II's reign. But the rule of the Despensers soon became corrupt. Their first thought was for themselves, and they stirred up universal indignation. In particular, they excited the ill-will of the queen, Isabella of France.
Queen Isabella kept silence until 1325, when she went to France in company with her eldest son, Edward of Windsor, who was sent to do homage for Aquitaine to her brother, the new French king. When her business was over, Isabella declined to return to her husband as long as the Despensers remained his favourites. She formed a liaison with Roger Mortimer of Wigmore, one of the baronial exiles, and in September 1326 landed in Essex accompanied by Mortimer and her son, declaring that she was come to avenge the murder of Lancaster, and to expel the Despensers. Edward's followers deserted him, and on October 2 he fled from London to the west, where he took refuge in the younger Despenser's estates in Glamorgan. His wife followed him, put to death both Despensers, and, after a futile effort to escape by sea, Edward was captured on November 6. He was imprisoned at Kenilworth Castle, and a parliament met at Westminster in January 1327, which chose his son to be king as Edward III. It was thought prudent to compel the captive king to resign the crown, and on January 20 Edward was forced to renounce his office before a committee of the estates.
The government of Isabella and Mortimer was so precarious that they dared not leave the deposed king alive. On April 3 he was secretly removed from Kenilworth and entrusted to the custody of two dependants of Mortimer. After various wanderings be was imprisoned at Berkeley Castle in Gloucestershire. Every indignity was inflicted upon him, and he was systematically ill-treated in the hope that he would die of disease. When his strong constitution seemed likely to prevail he was secretly put to death on September 21. The popular legend is that his murder was by a red-hot poker thrust up his anus, considered by his captors as an appropriate punishment for his homosexuality, which would show no outward signs of violence. It was announced that he had died a natural death, and he was buried in St Peter's Abbey at Gloucester, now the cathedral, where his son afterwards erected a magnificent tomb.
An alternative version of events, which has received little attention from historians, suggests that the body buried at Gloucester is not that of King Edward, but that he was allowed to escape to the Continent and survived many more years.
Following the king's death, the rule of Isabella and Mortimer did not
last long. As soon as Edward III came of age, he executed Roger Mortimer,
but spared his mother on condition that she leave the court. In 1330, Isabella
retired from public life; she died, either at Hertford or at Castle Rising
in Norfolk on August 23, 1358.
|List of British Monarchs
| 1,952
|
ENGLISH
| 1
|
Hockey is a fast-paced and exciting game that is played all around the world. One of the most critical aspects of the game is scoring, which is the ultimate goal of each team. In this article, we will explain the scoring system in hockey and how players can earn points.
How is a goal scored in hockey?
A goal is scored in hockey when the puck crosses the goal line and enters the net. The team that scores the most goals at the end of the game wins.
What is an assist in hockey?
An assist is awarded to the player or players who pass the puck to the player who scores the goal. If two players assist on a goal, they each receive one assist.
How are points calculated in hockey?
Points in hockey are calculated by adding together goals and assist. A player who scores a goal and assists in the same game would earn two points.
Examples of point calculations in hockey:
If a player scores two goals and has one assist, they would earn three points (two for the goals and one for the assist).
If a player scores one goal and has two assists, they would earn three points (one for the goal and two for the assists).
A player with three assists in a game will earn three points (all for the assists).
Scoring is a crucial part of hockey, and understanding the point system is essential for players and fans. Goals and assists are the two main factors that determine a player’s point total, and the more points a player earns, the better their performance on the ice.
|
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CC-MAIN-2024-10
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https://sportjunkie.co/how-does-the-hockey-score-works/
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] | 1
|
Hockey is a fast-paced and exciting game that is played all around the world. One of the most critical aspects of the game is scoring, which is the ultimate goal of each team. In this article, we will explain the scoring system in hockey and how players can earn points.
How is a goal scored in hockey?
A goal is scored in hockey when the puck crosses the goal line and enters the net. The team that scores the most goals at the end of the game wins.
What is an assist in hockey?
An assist is awarded to the player or players who pass the puck to the player who scores the goal. If two players assist on a goal, they each receive one assist.
How are points calculated in hockey?
Points in hockey are calculated by adding together goals and assist. A player who scores a goal and assists in the same game would earn two points.
Examples of point calculations in hockey:
If a player scores two goals and has one assist, they would earn three points (two for the goals and one for the assist).
If a player scores one goal and has two assists, they would earn three points (one for the goal and two for the assists).
A player with three assists in a game will earn three points (all for the assists).
Scoring is a crucial part of hockey, and understanding the point system is essential for players and fans. Goals and assists are the two main factors that determine a player’s point total, and the more points a player earns, the better their performance on the ice.
| 308
|
ENGLISH
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Throughout the course of history, women and young girls have been viewed as the weaker sex. Females did not, and at times still do not, receive the same level of respect or opportunities as men. Leading up to the 1960’s, women’s primary physical activities were cheerleading and dancing, while the men’s were more geared towards football and basketball. The women’s movement for equality was in the late 1960’s, during which women finally began to have their voices heard by others. As a result of the powerful women’s movement, the Title IX of the Education Amendments of 1972 was enacted by President Richard Nixon. This federal law states that, “No person in the United States shall, on the basis of sex, be excluded from participation in, be …show more content…
It is stated that if the program is federally funded, then it is to abide by Title IX, thus allowing women to have the same opportunity as men to participate in the same activities and have the same educational opportunities. According to the NCAA, “There are three basic parts of the Title IX as it applies to athletics: participation and scholarships. Also, other benefits such as equipment and supplies, scheduling of games and practice times, travel and daily allowance/per diem, access to tutoring, coaching, locker rooms, practice and competitive facilities, medical and training facilities and services, housing and dining facilities and services, publicity and promotions, support services and recruitment of student-athletes.” . The purpose of Title IX is not to require identical programs for both women’s and men’s athletics, but to ensure that one team is not compared to, or favored more than another; this pertains to specifically men over women or even women over men. In 1973 Dr. Christine Grant became The University of Iowa’s first women’s athletic director (AD) and served in this very position until her retirement in 2000. Prior to accepting this job, Grant was enrolled in the physical education graduate program at University of Iowa from 1969-1970. Since the beginning of her time at Iowa, she noticed there were only club sports for women and that they were paying out of
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In 1972 the Congress passed an Educational Amendment stating that all federally funded schools should not discriminate anybody by gender from playing sports. (History of Title IX. 2011, September 13). The title 9 was made to give equality to all participants who are playing for a school. Mainly for girls who were discriminated from playing sports. U.S Secretary of Education, Rod Paige said “Without a doubt, Title IX has opened the doors of opportunity for generations of women and girls to compete, to achieve, and to pursue their American Dreams. This Administration is committed to building on those successes.” (United States. Department of Education; United States. Secretary of Education 's Commission on Opportunity in Athletics, 2003, 2) Even though this law has been passed and has ensure equality to a lot of woman out there, there is still a handful of high schools that break this law. Torrey Pines High School had a women 's basketball team that went undefeated in the year of 2013. But it still showed that the boys games had more fundings than the girls team. The bleachers would be close to full every game, even though the boys team at this high school didn’t have a great season like the women 's team for this school. According to this
With the advancement of suffrage to equal pay, over the last century, women’s rights have progressed immensely. Through historic marches and demonstrations across the United States, women protested for their equal place in politics and social progress. Despite the fear-mongering components used in achieving these rights, women’s rights are still thoroughly debated within society today. Over the last century, incredible and unreachable goals have been fulfilled for women, such as the right to vote and a sense of equal state in the “Free World,” and can only improve in the years to come.
Even when Title IX was first introduced, it was not embraced with open arms and immediately implemented into society. Scholarships and funding toward women’s sports were a huge controversy, as many men’s athletic teams, mostly football, found themselves having to give up funding toward their program to compensate for the new women’s teams being formed. In fact, schools, men’s collegiate sport teams, and the NCAA challenged Title IX countless times for it’s discrimination against men and it’s push for equal federal funding for both men and women. Many male coaches, athletic directors, and particularly members of the National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA) feared that women athletes would siphon off too much of their funds. So The NCAA had actively and publically opposed Title IX, trying first to exclude athletics from it altogether in 1975, and then working to exempt revenue producing sports like football.
Title IX is a controversial law that has raised many conflicts with colleges and other federal funded establishments. Title IX has had a long controversial history throughout America and has been the focal point of many court cases. Among these court cases women have believed that this law has only affected women’s athletics in a positive way and has not affected men’s athletics in a negative way at all. Although Title IX has affected women’s athletics in a positive way it has, at the same time, negatively impacted men’s athletics among universities’ and other federal funded establishments. Taking into consideration the effects that the law has had I can conclude that this law has negatively impacted men’s athletics and I will prove it within this paper by providing statistics and examples of its negative impacts throughout its history in America.
As supported by the research, Title IX provides women freedom to be able to do whatever men can do. Women benefit from the law and men don’t. But as always, there has to be two sides to the story. Title IX protects women against discrimination in sports and education. As well as having men’s sports being taken away. Title IX is always going to be there for the extra support, but it is not necessary; women can get away with playing men’s sports a lot easier now. This law has affected many women in America, and it has also affected men, in both a good and a bad way. All that favors Title IX go do something, get out there and start playing some men’s sports. Learn some more, you can’t be discriminated about it! Title IX allows women to do anything they
In today's society, women and girls have developed an interested in athletic opportunities at the collegiate level. Title IX provided a standard for athletics around the world within the aspect of education, health, and social. The purpose is to not allow discrimination of sex and racism within the terms of provides equal opportunities for athletes. Critics argue that Title IX has a negative impact on the reduction of male opportunities in collegiate athletics. Title IX has affected on the opportunities for growth in women's athletics, but the increase in opportunities will affect the men athletics outcome of opportunities due to the cutting of programs and finical issue.
Even though institutions are required by law to meet one of those terms, a school rarely complies sufficiently with Title IX. In fact, at a few schools certain opportunities have diminished for women. Since Title IX was passed, women’s teams, at some schools, have shrunk due to death of field hockey in 1991 (Pinney 2). Although it is not required for schools to comply, funding for women’s teams have not been equal either.
In order to comply with Title IX the schools had to effectuate with what's called proportionality. (CBS news) Proportionality states that the portion of the school that is female must also be the portion of athletes that is female. Therefore setting a balance between the schools ratio and the athletic ratios and also enforcing Title IX. The problem that balancing caused was that the school had to add more women sports which cost more money to the school, or choose to cancel some of the schools male sports. Subsequently, the schools had to do what was best for the school and to avoid going into debt for sports the male sports had to be put on the burner. Many schools cut male wrestling, track and field, tennis, and gymnastics teams instead of adding women sports. Jason Lewis a gymnasts whose team was eliminated said that the number of men’s teams are dwindling because colleges are dropping what are called the minor men's sports, the ones that don't draw crowds or make money, and investing more and more in just one sport – football. The Fact that just twenty-three years ago, there was 107 men's gymnastics teams in this nation, now there are only 20 teams left just so happens to prove Lewis's statement to be true.(CBS news)
Every reformation requires a leader—someone to set an example for them, to remind them what they are fighting for, to be the first person to stand up for their cause. Each leader represents every individual in their movement and they have to be willing to sacrifice everything for the cause of their movement. As entrepreneur Bo Bennet said, “Without initiative, leaders are simply workers in leadership position.” In the women’s rights movement, there was someone who defied all standards set up for women in the 1800s and took chances for the cause of suffrage and equality—Susan Brownell Anthony. Born into a Quaker family in New York, Anthony grew up under the notion of social equality and pursued independence as a young woman. This led her to pursue several imperative movements such as temperance, abolition and her most profound and recognized reformation—women’s rights. Susan B. Anthony played a critical role in changing the direction of the women’s rights movement and its success by demonstrating her authority as a leader and breaking the standards of society for women.
The Women’s Movement was movement to help women get rights and become equal to men. There was a series of events that lead to the women's convention in 1848, where women's rights became magnified.
Life as we know it would not be the same if it were not for the women’s rights movement. The movement started in the mid-1800s and continued until the 1920s, changing from women’s suffrage to what is known as feminism into the 1960s. The basis of the movement is avocation for women’s rights. Women felt (and still feel) as though they are equal to men, and that they deserve all the rights that men have. Women before the movement had hardly any rights, they could not vote, could not own land or houses, and could not legally have custody of their children. Women were thought of and treated as property, of either their fathers or husbands. Many people felt as though the women’s rights movement would result in men losing their “property”, women taking their jobs and abortion becoming a readily available form of birth control, just to name a few. On the other side of the issue were women who wanted an equal chance at life. They wanted to vote, have jobs, be able to keep their kids in the event of a divorce, be protected against marital rape and abuse. These women wanted to be protected by the law just as men were. The women’s rights movement was a massive movement enacting social, political, and economic change. Key figures in this movement include (in no particular order) Mary Wollstonecraft, John Stuart Mill, Susan B. Anthony, Elisabeth Cady Stanton, Alice Paul, Lucy Burns, Gloria Steinem, Hillary Clinton, Tracy Thurman, and Anita Hill.
U.S. Department of the Interior, n.d. Web. 27 Mar. 2017.) argues "Educational opportunities improved slowly as secondary schools, then colleges, were established for women. With the advent of coeducational schools, policies still limited women's admissions, financial assistance, course or program choices, and participation in activities". After the Women's Rights Movement did men start to realize how important and intelligent women were so they open up schools for both men and women. Women weren't allowed to do the things men did especially voting. Only men were allowed to vote and become the president. Women had to fight for every right that they wanted because men believed women shouldn't have rights. For the longest time women went along with it, always listening and doing what men told them to do. Soon started to realize that they should be seen as equals to men so they started fighting for what they believed in.
Do you believe that men and women are created equal and deserve equal opportunities? Do you agree that women should be paid the same amount as her male coworkers for doing the same job? Do you believe that women should be able to make their own decisions regarding their bodies? Congratulations, you are a feminist! Merriam-Webster defines feminism as “the theory of the political, economic, and social equality of the sexes”. For decades, women have fought to achieve our rights that we have today. Despite our many triumphs, we still have a long road ahead of us in our march for equality.
Many women today are under the impression that they have equal rights to men under the law, this is not true. The movement for women to fight for equality has been a long road and continues today. This fight first began in Seneca Falls, New York, in 1848. A group of women wanted to gather to discuss the social, civil, and religious condition and rights of women. The New York Times reports the Declaration of settlements was originally drafted by a woman named, Elizabeth Cady Stanton. This declaration was meant to give women equal rights and privileges, as United States citizens. Rights such as equality for women in law, education, employment, and the right to vote. In 1869 Elizabeth Cady Stanton joined forces with Susan B. Anthony to form the
Although countries throughout the world have accomplished full equality for men and women, the women’s rights movement in Pakistan has just begun. People are starting to protest against discriminations that women face in their daily lives that disable them from having a voice in society. Some of these discriminations involve men being able to divorce their wives without her consent, women’s voices having half the weight of a man’s in court, and female heirs inheriting less money or property than a male heir (“Sharia”, 9). Groups like the Pakistani Women’s Rights Organization are striving for the removal of laws or practices that justify cruelty towards women. They are also raising awareness of issues displaying discrimination against women in order to gain supporters in Pakistan and throughout the world. Women’s activist groups and individuals have increased in number throughout the years due to their powerful, public outcries. They all share one common goal: achieve full equality for women in Pakistan ("Human Rights Issues", 1).
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Throughout the course of history, women and young girls have been viewed as the weaker sex. Females did not, and at times still do not, receive the same level of respect or opportunities as men. Leading up to the 1960’s, women’s primary physical activities were cheerleading and dancing, while the men’s were more geared towards football and basketball. The women’s movement for equality was in the late 1960’s, during which women finally began to have their voices heard by others. As a result of the powerful women’s movement, the Title IX of the Education Amendments of 1972 was enacted by President Richard Nixon. This federal law states that, “No person in the United States shall, on the basis of sex, be excluded from participation in, be …show more content…
It is stated that if the program is federally funded, then it is to abide by Title IX, thus allowing women to have the same opportunity as men to participate in the same activities and have the same educational opportunities. According to the NCAA, “There are three basic parts of the Title IX as it applies to athletics: participation and scholarships. Also, other benefits such as equipment and supplies, scheduling of games and practice times, travel and daily allowance/per diem, access to tutoring, coaching, locker rooms, practice and competitive facilities, medical and training facilities and services, housing and dining facilities and services, publicity and promotions, support services and recruitment of student-athletes.” . The purpose of Title IX is not to require identical programs for both women’s and men’s athletics, but to ensure that one team is not compared to, or favored more than another; this pertains to specifically men over women or even women over men. In 1973 Dr. Christine Grant became The University of Iowa’s first women’s athletic director (AD) and served in this very position until her retirement in 2000. Prior to accepting this job, Grant was enrolled in the physical education graduate program at University of Iowa from 1969-1970. Since the beginning of her time at Iowa, she noticed there were only club sports for women and that they were paying out of
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In 1972 the Congress passed an Educational Amendment stating that all federally funded schools should not discriminate anybody by gender from playing sports. (History of Title IX. 2011, September 13). The title 9 was made to give equality to all participants who are playing for a school. Mainly for girls who were discriminated from playing sports. U.S Secretary of Education, Rod Paige said “Without a doubt, Title IX has opened the doors of opportunity for generations of women and girls to compete, to achieve, and to pursue their American Dreams. This Administration is committed to building on those successes.” (United States. Department of Education; United States. Secretary of Education 's Commission on Opportunity in Athletics, 2003, 2) Even though this law has been passed and has ensure equality to a lot of woman out there, there is still a handful of high schools that break this law. Torrey Pines High School had a women 's basketball team that went undefeated in the year of 2013. But it still showed that the boys games had more fundings than the girls team. The bleachers would be close to full every game, even though the boys team at this high school didn’t have a great season like the women 's team for this school. According to this
With the advancement of suffrage to equal pay, over the last century, women’s rights have progressed immensely. Through historic marches and demonstrations across the United States, women protested for their equal place in politics and social progress. Despite the fear-mongering components used in achieving these rights, women’s rights are still thoroughly debated within society today. Over the last century, incredible and unreachable goals have been fulfilled for women, such as the right to vote and a sense of equal state in the “Free World,” and can only improve in the years to come.
Even when Title IX was first introduced, it was not embraced with open arms and immediately implemented into society. Scholarships and funding toward women’s sports were a huge controversy, as many men’s athletic teams, mostly football, found themselves having to give up funding toward their program to compensate for the new women’s teams being formed. In fact, schools, men’s collegiate sport teams, and the NCAA challenged Title IX countless times for it’s discrimination against men and it’s push for equal federal funding for both men and women. Many male coaches, athletic directors, and particularly members of the National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA) feared that women athletes would siphon off too much of their funds. So The NCAA had actively and publically opposed Title IX, trying first to exclude athletics from it altogether in 1975, and then working to exempt revenue producing sports like football.
Title IX is a controversial law that has raised many conflicts with colleges and other federal funded establishments. Title IX has had a long controversial history throughout America and has been the focal point of many court cases. Among these court cases women have believed that this law has only affected women’s athletics in a positive way and has not affected men’s athletics in a negative way at all. Although Title IX has affected women’s athletics in a positive way it has, at the same time, negatively impacted men’s athletics among universities’ and other federal funded establishments. Taking into consideration the effects that the law has had I can conclude that this law has negatively impacted men’s athletics and I will prove it within this paper by providing statistics and examples of its negative impacts throughout its history in America.
As supported by the research, Title IX provides women freedom to be able to do whatever men can do. Women benefit from the law and men don’t. But as always, there has to be two sides to the story. Title IX protects women against discrimination in sports and education. As well as having men’s sports being taken away. Title IX is always going to be there for the extra support, but it is not necessary; women can get away with playing men’s sports a lot easier now. This law has affected many women in America, and it has also affected men, in both a good and a bad way. All that favors Title IX go do something, get out there and start playing some men’s sports. Learn some more, you can’t be discriminated about it! Title IX allows women to do anything they
In today's society, women and girls have developed an interested in athletic opportunities at the collegiate level. Title IX provided a standard for athletics around the world within the aspect of education, health, and social. The purpose is to not allow discrimination of sex and racism within the terms of provides equal opportunities for athletes. Critics argue that Title IX has a negative impact on the reduction of male opportunities in collegiate athletics. Title IX has affected on the opportunities for growth in women's athletics, but the increase in opportunities will affect the men athletics outcome of opportunities due to the cutting of programs and finical issue.
Even though institutions are required by law to meet one of those terms, a school rarely complies sufficiently with Title IX. In fact, at a few schools certain opportunities have diminished for women. Since Title IX was passed, women’s teams, at some schools, have shrunk due to death of field hockey in 1991 (Pinney 2). Although it is not required for schools to comply, funding for women’s teams have not been equal either.
In order to comply with Title IX the schools had to effectuate with what's called proportionality. (CBS news) Proportionality states that the portion of the school that is female must also be the portion of athletes that is female. Therefore setting a balance between the schools ratio and the athletic ratios and also enforcing Title IX. The problem that balancing caused was that the school had to add more women sports which cost more money to the school, or choose to cancel some of the schools male sports. Subsequently, the schools had to do what was best for the school and to avoid going into debt for sports the male sports had to be put on the burner. Many schools cut male wrestling, track and field, tennis, and gymnastics teams instead of adding women sports. Jason Lewis a gymnasts whose team was eliminated said that the number of men’s teams are dwindling because colleges are dropping what are called the minor men's sports, the ones that don't draw crowds or make money, and investing more and more in just one sport – football. The Fact that just twenty-three years ago, there was 107 men's gymnastics teams in this nation, now there are only 20 teams left just so happens to prove Lewis's statement to be true.(CBS news)
Every reformation requires a leader—someone to set an example for them, to remind them what they are fighting for, to be the first person to stand up for their cause. Each leader represents every individual in their movement and they have to be willing to sacrifice everything for the cause of their movement. As entrepreneur Bo Bennet said, “Without initiative, leaders are simply workers in leadership position.” In the women’s rights movement, there was someone who defied all standards set up for women in the 1800s and took chances for the cause of suffrage and equality—Susan Brownell Anthony. Born into a Quaker family in New York, Anthony grew up under the notion of social equality and pursued independence as a young woman. This led her to pursue several imperative movements such as temperance, abolition and her most profound and recognized reformation—women’s rights. Susan B. Anthony played a critical role in changing the direction of the women’s rights movement and its success by demonstrating her authority as a leader and breaking the standards of society for women.
The Women’s Movement was movement to help women get rights and become equal to men. There was a series of events that lead to the women's convention in 1848, where women's rights became magnified.
Life as we know it would not be the same if it were not for the women’s rights movement. The movement started in the mid-1800s and continued until the 1920s, changing from women’s suffrage to what is known as feminism into the 1960s. The basis of the movement is avocation for women’s rights. Women felt (and still feel) as though they are equal to men, and that they deserve all the rights that men have. Women before the movement had hardly any rights, they could not vote, could not own land or houses, and could not legally have custody of their children. Women were thought of and treated as property, of either their fathers or husbands. Many people felt as though the women’s rights movement would result in men losing their “property”, women taking their jobs and abortion becoming a readily available form of birth control, just to name a few. On the other side of the issue were women who wanted an equal chance at life. They wanted to vote, have jobs, be able to keep their kids in the event of a divorce, be protected against marital rape and abuse. These women wanted to be protected by the law just as men were. The women’s rights movement was a massive movement enacting social, political, and economic change. Key figures in this movement include (in no particular order) Mary Wollstonecraft, John Stuart Mill, Susan B. Anthony, Elisabeth Cady Stanton, Alice Paul, Lucy Burns, Gloria Steinem, Hillary Clinton, Tracy Thurman, and Anita Hill.
U.S. Department of the Interior, n.d. Web. 27 Mar. 2017.) argues "Educational opportunities improved slowly as secondary schools, then colleges, were established for women. With the advent of coeducational schools, policies still limited women's admissions, financial assistance, course or program choices, and participation in activities". After the Women's Rights Movement did men start to realize how important and intelligent women were so they open up schools for both men and women. Women weren't allowed to do the things men did especially voting. Only men were allowed to vote and become the president. Women had to fight for every right that they wanted because men believed women shouldn't have rights. For the longest time women went along with it, always listening and doing what men told them to do. Soon started to realize that they should be seen as equals to men so they started fighting for what they believed in.
Do you believe that men and women are created equal and deserve equal opportunities? Do you agree that women should be paid the same amount as her male coworkers for doing the same job? Do you believe that women should be able to make their own decisions regarding their bodies? Congratulations, you are a feminist! Merriam-Webster defines feminism as “the theory of the political, economic, and social equality of the sexes”. For decades, women have fought to achieve our rights that we have today. Despite our many triumphs, we still have a long road ahead of us in our march for equality.
Many women today are under the impression that they have equal rights to men under the law, this is not true. The movement for women to fight for equality has been a long road and continues today. This fight first began in Seneca Falls, New York, in 1848. A group of women wanted to gather to discuss the social, civil, and religious condition and rights of women. The New York Times reports the Declaration of settlements was originally drafted by a woman named, Elizabeth Cady Stanton. This declaration was meant to give women equal rights and privileges, as United States citizens. Rights such as equality for women in law, education, employment, and the right to vote. In 1869 Elizabeth Cady Stanton joined forces with Susan B. Anthony to form the
Although countries throughout the world have accomplished full equality for men and women, the women’s rights movement in Pakistan has just begun. People are starting to protest against discriminations that women face in their daily lives that disable them from having a voice in society. Some of these discriminations involve men being able to divorce their wives without her consent, women’s voices having half the weight of a man’s in court, and female heirs inheriting less money or property than a male heir (“Sharia”, 9). Groups like the Pakistani Women’s Rights Organization are striving for the removal of laws or practices that justify cruelty towards women. They are also raising awareness of issues displaying discrimination against women in order to gain supporters in Pakistan and throughout the world. Women’s activist groups and individuals have increased in number throughout the years due to their powerful, public outcries. They all share one common goal: achieve full equality for women in Pakistan ("Human Rights Issues", 1).
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- Rocroi, Battle of
▪ French history(May 19, 1643), a military engagement of the Thirty Years' War in which a French army of 22,000 men, under the Duke d'Enghien (later known as the Great Condé (Condé, Louis II de Bourbon, 4e prince de)), annihilated a Spanish army of 26,000 men under Don Francisco de Melo, marking the end of Spain's military ascendancy in Europe.The Spanish army crossed the French border from the Netherlands and then stopped to besiege the small fortress of Rocroi, 55 miles (88 km) northeast of Reims. Enghien advanced rapidly, knowing that the Spaniards were expecting reinforcements. On May 18 both armies positioned themselves with the bulk of their infantry in the centre, flanked by two wings of cavalry. Early on May 19 Enghien led a successful cavalry charge of the French right against the Spanish left. The French cavalry of the left also attacked the Spanish right, against his orders, and was repulsed. The Spaniards then followed through by starting their assault on the French centre. Meanwhile, Enghien's cavalry turned to its left and cut its way through the middle of the enemy infantry, thus isolating the elite Spanish soldiers in the front ranks from their less steady German and Italian allies in the rear. Enghien's troops then reached the cavalry on the Spanish right flank, who were still engaged with the French in their front, and dispersed them. The 8,000 elite Spanish infantry were by now completely isolated, as Enghien's attack had broken up the rear ranks of supporting German and Italian infantry. Late in the day, when all the available French as well as the captured Spanish guns were turned on them, the Spanish asked to surrender. But as Enghien and his staff were coming to receive the surrender some Spaniards mistakenly opened fire. The enraged French hurled themselves on the Spanish infantry, killing more than half and capturing the rest. The Battle of Rocroi marked the decline of Spanish military power.
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- Rocroi, Battle of
▪ French history(May 19, 1643), a military engagement of the Thirty Years' War in which a French army of 22,000 men, under the Duke d'Enghien (later known as the Great Condé (Condé, Louis II de Bourbon, 4e prince de)), annihilated a Spanish army of 26,000 men under Don Francisco de Melo, marking the end of Spain's military ascendancy in Europe.The Spanish army crossed the French border from the Netherlands and then stopped to besiege the small fortress of Rocroi, 55 miles (88 km) northeast of Reims. Enghien advanced rapidly, knowing that the Spaniards were expecting reinforcements. On May 18 both armies positioned themselves with the bulk of their infantry in the centre, flanked by two wings of cavalry. Early on May 19 Enghien led a successful cavalry charge of the French right against the Spanish left. The French cavalry of the left also attacked the Spanish right, against his orders, and was repulsed. The Spaniards then followed through by starting their assault on the French centre. Meanwhile, Enghien's cavalry turned to its left and cut its way through the middle of the enemy infantry, thus isolating the elite Spanish soldiers in the front ranks from their less steady German and Italian allies in the rear. Enghien's troops then reached the cavalry on the Spanish right flank, who were still engaged with the French in their front, and dispersed them. The 8,000 elite Spanish infantry were by now completely isolated, as Enghien's attack had broken up the rear ranks of supporting German and Italian infantry. Late in the day, when all the available French as well as the captured Spanish guns were turned on them, the Spanish asked to surrender. But as Enghien and his staff were coming to receive the surrender some Spaniards mistakenly opened fire. The enraged French hurled themselves on the Spanish infantry, killing more than half and capturing the rest. The Battle of Rocroi marked the decline of Spanish military power.
* * *
| 444
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ENGLISH
| 1
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X-rays must have been amazing to the first people who saw them. With photography still being relatively new, and moving pictures having just been developed, the chance to utilize a new type of technology to see within a living human must have been as fascinating then as it is commonplace now. While it took a while for X-ray's medical applications to be known, today, X-rays and similar imaging techniques are the most valuable tools doctors have for diagnosing patients. The next time you have an appointment for diagnostic imaging in Suffolk County, NY, here are some facts to consider regarding the history and future of X-ray technology.
The Birth of X-Rays
In 1885, University of Würzburg physicist Wilhelm Conrad Röntgen was studying electron beams within a gas discharge tube. Upon turning on the tube, he noticed a nearby fluorescent screen would glow. Realizing this meant that the rays within the tube were able to penetrate some types of solid matter, he put his hand between the tube and screen, and saw that his bones were projected onto the screen. He would publish a paper called "On a New Kind of Rays" where he included images of his wife's hand, a compass, a weight, and some pieces of metal. And with that, X-ray imaging was born.
Very quickly, the use of X-rays captured the public's fascination. People would pay to look at their skeletons at carnivals through a fluoroscope: a machine which could show live, moving X-ray images. Fluoroscopes were even used to draw women to shoe stores where they could see their foot bones within their new shoes. Of course, the practitioners of the time had no understanding yet of the dangers of un-shielded radiation, and X-ray exhibitions lost their appeal as those who were running the machines started to lose fingers and even their lives. Even Thomas Edison swore off ever tinkering with X-ray machines again after losing his assistant to cancer.
Until X-rays came along, the only way to find a bullet or shrapnel in the human body was by the surgeon feeling around. Quickly, military doctors realized the life-saving potential X-rays had to offer. By the 1930s, with new understandings of how to protect patients and staff from their adverse effects, X-rays became an essential part of patient diagnostics. By the 1970s, X-rays began transitioning to digital imaging, saving time, money, and storage space.
X-Rays Today and in the Future
Today, X-rays are a safe and reliable means of treating injuries and diagnosing cancer and other illnesses. Their increased use in the developing world is saving lives across all of Africa and Asia. Also, in the last couple of years, digital X-ray imaging has been playing a greater role in aiding the diagnosis of pneumonia, an illness which kills over a million children under the age of five every year.
The X-ray's development from an entertainment tool of the 19th century to one of the safest and most reliable means of treating a patient is all a part of the medical advances that benefit all of us. It's due to the brave and brilliant actions of all the men and women who advanced X-rays' life-saving potential that you're able to take advantage of those benefits when you undergo advanced diagnostic imaging in Suffolk County, NY.
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X-rays must have been amazing to the first people who saw them. With photography still being relatively new, and moving pictures having just been developed, the chance to utilize a new type of technology to see within a living human must have been as fascinating then as it is commonplace now. While it took a while for X-ray's medical applications to be known, today, X-rays and similar imaging techniques are the most valuable tools doctors have for diagnosing patients. The next time you have an appointment for diagnostic imaging in Suffolk County, NY, here are some facts to consider regarding the history and future of X-ray technology.
The Birth of X-Rays
In 1885, University of Würzburg physicist Wilhelm Conrad Röntgen was studying electron beams within a gas discharge tube. Upon turning on the tube, he noticed a nearby fluorescent screen would glow. Realizing this meant that the rays within the tube were able to penetrate some types of solid matter, he put his hand between the tube and screen, and saw that his bones were projected onto the screen. He would publish a paper called "On a New Kind of Rays" where he included images of his wife's hand, a compass, a weight, and some pieces of metal. And with that, X-ray imaging was born.
Very quickly, the use of X-rays captured the public's fascination. People would pay to look at their skeletons at carnivals through a fluoroscope: a machine which could show live, moving X-ray images. Fluoroscopes were even used to draw women to shoe stores where they could see their foot bones within their new shoes. Of course, the practitioners of the time had no understanding yet of the dangers of un-shielded radiation, and X-ray exhibitions lost their appeal as those who were running the machines started to lose fingers and even their lives. Even Thomas Edison swore off ever tinkering with X-ray machines again after losing his assistant to cancer.
Until X-rays came along, the only way to find a bullet or shrapnel in the human body was by the surgeon feeling around. Quickly, military doctors realized the life-saving potential X-rays had to offer. By the 1930s, with new understandings of how to protect patients and staff from their adverse effects, X-rays became an essential part of patient diagnostics. By the 1970s, X-rays began transitioning to digital imaging, saving time, money, and storage space.
X-Rays Today and in the Future
Today, X-rays are a safe and reliable means of treating injuries and diagnosing cancer and other illnesses. Their increased use in the developing world is saving lives across all of Africa and Asia. Also, in the last couple of years, digital X-ray imaging has been playing a greater role in aiding the diagnosis of pneumonia, an illness which kills over a million children under the age of five every year.
The X-ray's development from an entertainment tool of the 19th century to one of the safest and most reliable means of treating a patient is all a part of the medical advances that benefit all of us. It's due to the brave and brilliant actions of all the men and women who advanced X-rays' life-saving potential that you're able to take advantage of those benefits when you undergo advanced diagnostic imaging in Suffolk County, NY.
| 674
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ENGLISH
| 1
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This landmark object identifies the transportation and technology wing of the museum. On view is the steam locomotive John Bull and a section of the first iron railroad bridge in America.
The steam locomotive John Bull was built in 1831 and ran for 35 years, pulling trains of passengers and cargo between the two largest cities of the time, Philadelphia and New York. The locomotive propelled trains at 25 to 30 miles per hour. The John Bull, which was ordered from England by Robert Stevens for his railroad company, was named after the mythical gentleman who symbolized England. It was assembled by Isaac Dripps, a young steamboat mechanic who had never seen a locomotive before. Despite his lack of direct experience, the pilot truck added by Dripps was adopted for use on virtually all American steam-powered locomotives except yard switcher types.
John Bull is the oldest locomotive in existence still capable of operation, as was demonstrated in 1981.
In 1981, for the John Bull's 150th birthday, the Museum took the John Bull steam locomotive out to run on nearby train tracks. Take a look at this video to see the John Bull locomotive in action.
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] | 1
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This landmark object identifies the transportation and technology wing of the museum. On view is the steam locomotive John Bull and a section of the first iron railroad bridge in America.
The steam locomotive John Bull was built in 1831 and ran for 35 years, pulling trains of passengers and cargo between the two largest cities of the time, Philadelphia and New York. The locomotive propelled trains at 25 to 30 miles per hour. The John Bull, which was ordered from England by Robert Stevens for his railroad company, was named after the mythical gentleman who symbolized England. It was assembled by Isaac Dripps, a young steamboat mechanic who had never seen a locomotive before. Despite his lack of direct experience, the pilot truck added by Dripps was adopted for use on virtually all American steam-powered locomotives except yard switcher types.
John Bull is the oldest locomotive in existence still capable of operation, as was demonstrated in 1981.
In 1981, for the John Bull's 150th birthday, the Museum took the John Bull steam locomotive out to run on nearby train tracks. Take a look at this video to see the John Bull locomotive in action.
| 254
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ENGLISH
| 1
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How Native American Culture Changed Over Time
Native American culture is one of the richest and most diverse cultures in the world. The culture of Native Americans is a result of a long and complex history that has been shaped by various factors, including geographic location, climate, and the interaction with other cultures.
The Pre-Columbian Era
The pre-Columbian era refers to the time period before the arrival of Christopher Columbus in 1492. During this time, Native Americans were spread across the Americas and had distinct cultures and traditions. The culture of Native Americans during this era was heavily influenced by their environment. For example, tribes that lived near the ocean relied on fishing as their main food source, while those who lived in the plains hunted buffalo.
Religion played a significant role in Native American culture during the pre-Columbian era. Most tribes believed in multiple gods and spirits, and religious practices were often tied to natural phenomena such as the seasons and weather.
The Colonial Era
The colonial era began with the arrival of Europeans in the Americas in the late 15th and early 16th centuries. This period marked a significant change in Native American culture. European settlers brought with them new diseases, weapons, and technology, which disrupted Native American societies. The colonization of the Americas by Europeans led to the displacement and forced assimilation of Native Americans, resulting in the decline of their culture and traditions.
During this era, Native American religion was suppressed by the Europeans. Many Native American children were taken from their families and sent to boarding schools where they were forced to adopt European customs and beliefs. As a result, traditional Native American religion declined, and many of the spiritual practices were lost.
The Contemporary Era
Toward the end of the 20th century, there was a renewed interest in Native American culture in the United States. This renewed interest has led to increased efforts to preserve Native American traditions and language. Native American tribes are now more active than ever in educating people about their culture and history.
The contemporary era has also witnessed the revival of Native American religions. Many native religions are now being practiced again, and there has been a growing interest in learning about these traditions. There are now many organizations and groups dedicated to preserving Native American culture and religion, as well as advocating for the rights of native peoples.
The culture of Native Americans has changed dramatically over time. During the pre-Columbian era, Native American culture was heavily influenced by their environment and religion. The arrival of Europeans and the subsequent colonization of the Americas led to the suppression and decline of Native American culture and religion. However, in recent years there has been a renewed interest in Native American culture, and efforts are being made to preserve and reclaim what has been lost.
Table of Contents
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How Native American Culture Changed Over Time
Native American culture is one of the richest and most diverse cultures in the world. The culture of Native Americans is a result of a long and complex history that has been shaped by various factors, including geographic location, climate, and the interaction with other cultures.
The Pre-Columbian Era
The pre-Columbian era refers to the time period before the arrival of Christopher Columbus in 1492. During this time, Native Americans were spread across the Americas and had distinct cultures and traditions. The culture of Native Americans during this era was heavily influenced by their environment. For example, tribes that lived near the ocean relied on fishing as their main food source, while those who lived in the plains hunted buffalo.
Religion played a significant role in Native American culture during the pre-Columbian era. Most tribes believed in multiple gods and spirits, and religious practices were often tied to natural phenomena such as the seasons and weather.
The Colonial Era
The colonial era began with the arrival of Europeans in the Americas in the late 15th and early 16th centuries. This period marked a significant change in Native American culture. European settlers brought with them new diseases, weapons, and technology, which disrupted Native American societies. The colonization of the Americas by Europeans led to the displacement and forced assimilation of Native Americans, resulting in the decline of their culture and traditions.
During this era, Native American religion was suppressed by the Europeans. Many Native American children were taken from their families and sent to boarding schools where they were forced to adopt European customs and beliefs. As a result, traditional Native American religion declined, and many of the spiritual practices were lost.
The Contemporary Era
Toward the end of the 20th century, there was a renewed interest in Native American culture in the United States. This renewed interest has led to increased efforts to preserve Native American traditions and language. Native American tribes are now more active than ever in educating people about their culture and history.
The contemporary era has also witnessed the revival of Native American religions. Many native religions are now being practiced again, and there has been a growing interest in learning about these traditions. There are now many organizations and groups dedicated to preserving Native American culture and religion, as well as advocating for the rights of native peoples.
The culture of Native Americans has changed dramatically over time. During the pre-Columbian era, Native American culture was heavily influenced by their environment and religion. The arrival of Europeans and the subsequent colonization of the Americas led to the suppression and decline of Native American culture and religion. However, in recent years there has been a renewed interest in Native American culture, and efforts are being made to preserve and reclaim what has been lost.
Table of Contents
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ENGLISH
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The Gilded Age was a period in United States history from the 1870s to around 1900. It was characterized by rapid economic growth, widespread industrialization, and technological innovation. The name "Gilded Age" comes from Mark Twain's novel of the same name, which satirized an era of serious social problems that were hidden beneath a thin veneer of wealth and prosperity. During this time, a large number of immigrants arrived in America seeking work in factories or on farms, while others made fortunes through business ventures such as railroads and oil exploration. This influx helped fuel an unprecedented period of growth for the American economy, but it also led to overcrowding, exploitation, poverty, corruption among public officials, political unrest, and labor strife. At the same time, however, advances like electricity allowed for increased production, leading to improved standards of living for many Americans. Although there were significant inequalities during this period between those who had money and those who did not, the overall effect was one of progress, with new technologies transforming industry as well as everyday life throughout society.
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] | 1
|
The Gilded Age was a period in United States history from the 1870s to around 1900. It was characterized by rapid economic growth, widespread industrialization, and technological innovation. The name "Gilded Age" comes from Mark Twain's novel of the same name, which satirized an era of serious social problems that were hidden beneath a thin veneer of wealth and prosperity. During this time, a large number of immigrants arrived in America seeking work in factories or on farms, while others made fortunes through business ventures such as railroads and oil exploration. This influx helped fuel an unprecedented period of growth for the American economy, but it also led to overcrowding, exploitation, poverty, corruption among public officials, political unrest, and labor strife. At the same time, however, advances like electricity allowed for increased production, leading to improved standards of living for many Americans. Although there were significant inequalities during this period between those who had money and those who did not, the overall effect was one of progress, with new technologies transforming industry as well as everyday life throughout society.
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|
Sports are a fun, healthy way for children to stay active and engaged in learning. Studies show that children who play sports are happier, more physically fit, and less likely to take up unhealthy habits like smoking.
The benefits of sports for students go far beyond physical fitness and health. They also help build character traits that can serve them well as they grow into young adults.
Regular exercise helps boost a student’s energy levels and strengthen their immune system. It also improves the body’s ability to absorb oxygen into the bloodstream, which is crucial for a student’s mental and physical health.
It can also increase a student’s endurance and confidence to achieve their goals. This can be invaluable when they get older and need to balance school work and extracurricular activities.
Athletes learn leadership skills from coaches and practice putting the needs of the team before their own. They gain a sense of responsibility and accountability as they step up to captain a team or lead a practice.
They also develop a strong sense of commitment and self-discipline to stick to their practice schedules. This is important for studying, too, as it helps students focus on their coursework without letting it interfere with their other responsibilities.
Students learn to set goals, reach them, and grow from failure, which can help them succeed in life. They also learn to be competitive without being cutthroat or hurtful.
A student who has the desire to win is more likely to put in the work necessary to do well, a skill that will pay off throughout her career. It also teaches them that effort beats talent when talent doesn’t work hard, which can set them up for success in their future endeavors.
It is a great way to build a child’s character and help them understand what it means to be an active member of their community. Athletes also get to meet and interact with new people in a positive way, helping them build friendships that can last a lifetime.
In addition, it is a good source of social interaction and teamwork. This is especially true for one-on-one sports, such as tennis or soccer, where players need to communicate with their teammates during a match.
The social benefits of sports can be applied to the classroom as well, with students able to form relationships with others in their group that they may not have otherwise met. This can boost their confidence and make them more confident to speak up in class.
Students who are involved in a sport also develop better social skills and learn how to be respectful of those around them. This can help them develop friendships that will last a lifetime, and it can also be beneficial to their academic careers.
Many students who play sports in school also have a stronger sense of pride for their schools and the team they represent. This can inspire them to strive for the highest grades and be more motivated in the classroom.
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Sports are a fun, healthy way for children to stay active and engaged in learning. Studies show that children who play sports are happier, more physically fit, and less likely to take up unhealthy habits like smoking.
The benefits of sports for students go far beyond physical fitness and health. They also help build character traits that can serve them well as they grow into young adults.
Regular exercise helps boost a student’s energy levels and strengthen their immune system. It also improves the body’s ability to absorb oxygen into the bloodstream, which is crucial for a student’s mental and physical health.
It can also increase a student’s endurance and confidence to achieve their goals. This can be invaluable when they get older and need to balance school work and extracurricular activities.
Athletes learn leadership skills from coaches and practice putting the needs of the team before their own. They gain a sense of responsibility and accountability as they step up to captain a team or lead a practice.
They also develop a strong sense of commitment and self-discipline to stick to their practice schedules. This is important for studying, too, as it helps students focus on their coursework without letting it interfere with their other responsibilities.
Students learn to set goals, reach them, and grow from failure, which can help them succeed in life. They also learn to be competitive without being cutthroat or hurtful.
A student who has the desire to win is more likely to put in the work necessary to do well, a skill that will pay off throughout her career. It also teaches them that effort beats talent when talent doesn’t work hard, which can set them up for success in their future endeavors.
It is a great way to build a child’s character and help them understand what it means to be an active member of their community. Athletes also get to meet and interact with new people in a positive way, helping them build friendships that can last a lifetime.
In addition, it is a good source of social interaction and teamwork. This is especially true for one-on-one sports, such as tennis or soccer, where players need to communicate with their teammates during a match.
The social benefits of sports can be applied to the classroom as well, with students able to form relationships with others in their group that they may not have otherwise met. This can boost their confidence and make them more confident to speak up in class.
Students who are involved in a sport also develop better social skills and learn how to be respectful of those around them. This can help them develop friendships that will last a lifetime, and it can also be beneficial to their academic careers.
Many students who play sports in school also have a stronger sense of pride for their schools and the team they represent. This can inspire them to strive for the highest grades and be more motivated in the classroom.
| 560
|
ENGLISH
| 1
|
The Titanic: Inequality Between Different Social Classes
598 Words3 Pages
In my short essay, I would like to look at how the movie the Titanic portrayed inequality between different social classes. I will focus on how social classes were treated differently and how it may have affected their lives. The Titanic was a British passenger liner that hit an iceberg in the North Atlantic Ocean on April 15th, 1912. In 1997, there was a movie made about the Titanic, outlining what had happened, starting at the maiden voyage all the way to the sinking of the ship. In the movie, it shows many examples of how social class was important back in those times and how it affected people’s lives.
There were three different social classes aboard the Titanic; those in first class were high class people who had money, people in second class were middle class people who weren’t rich but also weren’t poor, and those in third class were working class people who didn’t have many things or money. There was approximately 1 315 passengers aboard the Titanic, out of that many people, approximately 813 passengers died when the ship sank. 35% of people died in first class, 57% of people died in second class, and 76% of people died in third class. These statistics show how social inequality affected the people who were in third class much more than the people who were in…show more content… There was only enough to hold about half of the people aboard the Titanic including passengers and crew members; but only about 30% of the people on the Titanic survived. In the movie, it shows that they were sending the lifeboats out without being full capacity. The wooden lifeboats could hold 65 people in each, but they were sending them out about half full. The first people allowed on the lifeboats were woman and children from first class, then woman and children from second class. This shows that even the children were affected by being in third
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The Titanic: Inequality Between Different Social Classes
598 Words3 Pages
In my short essay, I would like to look at how the movie the Titanic portrayed inequality between different social classes. I will focus on how social classes were treated differently and how it may have affected their lives. The Titanic was a British passenger liner that hit an iceberg in the North Atlantic Ocean on April 15th, 1912. In 1997, there was a movie made about the Titanic, outlining what had happened, starting at the maiden voyage all the way to the sinking of the ship. In the movie, it shows many examples of how social class was important back in those times and how it affected people’s lives.
There were three different social classes aboard the Titanic; those in first class were high class people who had money, people in second class were middle class people who weren’t rich but also weren’t poor, and those in third class were working class people who didn’t have many things or money. There was approximately 1 315 passengers aboard the Titanic, out of that many people, approximately 813 passengers died when the ship sank. 35% of people died in first class, 57% of people died in second class, and 76% of people died in third class. These statistics show how social inequality affected the people who were in third class much more than the people who were in…show more content… There was only enough to hold about half of the people aboard the Titanic including passengers and crew members; but only about 30% of the people on the Titanic survived. In the movie, it shows that they were sending the lifeboats out without being full capacity. The wooden lifeboats could hold 65 people in each, but they were sending them out about half full. The first people allowed on the lifeboats were woman and children from first class, then woman and children from second class. This shows that even the children were affected by being in third
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ENGLISH
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As they were just out of slavery and still part of the “subservient class,” the names of the porters were never bothered to be known by passengers, who simply called them all “George.”
In 1925, under the leadership of A. Philip Randolph, who would help organize the March on Washington 40 years later, the Pullman porters formed the Brotherhood of Sleeping Car Porters, the first all-black union. They worked long hours, didn’t make much money and depended heavily on tips, but for at least a century, the porters were one of the main builders of the black middle class.
The porters were active in helping to lay the foundation for the civil rights movement. In addition to Randolph's role in the March on Washington, union organizer and former Pullman porter E.D. Nixon played a crucial role in organizing the Montgomery Bus Boycott in 1955, and it was he who bailed out Rosa Parks after she refused to vacate her seat on the bus.
Pullman porters were one of the few groups of blacks during that period that traveled the country extensively, allowing them to share news, develop ideas and bring them back to their communities – along with a steady paycheck.
And while the pay was low, being a Pullman porter was still one of the best jobs available to black men. Up until the 1960s, the ranks of Pullman porters were exclusively black, whose ranks included: Supreme Court Justice Thurgood Marshall, civil rights leader Benjamin Mays, Malcolm X and photojournalist Gordon Parks.
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As they were just out of slavery and still part of the “subservient class,” the names of the porters were never bothered to be known by passengers, who simply called them all “George.”
In 1925, under the leadership of A. Philip Randolph, who would help organize the March on Washington 40 years later, the Pullman porters formed the Brotherhood of Sleeping Car Porters, the first all-black union. They worked long hours, didn’t make much money and depended heavily on tips, but for at least a century, the porters were one of the main builders of the black middle class.
The porters were active in helping to lay the foundation for the civil rights movement. In addition to Randolph's role in the March on Washington, union organizer and former Pullman porter E.D. Nixon played a crucial role in organizing the Montgomery Bus Boycott in 1955, and it was he who bailed out Rosa Parks after she refused to vacate her seat on the bus.
Pullman porters were one of the few groups of blacks during that period that traveled the country extensively, allowing them to share news, develop ideas and bring them back to their communities – along with a steady paycheck.
And while the pay was low, being a Pullman porter was still one of the best jobs available to black men. Up until the 1960s, the ranks of Pullman porters were exclusively black, whose ranks included: Supreme Court Justice Thurgood Marshall, civil rights leader Benjamin Mays, Malcolm X and photojournalist Gordon Parks.
| 325
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ENGLISH
| 1
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The politics of the Central African Republic formally take place in a framework of a semi-presidential republic. In this system, the President is the head of state, with a Prime Minister as head of government. Executive power is exercised by the government. Legislative power is vested in both the government and parliament.
Changes in government have occurred in recent years by three methods: violence, negotiations, and elections. Both François Bozizé and Michel Djotodia assumed the Presidency through takeover by violent means; however, elections were held in March 2005 and promised in 2013. A ceasefire agreement in January 2013 called for a multipartisan unity government.
The government was deposed on 13 March 2003 by forces under the rebel leader Bozizé, who promised elections in 18 to 30 months. A new cabinet was set up on 1 April 2003. Elections were held on 13 March 2005.
On 11 January 2013, a ceasefire was signed by the Séléka rebel coalition, which had aimed to bring down the
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The politics of the Central African Republic formally take place in a framework of a semi-presidential republic. In this system, the President is the head of state, with a Prime Minister as head of government. Executive power is exercised by the government. Legislative power is vested in both the government and parliament.
Changes in government have occurred in recent years by three methods: violence, negotiations, and elections. Both François Bozizé and Michel Djotodia assumed the Presidency through takeover by violent means; however, elections were held in March 2005 and promised in 2013. A ceasefire agreement in January 2013 called for a multipartisan unity government.
The government was deposed on 13 March 2003 by forces under the rebel leader Bozizé, who promised elections in 18 to 30 months. A new cabinet was set up on 1 April 2003. Elections were held on 13 March 2005.
On 11 January 2013, a ceasefire was signed by the Séléka rebel coalition, which had aimed to bring down the
| 237
|
ENGLISH
| 1
|
Ancient Egyptian Cartouche
If you want to be a king for Egypt as well you built a pyramid or your own tomb you have to put your title name in Cartouche, Cartouche it's not just a looped rope that has the name of the king written inside with magical power,
But it also protects the king's soul all his life then moves with the king to the afterlife to give him the power between the gods, then he could say his name then turns to be a god, and rest with them in paradise.
The cartridge means "Shenou" in the ancient Egyptian language. This name comes from the verb "Sheni," which means "to surround." As the primitive cartridge, it is found in the form of a circle that "circles" the king's name, and this circle represents the solar disc or everything that surrounds the sun, i.e. the pharaoh's world. Two interpretations are reasonable and correct. But this circle expanded and stretched fast until the full name of the pharaoh could be understood.
So only a few round-shaped cartridges were made known. Old usage and description, We can find that the cartouches appear in a double cord knotted on both ends by means of a few bas-reliefs of King Sahi Ra of the Fifth Dynasty. As far as the king was concerned, he worked in the pyramid of Saqqara at the door of his funeral room with inscriptions with his new names and functions, followed by a round cartridge.
There is no doubt that during Pharaoh Senefru's reign the oldest cartouches that we know were surrounded by the king's name. The royal name (fifth in the list of titles and royal positions) has been mentioned in this regard.
The pharaoh's personal name was added to the cartouche frame during the reign of the Fifth Dynasty. Then the pharaoh's fourth and fifth names were always included in the range of the cartouches and, therefore, it was clear at first glance that the king had a certain building or origins.
We must admit that there is no new or new idea of registering the domain name in a form. The name of the king, or rather "Horus," was therefore written in the so-called serekh, an ornate facade of the palace or grave of the king, topped by the falcon Horus, and was certainly aforetime. The name is thus recorded in the first family. Here's the king's name "Narmer" on top of his famous painting, recorded in the Sarakht from ancient times.
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|
Ancient Egyptian Cartouche
If you want to be a king for Egypt as well you built a pyramid or your own tomb you have to put your title name in Cartouche, Cartouche it's not just a looped rope that has the name of the king written inside with magical power,
But it also protects the king's soul all his life then moves with the king to the afterlife to give him the power between the gods, then he could say his name then turns to be a god, and rest with them in paradise.
The cartridge means "Shenou" in the ancient Egyptian language. This name comes from the verb "Sheni," which means "to surround." As the primitive cartridge, it is found in the form of a circle that "circles" the king's name, and this circle represents the solar disc or everything that surrounds the sun, i.e. the pharaoh's world. Two interpretations are reasonable and correct. But this circle expanded and stretched fast until the full name of the pharaoh could be understood.
So only a few round-shaped cartridges were made known. Old usage and description, We can find that the cartouches appear in a double cord knotted on both ends by means of a few bas-reliefs of King Sahi Ra of the Fifth Dynasty. As far as the king was concerned, he worked in the pyramid of Saqqara at the door of his funeral room with inscriptions with his new names and functions, followed by a round cartridge.
There is no doubt that during Pharaoh Senefru's reign the oldest cartouches that we know were surrounded by the king's name. The royal name (fifth in the list of titles and royal positions) has been mentioned in this regard.
The pharaoh's personal name was added to the cartouche frame during the reign of the Fifth Dynasty. Then the pharaoh's fourth and fifth names were always included in the range of the cartouches and, therefore, it was clear at first glance that the king had a certain building or origins.
We must admit that there is no new or new idea of registering the domain name in a form. The name of the king, or rather "Horus," was therefore written in the so-called serekh, an ornate facade of the palace or grave of the king, topped by the falcon Horus, and was certainly aforetime. The name is thus recorded in the first family. Here's the king's name "Narmer" on top of his famous painting, recorded in the Sarakht from ancient times.
| 527
|
ENGLISH
| 1
|
Port of Spain, Trinidad
Trinidad had a Spanish presence from 1560 onwards until it was captured by the British in 1797. At the end of the Napoleonic Wars the British remained and the city and harbour of Port of Spain steadily expanded.
Significant fortifications were built around the Port of Spain in the early 1800s, particularly around Fort George which included a number of redoubts and batteries as shown on the plan in the iamges. Other fortifications of this period were at:
- Fort Abercrombry situated in Las Cuevas
- Fort Picton in Laventille
- Fort San Andrés on Wrightson Road
However, by 1850 there was no real plan to defend the Port of Spain and in 1846 Fort George was abandoned. No new coastal defence batteries were built until the run up to the World War 2. During World War 2 the United States built a significant Naval Base at Chaguaramas which was defended by coastal defence batteries including a British 6-inch site on Gaspar Grande.
|
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CC-MAIN-2024-10
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https://pinkroutes.com/poi/port-of-spain-trinidad/
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s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2024-10/segments/1707947474641.34/warc/CC-MAIN-20240225171204-20240225201204-00295.warc.gz
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en
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Port of Spain, Trinidad
Trinidad had a Spanish presence from 1560 onwards until it was captured by the British in 1797. At the end of the Napoleonic Wars the British remained and the city and harbour of Port of Spain steadily expanded.
Significant fortifications were built around the Port of Spain in the early 1800s, particularly around Fort George which included a number of redoubts and batteries as shown on the plan in the iamges. Other fortifications of this period were at:
- Fort Abercrombry situated in Las Cuevas
- Fort Picton in Laventille
- Fort San Andrés on Wrightson Road
However, by 1850 there was no real plan to defend the Port of Spain and in 1846 Fort George was abandoned. No new coastal defence batteries were built until the run up to the World War 2. During World War 2 the United States built a significant Naval Base at Chaguaramas which was defended by coastal defence batteries including a British 6-inch site on Gaspar Grande.
| 229
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ENGLISH
| 1
|
The famous "Peso de a ocho", or "Piece of Eight" was a silver coin also known as "The Spanish Dollar," and had a value of eight reales. It was coined by the Spanish Empire after the monetary reform in 1497 which originally established the Spanish Real. Thanks to its wide usage across the Americas, the Far East and Europe in the late eighteenth century it was to become the first worldwide currency.
The most important Spanish currency circulated throughout the world for 400 years. From the fifteenth to the nineteenth centuries Spain created the greatest Empire in history and its currency was circulated throughout its colonies: Asia, the Philippines, Guam and even China.
The most famous "Piece of Eight" is the Silver Column. Its Herculean columns were inspired to create the dollar symbol we still use today.
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The famous "Peso de a ocho", or "Piece of Eight" was a silver coin also known as "The Spanish Dollar," and had a value of eight reales. It was coined by the Spanish Empire after the monetary reform in 1497 which originally established the Spanish Real. Thanks to its wide usage across the Americas, the Far East and Europe in the late eighteenth century it was to become the first worldwide currency.
The most important Spanish currency circulated throughout the world for 400 years. From the fifteenth to the nineteenth centuries Spain created the greatest Empire in history and its currency was circulated throughout its colonies: Asia, the Philippines, Guam and even China.
The most famous "Piece of Eight" is the Silver Column. Its Herculean columns were inspired to create the dollar symbol we still use today.
| 170
|
ENGLISH
| 1
|
Basketball is one of the most popular sports worldwide, enjoyed by millions of fans and players. However, the game we know today has a rich history and unique origin story. In this article, we will explore the origins of basketball, its inventor’s background, and how it evolved over the years.
Origins of Basketball:
Basketball was invented in 1891 by a Canadian physical education instructor named James Naismith. Naismith was tasked with creating a new game that would be less violent than football and could be played indoors during winter. Naismith came up with basketball by nailing peach baskets at both ends of a gymnasium and throwing a soccer ball into the baskets to score points.
The game quickly caught on, with the first official match being played on December 21, 1891, between Naismith’s students in Springfield, Massachusetts. The game has since become a global phenomenon, with professional leagues, international competitions, and an active amateur scene.
James Naismith was born in Canada in 1861 and later immigrated to the United States. Naismith was not a natural athlete but enjoyed sports and found a passion for physical education. He earned his degree in physical education and got his first job at the International YMCA Training School in Springfield, Massachusetts.
It was at the Training School that Naismith was challenged to create a new indoor game. He drew from his experiences playing various sports and created basketball, a game that could be played indoors with minimal equipment. Naismith remained involved in …Basketball History: Origins and the Inventor Background READ MORE
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Basketball is one of the most popular sports worldwide, enjoyed by millions of fans and players. However, the game we know today has a rich history and unique origin story. In this article, we will explore the origins of basketball, its inventor’s background, and how it evolved over the years.
Origins of Basketball:
Basketball was invented in 1891 by a Canadian physical education instructor named James Naismith. Naismith was tasked with creating a new game that would be less violent than football and could be played indoors during winter. Naismith came up with basketball by nailing peach baskets at both ends of a gymnasium and throwing a soccer ball into the baskets to score points.
The game quickly caught on, with the first official match being played on December 21, 1891, between Naismith’s students in Springfield, Massachusetts. The game has since become a global phenomenon, with professional leagues, international competitions, and an active amateur scene.
James Naismith was born in Canada in 1861 and later immigrated to the United States. Naismith was not a natural athlete but enjoyed sports and found a passion for physical education. He earned his degree in physical education and got his first job at the International YMCA Training School in Springfield, Massachusetts.
It was at the Training School that Naismith was challenged to create a new indoor game. He drew from his experiences playing various sports and created basketball, a game that could be played indoors with minimal equipment. Naismith remained involved in …Basketball History: Origins and the Inventor Background READ MORE
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ENGLISH
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Wool and the Wool Trade
During the Middle Ages monastic orders owned large tracts of land in the Lake counties. They kept sheep for their wool, which was a major commodity. [Gregorian chant]
The large, prosperous churches built in many parts of Cumbria during medieval times show how highly British and Continental merchants valued the various grades of cloth made of wool from the "sheep walks" of the Lakeland fells. The prosperity of the monasteries can be said to be built on the backs of sheep, and on the sturdiness of the ponies who carried the "woolpacks" to the spinners and dyers, or the panniers of metal ores to the smelters.
<< Left: Photo of grey Heltondale mares: courtesy of Barbara Muller
It is likely that the monks' ponies were of varying types. It is also possible there may have been an Irish influence in the north of England. Norsemen, who had settled in Ireland, later migrated to Northern England, and could have brought their own type of pony with them. Cistercian abbeys in particular are said to have been fond of keeping grey animals, the colour being recognised as a badge of their ownership (Richardson). By contrast, Ryder, in a paper about Kirkstall Abbey in 1961, said in an introductory passage, "There are no descriptions of Cistercian farm animals." I wondered if there might be accounts of goods and chattels taken from the monasteries at the time of the Dissolution but surprisingly there do not seem to be any relevant documents still in existence.
Travel was possible at all times of the year, even through winter, as shown by the itineraries of various Kings from John onwards. Hindle says: "the baggage train, comprising from ten to twenty carts and wagons, containing everything from the treasury to the king's wardrobe, had to move about with the king and must have required adequate roads. The kings were almost constantly on the move, and there are few recorded complaints about the condition of the roads." He also notes that "after the Black Death had reduced the population, there was a shortage of labour and people started to move to find better paid work."
Whatever the colour of the ponies belonging to religious houses, large numbers must have been in use to carry wool from the monastic lands to the ports.
"There are ... records of Newcastle merchants buying Cumbrian wool for export in 1397 and again in 1423, 1427 and 1444." (Postan, cited in Williams) "Similarly there is evidence that ... Bristol merchants were shipping Kendal cloth to Spain ... Southampton Brokerage books referred to Kendal traders by name in the autumn of 1442, and record that between November 1492 and March 1493, eleven Kendal traders made a total of 14 journeys to Southampton, carrying packs of cloth."
Working for the Monasteries
11th and 12th century monastic work for ponies could include pack work carrying wool, woollen goods, and local metal ores; shepherding; and wolf hunting by professional "wolvers" whose job was to protect the sheep on the "sheepwalks".
Pack ponies were called "capuls", so some placenames in Cumbria such as Chapel Waste or Cappelrigg may not be referring to ecclesiastical "chapels" but to "capuls" or pack horses.
Kirkstall Abbey had horse breeding "ranches" in the Slaidburn (Lancashire) area up until the dissolution. A local farmer has deeds for his farm that actually mention that horses were kept rather than sheep or cattle as they were able to escape the predations of wolves. (D Higham of Slaidburn, in an email to author 2002).
Some of the pack bridges and great lengths of wall on the fells are believed have been built by monastic landowners (though many more date from the period of Enclosure, from the 17th C onward). These boundaries, and years of energetic shepherding on a daily basis, have laid the foundations of the "heafed" or "hefted" flocks which still pass on the knowledge of their traditional territory from mother to lamb each year.
It has been asserted by various authors that the Cistercian order - the "White Friars" - used white or grey horses and ponies. This is possible; it would be rather like a company owning a fleet of cars such as Fords or Vauxhalls. It would be a sign of corporate ownership. The monks would certainly find it easy enough to breed greys if much of their stock was grey; to breed a grey foal you have to use a grey mare or stallion. However, it doesn't mean their ownership of greys was exclusive. Greys were common elsewhere too and if a farmer bred a grey he might sell to a secular neighbour just as easily as to a Cistercian friary.
A clerical preference for greys, whether true or not, does not mean that there were no grey horses or ponies outside of monastic ownership. The colour grey was common in the general equine population of Northern England in the early 16th century, as can be seen by studying a list of 252 horses that were returned to Northern soldiers after the Battle of Flodden. 95 of them were grey. It was easily the most frequent colour of all, and that is without counting those that were "white". (Dent) These horses belonged to the farmer-soldiers who were being "demobbed" after Henry VIII's Scottish campaign in 1513.
The Dissolution of the monasteries did not take place until 1540, almost a generation later than Flodden. This information about soldiers' mounts doesn't support the idea that the monks had cornered the market in greys. There clearly were plenty in secular ownership before then; so the claim that suddenly, at the Dissolution, all the greys came back into general ownership, does not make sense chronologically; still less that they were released into a wild or feral population on the fell instead of being sold to add funds Henry VIII's war chest.
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|
Wool and the Wool Trade
During the Middle Ages monastic orders owned large tracts of land in the Lake counties. They kept sheep for their wool, which was a major commodity. [Gregorian chant]
The large, prosperous churches built in many parts of Cumbria during medieval times show how highly British and Continental merchants valued the various grades of cloth made of wool from the "sheep walks" of the Lakeland fells. The prosperity of the monasteries can be said to be built on the backs of sheep, and on the sturdiness of the ponies who carried the "woolpacks" to the spinners and dyers, or the panniers of metal ores to the smelters.
<< Left: Photo of grey Heltondale mares: courtesy of Barbara Muller
It is likely that the monks' ponies were of varying types. It is also possible there may have been an Irish influence in the north of England. Norsemen, who had settled in Ireland, later migrated to Northern England, and could have brought their own type of pony with them. Cistercian abbeys in particular are said to have been fond of keeping grey animals, the colour being recognised as a badge of their ownership (Richardson). By contrast, Ryder, in a paper about Kirkstall Abbey in 1961, said in an introductory passage, "There are no descriptions of Cistercian farm animals." I wondered if there might be accounts of goods and chattels taken from the monasteries at the time of the Dissolution but surprisingly there do not seem to be any relevant documents still in existence.
Travel was possible at all times of the year, even through winter, as shown by the itineraries of various Kings from John onwards. Hindle says: "the baggage train, comprising from ten to twenty carts and wagons, containing everything from the treasury to the king's wardrobe, had to move about with the king and must have required adequate roads. The kings were almost constantly on the move, and there are few recorded complaints about the condition of the roads." He also notes that "after the Black Death had reduced the population, there was a shortage of labour and people started to move to find better paid work."
Whatever the colour of the ponies belonging to religious houses, large numbers must have been in use to carry wool from the monastic lands to the ports.
"There are ... records of Newcastle merchants buying Cumbrian wool for export in 1397 and again in 1423, 1427 and 1444." (Postan, cited in Williams) "Similarly there is evidence that ... Bristol merchants were shipping Kendal cloth to Spain ... Southampton Brokerage books referred to Kendal traders by name in the autumn of 1442, and record that between November 1492 and March 1493, eleven Kendal traders made a total of 14 journeys to Southampton, carrying packs of cloth."
Working for the Monasteries
11th and 12th century monastic work for ponies could include pack work carrying wool, woollen goods, and local metal ores; shepherding; and wolf hunting by professional "wolvers" whose job was to protect the sheep on the "sheepwalks".
Pack ponies were called "capuls", so some placenames in Cumbria such as Chapel Waste or Cappelrigg may not be referring to ecclesiastical "chapels" but to "capuls" or pack horses.
Kirkstall Abbey had horse breeding "ranches" in the Slaidburn (Lancashire) area up until the dissolution. A local farmer has deeds for his farm that actually mention that horses were kept rather than sheep or cattle as they were able to escape the predations of wolves. (D Higham of Slaidburn, in an email to author 2002).
Some of the pack bridges and great lengths of wall on the fells are believed have been built by monastic landowners (though many more date from the period of Enclosure, from the 17th C onward). These boundaries, and years of energetic shepherding on a daily basis, have laid the foundations of the "heafed" or "hefted" flocks which still pass on the knowledge of their traditional territory from mother to lamb each year.
It has been asserted by various authors that the Cistercian order - the "White Friars" - used white or grey horses and ponies. This is possible; it would be rather like a company owning a fleet of cars such as Fords or Vauxhalls. It would be a sign of corporate ownership. The monks would certainly find it easy enough to breed greys if much of their stock was grey; to breed a grey foal you have to use a grey mare or stallion. However, it doesn't mean their ownership of greys was exclusive. Greys were common elsewhere too and if a farmer bred a grey he might sell to a secular neighbour just as easily as to a Cistercian friary.
A clerical preference for greys, whether true or not, does not mean that there were no grey horses or ponies outside of monastic ownership. The colour grey was common in the general equine population of Northern England in the early 16th century, as can be seen by studying a list of 252 horses that were returned to Northern soldiers after the Battle of Flodden. 95 of them were grey. It was easily the most frequent colour of all, and that is without counting those that were "white". (Dent) These horses belonged to the farmer-soldiers who were being "demobbed" after Henry VIII's Scottish campaign in 1513.
The Dissolution of the monasteries did not take place until 1540, almost a generation later than Flodden. This information about soldiers' mounts doesn't support the idea that the monks had cornered the market in greys. There clearly were plenty in secular ownership before then; so the claim that suddenly, at the Dissolution, all the greys came back into general ownership, does not make sense chronologically; still less that they were released into a wild or feral population on the fell instead of being sold to add funds Henry VIII's war chest.
| 1,323
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ENGLISH
| 1
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The struggle of the Nepali people became a source of inspiration to democrats all over the world due to the reasons as mentioned below:
1. It emphasises the role of people in making of democracy.
2. It shows that disputes or issues can be resolved through struggles with mass mobilisation as had happened in Nepal where people's struggle was successful and democracy was restored.
3. It also shows that political conflict leads to popular struggle and mass participation by the people.
4. It emphasises that in a democracy there are conflicts between those who are in power and those who aspire for power. Such moments come when there is transition to democracy, expansion of democracy and deepening of democracy. Such conflicts are resolved by the peoples participation as has happened in Nepal.
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The struggle of the Nepali people became a source of inspiration to democrats all over the world due to the reasons as mentioned below:
1. It emphasises the role of people in making of democracy.
2. It shows that disputes or issues can be resolved through struggles with mass mobilisation as had happened in Nepal where people's struggle was successful and democracy was restored.
3. It also shows that political conflict leads to popular struggle and mass participation by the people.
4. It emphasises that in a democracy there are conflicts between those who are in power and those who aspire for power. Such moments come when there is transition to democracy, expansion of democracy and deepening of democracy. Such conflicts are resolved by the peoples participation as has happened in Nepal.
| 151
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ENGLISH
| 1
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August 6, 1945 and August 9, 1945 were days in history like no other. Only one country in history has ever used an atomic bomb against another nation; the United States of America. Code named the Manhattan Project, the atomic bombs were being developed to use against Japan towards the end of World War II. The United States was completely justified in dropping the bombs on Japan. Japan was near defeat, but many question how close Japan was to surrender (Jennings).
After Germany and Italy were defeated, only Japan stood standing. When the Japanese refused to surrender, The United States was not left with many options. They could continue to send men and machines to fight and die, or end the war quickly. It was a smart move for the United States to bomb Japan. During a war, a country has to think of themselves before
The only real problem that prevented the Japanese from surrendering was the unconditional surrender the Americans demanded. The Japanese thought the emperor to be descended from the sun god and would protect the emperor at any cost. If President Truman had agreed to leave the emperor alone and taken more time to negotiate Japan’s surrender, they probably would have. Instead, after the testing of the first atomic bomb, it was decided after a few days that Japan would be bombed. Even if Truman had decided to use the bomb, there was no reason to bomb Hiroshima.
President Truman announced the first bomb to be dropped at 10:30 am on August 6th, 1945 (“The Atomic Bomb & End of WWII” 1). In Hiroshima 90,000-166,000 people died, and in Nagasaki 60,000-80,000 died (“Atomic Bomb” 1). From both of the bomb dropped in each town only some building remained standing simply for the reason that they were reinforced by concrete (1). Out of all the survivors Eizo Nomura was the closest known survivor of the bomb, he was 560 feet away from where the bomb hit (1). It was hard for people to believe this guy survived, although he was in a reinforced building its still amazing that he managed to survive.
Moreover, other countries claimed the right of nuclear weapons to defend their citizens. Consequently, the tragic bombings became the example of an arm’s race instead of peace. Furthermore, since Japan was already on the brink of collapse the bombing was unnecessary, and peace talks would have taken place within a decent time frame (even after the cancelled Hawaii summit). The millions of deaths calculated by Operation Downfall [the codename for the Allied plan for the invasion of Japan near the end of the Second World War, which was abandoned when Japan surrendered following the atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki] actually show that only desperation and honour stood between Japan and unconditional
Kelly Shaver AMH 2030 Week 7 Individual Work What factors likely motivated President Truman to authorize the use of atomic bombs against Japan in August 1945? President Truman did not trust the Soviets. The Potsdam Declaration – July 26 listed U.S. policy also giving Japan a chance to surrender without guaranteeing that Emperor Hirohito would not be tried for war crimes committed by Japan. Japan was so cautious about their response that is was seen as a refusal on their part. The Japanese were seen as bloodthirsty savages willing to die rather than give up.
The project was headed by Major Leslie R. It became known as “The Manhattan Project”. It was kept top secret against almost everyone and the military soldiers. After six months of bombing the Japanese we dropped the bomb Know as “Little Boy” and was dropped on Hiroshima on August 6, 1945. We then doped another bomb Called “Fat Man”, and was dropped over Nagasaki. I do agree of dropping the bomb because it did save a lot of lives.
Many people will argue that the United States was justified in the dropping of the atom bomb. These people believe that dropping the atomic bomb was necessary for Japan's surrender and the end of World War II. Before the bombing, Japan refused to accept the unconditional surrender offered to them by the Potsdam Declaration, and in response to the Declaration Japan prepared every man, woman, and child to fight till death. There was no possibility that Japan would surrender. The pride of the Japanese was so great that it would not allow them to surrender and many of Japan's soldiers fought in a kamikaze style which they would go to the extreme of killing themselves in order to kill at least one enemy soldier.
The Japanese military had already shown an unwillingness to surrender throughout the war, and this feeling was made famous by their infamous use of suicide pilots, called kamikazes. They had 5,000,000 troops scattered throughout the Pacific Theater of Operations, and an American invasion of the Japanese homeland would have lasted until late 1946 at the least, resulting in no less than 1,000,000 American deaths, according to Secretary of War Henry L. Stimson (Keene, Cornell, O’Donnell, 712). Although such an invasion was the initial plan of action, after testing of the Manhattan project in New Mexico was completed, the Atomic Bomb seemed to be a quicker solution to an already drawn out war. Towards the end of WWII America was faced with a dilemma. The Japanese had bombed Pearl Harbor using Kamikaze pilots and were showing no signs of regret for it or any signs of not continuing these kinds of attacks.
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August 6, 1945 and August 9, 1945 were days in history like no other. Only one country in history has ever used an atomic bomb against another nation; the United States of America. Code named the Manhattan Project, the atomic bombs were being developed to use against Japan towards the end of World War II. The United States was completely justified in dropping the bombs on Japan. Japan was near defeat, but many question how close Japan was to surrender (Jennings).
After Germany and Italy were defeated, only Japan stood standing. When the Japanese refused to surrender, The United States was not left with many options. They could continue to send men and machines to fight and die, or end the war quickly. It was a smart move for the United States to bomb Japan. During a war, a country has to think of themselves before
The only real problem that prevented the Japanese from surrendering was the unconditional surrender the Americans demanded. The Japanese thought the emperor to be descended from the sun god and would protect the emperor at any cost. If President Truman had agreed to leave the emperor alone and taken more time to negotiate Japan’s surrender, they probably would have. Instead, after the testing of the first atomic bomb, it was decided after a few days that Japan would be bombed. Even if Truman had decided to use the bomb, there was no reason to bomb Hiroshima.
President Truman announced the first bomb to be dropped at 10:30 am on August 6th, 1945 (“The Atomic Bomb & End of WWII” 1). In Hiroshima 90,000-166,000 people died, and in Nagasaki 60,000-80,000 died (“Atomic Bomb” 1). From both of the bomb dropped in each town only some building remained standing simply for the reason that they were reinforced by concrete (1). Out of all the survivors Eizo Nomura was the closest known survivor of the bomb, he was 560 feet away from where the bomb hit (1). It was hard for people to believe this guy survived, although he was in a reinforced building its still amazing that he managed to survive.
Moreover, other countries claimed the right of nuclear weapons to defend their citizens. Consequently, the tragic bombings became the example of an arm’s race instead of peace. Furthermore, since Japan was already on the brink of collapse the bombing was unnecessary, and peace talks would have taken place within a decent time frame (even after the cancelled Hawaii summit). The millions of deaths calculated by Operation Downfall [the codename for the Allied plan for the invasion of Japan near the end of the Second World War, which was abandoned when Japan surrendered following the atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki] actually show that only desperation and honour stood between Japan and unconditional
Kelly Shaver AMH 2030 Week 7 Individual Work What factors likely motivated President Truman to authorize the use of atomic bombs against Japan in August 1945? President Truman did not trust the Soviets. The Potsdam Declaration – July 26 listed U.S. policy also giving Japan a chance to surrender without guaranteeing that Emperor Hirohito would not be tried for war crimes committed by Japan. Japan was so cautious about their response that is was seen as a refusal on their part. The Japanese were seen as bloodthirsty savages willing to die rather than give up.
The project was headed by Major Leslie R. It became known as “The Manhattan Project”. It was kept top secret against almost everyone and the military soldiers. After six months of bombing the Japanese we dropped the bomb Know as “Little Boy” and was dropped on Hiroshima on August 6, 1945. We then doped another bomb Called “Fat Man”, and was dropped over Nagasaki. I do agree of dropping the bomb because it did save a lot of lives.
Many people will argue that the United States was justified in the dropping of the atom bomb. These people believe that dropping the atomic bomb was necessary for Japan's surrender and the end of World War II. Before the bombing, Japan refused to accept the unconditional surrender offered to them by the Potsdam Declaration, and in response to the Declaration Japan prepared every man, woman, and child to fight till death. There was no possibility that Japan would surrender. The pride of the Japanese was so great that it would not allow them to surrender and many of Japan's soldiers fought in a kamikaze style which they would go to the extreme of killing themselves in order to kill at least one enemy soldier.
The Japanese military had already shown an unwillingness to surrender throughout the war, and this feeling was made famous by their infamous use of suicide pilots, called kamikazes. They had 5,000,000 troops scattered throughout the Pacific Theater of Operations, and an American invasion of the Japanese homeland would have lasted until late 1946 at the least, resulting in no less than 1,000,000 American deaths, according to Secretary of War Henry L. Stimson (Keene, Cornell, O’Donnell, 712). Although such an invasion was the initial plan of action, after testing of the Manhattan project in New Mexico was completed, the Atomic Bomb seemed to be a quicker solution to an already drawn out war. Towards the end of WWII America was faced with a dilemma. The Japanese had bombed Pearl Harbor using Kamikaze pilots and were showing no signs of regret for it or any signs of not continuing these kinds of attacks.
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ENGLISH
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In the third month after the children of Israel had gone out of the land of Egypt, on the same day, they came to the Wilderness of Sinai. For they had departed from Rephidim, had come to the Wilderness of Sinai, and camped in the wilderness. So Israel camped there before the mountain. (Exodus 19:1-2)
In Judaism, Israel’s arrival at Mount Sinai and the subsequent events, specifically the giving of the Torah, is considered to be the climax of the Exodus experience. The Bible validates this belief because it is clear that, even before God brought them out of Egyptian bondage, it had already been determined that He would bring them to Mount Sinai that they may “serve” Him (Exodus 3:12). The day upon which all these things culminated, Shavuot (Christians know it as Pentecost) is called an atzeret, which is to signify that it was the conclusion of what began at Passover.
This was the day that, according to Judaism, God gave His people the Ten Commandments and instructions on how to live life. In other words, the goal of Passover was more than delivering them from an oppressor; it was that they might come to the realization that God was their King and they were His people. As such, they were live according to His standards and, consequently, be an example to the other nations in the world of what a Godly people are to be. Otherwise, they would have devolved into something akin to what they were familiar with in Egypt. Thus the Bible teaches, in a manner of speaking, that liberty without law will likely result in lawlessness.
Likewise, the crucifixion of Messiah at Passover would have served no purpose if He had not been raised from the dead three days later. In turn, the resurrection is what made the events recorded in the book of Acts possible, specifically those events recorded in Acts 2 on the day of Pentecost. Just as Israel’s release from Egyptian bondage made the journey to Sinai and the proposal of the covenant possible, the death, burial and resurrection of Messiah is what makes it possible for us to be filled with the Spirit of God who then teaches us how we are to walk. That is to say, it is the Spirit of God who gives us discernment, understanding and the power to fulfill our purpose as His people.
To be saved from our sins is only the first step; that’s why it is referred to as being born again. There is so much more God has in store for us and that is why we must be empowered by His Spirit. May we all be emptied of ourselves that we may be filled with the Holy Spirit and allow Him to teach us of His ways that we might walk upright before Him.
Blessings and Shalom,
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] | 1
|
In the third month after the children of Israel had gone out of the land of Egypt, on the same day, they came to the Wilderness of Sinai. For they had departed from Rephidim, had come to the Wilderness of Sinai, and camped in the wilderness. So Israel camped there before the mountain. (Exodus 19:1-2)
In Judaism, Israel’s arrival at Mount Sinai and the subsequent events, specifically the giving of the Torah, is considered to be the climax of the Exodus experience. The Bible validates this belief because it is clear that, even before God brought them out of Egyptian bondage, it had already been determined that He would bring them to Mount Sinai that they may “serve” Him (Exodus 3:12). The day upon which all these things culminated, Shavuot (Christians know it as Pentecost) is called an atzeret, which is to signify that it was the conclusion of what began at Passover.
This was the day that, according to Judaism, God gave His people the Ten Commandments and instructions on how to live life. In other words, the goal of Passover was more than delivering them from an oppressor; it was that they might come to the realization that God was their King and they were His people. As such, they were live according to His standards and, consequently, be an example to the other nations in the world of what a Godly people are to be. Otherwise, they would have devolved into something akin to what they were familiar with in Egypt. Thus the Bible teaches, in a manner of speaking, that liberty without law will likely result in lawlessness.
Likewise, the crucifixion of Messiah at Passover would have served no purpose if He had not been raised from the dead three days later. In turn, the resurrection is what made the events recorded in the book of Acts possible, specifically those events recorded in Acts 2 on the day of Pentecost. Just as Israel’s release from Egyptian bondage made the journey to Sinai and the proposal of the covenant possible, the death, burial and resurrection of Messiah is what makes it possible for us to be filled with the Spirit of God who then teaches us how we are to walk. That is to say, it is the Spirit of God who gives us discernment, understanding and the power to fulfill our purpose as His people.
To be saved from our sins is only the first step; that’s why it is referred to as being born again. There is so much more God has in store for us and that is why we must be empowered by His Spirit. May we all be emptied of ourselves that we may be filled with the Holy Spirit and allow Him to teach us of His ways that we might walk upright before Him.
Blessings and Shalom,
| 578
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ENGLISH
| 1
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February 1, 1960, marks the date of the historic Greensboro sit-in by David Richmond, Franklin McCain, Joseph McNeill and Ezell Blair, students at all-black North Carolina A&T University. Their action sparked student protests at lunch counters around the South and in some Northern cities. (See “The Greensboro Sit-Ins, ” Southern Exposure, Vol. VI, No. 3, an excerpt from William Chafe’s history of race relations in the city entitled Civilities and Civil Rights.)
The segregated lunch counters were not eliminated by the first wave of sit-ins in Greensboro. City officials called for a cooling-off period, but when Woolworth’s and other segregated eating facilities refused to negotiate seriously, a second wave of protests began in 1962.
The following interviews — conducted by the Greensboro Public Library’s Oral History Project, headed by Eugene Pfaff Jr. - offer insight into the organizing and protest activities within the Afro-American communities. Although Jesse Jackson is the most prominent personality to emerge from the Greensboro demonstrations, Pfaff focuses on others who contributed to the situation behind the scenes. William A. Thomas, Jr., was a student at all-black Dudley High School at the time of the 1960 sit-ins. At first the young high school student was on the fringes of the sit-ins, but when A&T recessed for the summer, his leadership was needed.
Dr. Elizabeth “Lizzie” Laizner began teaching at Bennett College, a black women’s college in Greensboro, the semester following the initial sit-ins. In 1962, she got involved as transportation coordinator for Bennett students, and was one of the few whites in the city to join the Congress ofRacial Equality. She is currently a professor of humanities at Shaw University, a predominantly black university located in Raleigh.
Clarence C. “Buddy”Malone, Jr., began his law practice a few months after the 1962 wave of sit-ins. Affiliated with the NAACP Legal Defense Fund, Malone had defended several persons who were victims of civil-rights violations. At that time, he was one of the few Movement lawyers in North Carolina, and traveled from his native Durham County to nearby counties representing black and indigent defendants.
During the Greensboro sit-ins, Malone was retained by CORE, receiving only his expenses as compensation, as was the case with most civil-rights attorneys in the mass demonstrations in the South. Along with the national CORE, he set the trial strategy.
Dr. Willa B. Player was president of Bennett College, a private black institution, during the sit-ins. Her supportive role during the demonstrations stood in sharp contrast to that of President Lewis Dowdy at North Carolina A&T, which was dependent on the state for most of its funds.
I first became involved my senior year in high school. I was a student at Dudley. That was during the summer of 1960, right after the sit-ins first started. Initially, the students at A&T felt that the high school students were too young to actually be involved in the sit-ins, but they found that the situation was not going to be resolved by the time school was out, and that many of the students that initially participated in these demonstrations were from out of town. They weren’t there to carry on, so that’s when the high school students initially got involved.
At that time, the NAACP’s basic tactic was through the courts, through legal action. We felt as a result of the sit-ins that more was needed. I was president of the youth chapter of NAACP in Greensboro at the time. Through Dr. George Simkins, then president of the adult branch, we contacted James Farmer, national director of CORE, inquiring about the possibility of forming a CORE chapter in Greensboro. Through those efforts, a CORE chapter was in fact initiated in 1960, and I became its chairman. Our activities consisted basically of picketing the dime stores, leafletting, negotiating with the mayor.
What really triggered the massive demonstrations was an inability on the part of the political and business structure to take the damn thing seriously. Because we didn’t have the violent outbreaks and disturbances that characterized demonstrations that existed in other parts of the country, they thought that the thing would just go away. They attempted to ignore us. In fact, at one point, the mayor did not even want to negotiate with the students. He suggested that we send some “reasonable, mature” adults down to negotiate with them. We quickly informed him and the other committee members that it was not the mature adults that were out in the street and that if he wanted to get us out of the street, he would sit down and talk to us, which he eventually did, and that’s when the problems were worked out.
Once students knew what was going on, it had a snowballing effect. We utilized the media, we utilized leaflets. The local churches were very cooperative in letting us use their churches for mass meetings. You had to have some central place where instructions could be given as to exactly what tactic would be used that particular evening, exactly what strategies we would be using, where we were going, etc. The mass meeting afterwards was emotional, religious and also strategic. It afforded us the opportunity to assess what we had done and to make plans for the next day. Each day’s activities were in fact planned with some degree of flexibility to be able to adjust to the situation once we arrived at our target area. It did not just happen; there were factors to be considered and analyzed before it was decided exactly what would occur: you may have felt that a silent demonstration may have been more effective than the singing of a more vocal demonstration. CORE taught us how to respond to different situations, and other communities were able to look at us and learn from the experiences we had in Greensboro.
Things, in terms of action, went pretty much according to plan. The basic form of action was through economic withdrawal, another name for boycotting, and through street demonstrations. Very little litigation went on at that time, other than defending those people who were arrested.
After they started to arrest people, we literally adopted the slogan that we were going to fill up the jails. Again, that was an economic thing. It cost the city of Greensboro and the state of North Carolina a considerable amount of money to house these people, to feed them and to guard them, for no reason. The jails were literally filled. They were overflowing.
I was only incarcerated twice. I guess the reason that I was not arrested any more was that the committee that I was working on felt that I would serve more of a purpose if I was on the outside. In fact, at times I probably would have welcomed arrest. I could have gotten some rest. That way, you didn’t have to be up meeting around the clock and organizing other activities 24 hours a day.
When the Greensboro Chamber of Commerce and the Greensboro Merchants Association passed resolutions advocating desegregation of all public facilities, our reaction was that we always welcomed any support we could get, but those committees had no enforcement. Resolutions are all well and good, but they could not command anyone to do anything. The point that they were trying to make with the resolution was, “Okay, we have made a resolution, so call off your dogs.” We were not going to stop demonstrating until they actually desegregated. The resolutions didn’t mean a damn thing. They showed some good faith, but the places were still segregated.
The arrest of A&T student body president Jesse Jackson on the felony charge of inciting to riot played right into our hands because but for that, quite possibly, the demonstrations could have fizzled down. At that particular time, the demonstrations were beginning to be the same old thing; the emotional level had reached its low ebb and we needed a lift.
There was no riot, that was a joke. The only thing that happened was that Jesse led the group in prayer, and Captain Jackson got on his bullhorn and told us to disperse, and Jesse said “Not until we have our prayer.” And he told everybody to kneel, and they did kneel, and he prayed. He prayed for the captain and everybody else, and afterwards they rose and they got back in line, two by two, and we marched back to the church.
An interesting thing about that is that I was right next to Jesse and it was myself that asked Jesse to lead us in prayer after Captain Jackson had requested or ordered us to move. Well, the difference was that I was a Greensboro boy; they considered Jesse an outsider. That’s why he was arrested and not myself. They wanted to punish the outsider. I think that they felt that Jesse was conspicuous, that by eliminating him, by locking him up, then that would cause the demonstration to fizzle.
I did not join CORE at first for a very strange reason: I thought at that time that this was really a black affair and that a white person might not even be wanted. I suddenly got into it when I was sitting at a friend’s house and the TV was on and they showed one of those slightly strange — I would call them “professional” — civil-rights workers from the North who came to help with picketing and had, somehow, managed to get himself arrested and get some publicity for himself and for the group, which was, of course, his purpose. And I remember just about blowing a gasket, saying, “Why hadn’t anybody told me that whites can be in on this?”
In the fall of ’62 our main targets were the S&W and the Mayfair [cafeterias], but when we didn’t get anywhere, the boycott was initiated in the then very busy downtown just before Christmas. It was beginning to hurt, and this is when the city nominated a human relations committee. Mayor Schenck did it. We did not realize at the time that the committee had very little power. What the committee, to my knowledge, was really supposed to look into was the justification for opening these places. Were they really being unjust to the black citizens of the town by not permitting them to come in?
We were officially approached by either the committee or the mayor to call off the boycott and preferably cease picketing and give the committee a chance. I still remember the session we had in open meeting; it was very heated. I was on the side of the group that we called the “activists,” the ones who said, “Nothing’s going to come out of the committee; we’d better go on.” Bill Thomas, Pat Patterson and Lewis Brandon were some of the moderates. The majority decided that we should give the committee a chance and cease demonstrations until up to sometime in February, 1963, whenever they would come through.
In a very moving declaration signed by the head of the committee, who was either one of the big textile people or one of the big bankers, the committee brought out the injustice that segregation was doing to the black citizens of Greensboro and they felt that definitely those places should be opened. It sounded gorgeous. That declaration was printed all over and much praised, but it wasn’t worth the paper it was printed on. The trouble was in the last line: “Unfortunately, our committee has no power to enforce these suggestions.” That was it. That’s when we restarted and the first tiling we did was to picket the city hall.
By early May we had picketed city hall and had done a little picketing of restaurants, but it didn’t go very far because people were tired, and there was this question: should we or shouldn’t we go on and do something right now with exams staring students in the face? Should we prepare something big for the fall? That is when Bill Thomas had a call meeting at one of the Bennett dorms.
Bill, leaning against the piano, put it to the others and gave two possibilities: “Let’s either do something little or let’s not do anything. Let those of us who will be in Greensboro in the summer prepare a big thing for the fall.” We almost had the feeling that Bill leaned toward that, which sounded good and would have been good. At that time, some of us spoke up for the idea that something had to be done, we had to make people aware of segregation. A small group was nominated to get together and work out something for a small picketing job. And that small picketing job that we worked out, and which was approved, was McDonald’s.
Several of us had gone over to High Point in support of their people picketing. They had halfway opened the McDonald’s over there, which gave us the idea. Also, there had been an incident at McDonald’s in Greensboro much earlier that created more stir and more sympathy for our cause than anything else. It was a letter by a non-Greensboroite in the Daily News. That person had been in the drive-in line at McDonalds and next to him was a black family, also in a car, and they all waited. Obviously the black man was from the North and didn’t know what the case was then. He was sent back and could not be served. The white man was very, very furious and upset about it, and he wrote a very moving letter about it, on the injustice of it. And several people came in with strong letters in support of that. So we decided in May that the McDonald’s out at Summit Avenue would be a good place to go.
We waited for an opportune moment when the place was pretty empty and went in in a long row. The man informed us that we had no right to be served and that we would be arrested. This is when Reverend Busch, Bill Thomas, Pat Patterson and Reverend Stanley had themselves deliberately arrested. And that was what created the stir: two ministers and the leaders of the group had been arrested.
Floyd McKissick [of CORE] immediately came down and visited them in jail. The publicity was magnificent. This is when McKissick really did the right thing. He said to the four, “Take that bail. Get out, because now we can start something. This is going to start it.” And he was 100 percent right. As soon as Bill and Pat were out, we called a meeting over at the Hayes- Taylor YMCA.
We invited the ministers, anyone who wanted to come. What we needed was to see if we could get the support of the grown-ups. If the ministers would tell the black community that this was a worthy cause, to go and support it, they would. Reverend Bishop came. He was the president of the Minister’s Association, the black one, and he said they would listen to whatever he had to say.
Reverend Bishop was sitting there, and he said, “You’re right, we will support you.” And then he said, “I realize that you have finals coming and everything. Just do something little. Picket here or there so that I can tell the people that something is going on and that you need support.”
And those of us who were there decided that if he wanted us to do something, why didn’t we go back to McDonald’s that very evening. And I remember going home and organizing the car pool. We wanted to have them spelled every hour because picketing was strenuous and it would be better for them at night. The first group was set for six or seven, then one at eight, and I came on with the last group at nine.
This was when the mess occurred, because the place had closed earlier and some — excuse me for using a nasty word — “nigger-baiting crackers” were down there in force and there wasn’t a friendly soul among them. The parking lot of McDonald’s and the service station next door were filled with between 300 and 400 jeering crackers of the nastiest kind. For them it was sort of a Sunday entertainment; for free they could stand and jeer at us. The crowd was getting unrulier and unrulier. We knew that it could get nasty as it grew later, so a little after 10:00, Bill made the decision to break up. He informed the police that we would go fast to our cars and get out.
We decided to do something again the next day. This is when it really got big. The A&T students must have told others; they just simply kept coming. We had practically 2,000 that evening. McDonald’s was completely filled with people, and the manager went up to Bill Thomas and said, “I am closed, but you are still trespassing. If you do not leave, we can have you arrested.” This is where Bill made the very, very smart move of saying, “No, we have done what we wanted to do. The place is closed for the night and I guess we will go back.”
One of the young ladies then said, “Let’s go downtown, and maybe go by the Carolina Theater.” We made a totally spontaneous decision. We all went downtown, the whole spate of us, and there was that tremendously moving scene where we knelt down on the sidewalk. I don’t remember which hymn we did. It was not our usual “We Shall Not Be Moved,” it was a more religious one that someone suddenly started humming. A young man who later became an Army chaplain was the only one standing, and he prayed for the people in the Carolina Theater. It was so reminiscent of what one year later Martin Luther King said, that we should all be as brothers, that God should enlighten the people who are sitting in there and that we should all be together as brothers.
McDonald’s capitulated four days later. We were on our way home from picketing downtown on Tuesday when we were told, “Don’t disband. Go to the Y. There’s something going on there.” The manager of McDonald’s was there. What he said then was very contrary to what he had said on that Sunday. He thanked us, and Captain Jackson thanked us for our restraint. And the manager apologized to the four gentlemen whom he had arrested.
On Wednesday, at a mass meeting at the Y, we decided we were now going for an arrest. We had seen what an arrest of just four people had done for McDonald’s; now let’s see what this is going to do for the others. Some of us had had some courses in nonviolence with Floyd McKissick and some reps that came in from CORE. So we planned to jam the revolving door at S&W, and jam it successively. We tied the place up completely in this way. The whole mass of students were out there picketing where nothing could happen. And they knew exactly who’d be in the first group, who’d be in the second group, who’d be in the third group. As soon as we were told that we were under arrest, we would go out and the next group would jam the door again and be arrested.
I was in the first group. I didn’t, shall we say, follow the other 800, if you see what I mean. I was mainly the white auslagershield, the window dressing. Unfortunately, you got better publicity if you were white. I would seem much more important to people than I actually was, by the fact that I had to regularly be toted out and put in the first row.
The first time we were arrested, we were let go again. But people were getting pretty upset, so we decided on Friday this time they were going to keep us, and they did. Our record of 1,850 arrested in one week still stands. And do you know who came in? [Willa] Player [president of Bennett College]. When we were in jail, there was a support committee nominated by Bill that could act for CORE, and Player headed that committee.
They wanted us out because it was creating a nationwide stir, it was bad for the reputation of the city, it was horrible for the finances of the city. Mayor Schenck went on vacation in Virginia, and that elderly gentleman who then became mayor [William Trotter, Mayor Pro Tern] took over. It was he who gave in to that group with Bill and Dr. Player and others, who gave them their first condition: a human relations committee headed by a black doctor, Dr. Evans.
I had heard mutterings from those who had come out of jail that they wanted to go back. The heroes that came out of jail felt that they hadn’t, with their very real sacrifices, gotten enough. It could have split the group. The majority would certainly have decided on something more peaceful, but we would have antagonized our most valuable people. This is when I did something I normally did not do: I addressed the group.
I remember saying, “I know what we all want to do, and what I would like to do, too, would be to go right back. But this is not what we should do. We’ve got to give Dr. Evans a chance.” So the march started. That was the march of 5,000.
Mr. Farmer suggested a silent march. He is a fantastic speaker. He said that it would impress them if we went there, not speaking. We marched straight through the square and then back again. We made a circle of the town. There were only three in the first row: Jackson, me and Farmer.
We had the Evans Committee. We were sure that the grown-ups would take over after students left school for the summer, and they did. The S&W was open, the movie houses were open, some other little restaurants were open. In fact, we were one of the few towns in the South that were open before the ’64 Civil Rights Bill demanded it.
I first learned of the Woolworth’s sit-ins [in 1960] when we were all called downtown and heard the A&T student present his case. We, as members of the community, were trying to get a hold of what was really happening.
Ezell Blair was asked to defend his actions, which he did admirably. Here were students who were realizing that as citizens and as students at a liberal arts college they were being denied their equal rights, both under the law and under their constitutional beliefs, and freedom of expression. I defended them. I called the Bennett faculty into a meeting and told them what was happening. We went back to the purpose of a liberal arts college, and in defining those and what the girls were doing, we decided that they were carrying on the tenets of what a liberal education was all about — freedom of expression, living up to your ideals, building a quality of life in the community that was acceptable to all, respect for human dignity and personality. It was a recognition of values that applied to all persons as equals, and all persons who deserved a chance in a democratic society to express their beliefs.
We spoke to the president of the Student Senate, and we told her how the faculty felt, and that we were planning to cooperate with the girls. The only thing we requested of them was that they should give us a daily report of what they intended to do for that particular day.
By the fall of 1962, almost the entire student body at Bennett had become active in daily picketing. Governor Sanford tried to get the students to cease the demonstrations. We had a meeting at the governor’s mansion in Raleigh [one of a number of meetings] designed to try to get us to pull out and stop our students from demonstrating. Then there was a meeting just with me and the CORE director and one of the Greensboro citizens, Warren Ashby, over on the Bennett campus. I distinctly remember Dr. Ashby with Dr. Farmer ask me if I would be willing to pull in the Bennett College students because the A&T students were being pulled in. The governor had written a letter to President Dowdy telling him that he should have his students stop the demonstrations. Of course, I refused to do this.
Dr. Dowdy was under tremendous pressure. A&T was a public institution, and the difference between a public institution and a private institution was that a private institution could not be dictated to by the state.
I never equivocated on it at all; it was so clear to me that what these people were struggling for was within their rights. Because of that, the students were very cooperative. They would always come to me first to tell me what they were going to do or what they were planning, or what it was all about, and they would ask me if I had any suggestions. So it was a communication and a give-and-take that was so open that the students never did anything behind your back.
From time to time, I was consulted on the legality of the decisions that were obviously made almost hour-to-hour. But for the most part, they relied on the general consensus of the CORE chapter and the national office of CORE.
It was my contention and that of CORE that the trespass law as it was being applied was unconstitutional, and for that reason we were testing the legality of it. I advised my clients that we had a moral duty to assert those rights guaranteed to us by the Constitution. In fact, the action of the state and city in enforcing the segregation laws was both morally and legally wrong.
Ordinarily, the merchant himself or the individual business owner exercised self-help; he’d clobber the guy across the head and toss him out. It was only with the beginning of mass sit-ins that it reached large enough proportions that it was necessary to call in a large amount of state action to enforce segregation.
The individual, in his private capacity as a citizen, had a right to refuse service if he so chose. However, state action in enforcing this whim was invalid under the equal protection clause of the Fourteenth Amendment. That was an abuse of police power to lend aid and enforce his private whim against the rights of other citizens.
It was simply a matter of developing trial strategy based upon the factual circumstances. In a war like that you utilize anything you can come up with that is tactically effective. One of the strongest things we had going for us was the inability of people to identify the students; we simply capitalized on the age-old adage that all blacks look alike to whites. A tremendously large number of those arrested for blocking fire exits and trespassing were dismissed for lack of evidence.
The major number of persons arrested arose out of one march. They were charged under a construction ordinance, really, for blocking a public street. What happened was that they marched down to Elm and Market Streets, the hub of the traffic center, and laid down in the middle of the street and blocked traffic in every direction. There must have been 1,500 or 2,000 persons arrested at that time and charged with blocking a public street. Those cases were subsequently carried to the State Supreme Court, which threw out the application of the ordinance because it was taken out of context and therefore simply did not apply.
The feeling was extreme throughout on both sides. It was a feeling of crisis, the “we”s and the “they”s. Both sides exercised all of the psychological tactics that they could. For instance, I sat in on what were ostensibly official city negotiations. In an effort to call off the demonstrations, commitments were made that, before you could get in your car and turn on the radio, were being denied by officialdom, by the officials that had just made the commitment behind closed doors.
There was an absolute distrust for Mayor Schenck. It was proven time after time that anything that was said by him was what he thought was appropriate at the time with no thought of ever — in any way — adhering to any promises or discussions that he made.
The demonstrations had been going on for three or four days, possibly more, when the first case came to trial. There was some element that made the warrant improper, and I moved to quash that and reasonably argued the basis of my motion. And the court allowed my motion to quash.
Now, as a matter of plain old logistics, the warrants had been mimeographed. Upon the allowance of my motion to quash the first warrant, I called to the court’s attention that all of the warrants were drawn exactly alike, and for that reason, I moved to quash them all. And of course, the district attorney then moved to amend the warrants to properly allege a crime, at which juncture I simply insisted that each of the defendants be served with new copies of the warrant because every defendant to be tried in a criminal action has a right to know of the offense whereof he is charged before coming into court. Now, this was a major bogdown tactic for the simple reason that, as many people as were in the various centers of incarceration, there were absolutely no ascertainable records of where or who anybody was.
The true spirit behind the Movement was Bill Thomas, who was reasonably unidentifiable; he was quiet of manner and really nobody in the city administration knew where the impetus or the guidance was coming from. Since it mostly consisted of students, the Movement focused on A&T’s campus. Well, Jesse Jackson at the time was president of the student body at A&T. He was the least effective of the student leaders at the time, but he represented to the power structure a leader because of his position as president of the student body. He made a couple of fiery speeches and so on. And he, being the titular head of the student body, was charged with the more serious felony of inciting to riot simply as a tactic of picking off the top — you cut off the head and the body is bound to die.
There was no riot, but there was a chance of conviction. The climate and tenor of the times were such, and of course the jury selection process was as bad as it is today. The jury selection process at the time was geared so that the sheriff or the officialdom could rig juries any way that they wanted them. Jackson’s case was finally dismissed in the spirit of cooling things down.
After the momentum of the mass jail-ins and that kind of thing had stopped and negotiations had begun, there was no reason for continuing demonstrations; but while the demonstrations stopped, the litigation went on. We slugged it out for a good many weeks in the Recorder’s Court, until I think everybody’s tongue was dragging. So I finally requested jury trials in all of the cases so that we could get up to the Superior Court. The trials of the persons arrested during the height of the demonstrations went on up into the early fall, which culminated in the Supreme Court opinion in the State against Fox case, which sort of laid to rest all of the remainder of the cases.
Legally, desegregation was never accomplished through the courts. The final and ultimate blow to desegregation was dealt by the passage of the Civil Rights Bill of 1964. Bit by bit, piece by piece, we hacked away at it in the courts, and obviously the climate of the times led to the passage of the legislation. But I don’t think that the climate would have been such that the legislation would have been passed in Congress had there not been the general upheavals that were really the manifestations of the seething feelings among blacks against segregation.
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February 1, 1960, marks the date of the historic Greensboro sit-in by David Richmond, Franklin McCain, Joseph McNeill and Ezell Blair, students at all-black North Carolina A&T University. Their action sparked student protests at lunch counters around the South and in some Northern cities. (See “The Greensboro Sit-Ins, ” Southern Exposure, Vol. VI, No. 3, an excerpt from William Chafe’s history of race relations in the city entitled Civilities and Civil Rights.)
The segregated lunch counters were not eliminated by the first wave of sit-ins in Greensboro. City officials called for a cooling-off period, but when Woolworth’s and other segregated eating facilities refused to negotiate seriously, a second wave of protests began in 1962.
The following interviews — conducted by the Greensboro Public Library’s Oral History Project, headed by Eugene Pfaff Jr. - offer insight into the organizing and protest activities within the Afro-American communities. Although Jesse Jackson is the most prominent personality to emerge from the Greensboro demonstrations, Pfaff focuses on others who contributed to the situation behind the scenes. William A. Thomas, Jr., was a student at all-black Dudley High School at the time of the 1960 sit-ins. At first the young high school student was on the fringes of the sit-ins, but when A&T recessed for the summer, his leadership was needed.
Dr. Elizabeth “Lizzie” Laizner began teaching at Bennett College, a black women’s college in Greensboro, the semester following the initial sit-ins. In 1962, she got involved as transportation coordinator for Bennett students, and was one of the few whites in the city to join the Congress ofRacial Equality. She is currently a professor of humanities at Shaw University, a predominantly black university located in Raleigh.
Clarence C. “Buddy”Malone, Jr., began his law practice a few months after the 1962 wave of sit-ins. Affiliated with the NAACP Legal Defense Fund, Malone had defended several persons who were victims of civil-rights violations. At that time, he was one of the few Movement lawyers in North Carolina, and traveled from his native Durham County to nearby counties representing black and indigent defendants.
During the Greensboro sit-ins, Malone was retained by CORE, receiving only his expenses as compensation, as was the case with most civil-rights attorneys in the mass demonstrations in the South. Along with the national CORE, he set the trial strategy.
Dr. Willa B. Player was president of Bennett College, a private black institution, during the sit-ins. Her supportive role during the demonstrations stood in sharp contrast to that of President Lewis Dowdy at North Carolina A&T, which was dependent on the state for most of its funds.
I first became involved my senior year in high school. I was a student at Dudley. That was during the summer of 1960, right after the sit-ins first started. Initially, the students at A&T felt that the high school students were too young to actually be involved in the sit-ins, but they found that the situation was not going to be resolved by the time school was out, and that many of the students that initially participated in these demonstrations were from out of town. They weren’t there to carry on, so that’s when the high school students initially got involved.
At that time, the NAACP’s basic tactic was through the courts, through legal action. We felt as a result of the sit-ins that more was needed. I was president of the youth chapter of NAACP in Greensboro at the time. Through Dr. George Simkins, then president of the adult branch, we contacted James Farmer, national director of CORE, inquiring about the possibility of forming a CORE chapter in Greensboro. Through those efforts, a CORE chapter was in fact initiated in 1960, and I became its chairman. Our activities consisted basically of picketing the dime stores, leafletting, negotiating with the mayor.
What really triggered the massive demonstrations was an inability on the part of the political and business structure to take the damn thing seriously. Because we didn’t have the violent outbreaks and disturbances that characterized demonstrations that existed in other parts of the country, they thought that the thing would just go away. They attempted to ignore us. In fact, at one point, the mayor did not even want to negotiate with the students. He suggested that we send some “reasonable, mature” adults down to negotiate with them. We quickly informed him and the other committee members that it was not the mature adults that were out in the street and that if he wanted to get us out of the street, he would sit down and talk to us, which he eventually did, and that’s when the problems were worked out.
Once students knew what was going on, it had a snowballing effect. We utilized the media, we utilized leaflets. The local churches were very cooperative in letting us use their churches for mass meetings. You had to have some central place where instructions could be given as to exactly what tactic would be used that particular evening, exactly what strategies we would be using, where we were going, etc. The mass meeting afterwards was emotional, religious and also strategic. It afforded us the opportunity to assess what we had done and to make plans for the next day. Each day’s activities were in fact planned with some degree of flexibility to be able to adjust to the situation once we arrived at our target area. It did not just happen; there were factors to be considered and analyzed before it was decided exactly what would occur: you may have felt that a silent demonstration may have been more effective than the singing of a more vocal demonstration. CORE taught us how to respond to different situations, and other communities were able to look at us and learn from the experiences we had in Greensboro.
Things, in terms of action, went pretty much according to plan. The basic form of action was through economic withdrawal, another name for boycotting, and through street demonstrations. Very little litigation went on at that time, other than defending those people who were arrested.
After they started to arrest people, we literally adopted the slogan that we were going to fill up the jails. Again, that was an economic thing. It cost the city of Greensboro and the state of North Carolina a considerable amount of money to house these people, to feed them and to guard them, for no reason. The jails were literally filled. They were overflowing.
I was only incarcerated twice. I guess the reason that I was not arrested any more was that the committee that I was working on felt that I would serve more of a purpose if I was on the outside. In fact, at times I probably would have welcomed arrest. I could have gotten some rest. That way, you didn’t have to be up meeting around the clock and organizing other activities 24 hours a day.
When the Greensboro Chamber of Commerce and the Greensboro Merchants Association passed resolutions advocating desegregation of all public facilities, our reaction was that we always welcomed any support we could get, but those committees had no enforcement. Resolutions are all well and good, but they could not command anyone to do anything. The point that they were trying to make with the resolution was, “Okay, we have made a resolution, so call off your dogs.” We were not going to stop demonstrating until they actually desegregated. The resolutions didn’t mean a damn thing. They showed some good faith, but the places were still segregated.
The arrest of A&T student body president Jesse Jackson on the felony charge of inciting to riot played right into our hands because but for that, quite possibly, the demonstrations could have fizzled down. At that particular time, the demonstrations were beginning to be the same old thing; the emotional level had reached its low ebb and we needed a lift.
There was no riot, that was a joke. The only thing that happened was that Jesse led the group in prayer, and Captain Jackson got on his bullhorn and told us to disperse, and Jesse said “Not until we have our prayer.” And he told everybody to kneel, and they did kneel, and he prayed. He prayed for the captain and everybody else, and afterwards they rose and they got back in line, two by two, and we marched back to the church.
An interesting thing about that is that I was right next to Jesse and it was myself that asked Jesse to lead us in prayer after Captain Jackson had requested or ordered us to move. Well, the difference was that I was a Greensboro boy; they considered Jesse an outsider. That’s why he was arrested and not myself. They wanted to punish the outsider. I think that they felt that Jesse was conspicuous, that by eliminating him, by locking him up, then that would cause the demonstration to fizzle.
I did not join CORE at first for a very strange reason: I thought at that time that this was really a black affair and that a white person might not even be wanted. I suddenly got into it when I was sitting at a friend’s house and the TV was on and they showed one of those slightly strange — I would call them “professional” — civil-rights workers from the North who came to help with picketing and had, somehow, managed to get himself arrested and get some publicity for himself and for the group, which was, of course, his purpose. And I remember just about blowing a gasket, saying, “Why hadn’t anybody told me that whites can be in on this?”
In the fall of ’62 our main targets were the S&W and the Mayfair [cafeterias], but when we didn’t get anywhere, the boycott was initiated in the then very busy downtown just before Christmas. It was beginning to hurt, and this is when the city nominated a human relations committee. Mayor Schenck did it. We did not realize at the time that the committee had very little power. What the committee, to my knowledge, was really supposed to look into was the justification for opening these places. Were they really being unjust to the black citizens of the town by not permitting them to come in?
We were officially approached by either the committee or the mayor to call off the boycott and preferably cease picketing and give the committee a chance. I still remember the session we had in open meeting; it was very heated. I was on the side of the group that we called the “activists,” the ones who said, “Nothing’s going to come out of the committee; we’d better go on.” Bill Thomas, Pat Patterson and Lewis Brandon were some of the moderates. The majority decided that we should give the committee a chance and cease demonstrations until up to sometime in February, 1963, whenever they would come through.
In a very moving declaration signed by the head of the committee, who was either one of the big textile people or one of the big bankers, the committee brought out the injustice that segregation was doing to the black citizens of Greensboro and they felt that definitely those places should be opened. It sounded gorgeous. That declaration was printed all over and much praised, but it wasn’t worth the paper it was printed on. The trouble was in the last line: “Unfortunately, our committee has no power to enforce these suggestions.” That was it. That’s when we restarted and the first tiling we did was to picket the city hall.
By early May we had picketed city hall and had done a little picketing of restaurants, but it didn’t go very far because people were tired, and there was this question: should we or shouldn’t we go on and do something right now with exams staring students in the face? Should we prepare something big for the fall? That is when Bill Thomas had a call meeting at one of the Bennett dorms.
Bill, leaning against the piano, put it to the others and gave two possibilities: “Let’s either do something little or let’s not do anything. Let those of us who will be in Greensboro in the summer prepare a big thing for the fall.” We almost had the feeling that Bill leaned toward that, which sounded good and would have been good. At that time, some of us spoke up for the idea that something had to be done, we had to make people aware of segregation. A small group was nominated to get together and work out something for a small picketing job. And that small picketing job that we worked out, and which was approved, was McDonald’s.
Several of us had gone over to High Point in support of their people picketing. They had halfway opened the McDonald’s over there, which gave us the idea. Also, there had been an incident at McDonald’s in Greensboro much earlier that created more stir and more sympathy for our cause than anything else. It was a letter by a non-Greensboroite in the Daily News. That person had been in the drive-in line at McDonalds and next to him was a black family, also in a car, and they all waited. Obviously the black man was from the North and didn’t know what the case was then. He was sent back and could not be served. The white man was very, very furious and upset about it, and he wrote a very moving letter about it, on the injustice of it. And several people came in with strong letters in support of that. So we decided in May that the McDonald’s out at Summit Avenue would be a good place to go.
We waited for an opportune moment when the place was pretty empty and went in in a long row. The man informed us that we had no right to be served and that we would be arrested. This is when Reverend Busch, Bill Thomas, Pat Patterson and Reverend Stanley had themselves deliberately arrested. And that was what created the stir: two ministers and the leaders of the group had been arrested.
Floyd McKissick [of CORE] immediately came down and visited them in jail. The publicity was magnificent. This is when McKissick really did the right thing. He said to the four, “Take that bail. Get out, because now we can start something. This is going to start it.” And he was 100 percent right. As soon as Bill and Pat were out, we called a meeting over at the Hayes- Taylor YMCA.
We invited the ministers, anyone who wanted to come. What we needed was to see if we could get the support of the grown-ups. If the ministers would tell the black community that this was a worthy cause, to go and support it, they would. Reverend Bishop came. He was the president of the Minister’s Association, the black one, and he said they would listen to whatever he had to say.
Reverend Bishop was sitting there, and he said, “You’re right, we will support you.” And then he said, “I realize that you have finals coming and everything. Just do something little. Picket here or there so that I can tell the people that something is going on and that you need support.”
And those of us who were there decided that if he wanted us to do something, why didn’t we go back to McDonald’s that very evening. And I remember going home and organizing the car pool. We wanted to have them spelled every hour because picketing was strenuous and it would be better for them at night. The first group was set for six or seven, then one at eight, and I came on with the last group at nine.
This was when the mess occurred, because the place had closed earlier and some — excuse me for using a nasty word — “nigger-baiting crackers” were down there in force and there wasn’t a friendly soul among them. The parking lot of McDonald’s and the service station next door were filled with between 300 and 400 jeering crackers of the nastiest kind. For them it was sort of a Sunday entertainment; for free they could stand and jeer at us. The crowd was getting unrulier and unrulier. We knew that it could get nasty as it grew later, so a little after 10:00, Bill made the decision to break up. He informed the police that we would go fast to our cars and get out.
We decided to do something again the next day. This is when it really got big. The A&T students must have told others; they just simply kept coming. We had practically 2,000 that evening. McDonald’s was completely filled with people, and the manager went up to Bill Thomas and said, “I am closed, but you are still trespassing. If you do not leave, we can have you arrested.” This is where Bill made the very, very smart move of saying, “No, we have done what we wanted to do. The place is closed for the night and I guess we will go back.”
One of the young ladies then said, “Let’s go downtown, and maybe go by the Carolina Theater.” We made a totally spontaneous decision. We all went downtown, the whole spate of us, and there was that tremendously moving scene where we knelt down on the sidewalk. I don’t remember which hymn we did. It was not our usual “We Shall Not Be Moved,” it was a more religious one that someone suddenly started humming. A young man who later became an Army chaplain was the only one standing, and he prayed for the people in the Carolina Theater. It was so reminiscent of what one year later Martin Luther King said, that we should all be as brothers, that God should enlighten the people who are sitting in there and that we should all be together as brothers.
McDonald’s capitulated four days later. We were on our way home from picketing downtown on Tuesday when we were told, “Don’t disband. Go to the Y. There’s something going on there.” The manager of McDonald’s was there. What he said then was very contrary to what he had said on that Sunday. He thanked us, and Captain Jackson thanked us for our restraint. And the manager apologized to the four gentlemen whom he had arrested.
On Wednesday, at a mass meeting at the Y, we decided we were now going for an arrest. We had seen what an arrest of just four people had done for McDonald’s; now let’s see what this is going to do for the others. Some of us had had some courses in nonviolence with Floyd McKissick and some reps that came in from CORE. So we planned to jam the revolving door at S&W, and jam it successively. We tied the place up completely in this way. The whole mass of students were out there picketing where nothing could happen. And they knew exactly who’d be in the first group, who’d be in the second group, who’d be in the third group. As soon as we were told that we were under arrest, we would go out and the next group would jam the door again and be arrested.
I was in the first group. I didn’t, shall we say, follow the other 800, if you see what I mean. I was mainly the white auslagershield, the window dressing. Unfortunately, you got better publicity if you were white. I would seem much more important to people than I actually was, by the fact that I had to regularly be toted out and put in the first row.
The first time we were arrested, we were let go again. But people were getting pretty upset, so we decided on Friday this time they were going to keep us, and they did. Our record of 1,850 arrested in one week still stands. And do you know who came in? [Willa] Player [president of Bennett College]. When we were in jail, there was a support committee nominated by Bill that could act for CORE, and Player headed that committee.
They wanted us out because it was creating a nationwide stir, it was bad for the reputation of the city, it was horrible for the finances of the city. Mayor Schenck went on vacation in Virginia, and that elderly gentleman who then became mayor [William Trotter, Mayor Pro Tern] took over. It was he who gave in to that group with Bill and Dr. Player and others, who gave them their first condition: a human relations committee headed by a black doctor, Dr. Evans.
I had heard mutterings from those who had come out of jail that they wanted to go back. The heroes that came out of jail felt that they hadn’t, with their very real sacrifices, gotten enough. It could have split the group. The majority would certainly have decided on something more peaceful, but we would have antagonized our most valuable people. This is when I did something I normally did not do: I addressed the group.
I remember saying, “I know what we all want to do, and what I would like to do, too, would be to go right back. But this is not what we should do. We’ve got to give Dr. Evans a chance.” So the march started. That was the march of 5,000.
Mr. Farmer suggested a silent march. He is a fantastic speaker. He said that it would impress them if we went there, not speaking. We marched straight through the square and then back again. We made a circle of the town. There were only three in the first row: Jackson, me and Farmer.
We had the Evans Committee. We were sure that the grown-ups would take over after students left school for the summer, and they did. The S&W was open, the movie houses were open, some other little restaurants were open. In fact, we were one of the few towns in the South that were open before the ’64 Civil Rights Bill demanded it.
I first learned of the Woolworth’s sit-ins [in 1960] when we were all called downtown and heard the A&T student present his case. We, as members of the community, were trying to get a hold of what was really happening.
Ezell Blair was asked to defend his actions, which he did admirably. Here were students who were realizing that as citizens and as students at a liberal arts college they were being denied their equal rights, both under the law and under their constitutional beliefs, and freedom of expression. I defended them. I called the Bennett faculty into a meeting and told them what was happening. We went back to the purpose of a liberal arts college, and in defining those and what the girls were doing, we decided that they were carrying on the tenets of what a liberal education was all about — freedom of expression, living up to your ideals, building a quality of life in the community that was acceptable to all, respect for human dignity and personality. It was a recognition of values that applied to all persons as equals, and all persons who deserved a chance in a democratic society to express their beliefs.
We spoke to the president of the Student Senate, and we told her how the faculty felt, and that we were planning to cooperate with the girls. The only thing we requested of them was that they should give us a daily report of what they intended to do for that particular day.
By the fall of 1962, almost the entire student body at Bennett had become active in daily picketing. Governor Sanford tried to get the students to cease the demonstrations. We had a meeting at the governor’s mansion in Raleigh [one of a number of meetings] designed to try to get us to pull out and stop our students from demonstrating. Then there was a meeting just with me and the CORE director and one of the Greensboro citizens, Warren Ashby, over on the Bennett campus. I distinctly remember Dr. Ashby with Dr. Farmer ask me if I would be willing to pull in the Bennett College students because the A&T students were being pulled in. The governor had written a letter to President Dowdy telling him that he should have his students stop the demonstrations. Of course, I refused to do this.
Dr. Dowdy was under tremendous pressure. A&T was a public institution, and the difference between a public institution and a private institution was that a private institution could not be dictated to by the state.
I never equivocated on it at all; it was so clear to me that what these people were struggling for was within their rights. Because of that, the students were very cooperative. They would always come to me first to tell me what they were going to do or what they were planning, or what it was all about, and they would ask me if I had any suggestions. So it was a communication and a give-and-take that was so open that the students never did anything behind your back.
From time to time, I was consulted on the legality of the decisions that were obviously made almost hour-to-hour. But for the most part, they relied on the general consensus of the CORE chapter and the national office of CORE.
It was my contention and that of CORE that the trespass law as it was being applied was unconstitutional, and for that reason we were testing the legality of it. I advised my clients that we had a moral duty to assert those rights guaranteed to us by the Constitution. In fact, the action of the state and city in enforcing the segregation laws was both morally and legally wrong.
Ordinarily, the merchant himself or the individual business owner exercised self-help; he’d clobber the guy across the head and toss him out. It was only with the beginning of mass sit-ins that it reached large enough proportions that it was necessary to call in a large amount of state action to enforce segregation.
The individual, in his private capacity as a citizen, had a right to refuse service if he so chose. However, state action in enforcing this whim was invalid under the equal protection clause of the Fourteenth Amendment. That was an abuse of police power to lend aid and enforce his private whim against the rights of other citizens.
It was simply a matter of developing trial strategy based upon the factual circumstances. In a war like that you utilize anything you can come up with that is tactically effective. One of the strongest things we had going for us was the inability of people to identify the students; we simply capitalized on the age-old adage that all blacks look alike to whites. A tremendously large number of those arrested for blocking fire exits and trespassing were dismissed for lack of evidence.
The major number of persons arrested arose out of one march. They were charged under a construction ordinance, really, for blocking a public street. What happened was that they marched down to Elm and Market Streets, the hub of the traffic center, and laid down in the middle of the street and blocked traffic in every direction. There must have been 1,500 or 2,000 persons arrested at that time and charged with blocking a public street. Those cases were subsequently carried to the State Supreme Court, which threw out the application of the ordinance because it was taken out of context and therefore simply did not apply.
The feeling was extreme throughout on both sides. It was a feeling of crisis, the “we”s and the “they”s. Both sides exercised all of the psychological tactics that they could. For instance, I sat in on what were ostensibly official city negotiations. In an effort to call off the demonstrations, commitments were made that, before you could get in your car and turn on the radio, were being denied by officialdom, by the officials that had just made the commitment behind closed doors.
There was an absolute distrust for Mayor Schenck. It was proven time after time that anything that was said by him was what he thought was appropriate at the time with no thought of ever — in any way — adhering to any promises or discussions that he made.
The demonstrations had been going on for three or four days, possibly more, when the first case came to trial. There was some element that made the warrant improper, and I moved to quash that and reasonably argued the basis of my motion. And the court allowed my motion to quash.
Now, as a matter of plain old logistics, the warrants had been mimeographed. Upon the allowance of my motion to quash the first warrant, I called to the court’s attention that all of the warrants were drawn exactly alike, and for that reason, I moved to quash them all. And of course, the district attorney then moved to amend the warrants to properly allege a crime, at which juncture I simply insisted that each of the defendants be served with new copies of the warrant because every defendant to be tried in a criminal action has a right to know of the offense whereof he is charged before coming into court. Now, this was a major bogdown tactic for the simple reason that, as many people as were in the various centers of incarceration, there were absolutely no ascertainable records of where or who anybody was.
The true spirit behind the Movement was Bill Thomas, who was reasonably unidentifiable; he was quiet of manner and really nobody in the city administration knew where the impetus or the guidance was coming from. Since it mostly consisted of students, the Movement focused on A&T’s campus. Well, Jesse Jackson at the time was president of the student body at A&T. He was the least effective of the student leaders at the time, but he represented to the power structure a leader because of his position as president of the student body. He made a couple of fiery speeches and so on. And he, being the titular head of the student body, was charged with the more serious felony of inciting to riot simply as a tactic of picking off the top — you cut off the head and the body is bound to die.
There was no riot, but there was a chance of conviction. The climate and tenor of the times were such, and of course the jury selection process was as bad as it is today. The jury selection process at the time was geared so that the sheriff or the officialdom could rig juries any way that they wanted them. Jackson’s case was finally dismissed in the spirit of cooling things down.
After the momentum of the mass jail-ins and that kind of thing had stopped and negotiations had begun, there was no reason for continuing demonstrations; but while the demonstrations stopped, the litigation went on. We slugged it out for a good many weeks in the Recorder’s Court, until I think everybody’s tongue was dragging. So I finally requested jury trials in all of the cases so that we could get up to the Superior Court. The trials of the persons arrested during the height of the demonstrations went on up into the early fall, which culminated in the Supreme Court opinion in the State against Fox case, which sort of laid to rest all of the remainder of the cases.
Legally, desegregation was never accomplished through the courts. The final and ultimate blow to desegregation was dealt by the passage of the Civil Rights Bill of 1964. Bit by bit, piece by piece, we hacked away at it in the courts, and obviously the climate of the times led to the passage of the legislation. But I don’t think that the climate would have been such that the legislation would have been passed in Congress had there not been the general upheavals that were really the manifestations of the seething feelings among blacks against segregation.
| 6,443
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ENGLISH
| 1
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Colonial America was not democratic. They had indentured servants which is not democratic. They also were also loyal to a king which is not democratic.
The British Crown paid the governor's large salaries
The major features are mountains , rivers, and deserts.
the right to tax, regulate internal trade, and social behavior
Colonial and State Governments are different by: Colonial = had been rules by royal governors who where appointed by the British king. Governments = had the power to dismiss elected assemblies.
Excise tax was charged on liquor by the colonial governments. It was a significant source of income for the governments.
The features of Africa colonial economy is that most of the countries inherited the structures from the colonialists.
What key practices among the colonial governments became a part of your nations system of government?
Two undemocratic features of the colonial America were slavery and unequal voting rights
It was colonial virginia...ask my gramps. )=
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Colonial America was not democratic. They had indentured servants which is not democratic. They also were also loyal to a king which is not democratic.
The British Crown paid the governor's large salaries
The major features are mountains , rivers, and deserts.
the right to tax, regulate internal trade, and social behavior
Colonial and State Governments are different by: Colonial = had been rules by royal governors who where appointed by the British king. Governments = had the power to dismiss elected assemblies.
Excise tax was charged on liquor by the colonial governments. It was a significant source of income for the governments.
The features of Africa colonial economy is that most of the countries inherited the structures from the colonialists.
What key practices among the colonial governments became a part of your nations system of government?
Two undemocratic features of the colonial America were slavery and unequal voting rights
It was colonial virginia...ask my gramps. )=
| 189
|
ENGLISH
| 1
|
The Theory of Evolution is one of the most famous scientific theories in the world. It explains how all living things on Earth have evolved over time, including humans. But who was the founder of this groundbreaking theory?
The answer is Charles Darwin. Darwin was a British naturalist who lived in the 19th century. He is widely known as the father of the Theory of Evolution.
Darwin was born on February 12, 1809, in Shrewsbury, England. His father was a physician and his mother came from a wealthy family. Darwin showed an interest in nature from an early age, collecting specimens and going on nature walks.
In 1825, Darwin enrolled at Edinburgh University to study medicine but soon lost interest and dropped out. He then went to Cambridge University to study theology and natural history.
The Voyage of the Beagle:
In 1831, Darwin was offered a position as a naturalist on a voyage around the world aboard HMS Beagle. The goal of the expedition was to map the coastlines of South America and other parts of the world.
During his five-year journey, Darwin collected specimens and made observations that would later form the basis for his Theory of Evolution. He noticed that different species had adapted to their environments in different ways and speculated that this could be due to natural selection.
The Theory of Evolution:
After returning from his voyage, Darwin spent years studying his collections and developing his ideas about evolution. In 1859, he published “On the Origin of Species,” which presented his theory to the world.
The central idea behind Darwin’s Theory of Evolution is that all species have descended from common ancestors over time through a process called natural selection. This means that organisms with traits that are advantageous for survival are more likely to pass those traits on to their offspring.
Darwin’s theory caused controversy at first, as it challenged traditional beliefs about the origins of life. However, it eventually became widely accepted and is now considered one of the most important scientific theories in history.
Darwin continued to study and write about evolution for the rest of his life, publishing several more books on the subject. He died on April 19, 1882, at the age of 73.
Today, Darwin’s legacy lives on in the field of evolutionary biology. His theory has been expanded upon and refined over time, but its basic principles remain an important part of our understanding of the natural world.
In conclusion, Charles Darwin was the founder of the Theory of Evolution. His observations and ideas about natural selection revolutionized our understanding of how all living things on Earth have evolved over time. Through his work, Darwin left an indelible mark on science and continues to inspire scientists to this day.
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The Theory of Evolution is one of the most famous scientific theories in the world. It explains how all living things on Earth have evolved over time, including humans. But who was the founder of this groundbreaking theory?
The answer is Charles Darwin. Darwin was a British naturalist who lived in the 19th century. He is widely known as the father of the Theory of Evolution.
Darwin was born on February 12, 1809, in Shrewsbury, England. His father was a physician and his mother came from a wealthy family. Darwin showed an interest in nature from an early age, collecting specimens and going on nature walks.
In 1825, Darwin enrolled at Edinburgh University to study medicine but soon lost interest and dropped out. He then went to Cambridge University to study theology and natural history.
The Voyage of the Beagle:
In 1831, Darwin was offered a position as a naturalist on a voyage around the world aboard HMS Beagle. The goal of the expedition was to map the coastlines of South America and other parts of the world.
During his five-year journey, Darwin collected specimens and made observations that would later form the basis for his Theory of Evolution. He noticed that different species had adapted to their environments in different ways and speculated that this could be due to natural selection.
The Theory of Evolution:
After returning from his voyage, Darwin spent years studying his collections and developing his ideas about evolution. In 1859, he published “On the Origin of Species,” which presented his theory to the world.
The central idea behind Darwin’s Theory of Evolution is that all species have descended from common ancestors over time through a process called natural selection. This means that organisms with traits that are advantageous for survival are more likely to pass those traits on to their offspring.
Darwin’s theory caused controversy at first, as it challenged traditional beliefs about the origins of life. However, it eventually became widely accepted and is now considered one of the most important scientific theories in history.
Darwin continued to study and write about evolution for the rest of his life, publishing several more books on the subject. He died on April 19, 1882, at the age of 73.
Today, Darwin’s legacy lives on in the field of evolutionary biology. His theory has been expanded upon and refined over time, but its basic principles remain an important part of our understanding of the natural world.
In conclusion, Charles Darwin was the founder of the Theory of Evolution. His observations and ideas about natural selection revolutionized our understanding of how all living things on Earth have evolved over time. Through his work, Darwin left an indelible mark on science and continues to inspire scientists to this day.
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ENGLISH
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“I See You Never,” with its third-person narration, pivots between the minds of the two chief characters. The thrust of the story concerns the epiphanies of a Mexican expatriate and his American landlady that their thirty-month relationship of admiration and respect has been irredeemably ended by the California police. Ray Bradbury, who had recently traveled to Mexico before writing the story, expressed sympathy for Mexicans and Mexican Americans, and “I See You Never” contains a sensitive portrayal of a successful, albeit now illegal laborer, who reluctantly has to confront his alien status.
In whatever type of short story he writes—fantasy, horror, science fiction, or realism—Ray Bradbury is often concerned with the theme of metamorphosis, the transformation of human experience under the pressure of past or present events. He therefore uses his stories to bring to the surface hidden emotions or forgotten selves, and these revealed feelings or personalities may frighten, amuse, or enlighten the reader. In “I See You Never,” Mr. Ramirez discovers his deep feelings of attachment to the United States when he realizes that he has to leave it. Mrs. O’Brian finds that she has become emotionally attached to her tenant of two and a half years when she realizes that she is never going to see him again.
Unlike Bradbury’s science-fiction stories, “I See You Never” has ordinary settings (Southern California and Mexico) and conventional characters (a plump landlady and a Mexican laborer). In response to a criticism about his use of stock characters, Bradbury replied that he created characters to personify his ideas. Furthermore, he said, all his characters were, in some way, variations on himself. In this story, Mrs. O’Brian represents the orderly, comfortable, prosperous world of the United States, and Ramirez is the alien who is cast out of an edenic California.
This story was written not long after Bradbury made a two-month trip to Mexico, during which he felt like a stranger in a strange land. Bradbury, like many Californians of the time, was Protestant, individualistic, and ambitious, and he consequently felt alienated in a culture that was largely Roman Catholic, communalistic, and preoccupied with survival in the midst of poverty, suffering, and death. This theme of alienation became important in many of his stories, for he came to see that many modern human beings were alienated from their culture, their technologies, and even their own thoughts and feelings. In some of his other stories about Mexicans, Bradbury showed his admiration for their lack of materialism and their pastoral virtues and his anxiety over the dehumanization brought about in such a materialistic, technological society as the United States. This story is also an early manifestation of Bradbury’s social conscience because it exhibits his concern for the plight of foreign workers in the United States.
Separations have been called little deaths, and “To See You Never” is also about the permanent loss of persons to one another. Several critics have observed that below the surface of many of Bradbury’s stories lies an ominous vision of the human condition. Bradburian characters occupy a fallen world, where periods of sunny happiness may sometimes occur, but they are destined to be overwhelmed by darkness. Ramirez was beginning to think of himself as an American because he worked hard, saved his money, and became an appreciative consumer of American products and entertainment, but his dreams of a prosperous future were doomed to be dashed, not because of any fault of his or Mrs. O’Brian’s, but because they were both inhabitants of a sinful world.
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“I See You Never,” with its third-person narration, pivots between the minds of the two chief characters. The thrust of the story concerns the epiphanies of a Mexican expatriate and his American landlady that their thirty-month relationship of admiration and respect has been irredeemably ended by the California police. Ray Bradbury, who had recently traveled to Mexico before writing the story, expressed sympathy for Mexicans and Mexican Americans, and “I See You Never” contains a sensitive portrayal of a successful, albeit now illegal laborer, who reluctantly has to confront his alien status.
In whatever type of short story he writes—fantasy, horror, science fiction, or realism—Ray Bradbury is often concerned with the theme of metamorphosis, the transformation of human experience under the pressure of past or present events. He therefore uses his stories to bring to the surface hidden emotions or forgotten selves, and these revealed feelings or personalities may frighten, amuse, or enlighten the reader. In “I See You Never,” Mr. Ramirez discovers his deep feelings of attachment to the United States when he realizes that he has to leave it. Mrs. O’Brian finds that she has become emotionally attached to her tenant of two and a half years when she realizes that she is never going to see him again.
Unlike Bradbury’s science-fiction stories, “I See You Never” has ordinary settings (Southern California and Mexico) and conventional characters (a plump landlady and a Mexican laborer). In response to a criticism about his use of stock characters, Bradbury replied that he created characters to personify his ideas. Furthermore, he said, all his characters were, in some way, variations on himself. In this story, Mrs. O’Brian represents the orderly, comfortable, prosperous world of the United States, and Ramirez is the alien who is cast out of an edenic California.
This story was written not long after Bradbury made a two-month trip to Mexico, during which he felt like a stranger in a strange land. Bradbury, like many Californians of the time, was Protestant, individualistic, and ambitious, and he consequently felt alienated in a culture that was largely Roman Catholic, communalistic, and preoccupied with survival in the midst of poverty, suffering, and death. This theme of alienation became important in many of his stories, for he came to see that many modern human beings were alienated from their culture, their technologies, and even their own thoughts and feelings. In some of his other stories about Mexicans, Bradbury showed his admiration for their lack of materialism and their pastoral virtues and his anxiety over the dehumanization brought about in such a materialistic, technological society as the United States. This story is also an early manifestation of Bradbury’s social conscience because it exhibits his concern for the plight of foreign workers in the United States.
Separations have been called little deaths, and “To See You Never” is also about the permanent loss of persons to one another. Several critics have observed that below the surface of many of Bradbury’s stories lies an ominous vision of the human condition. Bradburian characters occupy a fallen world, where periods of sunny happiness may sometimes occur, but they are destined to be overwhelmed by darkness. Ramirez was beginning to think of himself as an American because he worked hard, saved his money, and became an appreciative consumer of American products and entertainment, but his dreams of a prosperous future were doomed to be dashed, not because of any fault of his or Mrs. O’Brian’s, but because they were both inhabitants of a sinful world.
| 734
|
ENGLISH
| 1
|
The Justiciar and council exercised judicial functions. Over time, a specialised judiciary developed, and most judicial business became a matter for the courts of justice. There remained a number of cases still dealt with by the Justiciar and council. These concerned particularly, quarrels between magnates.
Cases, where the common law provided no remedy, were attracted towards the Justiciar, although laterally, they moved towards the chancery. They were formally brought to the council by petition.
The Justiciar’s court later developed into the equivalent to the English King’s bench. The chief governor journeyed through the country for a considerable period attended by the council. Justices acting under various commissions held sessions.
Justice was done locally by persons working under limited commission. There appears to have been commissions of gaol delivery, commissions of assize, sometimes held by professional judges either alone or in association with others, and sometimes by nonprofessional judges. Circuits of justices of assize appear to have been organised as in England.
The exchequer was fixed, but its officials were sent out to do exchequer business and collect taxes and King’s debta.
Development of Professional Courts
By the middle of the 13th century, a permanent bench was established in Dublin together with the itinerant courts. By the end of the 13th century, there was a chief justice and several lower ranking judges. The judges presiding at that court, in the latter part of the 13th century also acted as itinerant justices.
The bulk of their business dealt with the standard common law writs. The majority of pleas related to land dowry and minors. A lesser number concerned trespasses, appeals, debts and moveable goods.
As in England, liberties were granted in which the crown had more limited jurisdiction, reserving only certain key important pleas or causes of action/ crimes. Other pleas or claims were reserved to the liberty court. With the fragmentation of crown control in the later 13th and 14th century, the liberties extended.
The Dublin’s King Bench corresponded with the Kings’ Bench in London. The bulk of King’s bench business concerned real actions which apart from assizes were not within the scope of the justiciar’s court. The King’s bench also dealt with contractual or semi-contractual issues of debt, detinue, and covenant. A certain rivalry with the exchequer also exists in these areas.
The court had jurisdiction to reviews of errors of lower courts. Actions and writs could be taken to challenge the verdict of an assize before justices. There was overlap with the jurisdiction of the justiciar’s court. An assize might be transferred from the justiciar’s court if it could not be concluded within the county, as an alternative to adjourning it the justiciar’s next court,
In some cases, the justiciar himself came to the bench in relation to the difficult matters. Generally, however, the chief justices of the bench presided. There was a chief justice and two or more puisne judges.
By the late 13th century, the first examples of Irish case preceding by appeal to the English courts are found. Some of the cases took place by bypassing the Irish court and by the late 13th century, there were examples of the justiciar protesting this.
The exchequer existed in Ireland since the late 12th century. It did not initially equate to that in England, but by the end of the 13th century, it seemed to have exercised judicial functions including hearing of common pleas. At that stage there was a treasurer, a chancellor, two barons, and a remembrancer. They dealt with certain pleadings relating to land and actions for damages and the recovery of monies.
The exchequer was the first department to develop out of the council. It was the financial department. A clerk was given the title of treasurer at the beginning of the 13th century. Rolls of issues and receipts were kept by the latter half of the 13th century. A special class of Barons were appointed to hold pleas of the exchequer. They passed judgment on debts due by subjects to the crown.
The Exchequers Court was concerned principally with quasi-public law matters. However, it had a rival jurisdiction based a legal fictions with that of the King’s Bench in relation to debt and related matters. The justiciar sometimes went to the exchequer court to deal with unusually difficult matters.
The Irish Court of Chancery was established in 1232 with the appointment of the Bishop of Chichester as the chancellor for life. The duties were broadly correspondent to that of the English office. He was custodian of the Irish seal and a member of the Justiciar’s council. Writs emanate from his office. He was custodian of records. He had one clerk in the exchequer’s office and one in the Justiciar’s court to keep the rolls.
In England, the chancery commenced as secretarial department of the King’s household. Writs of the King issued from the Justiciar or the English chancery in the early 13th century. The chancellors were often clerics.
A separate Irish chancery commenced in 1232. English writs remained valid in Ireland and persons could be summoned before English courts. By the end of the 14th century; attempts were made to bring the Irish chancery in line with English chancery.
By the 15th century in England, the equitable jurisdiction of chancery substituted petitions, which would otherwise have gone to the council in parliament. However, in Ireland, the practice of petitions to parliament continued for much longer.
The chancellor developed jurisdiction over time, parallel to that in England. By the beginning of the 17th century there were courts with two sides, the equity side and the common law side. The Master of the Rolls in Ireland did not have judicial functions until the Union in 1801.
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https://legalblog.ie/courts-2/
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s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2024-10/segments/1707947474482.98/warc/CC-MAIN-20240224012912-20240224042912-00454.warc.gz
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] | 1
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The Justiciar and council exercised judicial functions. Over time, a specialised judiciary developed, and most judicial business became a matter for the courts of justice. There remained a number of cases still dealt with by the Justiciar and council. These concerned particularly, quarrels between magnates.
Cases, where the common law provided no remedy, were attracted towards the Justiciar, although laterally, they moved towards the chancery. They were formally brought to the council by petition.
The Justiciar’s court later developed into the equivalent to the English King’s bench. The chief governor journeyed through the country for a considerable period attended by the council. Justices acting under various commissions held sessions.
Justice was done locally by persons working under limited commission. There appears to have been commissions of gaol delivery, commissions of assize, sometimes held by professional judges either alone or in association with others, and sometimes by nonprofessional judges. Circuits of justices of assize appear to have been organised as in England.
The exchequer was fixed, but its officials were sent out to do exchequer business and collect taxes and King’s debta.
Development of Professional Courts
By the middle of the 13th century, a permanent bench was established in Dublin together with the itinerant courts. By the end of the 13th century, there was a chief justice and several lower ranking judges. The judges presiding at that court, in the latter part of the 13th century also acted as itinerant justices.
The bulk of their business dealt with the standard common law writs. The majority of pleas related to land dowry and minors. A lesser number concerned trespasses, appeals, debts and moveable goods.
As in England, liberties were granted in which the crown had more limited jurisdiction, reserving only certain key important pleas or causes of action/ crimes. Other pleas or claims were reserved to the liberty court. With the fragmentation of crown control in the later 13th and 14th century, the liberties extended.
The Dublin’s King Bench corresponded with the Kings’ Bench in London. The bulk of King’s bench business concerned real actions which apart from assizes were not within the scope of the justiciar’s court. The King’s bench also dealt with contractual or semi-contractual issues of debt, detinue, and covenant. A certain rivalry with the exchequer also exists in these areas.
The court had jurisdiction to reviews of errors of lower courts. Actions and writs could be taken to challenge the verdict of an assize before justices. There was overlap with the jurisdiction of the justiciar’s court. An assize might be transferred from the justiciar’s court if it could not be concluded within the county, as an alternative to adjourning it the justiciar’s next court,
In some cases, the justiciar himself came to the bench in relation to the difficult matters. Generally, however, the chief justices of the bench presided. There was a chief justice and two or more puisne judges.
By the late 13th century, the first examples of Irish case preceding by appeal to the English courts are found. Some of the cases took place by bypassing the Irish court and by the late 13th century, there were examples of the justiciar protesting this.
The exchequer existed in Ireland since the late 12th century. It did not initially equate to that in England, but by the end of the 13th century, it seemed to have exercised judicial functions including hearing of common pleas. At that stage there was a treasurer, a chancellor, two barons, and a remembrancer. They dealt with certain pleadings relating to land and actions for damages and the recovery of monies.
The exchequer was the first department to develop out of the council. It was the financial department. A clerk was given the title of treasurer at the beginning of the 13th century. Rolls of issues and receipts were kept by the latter half of the 13th century. A special class of Barons were appointed to hold pleas of the exchequer. They passed judgment on debts due by subjects to the crown.
The Exchequers Court was concerned principally with quasi-public law matters. However, it had a rival jurisdiction based a legal fictions with that of the King’s Bench in relation to debt and related matters. The justiciar sometimes went to the exchequer court to deal with unusually difficult matters.
The Irish Court of Chancery was established in 1232 with the appointment of the Bishop of Chichester as the chancellor for life. The duties were broadly correspondent to that of the English office. He was custodian of the Irish seal and a member of the Justiciar’s council. Writs emanate from his office. He was custodian of records. He had one clerk in the exchequer’s office and one in the Justiciar’s court to keep the rolls.
In England, the chancery commenced as secretarial department of the King’s household. Writs of the King issued from the Justiciar or the English chancery in the early 13th century. The chancellors were often clerics.
A separate Irish chancery commenced in 1232. English writs remained valid in Ireland and persons could be summoned before English courts. By the end of the 14th century; attempts were made to bring the Irish chancery in line with English chancery.
By the 15th century in England, the equitable jurisdiction of chancery substituted petitions, which would otherwise have gone to the council in parliament. However, in Ireland, the practice of petitions to parliament continued for much longer.
The chancellor developed jurisdiction over time, parallel to that in England. By the beginning of the 17th century there were courts with two sides, the equity side and the common law side. The Master of the Rolls in Ireland did not have judicial functions until the Union in 1801.
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Women In the 1950s
The 1950s was a time of conformity in which women were given traditional gender roles such as taking care of their families and everyday household chores, however all of this started to change post World War II. Back in the day, there was a depiction of women that came with a specific image that had to be upheld. The Ideal Women maintained the integrity of being the perfect wife. They were always dressed in their very best, made sure the family always had a hot meal prepped and ready to eat, all while maintaining a clean and tidy household. During the 1950s both marriage and birthrates were booming. Woman were getting married at such a young age, which led them into giving birth and starting families at a much younger age than the average woman today. Since a woman’s first priority was considered to be her family, many of them never got the education they wanted or reached their specific career goals. A job barely even crossed their mind and some could not even fathom the idea. They were seen as having such a “full plate” dealing with the household chores and family, that no one thought they could have any time to spare doing anything else. A woman’s first and only priority back in the 1950s was to keep the house clean and tidy as well as taking care of their children. One of the many roles women faced in the 1950s was basically to provide for their husbands. This meant that they were to make sure that they had a warm delicious meal prepared for their
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During WWII to most men were drafted to join the military. This some what forced many women to take on the jobs most held by men at the time. When the Baby Boom happened, many Americans viewed this as a chance to get women back as household keepers. Many magazines at the time promoted sending women back to housewives. They would post articles like “Cooking To Me Is Poetry” and “Femininity Begins At Home”.
The context of the changing roles of women between the periods of 1890-1920 and 1960-1980 are voting rights and equal pay in the workplace. Women's roles have changed a lot over the many years women have gone from being housewives to working in the factories. The roles of women changed from 1890-1920 to 1960-1980 and one of the big changes from 1890 to 1980 is women's voting rights because women couldn't vote in 1890 but they could in 1980. Another one is women in the workforce because in 1890 women were expected to provide for their homes and not work but by 1980 most women worked.
The breadwinner-homemaker family, the norm since the dawn of the Industrial Revolution in the 19th century, is being replaced by a new norm of diversity” (Schulte). Family life in the 1950s is one of the most looked back upon generations, because it was so closely following the second World War, and was the beginning of the Baby Boomer generation. Because a lot of the soldiers were returning from the war to their wives to have children, the
Gender roles were reasserted in 1950s America postwar. Even if there was an increase in divorce rates popular culture and mythology upheld hetronormative marriage as a key to spiritual, financial and spiritual success. In the 1950s, the term “containment” referred to the foreign policy-driven containment of communism and atomic proliferation. In Homeward Bound: American Families in the Cold War Era (1988)
The 1960s saw more and more women entering the workforce (moreso than in the 1920s), changing the dynamic within families. With more working mothers, fathers were called upon to play a more integral role in the function of the household (Potter, n.d.). In 1960, birth control was legalized (Potter, n.d.), giving women even more control over their family structure and lifestyle they chose to
Roles of men and women in my cultural group were very much set back in the earlier 1900’s. Men were the head of the household, they went to work, made the money, and supported the house. The women took care of all the household duties including, cleaning, cooking, and taking care of the children. Women did not go out and work if they were married. Before they married they could work to help provide income for the household, but once they found a husband they could not longer have a job.
In the 1950’s, church attendance was at its peak, everyone was rushing to get back to their homes, marry their high school sweethearts, move out to the suburbs, and have children. Somewhere in this mix women as individuals were forgotten again. During the war they were given freedoms and luxuries that today people may scoff at but at the time seemed important. The church played an important role in insuring that women went back to their lives and worked to idealize women into believing that their former roles is all they could play nay all they ever wanted in life. The Jewish people have a prayer that is a clear symbol of the historical treatment of women it thanks God for not making them a women.
During the 1960s the Women’s movement began to build progress, giving women higher status. Women were encouraged to be more confident and independent within their working and living environments. As a result, divorce rates increased, because “when women no longer depend on men for status and income, they are less likely to stay in unsatisfying marriages” (Clarke-Stewart and Brentano 10). This movement is just one cause that affected societal change. During the era, everything in the United States was being questioned, from personal values, to marriage and even other institutions.
Materialism started to gleam over their previous value of hard work and savings. By the end of the nineteen fifties, just about every home had a television. The typical American family was defined by the male being the main provider and the woman taken care of "domestic" responsibilities. Gender roles were hardy and intact, but feminist, Betty Friedan believed there wasn 't a difference in biology that made them physically weaker. Though, not many other women challenged this stereotype society placed on them, despite the fact the employment of women was
In the 21st century, women must have a career and job to support a family compared to the 1950’s when women had the choice to be a stay at home mother or have a career. Spigel states, “Like Donna Reed, who sacrificed her nursing career for life with Dr. Alex Stone […]” (Spigel 224) the author is indicating that most women during the 1950’s decided to be a homemaker because that was what society expected of them. Television emphasized and valued the role of the ideal wife and a homemaker. Furthermore, TV shows like The Donna Reed Show illustrated wives to be marginal at home and central to the economy. Haralovich states, “In her value to the economy, the homemaker was at once central and marginal” (Haralovich 70).
Since the beginning of time women have had different roles than men. Women have been the ones to take care of the family in the home and men have been the ones to take care of the financial needs. In the 20’s women began to realize that they were worth more than a housewife and began to change their roles. Women had to fight for their rights to change roles, leading up to events that show their determination for suffrage, and their right to work and be whomever they wanted to be. Women were not given their roles and a question asked is, “Why did they have to fight for them?”
Research Paper Draft: How have women's roles changed from 1940s to 2000s? Katrina Bauers When Hitler invaded Poland from the west, France and Britain declared war on Germany and began World War Two. America entered the war when Japan attacked Pearl Harbor on December 7, 1941. The United States instituted the Selective Training and Service act of 1940 which required all men between the ages of 21 and 45 to register for the draft.
Women in the 1930’s had much different lives and expectations than today. Due to the depression many people had to change their lives to support their families and that includes women. After the feminist movement of the 1920s, due to the depression, women were forced to return to their previous lives as submissive housewives although many were required to earn an income by getting a job. There were many stereotypes surrounding women that affected the way they lived. Women were believed to be the civilizing force, taking care of the children and home, and that society could not survive without them (Moran).
Raisin in the Sun: Gender Roles Defied Following the event of World War Two, America during the 1950s was an era of economic prosperity. Male soldiers had just returned home from war to see America “at the summit of the world”(Churchill). Many Americans were confident that the future held nothing other than peace and prosperity, so they decided to start families. However, the 1950s was also a time of radical changes. Because most of the men in the family had departed to fight in the war, women were left at home to do the housework.
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Women In the 1950s
The 1950s was a time of conformity in which women were given traditional gender roles such as taking care of their families and everyday household chores, however all of this started to change post World War II. Back in the day, there was a depiction of women that came with a specific image that had to be upheld. The Ideal Women maintained the integrity of being the perfect wife. They were always dressed in their very best, made sure the family always had a hot meal prepped and ready to eat, all while maintaining a clean and tidy household. During the 1950s both marriage and birthrates were booming. Woman were getting married at such a young age, which led them into giving birth and starting families at a much younger age than the average woman today. Since a woman’s first priority was considered to be her family, many of them never got the education they wanted or reached their specific career goals. A job barely even crossed their mind and some could not even fathom the idea. They were seen as having such a “full plate” dealing with the household chores and family, that no one thought they could have any time to spare doing anything else. A woman’s first and only priority back in the 1950s was to keep the house clean and tidy as well as taking care of their children. One of the many roles women faced in the 1950s was basically to provide for their husbands. This meant that they were to make sure that they had a warm delicious meal prepared for their
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During WWII to most men were drafted to join the military. This some what forced many women to take on the jobs most held by men at the time. When the Baby Boom happened, many Americans viewed this as a chance to get women back as household keepers. Many magazines at the time promoted sending women back to housewives. They would post articles like “Cooking To Me Is Poetry” and “Femininity Begins At Home”.
The context of the changing roles of women between the periods of 1890-1920 and 1960-1980 are voting rights and equal pay in the workplace. Women's roles have changed a lot over the many years women have gone from being housewives to working in the factories. The roles of women changed from 1890-1920 to 1960-1980 and one of the big changes from 1890 to 1980 is women's voting rights because women couldn't vote in 1890 but they could in 1980. Another one is women in the workforce because in 1890 women were expected to provide for their homes and not work but by 1980 most women worked.
The breadwinner-homemaker family, the norm since the dawn of the Industrial Revolution in the 19th century, is being replaced by a new norm of diversity” (Schulte). Family life in the 1950s is one of the most looked back upon generations, because it was so closely following the second World War, and was the beginning of the Baby Boomer generation. Because a lot of the soldiers were returning from the war to their wives to have children, the
Gender roles were reasserted in 1950s America postwar. Even if there was an increase in divorce rates popular culture and mythology upheld hetronormative marriage as a key to spiritual, financial and spiritual success. In the 1950s, the term “containment” referred to the foreign policy-driven containment of communism and atomic proliferation. In Homeward Bound: American Families in the Cold War Era (1988)
The 1960s saw more and more women entering the workforce (moreso than in the 1920s), changing the dynamic within families. With more working mothers, fathers were called upon to play a more integral role in the function of the household (Potter, n.d.). In 1960, birth control was legalized (Potter, n.d.), giving women even more control over their family structure and lifestyle they chose to
Roles of men and women in my cultural group were very much set back in the earlier 1900’s. Men were the head of the household, they went to work, made the money, and supported the house. The women took care of all the household duties including, cleaning, cooking, and taking care of the children. Women did not go out and work if they were married. Before they married they could work to help provide income for the household, but once they found a husband they could not longer have a job.
In the 1950’s, church attendance was at its peak, everyone was rushing to get back to their homes, marry their high school sweethearts, move out to the suburbs, and have children. Somewhere in this mix women as individuals were forgotten again. During the war they were given freedoms and luxuries that today people may scoff at but at the time seemed important. The church played an important role in insuring that women went back to their lives and worked to idealize women into believing that their former roles is all they could play nay all they ever wanted in life. The Jewish people have a prayer that is a clear symbol of the historical treatment of women it thanks God for not making them a women.
During the 1960s the Women’s movement began to build progress, giving women higher status. Women were encouraged to be more confident and independent within their working and living environments. As a result, divorce rates increased, because “when women no longer depend on men for status and income, they are less likely to stay in unsatisfying marriages” (Clarke-Stewart and Brentano 10). This movement is just one cause that affected societal change. During the era, everything in the United States was being questioned, from personal values, to marriage and even other institutions.
Materialism started to gleam over their previous value of hard work and savings. By the end of the nineteen fifties, just about every home had a television. The typical American family was defined by the male being the main provider and the woman taken care of "domestic" responsibilities. Gender roles were hardy and intact, but feminist, Betty Friedan believed there wasn 't a difference in biology that made them physically weaker. Though, not many other women challenged this stereotype society placed on them, despite the fact the employment of women was
In the 21st century, women must have a career and job to support a family compared to the 1950’s when women had the choice to be a stay at home mother or have a career. Spigel states, “Like Donna Reed, who sacrificed her nursing career for life with Dr. Alex Stone […]” (Spigel 224) the author is indicating that most women during the 1950’s decided to be a homemaker because that was what society expected of them. Television emphasized and valued the role of the ideal wife and a homemaker. Furthermore, TV shows like The Donna Reed Show illustrated wives to be marginal at home and central to the economy. Haralovich states, “In her value to the economy, the homemaker was at once central and marginal” (Haralovich 70).
Since the beginning of time women have had different roles than men. Women have been the ones to take care of the family in the home and men have been the ones to take care of the financial needs. In the 20’s women began to realize that they were worth more than a housewife and began to change their roles. Women had to fight for their rights to change roles, leading up to events that show their determination for suffrage, and their right to work and be whomever they wanted to be. Women were not given their roles and a question asked is, “Why did they have to fight for them?”
Research Paper Draft: How have women's roles changed from 1940s to 2000s? Katrina Bauers When Hitler invaded Poland from the west, France and Britain declared war on Germany and began World War Two. America entered the war when Japan attacked Pearl Harbor on December 7, 1941. The United States instituted the Selective Training and Service act of 1940 which required all men between the ages of 21 and 45 to register for the draft.
Women in the 1930’s had much different lives and expectations than today. Due to the depression many people had to change their lives to support their families and that includes women. After the feminist movement of the 1920s, due to the depression, women were forced to return to their previous lives as submissive housewives although many were required to earn an income by getting a job. There were many stereotypes surrounding women that affected the way they lived. Women were believed to be the civilizing force, taking care of the children and home, and that society could not survive without them (Moran).
Raisin in the Sun: Gender Roles Defied Following the event of World War Two, America during the 1950s was an era of economic prosperity. Male soldiers had just returned home from war to see America “at the summit of the world”(Churchill). Many Americans were confident that the future held nothing other than peace and prosperity, so they decided to start families. However, the 1950s was also a time of radical changes. Because most of the men in the family had departed to fight in the war, women were left at home to do the housework.
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Table of Contents
What were loyalist advantages?
What advantages did the loyalists have? Being well trained and having a disciplined force was a big advantage for the British. It gave the soldiers the mind set of not running from anything or towards anything. They listened to their head general and they followed the orders of what they were supposed to do.
What are 3 facts about loyalists?
Loyalists After the War
- The wealthiest loyalists moved to England after the war.
- The poorer loyalists lost their fortunes and their land.
- The United States government wanted loyalists to stay in the country.
- The British evacuated 20,000 slaves.
- Many ordinary Loyalists went to Canada.
What makes someone a loyalist?
loyalist Add to list Share. In politics, a loyalist is someone who stays faithful to a party or government even during times of upheaval and revolt. During America’s colonial era, loyalists supported British rule.
Why did the loyalist want to stay loyal?
In some cases the British government paid them for their loyalty, but it was usually not nearly as much as they had lost. The United States government wanted the loyalists to stay. They felt the new country could use their skills and education.
Is it loyalist or most loyal?
Superlative form of loyal: most loyal.
What challenges did the loyalists face?
They made a orderly effort to use and control mob violence. Some of the challenges the loyalists had to face on their arrival in Canada was getting land grants, clearing it, planting crops, and building their homes. They didn’t have very many tools such as weapons and building materials.
Why should the loyalists stay with the British?
Naval protection, access to a large free-trading area, easy credit, cheap manufactures, and restricted foreign competition had all contributed to a strong sense of loyalty to Britain and the Crown. As many as twenty thousand Loyalists fought with the British.
Why did loyalists stay loyal?
1. many of the loyalist stayed loyal because the thought if they did great BBritain would protect them. 2. some of the loyalists stayed loyal because the feared of great Britain ‘s strong military forces. 3. the final reason the loyalists stayed loyal to great Britain is because they did to want to be seen as traitors to the king.
Why were loyalists support Britain?
The reasons that the Loyalists remained pro-British were either loyalty to the King and unwillingness to rebel against the Crown, or the belief in peaceful and evolutionary independence.
What is loyalist for kids?
Loyalist (American Revolution) facts for kids. Loyalists were people in the Thirteen Colonies who opposed the American Revolutionary War. They were also called Tories. They fought with the British against the Continental Army and Continental Congress that they felt was oppressing them.
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] | 1
|
Table of Contents
What were loyalist advantages?
What advantages did the loyalists have? Being well trained and having a disciplined force was a big advantage for the British. It gave the soldiers the mind set of not running from anything or towards anything. They listened to their head general and they followed the orders of what they were supposed to do.
What are 3 facts about loyalists?
Loyalists After the War
- The wealthiest loyalists moved to England after the war.
- The poorer loyalists lost their fortunes and their land.
- The United States government wanted loyalists to stay in the country.
- The British evacuated 20,000 slaves.
- Many ordinary Loyalists went to Canada.
What makes someone a loyalist?
loyalist Add to list Share. In politics, a loyalist is someone who stays faithful to a party or government even during times of upheaval and revolt. During America’s colonial era, loyalists supported British rule.
Why did the loyalist want to stay loyal?
In some cases the British government paid them for their loyalty, but it was usually not nearly as much as they had lost. The United States government wanted the loyalists to stay. They felt the new country could use their skills and education.
Is it loyalist or most loyal?
Superlative form of loyal: most loyal.
What challenges did the loyalists face?
They made a orderly effort to use and control mob violence. Some of the challenges the loyalists had to face on their arrival in Canada was getting land grants, clearing it, planting crops, and building their homes. They didn’t have very many tools such as weapons and building materials.
Why should the loyalists stay with the British?
Naval protection, access to a large free-trading area, easy credit, cheap manufactures, and restricted foreign competition had all contributed to a strong sense of loyalty to Britain and the Crown. As many as twenty thousand Loyalists fought with the British.
Why did loyalists stay loyal?
1. many of the loyalist stayed loyal because the thought if they did great BBritain would protect them. 2. some of the loyalists stayed loyal because the feared of great Britain ‘s strong military forces. 3. the final reason the loyalists stayed loyal to great Britain is because they did to want to be seen as traitors to the king.
Why were loyalists support Britain?
The reasons that the Loyalists remained pro-British were either loyalty to the King and unwillingness to rebel against the Crown, or the belief in peaceful and evolutionary independence.
What is loyalist for kids?
Loyalist (American Revolution) facts for kids. Loyalists were people in the Thirteen Colonies who opposed the American Revolutionary War. They were also called Tories. They fought with the British against the Continental Army and Continental Congress that they felt was oppressing them.
| 586
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ENGLISH
| 1
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Mungo Park lived from 11 September 1771 to December 1805 or January 1806. A native of Selkirkshire, he made his name as an early explorer of the African continent. The wider picture in Scotland at the time is set out in our Historical Timeline.
Mungo Park was born at Foulshiels near Selkirk, where his father was a successful farmer. The seventh of a family of thirteen he was well educated. After leaving school he took up an apprenticeship with a surgeon in Selkirk, then spent the three years from 1789 to 1791 gaining his formal qualification as a surgeon.
Park's first job was as an assistant-surgeon on board the East India ship Worcester. While on board he made a trip to Sumatra and after returning to Scotland produced an academic paper describing eight previously unknown fishes he had found there.
In 1794 Park applied to the Africa Association to mount an expedition to build on the work of Major Daniel Houghton, who had gone to Africa in 1790 to try to trace the route of the River Niger, but had died in the Sahara. The Niger is an odd river. At 2,500 miles long, it is the third longest in Africa. Oddly enough, it rises just 150 miles from the sea before heading north-east into the Sahara desert where it passes Timbuktu before taking a sharp right turn and flowing south-east to the sea.
Timbuktu's existence, and the fact that a great river ran through it from the south-west, had long been known, and it was assumed that this was the Niger River that entered the sea in what is now Nigeria.
Park's strategy was to to approach from The Gambia in west Africa. Starting on 21 June 1795 he travelled 200 miles up the Gambia River before striking out east into the unknown interior. At one point he was imprisoned by a Moorish chief for four months, but he escaped and eventually found the River Niger. After tracing its route for 300 miles he made his way back west to The Gambia. He returned to Scotland on 22 December 1797, long after he had been given up for dead.
Park settled back to a routine life in the Borders. He married in 1799, and in 1801 set up practice as a doctor in Peebles. In September 1804 Mungo Park accepted a government invitation to lead a further expedition to the Niger. He sailed from Portsmouth for The Gambia on 31 January 1805, commissioned as a Captain. Second in command was his brother in law, who had been commissioned as a lieutenant.
The full expedition that set off inland from The Gambia comprised three officers and some 40 other Europeans, mostly British soldiers, plus local guides and a number of slaves. The expedition reached the River Niger in August 1805, by which time only 11 Europeans were still alive, the remainder having died of dysentery or fever. For some time they retraced Park's steps on his earlier expedition with the permission of the local ruler.
On 19 November 1805, Park set sail downstream into the unknown reaches of the river in a large canoe with what remained of his expedition. By now this was just Park himself, one British officer and three soldiers (one by now mad), a guide and three slaves. Park sent another guide back to The Gambia with letters for his wife and the Colonial Office. In these he said that he was very well equipped and supplied, and that he intended to sail without landing and non stop downstream until he reached the sea, which he estimated to do at the end of January 1806.
Park's route along the river would have taken him north-east through western Africa, then into the Sahara and past Timbuktu, then south-east through modern day Niger and Nigeria to the sea. He never made it. The Government employed the guide who had delivered Park's last letters to return to try to discover his fate. The story that emerged was one of heroic failure. Park is believed to have sailed downstream for a further 1,000 miles, past Timbuktu, through Niger and into north-west Nigeria. His policy of avoiding contact with local tribes caused steadily increasing opposition along the route, but attacks were successfully fought off with the available guns. But at the Bussa Rapids near Yauri in Nigeria, the canoe became stranded on a rock, and the party again came under attack from native tribesmen. It is believed that Park and the remaining three other Europeans were drowned trying to escape, and the only survivor of the expedition was a slave who was able to recount the end of the expedition.
Some of Park's belongings were eventually recovered, but Park's final fate remains unclear. In 1827 Mungo Park's second son Thomas set out to discover whether his father might have survived as a prisoner: but died of fever before he had gone very far into the interior.
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Mungo Park lived from 11 September 1771 to December 1805 or January 1806. A native of Selkirkshire, he made his name as an early explorer of the African continent. The wider picture in Scotland at the time is set out in our Historical Timeline.
Mungo Park was born at Foulshiels near Selkirk, where his father was a successful farmer. The seventh of a family of thirteen he was well educated. After leaving school he took up an apprenticeship with a surgeon in Selkirk, then spent the three years from 1789 to 1791 gaining his formal qualification as a surgeon.
Park's first job was as an assistant-surgeon on board the East India ship Worcester. While on board he made a trip to Sumatra and after returning to Scotland produced an academic paper describing eight previously unknown fishes he had found there.
In 1794 Park applied to the Africa Association to mount an expedition to build on the work of Major Daniel Houghton, who had gone to Africa in 1790 to try to trace the route of the River Niger, but had died in the Sahara. The Niger is an odd river. At 2,500 miles long, it is the third longest in Africa. Oddly enough, it rises just 150 miles from the sea before heading north-east into the Sahara desert where it passes Timbuktu before taking a sharp right turn and flowing south-east to the sea.
Timbuktu's existence, and the fact that a great river ran through it from the south-west, had long been known, and it was assumed that this was the Niger River that entered the sea in what is now Nigeria.
Park's strategy was to to approach from The Gambia in west Africa. Starting on 21 June 1795 he travelled 200 miles up the Gambia River before striking out east into the unknown interior. At one point he was imprisoned by a Moorish chief for four months, but he escaped and eventually found the River Niger. After tracing its route for 300 miles he made his way back west to The Gambia. He returned to Scotland on 22 December 1797, long after he had been given up for dead.
Park settled back to a routine life in the Borders. He married in 1799, and in 1801 set up practice as a doctor in Peebles. In September 1804 Mungo Park accepted a government invitation to lead a further expedition to the Niger. He sailed from Portsmouth for The Gambia on 31 January 1805, commissioned as a Captain. Second in command was his brother in law, who had been commissioned as a lieutenant.
The full expedition that set off inland from The Gambia comprised three officers and some 40 other Europeans, mostly British soldiers, plus local guides and a number of slaves. The expedition reached the River Niger in August 1805, by which time only 11 Europeans were still alive, the remainder having died of dysentery or fever. For some time they retraced Park's steps on his earlier expedition with the permission of the local ruler.
On 19 November 1805, Park set sail downstream into the unknown reaches of the river in a large canoe with what remained of his expedition. By now this was just Park himself, one British officer and three soldiers (one by now mad), a guide and three slaves. Park sent another guide back to The Gambia with letters for his wife and the Colonial Office. In these he said that he was very well equipped and supplied, and that he intended to sail without landing and non stop downstream until he reached the sea, which he estimated to do at the end of January 1806.
Park's route along the river would have taken him north-east through western Africa, then into the Sahara and past Timbuktu, then south-east through modern day Niger and Nigeria to the sea. He never made it. The Government employed the guide who had delivered Park's last letters to return to try to discover his fate. The story that emerged was one of heroic failure. Park is believed to have sailed downstream for a further 1,000 miles, past Timbuktu, through Niger and into north-west Nigeria. His policy of avoiding contact with local tribes caused steadily increasing opposition along the route, but attacks were successfully fought off with the available guns. But at the Bussa Rapids near Yauri in Nigeria, the canoe became stranded on a rock, and the party again came under attack from native tribesmen. It is believed that Park and the remaining three other Europeans were drowned trying to escape, and the only survivor of the expedition was a slave who was able to recount the end of the expedition.
Some of Park's belongings were eventually recovered, but Park's final fate remains unclear. In 1827 Mungo Park's second son Thomas set out to discover whether his father might have survived as a prisoner: but died of fever before he had gone very far into the interior.
| 1,069
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ENGLISH
| 1
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The Great Wall is one of the most outstanding and famous features China has to offer. In fact the Great Wall is one of the seven wonders of the world. There were three dynasties who built the wall. The dynasties were the Qin Dynasty, the Han Dynasty and the Ming Dynasty. These three dynasties contributed to the wall in various ways yet some of their reasons and methods were the same. There were various decisions made by the dynasties that were both helpful and others that just bottomed out.
The first dynasty that worked on the wall was the Qin. This group initiated building on the wall in 221 B.C. This took place just following China becoming unified after suffering many battles between various feudal states. The first Chinese emperor was Qin Shi Huang (individual for which China and the dynasty was named).
Huang was an egotistical leader and preached that people were evil. In turn people believed that they needed a strict set of rules. The dynasty burned most of the Confucian literature since they thought it promoted free thinking which would cause the evil people to rebel. This did not to prove true.
Huang began work on some old ruins of the wall which he connected to new parts of the wall. The wall was built with local materials such as dry-laid native stone. This stone was very scarce so engineers would use resources from the earth to build the wall. These parts of the earth would be compacted into 4 inch layers that were packed very tight. These pieces of the earth would be inserted into wooden frames. This process took a long time and the wall would only grow 4 inches at a time. The wall was not very large, which showed that a lot of hard work and time had not been placed into the wall since it could only grow at a slow rate. Thus that showed that harsh rules halted work progression. This could have saved future dynasties some problems and in the long run made China stronger and a more consistent dynasty. The next group that worked on the wall was the Han dynasty. This gave a reincarnation to past literature, especially Confucianism.
Both the Han Dynasty in China and Imperial Rome had extensive communication systems that allowed political control over a large area, and political philosophies were influenced by beliefs in both societies. However, Rome use a vast system of roads known as the Persian Royal Roads for communication regarding politics, while the Silk Road in Han China allowed for political communication between the ...
With Central Asia in the hands of China, this gave them time to work on the wall to prevent future attacks. This stalled trading, but since there were gates to enter China trading could take place. The entrances were very busy since China was a huge export for goods. Among these goods were jade, gold, spices, horses, gems and silk. Silk was probably the most important good being exchanged. Silk roads were built for a path to China to trade.
The rules were not as harsh this time with the Han, but previous problems from the Qin had withheld technology. The Han did succeed in surpassing the Qin in amount of work accomplished on the wall. This set up the Ming dynasty which played a stellar role in building the wall.
Due to being ignored for some time it had become rusty and not as durable, this making work harder. The method that the Chinese had to resort to an old method that was very complex. The first step was that they would lay a bed of red willow reeds along with twigs at the bottom of a wooden frame. Following that, they would fill frames with a mixture of water with some fine gravel. This gravel had been tamped with soil. When the mixture was completely dry, the frame would then be removed. This left a solid piece of tamped earth. The tamped earth was reinforced by the willow reeds which is similar to how concrete is now held up with steel.
The Han dynasty did some solid work on the wall and it was a certain improvement from the work that the Qin started. Yet these two dynasties were key points in building the wall, the Ming did the most significant amount of work on the Great Wall of China. The Ming Dynasty was the third and final dynasty that built the wall. The work that the Ming did crushed the Han and Qin in accomplishments. It was Ming who came to power in 1368. They were farther advanced technologically and beyond master builders when it came to wall structuring. The dynasties were solid architects at a point in which China had become a major power throughout the world. Trade ships from China went to India, Japan, the Persian Gulf and the South Pacific and the main export involved was tea.
As China was humiliated and oppressed by the rule of the Mongols, the Ming Dynasty rose up out of a peasant rebellion led by Zhu Yuanzhang to preside over the greatest economic and social revolution in China before the modern period. Trade was allowed between China and nations in the west, cash crops were more frequently grown, specialised industries were founded, and the economic growth caused by ...
The technique that the Ming used to build the wall was simpler than the Qin or Han had used. The Ming portion of the wall was packed encased in kiln-fired brick. This method pushed wall building technologies to the limit. The wall winds across China s most difficult terrain rising in some places at 70| angles. This dramatic portion of the wall would not have been possible without the Ming s brick making techniques. Europe was still using the awkward method of cut-stone. While the Ming s used their state-of-the-art kilns to mass produce bricks. Their bricks were as strong as today s masonry bricks.
The three dynasties that built the Wall were unique in and of themselves. In the 1st dynasty we see a leader who sought to standardize human thought. His followers believed people were inherently evil and nonconformist thought was a capital punishment. Educated free-thinkers were sentenced to prison and used as labor to build the Wall. The Qin dynasty fell in 209 B.C. lasting only 12 years. In 206 B.C. the Han dynasty came into power and was more humane with literature and the arts being brought back. Although the dynasty lasted 400 years, because of their painstaking way of building the wall it was not built to the magnitude we see in the Ming dynasty. The revolutionary technology of the kiln-fired brick enabled the Ming to excel in building the Wall. Although the Ming culture was very prosperous it was distrusted by foreigners and this is where we see China closing off to the outside world. In conclusion trying to control the thought of the people was unsuccessful and the lack of technology was unsuccessful but the combination of the people s will and technology brought about the supreme success.
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The Great Wall is one of the most outstanding and famous features China has to offer. In fact the Great Wall is one of the seven wonders of the world. There were three dynasties who built the wall. The dynasties were the Qin Dynasty, the Han Dynasty and the Ming Dynasty. These three dynasties contributed to the wall in various ways yet some of their reasons and methods were the same. There were various decisions made by the dynasties that were both helpful and others that just bottomed out.
The first dynasty that worked on the wall was the Qin. This group initiated building on the wall in 221 B.C. This took place just following China becoming unified after suffering many battles between various feudal states. The first Chinese emperor was Qin Shi Huang (individual for which China and the dynasty was named).
Huang was an egotistical leader and preached that people were evil. In turn people believed that they needed a strict set of rules. The dynasty burned most of the Confucian literature since they thought it promoted free thinking which would cause the evil people to rebel. This did not to prove true.
Huang began work on some old ruins of the wall which he connected to new parts of the wall. The wall was built with local materials such as dry-laid native stone. This stone was very scarce so engineers would use resources from the earth to build the wall. These parts of the earth would be compacted into 4 inch layers that were packed very tight. These pieces of the earth would be inserted into wooden frames. This process took a long time and the wall would only grow 4 inches at a time. The wall was not very large, which showed that a lot of hard work and time had not been placed into the wall since it could only grow at a slow rate. Thus that showed that harsh rules halted work progression. This could have saved future dynasties some problems and in the long run made China stronger and a more consistent dynasty. The next group that worked on the wall was the Han dynasty. This gave a reincarnation to past literature, especially Confucianism.
Both the Han Dynasty in China and Imperial Rome had extensive communication systems that allowed political control over a large area, and political philosophies were influenced by beliefs in both societies. However, Rome use a vast system of roads known as the Persian Royal Roads for communication regarding politics, while the Silk Road in Han China allowed for political communication between the ...
With Central Asia in the hands of China, this gave them time to work on the wall to prevent future attacks. This stalled trading, but since there were gates to enter China trading could take place. The entrances were very busy since China was a huge export for goods. Among these goods were jade, gold, spices, horses, gems and silk. Silk was probably the most important good being exchanged. Silk roads were built for a path to China to trade.
The rules were not as harsh this time with the Han, but previous problems from the Qin had withheld technology. The Han did succeed in surpassing the Qin in amount of work accomplished on the wall. This set up the Ming dynasty which played a stellar role in building the wall.
Due to being ignored for some time it had become rusty and not as durable, this making work harder. The method that the Chinese had to resort to an old method that was very complex. The first step was that they would lay a bed of red willow reeds along with twigs at the bottom of a wooden frame. Following that, they would fill frames with a mixture of water with some fine gravel. This gravel had been tamped with soil. When the mixture was completely dry, the frame would then be removed. This left a solid piece of tamped earth. The tamped earth was reinforced by the willow reeds which is similar to how concrete is now held up with steel.
The Han dynasty did some solid work on the wall and it was a certain improvement from the work that the Qin started. Yet these two dynasties were key points in building the wall, the Ming did the most significant amount of work on the Great Wall of China. The Ming Dynasty was the third and final dynasty that built the wall. The work that the Ming did crushed the Han and Qin in accomplishments. It was Ming who came to power in 1368. They were farther advanced technologically and beyond master builders when it came to wall structuring. The dynasties were solid architects at a point in which China had become a major power throughout the world. Trade ships from China went to India, Japan, the Persian Gulf and the South Pacific and the main export involved was tea.
As China was humiliated and oppressed by the rule of the Mongols, the Ming Dynasty rose up out of a peasant rebellion led by Zhu Yuanzhang to preside over the greatest economic and social revolution in China before the modern period. Trade was allowed between China and nations in the west, cash crops were more frequently grown, specialised industries were founded, and the economic growth caused by ...
The technique that the Ming used to build the wall was simpler than the Qin or Han had used. The Ming portion of the wall was packed encased in kiln-fired brick. This method pushed wall building technologies to the limit. The wall winds across China s most difficult terrain rising in some places at 70| angles. This dramatic portion of the wall would not have been possible without the Ming s brick making techniques. Europe was still using the awkward method of cut-stone. While the Ming s used their state-of-the-art kilns to mass produce bricks. Their bricks were as strong as today s masonry bricks.
The three dynasties that built the Wall were unique in and of themselves. In the 1st dynasty we see a leader who sought to standardize human thought. His followers believed people were inherently evil and nonconformist thought was a capital punishment. Educated free-thinkers were sentenced to prison and used as labor to build the Wall. The Qin dynasty fell in 209 B.C. lasting only 12 years. In 206 B.C. the Han dynasty came into power and was more humane with literature and the arts being brought back. Although the dynasty lasted 400 years, because of their painstaking way of building the wall it was not built to the magnitude we see in the Ming dynasty. The revolutionary technology of the kiln-fired brick enabled the Ming to excel in building the Wall. Although the Ming culture was very prosperous it was distrusted by foreigners and this is where we see China closing off to the outside world. In conclusion trying to control the thought of the people was unsuccessful and the lack of technology was unsuccessful but the combination of the people s will and technology brought about the supreme success.
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WHAT IS LENT?
Lent is a time of preparation for Easter.
The word 'Lent' comes from the word for Spring. It is the period of 40 days leading up to Easter, the most important festival in the Christian calendar. During Lent, Christians remember the time when Jesus went into the desert to fast and pray before beginning his ministry.
JESUS IN THE DESERT
Jesus went into the wilderness for forty days to fast and pray, all alone apart from the wild beasts and birds of the desert. At the end of this time, he was exhausted and faint from hunger. Then the Devil came to tempt him. “if you really are the Son of God,” he said, “turn these stones into bread!”
“Man cannot live by bread alone,” Jesus replied, “but must find strength from God’s words.”
Satan made a second attempt. Changing the scene to Jerusalem, he led Jesus up to the highest point of the Temple roof. “Throw yourself down from here,” he said. “We are told that the Son of God is surrounded by angels, and cannot come to any harm.”
“The Scriptures say that you shall not put God to the test.” Jesus replied.
Then the Devil took Jesus to the top of a high mountain, and from there showed him all the kingdoms of the world. “I will make you Lord of all these lands, if you will only kneel down and worship me,” he said.
“Get thee behind me, Satan!” Jesus shouted. “It is God alone you should worship!”
At these words, the Devil disappeared, knowing he was defeated.
WHAT DO PEOPLE DO?
Lent is a time of giving things up. For Christians, it is one way of remembering the time Jesus' fasted in the desert and is a test of self-discipline.
While few people actually fast these days, there are foods that some Christians choose not eat in Lent, such as meat and fish, fats, eggs, and rich foods. Others just give up something they really enjoy, such as cakes or chocolate, as a gesture of self-denial. And it doesn't have to be food related - it could be computer games or television.
Rather than give something up, some people choose to do something extra, like taking on a chore to help at home, collecting money for charity or doing some voluntary work. Here is an example: “One year for Lent I wrote a letter each day. I made a list of 40 people who had touched my life in one way or another. Each day of Lent, I wrote a person on the list a letter of thanks for how they touched my life and I prayed for that person on that day ... it was a wonderful experience!” Patty
Many churches run Lent courses for people to get together and learn more about God (and often about themselves). It is a time for thinking about and saying sorry for the things we have done wrong, and what we can do better. Another Lenten tradition is the Stations of the Cross, a series of painings or sculptures depicting the last few hours of Jesus' life. Typically placed at intervals along the walls of a church, they offer a focus for prayer and reflection during Lent, particularly on Good Friday.
What will you do for Lent this year?
The day before Lent begins is Shrove Tuesday. We also know it as Pancake Day. This day was traditionally the last chance to use up the rich foods Christians would not be eating during Lent and would otherwise spoil. See our Shrove Tuesday page to find out more.
Festivities take place in many cities all over the world, including Mardi Gras ('fat Tuesday') in New Orleans, USA, and Carnaval ('no meat') in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil. People dress up, wear masks, parade and dance in the streets. These events attract millions of visitors each year.
Ash Wednesday marks the beginning of Lent for western Christians. Occurring 46 days before Easter, it finishes on Easter Saturday, although in the Roman Catholic Church, Lent finishes on the evening of Maundy Thursday. Why 46 days? Lent includes six Sundays, which are not counted as part of the 40 day fasting period as all Sundays are feast days in memory of Jesus' resurrection.
On Ash Wednesday many churches hold services, during which Christians are marked on the forehead with a cross of ashes. This is a sign of saying sorry to God for any wrongdoing (penitence) and as a reminder of human mortality. The ashes come from burning the palm crosses from Palm Sunday of the previous year.
THE COLOURS OF LENT
Purple or violet, the colours of penance and humility are the usual colours for Lent. Grey, the colour of ashes, is sometimes used an alternative on Ash Wednesday, and red, symbolising Jesus’ blood might be used on Good Friday. However the colour for Easter Day is white or gold, symbolising joy and triumph.
Some churches use a roughly-hewn wooden cross as a focal point throughout Lent. Many churches do not have flowers during Lent, reintroducing them at Easter (often to great effect) with a flowering cross.
STATIONS OF THE CROSS
Stations are places where people wait while they are going from one place to another, for example train stations or bus stations or airports. Think of some stations where you have been.
Stations of the Cross are places where people take time to think about Jesus in the last few hours of his life as he went to die on the cross. They are normally represented by paintings or other artwork, and are often set up around a church. They are sometimes known as the Via Dolorosa or Way of Sorrows.
Praying the Stations of the Cross, alone or with a group, is a Lenten tradition, particularly associated with Good Friday. Catholics walk to the fourteen stations of the Way of the Cross and stop to pray at each one. But you don't have to visit them all on one day (and you don't have to be a Catholic). You may want to reflect on one Station for a few days before you move to another. Thinking about how Jesus might have felt can help us put our own feelings into perspective.
FIRST STATION: JESUS IS CONDEMNED TO DEATH
Jesus is standing before angry people who are yelling and saying mean, hurtful things to him. They scream at him. Some of them tell lies about him, saying that he did bad things. But Jesus stays quiet, even though he knows that he will be hurt. He knows that God is with him. He even asks God to help him forgive the people who are yelling and telling lies about him.
Has anyone ever said mean or hurtful things about you, or has anyone ever told a lie about you? If someone did that to you, how did you feel? Maybe you were scared, or hurt, or maybe you felt very angry.
SECOND STATION: JESUS TAKES UP HIS CROSS
When the soldiers put a big, heavy cross on Jesus' shoulders, Jesus doesn't fight with them or say angry words to them. He knows that he has to carry this cross a long way, and he knows that the way will be very hard for him at times. But Jesus knows that God is with him, and he asks God to help him to carry this cross, even though it is heavy.
Have you ever had something happen that was very hard for you? Sometimes children are very sick, or someone in their family is very sick. Sometimes adults or older children do not treat younger children nicely. Sometimes we just can't have things the way we want them.
THIRD STATION: JESUS FALLS THE FIRST TIME
Jesus is so tired as he walks along the road with the heavy cross on his shoulders. The cross keeps pushing into his shoulder, and the stones on the road hurt his feet. People yell and push him; the soldiers shout for him to move faster. Then Jesus falls, and the soldiers yell at him more. How tired Jesus is! Jesus prays in his heart, “God, help me remember that you are here.”
Did you ever fall when you were playing, or when you were helping with something? Falling really hurts, doesn't it? When people make mistakes, it is like falling. And when that happens, their heart sometimes feels like it is hurt.
FOURTH STATION: JESUS MEETS HIS MOTHER
As Jesus walks slowly with the cross on his shoulders, a woman comes up to him. It’s Jesus’ mother, Mary. How sad for them to see each other now. Mary feels so sad because she sees how much he is suffering, and Jesus sees the sadness Mary feels. Even though they both know that God is with them, they can’t even say anything to each other, because they are so sad.
Have you ever been very sad, or do you know someone who has been very sad? Being sad can really hurt someone's heart a lot. Sometimes our hearts are sad because we cannot be with someone we love.
FIFTH STATION: SIMON OF CYRENE HELPS JESUS
Jesus is so tired that the soldiers know he cannot carry the heavy cross by himself. So they look around and see someone who looks strong enough to help Jesus carry this cross. This person's name is Simon. Jesus just looks at Simon and quietly whispers, “Thank you” to Simon. Then they continue on the long road, carrying the cross together.
Sometimes helping someone can be difficult, for so many different reasons. Maybe you haven't finished something that you like to do, when someone asks you for help. Or maybe you just don't feel like helping that person.
SIXTH STATION: VERONICA WIPES JESUS' FACE
Jesus is hot, tired, and sweating. His hair is all tangled, and he is covered in dust from the long walk. Suddenly, a woman pushes her way out of the crowd and stands in front of Jesus. She takes a clean cloth and gently wipes Jesus’ face. Jesus is so thankful that he leaves a picture of his face on her cloth.
Have you ever helped someone? Have you ever done something that helped someone feel better? Sometimes you may have done something that you thought was very small or unimportant: bringing a glass of water to someone, or even giving someone a helping hand with a chore. Maybe you just smiled at someone who looked sad!
SEVENTH STATION: JESUS FALLS THE SECOND TIME
How very tired, weak, and sad Jesus is now. Even though he keeps trying to walk with the heavy cross, he just can’t keep going. The noise from the crowd and from the soldiers makes him feel even worse. Then Jesus falls, because he just can’t take another step.
Have you ever had a hard time with something? Maybe you can’t do something the way you want, or you feel as if you keep messing up on something? How does your heart feel when that happens? Maybe your heart feels the way Jesus’ heart felt when he fell this second time.
EIGTH STATION: JESUS MEETS THE WOMEN OF JERUSALEM
After Jesus gets up, he continues on the road carrying his heavy cross. He passes some women who are crying because they are so sad to see Jesus suffer. But instead of thinking only of himself and how bad he feels, Jesus tells the women not to keep crying because of him. He tells them, instead, to take care of others, and especially to take care of their children.
Sometimes it is easy to just think about ourselves -- about what is not going the way we want it, or about problems that we have. It is very hard, then, to think about other people. How does your heart look when you do that, when you think only about yourself?
NINTH STATION: JESUS FALLS THE THIRD TIME
Jesus is so tired now that he can hardly take another step. It is hard for him to breathe. He has been walking a long time along the dusty road, and he has no energy left. He just can’t go on anymore. Then Jesus falls down in the street for the third time. He is so very tired. Jesus asks God to help him. And Jesus gets up again, even though it is hard for him to do.
When we have really tried to do our best, and have not been able to succeed, it is easy to feel like Jesus did. Sometimes other people just keep yelling about something we do, or sometimes other people make fun of the way we do something.
TENTH STATION: JESUS IS STRIPPED OF HIS CLOTHES
Finally Jesus reaches the hill that is the end of the road he has to walk. Jesus knows that he will die here. But before he dies, the soldiers will do more to him. They pull off his long robe, and almost all his clothes are taken from him. Jesus stands in front of the crowd with only a small piece of cloth covering part of his body. Jesus asks God to help him remember that he is not alone, that God is with him through all this.
Is it hard for you to share or to give away something that you like? Do you sometimes like to keep everything for yourself? Do you ever let something of yours be the reason for bad feelings or bad words between you and someone else?
ELEVENTH STATION: JESUS IS NAILED TO THE CROSS
How much Jesus hurts as the soldiers nail him to the cross. He hurts all over; he is tired and thirsty; he knows that he is going to die. But he looks at the people who have hurt him and, instead of saying bad things to those people, Jesus asks God to forgive them. He looks at his mother and tells her to take care of others. Even when he is dying, Jesus is thinking of other people.
Can you think of a time when someone hurt you with unkind words or actions? Was it hard for you to forgive that person?
TWELFTH STATION: JESUS DIES ON THE CROSS
Finally, after the long walk, after falling three times, after having the men beat him, after being nailed to the cross and suffering on the cross, Jesus bows his head and dies. Now this part of his life is over. There is nothing left for Jesus to give or to do. Jesus has given his life for all of us.
Did you ever feel that you wanted to make something better, or that if you only tried harder, something would change that you want to change? Or maybe you felt that you did not try hard enough at something, and something bad happened.
THIRTEENTH STATION: JESUS IS TAKEN DOWN FROM THE CROSS
Now Jesus’ lifeless body is taken down from the cross. No more pain or suffering for Jesus; all the pain is over. Mary, Jesus’ mother, holds him tenderly in her arms. How sad she is. And how sad Jesus’ friends are. They are crying as they hold his body.
Is there someone you love who has died? When you remember that person, how does your heart look?
FOURTEENTH STATION: JESUS IS LAID IN THE TOMB
Jesus' friends wash his body and wrap it in a clean sheet. They touch his body gently, and then they put his body into a tomb. When they are finished, they push a very large stone over the entrance, so that no one can go inside. Now there is darkness in the tomb where Jesus’ body lies, and all of his friends go home because they are very sad and tired.
Can you remember a time when you were very sad to say good-bye to someone? Maybe you were leaving the person for only a short time, or maybe it was for a long time. Maybe you said good-bye to someone you loved when that person died.
FIFTEENTH STATION: LOOK AT JESUS
Although it is not a traditional part of the Stations, the resurrection of Jesus is sometimes included as a fifteenth station.
What a wonderful surprise for his friends when they see that he is alive. His body is like a new kind of body - full of light! And he is no longer tired, sad, or suffering. He has no more pain. Yes, he is alive in a new and special way. Jesus will live forever, now, in this new and special way.
Have you ever taken time to thank God for your life, for some of the good things you have been able to do, for some of the people in your life, or for some of the good things that people have done for you? When you get up in the morning, do you say thanks to God for your life and for the wonderful things you can see, hear, feel, taste, or smell?
WHY IS THE NUMBER 40 SIGNIFICANT?
We know that Jesus spent 40 days in the wilderness before he began his ministry, and this is the number associated with Lent. But the number 40 crops up time and time again in the Bible. Here are a few more examples:
In the book of Genesis, we are told that after Noah had built the ark it rained for 40 days and 40 nights.
In Exodus, we hear about Moses spending 40 days on the mountain, when he received the Ten Commandments. We also read that the Israelites spent 40 years wandering the wilderness before they finally reached the Promised Land.
In the first book of Kings, we find that Elijah spent 40 days travelling to Mount Horeb, going back to where Moses had been several hundred years before.
Jonah warns the people of Nineveh that the city will be destroyed in 40 days unless they mend their ways.
In the New Testament, we also learn that Jesus was seen for 40 days on Earth after his resurrection before he is taken up to heaven. One theory is that Jesus also spent 40 hours in the tomb before his resurrection
In fact, the number 40 is mentioned 146 times in the Bible. The number symbolises trial and testing, so it is little wonder that it is the number associated with Lent.
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WHAT IS LENT?
Lent is a time of preparation for Easter.
The word 'Lent' comes from the word for Spring. It is the period of 40 days leading up to Easter, the most important festival in the Christian calendar. During Lent, Christians remember the time when Jesus went into the desert to fast and pray before beginning his ministry.
JESUS IN THE DESERT
Jesus went into the wilderness for forty days to fast and pray, all alone apart from the wild beasts and birds of the desert. At the end of this time, he was exhausted and faint from hunger. Then the Devil came to tempt him. “if you really are the Son of God,” he said, “turn these stones into bread!”
“Man cannot live by bread alone,” Jesus replied, “but must find strength from God’s words.”
Satan made a second attempt. Changing the scene to Jerusalem, he led Jesus up to the highest point of the Temple roof. “Throw yourself down from here,” he said. “We are told that the Son of God is surrounded by angels, and cannot come to any harm.”
“The Scriptures say that you shall not put God to the test.” Jesus replied.
Then the Devil took Jesus to the top of a high mountain, and from there showed him all the kingdoms of the world. “I will make you Lord of all these lands, if you will only kneel down and worship me,” he said.
“Get thee behind me, Satan!” Jesus shouted. “It is God alone you should worship!”
At these words, the Devil disappeared, knowing he was defeated.
WHAT DO PEOPLE DO?
Lent is a time of giving things up. For Christians, it is one way of remembering the time Jesus' fasted in the desert and is a test of self-discipline.
While few people actually fast these days, there are foods that some Christians choose not eat in Lent, such as meat and fish, fats, eggs, and rich foods. Others just give up something they really enjoy, such as cakes or chocolate, as a gesture of self-denial. And it doesn't have to be food related - it could be computer games or television.
Rather than give something up, some people choose to do something extra, like taking on a chore to help at home, collecting money for charity or doing some voluntary work. Here is an example: “One year for Lent I wrote a letter each day. I made a list of 40 people who had touched my life in one way or another. Each day of Lent, I wrote a person on the list a letter of thanks for how they touched my life and I prayed for that person on that day ... it was a wonderful experience!” Patty
Many churches run Lent courses for people to get together and learn more about God (and often about themselves). It is a time for thinking about and saying sorry for the things we have done wrong, and what we can do better. Another Lenten tradition is the Stations of the Cross, a series of painings or sculptures depicting the last few hours of Jesus' life. Typically placed at intervals along the walls of a church, they offer a focus for prayer and reflection during Lent, particularly on Good Friday.
What will you do for Lent this year?
The day before Lent begins is Shrove Tuesday. We also know it as Pancake Day. This day was traditionally the last chance to use up the rich foods Christians would not be eating during Lent and would otherwise spoil. See our Shrove Tuesday page to find out more.
Festivities take place in many cities all over the world, including Mardi Gras ('fat Tuesday') in New Orleans, USA, and Carnaval ('no meat') in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil. People dress up, wear masks, parade and dance in the streets. These events attract millions of visitors each year.
Ash Wednesday marks the beginning of Lent for western Christians. Occurring 46 days before Easter, it finishes on Easter Saturday, although in the Roman Catholic Church, Lent finishes on the evening of Maundy Thursday. Why 46 days? Lent includes six Sundays, which are not counted as part of the 40 day fasting period as all Sundays are feast days in memory of Jesus' resurrection.
On Ash Wednesday many churches hold services, during which Christians are marked on the forehead with a cross of ashes. This is a sign of saying sorry to God for any wrongdoing (penitence) and as a reminder of human mortality. The ashes come from burning the palm crosses from Palm Sunday of the previous year.
THE COLOURS OF LENT
Purple or violet, the colours of penance and humility are the usual colours for Lent. Grey, the colour of ashes, is sometimes used an alternative on Ash Wednesday, and red, symbolising Jesus’ blood might be used on Good Friday. However the colour for Easter Day is white or gold, symbolising joy and triumph.
Some churches use a roughly-hewn wooden cross as a focal point throughout Lent. Many churches do not have flowers during Lent, reintroducing them at Easter (often to great effect) with a flowering cross.
STATIONS OF THE CROSS
Stations are places where people wait while they are going from one place to another, for example train stations or bus stations or airports. Think of some stations where you have been.
Stations of the Cross are places where people take time to think about Jesus in the last few hours of his life as he went to die on the cross. They are normally represented by paintings or other artwork, and are often set up around a church. They are sometimes known as the Via Dolorosa or Way of Sorrows.
Praying the Stations of the Cross, alone or with a group, is a Lenten tradition, particularly associated with Good Friday. Catholics walk to the fourteen stations of the Way of the Cross and stop to pray at each one. But you don't have to visit them all on one day (and you don't have to be a Catholic). You may want to reflect on one Station for a few days before you move to another. Thinking about how Jesus might have felt can help us put our own feelings into perspective.
FIRST STATION: JESUS IS CONDEMNED TO DEATH
Jesus is standing before angry people who are yelling and saying mean, hurtful things to him. They scream at him. Some of them tell lies about him, saying that he did bad things. But Jesus stays quiet, even though he knows that he will be hurt. He knows that God is with him. He even asks God to help him forgive the people who are yelling and telling lies about him.
Has anyone ever said mean or hurtful things about you, or has anyone ever told a lie about you? If someone did that to you, how did you feel? Maybe you were scared, or hurt, or maybe you felt very angry.
SECOND STATION: JESUS TAKES UP HIS CROSS
When the soldiers put a big, heavy cross on Jesus' shoulders, Jesus doesn't fight with them or say angry words to them. He knows that he has to carry this cross a long way, and he knows that the way will be very hard for him at times. But Jesus knows that God is with him, and he asks God to help him to carry this cross, even though it is heavy.
Have you ever had something happen that was very hard for you? Sometimes children are very sick, or someone in their family is very sick. Sometimes adults or older children do not treat younger children nicely. Sometimes we just can't have things the way we want them.
THIRD STATION: JESUS FALLS THE FIRST TIME
Jesus is so tired as he walks along the road with the heavy cross on his shoulders. The cross keeps pushing into his shoulder, and the stones on the road hurt his feet. People yell and push him; the soldiers shout for him to move faster. Then Jesus falls, and the soldiers yell at him more. How tired Jesus is! Jesus prays in his heart, “God, help me remember that you are here.”
Did you ever fall when you were playing, or when you were helping with something? Falling really hurts, doesn't it? When people make mistakes, it is like falling. And when that happens, their heart sometimes feels like it is hurt.
FOURTH STATION: JESUS MEETS HIS MOTHER
As Jesus walks slowly with the cross on his shoulders, a woman comes up to him. It’s Jesus’ mother, Mary. How sad for them to see each other now. Mary feels so sad because she sees how much he is suffering, and Jesus sees the sadness Mary feels. Even though they both know that God is with them, they can’t even say anything to each other, because they are so sad.
Have you ever been very sad, or do you know someone who has been very sad? Being sad can really hurt someone's heart a lot. Sometimes our hearts are sad because we cannot be with someone we love.
FIFTH STATION: SIMON OF CYRENE HELPS JESUS
Jesus is so tired that the soldiers know he cannot carry the heavy cross by himself. So they look around and see someone who looks strong enough to help Jesus carry this cross. This person's name is Simon. Jesus just looks at Simon and quietly whispers, “Thank you” to Simon. Then they continue on the long road, carrying the cross together.
Sometimes helping someone can be difficult, for so many different reasons. Maybe you haven't finished something that you like to do, when someone asks you for help. Or maybe you just don't feel like helping that person.
SIXTH STATION: VERONICA WIPES JESUS' FACE
Jesus is hot, tired, and sweating. His hair is all tangled, and he is covered in dust from the long walk. Suddenly, a woman pushes her way out of the crowd and stands in front of Jesus. She takes a clean cloth and gently wipes Jesus’ face. Jesus is so thankful that he leaves a picture of his face on her cloth.
Have you ever helped someone? Have you ever done something that helped someone feel better? Sometimes you may have done something that you thought was very small or unimportant: bringing a glass of water to someone, or even giving someone a helping hand with a chore. Maybe you just smiled at someone who looked sad!
SEVENTH STATION: JESUS FALLS THE SECOND TIME
How very tired, weak, and sad Jesus is now. Even though he keeps trying to walk with the heavy cross, he just can’t keep going. The noise from the crowd and from the soldiers makes him feel even worse. Then Jesus falls, because he just can’t take another step.
Have you ever had a hard time with something? Maybe you can’t do something the way you want, or you feel as if you keep messing up on something? How does your heart feel when that happens? Maybe your heart feels the way Jesus’ heart felt when he fell this second time.
EIGTH STATION: JESUS MEETS THE WOMEN OF JERUSALEM
After Jesus gets up, he continues on the road carrying his heavy cross. He passes some women who are crying because they are so sad to see Jesus suffer. But instead of thinking only of himself and how bad he feels, Jesus tells the women not to keep crying because of him. He tells them, instead, to take care of others, and especially to take care of their children.
Sometimes it is easy to just think about ourselves -- about what is not going the way we want it, or about problems that we have. It is very hard, then, to think about other people. How does your heart look when you do that, when you think only about yourself?
NINTH STATION: JESUS FALLS THE THIRD TIME
Jesus is so tired now that he can hardly take another step. It is hard for him to breathe. He has been walking a long time along the dusty road, and he has no energy left. He just can’t go on anymore. Then Jesus falls down in the street for the third time. He is so very tired. Jesus asks God to help him. And Jesus gets up again, even though it is hard for him to do.
When we have really tried to do our best, and have not been able to succeed, it is easy to feel like Jesus did. Sometimes other people just keep yelling about something we do, or sometimes other people make fun of the way we do something.
TENTH STATION: JESUS IS STRIPPED OF HIS CLOTHES
Finally Jesus reaches the hill that is the end of the road he has to walk. Jesus knows that he will die here. But before he dies, the soldiers will do more to him. They pull off his long robe, and almost all his clothes are taken from him. Jesus stands in front of the crowd with only a small piece of cloth covering part of his body. Jesus asks God to help him remember that he is not alone, that God is with him through all this.
Is it hard for you to share or to give away something that you like? Do you sometimes like to keep everything for yourself? Do you ever let something of yours be the reason for bad feelings or bad words between you and someone else?
ELEVENTH STATION: JESUS IS NAILED TO THE CROSS
How much Jesus hurts as the soldiers nail him to the cross. He hurts all over; he is tired and thirsty; he knows that he is going to die. But he looks at the people who have hurt him and, instead of saying bad things to those people, Jesus asks God to forgive them. He looks at his mother and tells her to take care of others. Even when he is dying, Jesus is thinking of other people.
Can you think of a time when someone hurt you with unkind words or actions? Was it hard for you to forgive that person?
TWELFTH STATION: JESUS DIES ON THE CROSS
Finally, after the long walk, after falling three times, after having the men beat him, after being nailed to the cross and suffering on the cross, Jesus bows his head and dies. Now this part of his life is over. There is nothing left for Jesus to give or to do. Jesus has given his life for all of us.
Did you ever feel that you wanted to make something better, or that if you only tried harder, something would change that you want to change? Or maybe you felt that you did not try hard enough at something, and something bad happened.
THIRTEENTH STATION: JESUS IS TAKEN DOWN FROM THE CROSS
Now Jesus’ lifeless body is taken down from the cross. No more pain or suffering for Jesus; all the pain is over. Mary, Jesus’ mother, holds him tenderly in her arms. How sad she is. And how sad Jesus’ friends are. They are crying as they hold his body.
Is there someone you love who has died? When you remember that person, how does your heart look?
FOURTEENTH STATION: JESUS IS LAID IN THE TOMB
Jesus' friends wash his body and wrap it in a clean sheet. They touch his body gently, and then they put his body into a tomb. When they are finished, they push a very large stone over the entrance, so that no one can go inside. Now there is darkness in the tomb where Jesus’ body lies, and all of his friends go home because they are very sad and tired.
Can you remember a time when you were very sad to say good-bye to someone? Maybe you were leaving the person for only a short time, or maybe it was for a long time. Maybe you said good-bye to someone you loved when that person died.
FIFTEENTH STATION: LOOK AT JESUS
Although it is not a traditional part of the Stations, the resurrection of Jesus is sometimes included as a fifteenth station.
What a wonderful surprise for his friends when they see that he is alive. His body is like a new kind of body - full of light! And he is no longer tired, sad, or suffering. He has no more pain. Yes, he is alive in a new and special way. Jesus will live forever, now, in this new and special way.
Have you ever taken time to thank God for your life, for some of the good things you have been able to do, for some of the people in your life, or for some of the good things that people have done for you? When you get up in the morning, do you say thanks to God for your life and for the wonderful things you can see, hear, feel, taste, or smell?
WHY IS THE NUMBER 40 SIGNIFICANT?
We know that Jesus spent 40 days in the wilderness before he began his ministry, and this is the number associated with Lent. But the number 40 crops up time and time again in the Bible. Here are a few more examples:
In the book of Genesis, we are told that after Noah had built the ark it rained for 40 days and 40 nights.
In Exodus, we hear about Moses spending 40 days on the mountain, when he received the Ten Commandments. We also read that the Israelites spent 40 years wandering the wilderness before they finally reached the Promised Land.
In the first book of Kings, we find that Elijah spent 40 days travelling to Mount Horeb, going back to where Moses had been several hundred years before.
Jonah warns the people of Nineveh that the city will be destroyed in 40 days unless they mend their ways.
In the New Testament, we also learn that Jesus was seen for 40 days on Earth after his resurrection before he is taken up to heaven. One theory is that Jesus also spent 40 hours in the tomb before his resurrection
In fact, the number 40 is mentioned 146 times in the Bible. The number symbolises trial and testing, so it is little wonder that it is the number associated with Lent.
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What Government Was Ancient Greece?
Ancient Greece, known for its rich history and contributions to the world, was also the birthplace of democracy. However, it is important to understand that democracy in ancient Greece was quite different from what we know today.
Let’s delve into the various forms of government that existed in ancient Greece and explore their characteristics.
Ancient Greece comprised several city-states, each with its own government system. The two most prominent city-states were Athens and Sparta, which had contrasting forms of governance.
Athens is often hailed as the cradle of democracy. In Athens, all eligible citizens had the right to participate directly in decision-making processes.
This form of government is known as direct democracy.
Eligible citizens were adult males who were born in Athens and had completed their military training. These citizens would gather in an assembly called the Ecclesia, where they would debate and vote on various issues such as laws, policies, and even war.
Another important aspect of Athenian democracy was the concept of ostracism. If a citizen was deemed a threat to the state or too powerful, they could be banished from Athens for ten years through a popular vote.
Sparta, on the other hand, had an oligarchic form of government. The power in Sparta was concentrated among a few privileged individuals who belonged to noble families.
These individuals formed a council called the Gerousia, where they made decisions on behalf of the state.
The Gerousia consisted of 28 elders, who were elected for life. This council also included two kings who served as the religious and military leaders of Sparta.
However, the kings had limited political power and were subject to the decisions made by the Gerousia.
Other Forms of Government in Ancient Greece
Apart from Athens and Sparta, there were other forms of government that existed in ancient Greece:
- Monarchy: In this form of government, a king ruled over the city-state. The king had absolute power and was often considered divine.
- Tyranny: A tyranny emerged when a ruler seized power by force rather than through inheritance. Tyrants often gained support from the common people.
- Oligarchy: Similar to Sparta, an oligarchy was a system where power was concentrated among a few privileged individuals or families.
The Legacy of Ancient Greek Government
The government systems of ancient Greece have left a lasting impact on modern societies. The concept of democracy, developed in Athens, continues to be one of the most valued forms of government worldwide.
Ancient Greek governments also influenced the formation of republics and representative democracies seen in many countries today. The principles of citizen participation and political decision-making continue to shape our understanding of government.
In conclusion, ancient Greece witnessed various forms of government depending on the city-state. Athenian democracy and Spartan oligarchy are two prime examples that showcase different approaches to governance.
Understanding these systems helps us appreciate how ancient Greek society laid the foundation for modern political structures.
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What Government Was Ancient Greece?
Ancient Greece, known for its rich history and contributions to the world, was also the birthplace of democracy. However, it is important to understand that democracy in ancient Greece was quite different from what we know today.
Let’s delve into the various forms of government that existed in ancient Greece and explore their characteristics.
Ancient Greece comprised several city-states, each with its own government system. The two most prominent city-states were Athens and Sparta, which had contrasting forms of governance.
Athens is often hailed as the cradle of democracy. In Athens, all eligible citizens had the right to participate directly in decision-making processes.
This form of government is known as direct democracy.
Eligible citizens were adult males who were born in Athens and had completed their military training. These citizens would gather in an assembly called the Ecclesia, where they would debate and vote on various issues such as laws, policies, and even war.
Another important aspect of Athenian democracy was the concept of ostracism. If a citizen was deemed a threat to the state or too powerful, they could be banished from Athens for ten years through a popular vote.
Sparta, on the other hand, had an oligarchic form of government. The power in Sparta was concentrated among a few privileged individuals who belonged to noble families.
These individuals formed a council called the Gerousia, where they made decisions on behalf of the state.
The Gerousia consisted of 28 elders, who were elected for life. This council also included two kings who served as the religious and military leaders of Sparta.
However, the kings had limited political power and were subject to the decisions made by the Gerousia.
Other Forms of Government in Ancient Greece
Apart from Athens and Sparta, there were other forms of government that existed in ancient Greece:
- Monarchy: In this form of government, a king ruled over the city-state. The king had absolute power and was often considered divine.
- Tyranny: A tyranny emerged when a ruler seized power by force rather than through inheritance. Tyrants often gained support from the common people.
- Oligarchy: Similar to Sparta, an oligarchy was a system where power was concentrated among a few privileged individuals or families.
The Legacy of Ancient Greek Government
The government systems of ancient Greece have left a lasting impact on modern societies. The concept of democracy, developed in Athens, continues to be one of the most valued forms of government worldwide.
Ancient Greek governments also influenced the formation of republics and representative democracies seen in many countries today. The principles of citizen participation and political decision-making continue to shape our understanding of government.
In conclusion, ancient Greece witnessed various forms of government depending on the city-state. Athenian democracy and Spartan oligarchy are two prime examples that showcase different approaches to governance.
Understanding these systems helps us appreciate how ancient Greek society laid the foundation for modern political structures.
| 596
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ENGLISH
| 1
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Lala Pasha Mosque Lala Pasha Mosque, the first mosque constructed in Erzurum under the Ottoman Empire, served as a blueprint for other Ottoman mosques. Built by the Governor of Erzurum, Lala Mustafa Pasha, in 1562, who was also the commander of Suleiman the Magnificent during the conquest of Cyprus. Located near the palace mosque and a primary school, the Lala Pasha Mosque was designed in Istanbul's "plan type" style, which was later used for other notable mosques like Şehzadebaşı, Sultan Ahmet, Eminönü Yeni Mosque, and Yeni Fatih, albeit on a smaller scale. The mosque boasts four domes on each corner and 28 windows arranged in two rows. The interior is illuminated by half cross vaults that are supported by pointed arches on all four sides. During the city's occupation by the Russians, the tiles on the window pediments in the lower row were damaged due to bullets fired through them. The courtyard of the mosque includes an octagonal fountain with a conical roof, with columns that feature beautiful stone carvings. The narthex, which has an architectural style typical of Ottoman design, is open on all sides and is fronted by pointed arches. An edict is located on shaped marble slabs on the west altar of the narthex, which dates back to the reign of Mehmed IV. The edict declares that the residents of the area were granted tax exemption when peace was restored to Istanbul after he overthrew his brother Ibrahim.
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Lala Pasha Mosque Lala Pasha Mosque, the first mosque constructed in Erzurum under the Ottoman Empire, served as a blueprint for other Ottoman mosques. Built by the Governor of Erzurum, Lala Mustafa Pasha, in 1562, who was also the commander of Suleiman the Magnificent during the conquest of Cyprus. Located near the palace mosque and a primary school, the Lala Pasha Mosque was designed in Istanbul's "plan type" style, which was later used for other notable mosques like Şehzadebaşı, Sultan Ahmet, Eminönü Yeni Mosque, and Yeni Fatih, albeit on a smaller scale. The mosque boasts four domes on each corner and 28 windows arranged in two rows. The interior is illuminated by half cross vaults that are supported by pointed arches on all four sides. During the city's occupation by the Russians, the tiles on the window pediments in the lower row were damaged due to bullets fired through them. The courtyard of the mosque includes an octagonal fountain with a conical roof, with columns that feature beautiful stone carvings. The narthex, which has an architectural style typical of Ottoman design, is open on all sides and is fronted by pointed arches. An edict is located on shaped marble slabs on the west altar of the narthex, which dates back to the reign of Mehmed IV. The edict declares that the residents of the area were granted tax exemption when peace was restored to Istanbul after he overthrew his brother Ibrahim.
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Eleanor Roosevelt was a First Lady during the time of the Great Depression. She made huge differences in the lives of women, youth, and minorities. Eleanor Roosevelt was born on October 11, 1884, in New York, New York. While her parent was alive she lived in Italy with them. He father was Elliot Roosevelt, he was a junior partner at a real estate firm. He had alcohol and narcotic issues. Her mother was Anna Rebecca Hall, she was a popular debate and elite figure. She died when Eleanor was almost 10 and Eleanor was an orphan until she was given to her maternal grandmother. Eleanor Roosevelt was the oldest of her siblings, Elliot and Gracie Hall Roosevelt. Growing up she received private tutoring since she was wealthy. She was taught grammar, arithmetic, literature and poetry. Later, she was also taught German, French, Italian, composition, music, drawing, painting and dance. Although she was not taught on subjects like politics and history, geography and philosophy, her instructor informed her a limitedly exposed her to it. She was raised as
For her achievements, her struggle and her vision of a United world. For somebody who never held elective office, Eleanor Roosevelt wielded a lot of political force. She composed now laws and delegated no high authorities, yet the self-learning and significant quietude that contributed her respect for each individual has made the account of her life a profound quality play that lights up the American memory. "There is no individual,"
Color race can never be a barrier between having talent. In the historic article “Eleanor Roosevelt and Marian Anderson”, originally from Franklin D. Roosevelt, Eleanor Roosevelt tried to help out Marian Anderson's career as a great contralto opera singer. Since Marian Anderson's concerts grew larger and larger every year she need a new place to perform at, they requested Daughters of American Revolution to use the Constitution Hall. Segregation to blacks did not allow her perform. Generous and brave are two characteristics that describe Eleanor Roosevelt.
She was involved in Democratic party politics. If you read this you can find out how all of that happened with Eleanor Roosevelt with where and when it happened. She had helped the poor and refugees during World War 2 and had changed the role of First lady and made it into something much more important. Eleanor Roosevelt was born on October 11, 1884, in New York City. Her father was Elliot Roosevelt and His older brother was Theodore Roosevelt.
Burke does this by telling the story of Roosevelt’s life, and how key occurrences in her life made her the woman that we know today. Burke recounts Roosevelt’s story all the way to before Roosevelt was married to her cousin, Theodore Roosevelt. Burke notes that many esteemed colleagues of her husband would go on to pay her high praise. One such compliment was paid by France Perkins, who Burk quotes as saying “…impressed by Eleanor’s
In today’s society, it is hard to comprehend the struggles and hardship Americans suffered during the Great Depression and the unexpected disaster of the Dust Bowl in the 1930’s. The Great Depression paralyzed the hard-working Americans leaving one-third of the population living in low poverty. They had minimum sources of food, clothes and health care and the majority lost their jobs, homes, farms, crops, and businesses. During this time, President Roosevelt made a statement during his second inaugural that, “The test of our progress is not whether we add more to the abundance of those who have much; it is whether we provide enough for those who have little” (163). In a state of despair thousands of Americans (adults and teenagers) from all
Still, Eleanor Roosevelt would go down in history as first lady that influenced the passage of the Civil Rights legislation years later (Freedman 115-116). Although many times this powerful political couple would disagree, Eleanor’s views were respected by her husband and a large majority of the country. Franklin Delano Roosevelt
She wrote many books, newspapers, and magazine articles. Without her help, the United States wouldn’t have gotten out of the great depression. She heavily supported the Fair Labor Standards Act of 1938 which ended child labor. Her organizations helped many people, and her volunteer efforts in both wars helped many people and saved many lives. Without Eleanor Roosevelt, FDR would not have been able to run such a successful presidency.
Lastly, she helped the president’s administration. She would give advice to President FDR and went to many places to see what needed to be improved. An example, is that she improved the working environment in factories for women and children, who work tirelessly there. Eleanor Roosevelt upgraded the job of first lady into one that was meaningful and active in the presidential duty in this important political position. Other first ladies would observe Eleanor Roosevelt as an important role
Eleanor Roosevelt once said, "The future belongs to those who believe in the beauty of their dreams" ("Eleanor Roosevelt"). Eleanor Roosevelt believed the beauty of her dreams, followed through with them and became an outstanding First Lady who fought to change women's and civil rights. Eleanor Roosevelt has positively changed modern society by changing the role of the First Lady and by fighting for political and social change for women's and civil right. Eleanor Roosevelt has significantly benefited modern society by changing the role of being a first lady. As first lady, Eleanor used her job as tool a for change (Marsico 64).
Eleanor Roosevelt Eleanor Roosevelt had many wonderful personality traits that I admired. She was a caring lady. Eleanor worked in the charity kitchens, ladling out soup. She also helped in the work of the League of Women Voters, the Consumer’s League, and the Foreign Policy Association. After, she became interested in the problems of working women.
Eleanor Roosevelt, with her informal speech, the Adoption of the Declaration of Human Rights (1948), explains her opinion on the importance of the declaration and how we need to treat freedom has a right not a privilege. Eleanor supports her speech by using euphemism, apostrophe, and anadiplosis. Eleanor's purpose for the speech is to address the United Nations about human rights and its importance in the world. She formally addresses this speech to the United Nations, World War II victims, and all victims in the world. Eleanor was born October 11, 1884 has Anna Eleanor Roosevelt in New York, New York.
Eleanor Roosevelt was noted to have changed government policy by saying, "Franklin, surely you will not." President Roosevelt focused on what could be done; Eleanor Roosevelt focused on what should be done. People thought of Eleanor Roosevelt as a well-intentioned society idealist doomed to frustration by reality. She was a pragmatist, who understood and refused to shy from stark truths. The most important realization was blacks had been affected the greatest by the Great Depression.
Theodore Roosevelt started his life with illness, but worked to what he became. He had a strong family and a healthy community behind him pushing him through his life. Teddy’s life was filled with struggle and hardship, but nobody can stop a man on a mission. The path he ultimately took may have not been what he imagined, but sure ended up being very successful. Although Theodore Roosevelt began life as a weak young man, he work through those weaknesses to become a strong man, and a strong humanitarian president.
The life of Franklin D. Roosevelt and how he became to be a successful president that the United States will never forget. Franklin D. Roosevelt was the only child and grew up to be the best president that this United States had. President Franklin D. Roosevelt was born to James Roosevelt and Sara Ann Delano. Franklin was the only child, coming from a wealthy family of English descent, but Franklin was raised in an atmosphere of privilege. His parents and private tutors provided him with almost all his formative education.
Also, Eleanor had a unique perspective when it came to every idea, and she used her resources to make these ideas come to life. This created psychological changes in many who believed that Eleanor could not so what she wanted to, as she proved them wrong.
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Eleanor Roosevelt was a First Lady during the time of the Great Depression. She made huge differences in the lives of women, youth, and minorities. Eleanor Roosevelt was born on October 11, 1884, in New York, New York. While her parent was alive she lived in Italy with them. He father was Elliot Roosevelt, he was a junior partner at a real estate firm. He had alcohol and narcotic issues. Her mother was Anna Rebecca Hall, she was a popular debate and elite figure. She died when Eleanor was almost 10 and Eleanor was an orphan until she was given to her maternal grandmother. Eleanor Roosevelt was the oldest of her siblings, Elliot and Gracie Hall Roosevelt. Growing up she received private tutoring since she was wealthy. She was taught grammar, arithmetic, literature and poetry. Later, she was also taught German, French, Italian, composition, music, drawing, painting and dance. Although she was not taught on subjects like politics and history, geography and philosophy, her instructor informed her a limitedly exposed her to it. She was raised as
For her achievements, her struggle and her vision of a United world. For somebody who never held elective office, Eleanor Roosevelt wielded a lot of political force. She composed now laws and delegated no high authorities, yet the self-learning and significant quietude that contributed her respect for each individual has made the account of her life a profound quality play that lights up the American memory. "There is no individual,"
Color race can never be a barrier between having talent. In the historic article “Eleanor Roosevelt and Marian Anderson”, originally from Franklin D. Roosevelt, Eleanor Roosevelt tried to help out Marian Anderson's career as a great contralto opera singer. Since Marian Anderson's concerts grew larger and larger every year she need a new place to perform at, they requested Daughters of American Revolution to use the Constitution Hall. Segregation to blacks did not allow her perform. Generous and brave are two characteristics that describe Eleanor Roosevelt.
She was involved in Democratic party politics. If you read this you can find out how all of that happened with Eleanor Roosevelt with where and when it happened. She had helped the poor and refugees during World War 2 and had changed the role of First lady and made it into something much more important. Eleanor Roosevelt was born on October 11, 1884, in New York City. Her father was Elliot Roosevelt and His older brother was Theodore Roosevelt.
Burke does this by telling the story of Roosevelt’s life, and how key occurrences in her life made her the woman that we know today. Burke recounts Roosevelt’s story all the way to before Roosevelt was married to her cousin, Theodore Roosevelt. Burke notes that many esteemed colleagues of her husband would go on to pay her high praise. One such compliment was paid by France Perkins, who Burk quotes as saying “…impressed by Eleanor’s
In today’s society, it is hard to comprehend the struggles and hardship Americans suffered during the Great Depression and the unexpected disaster of the Dust Bowl in the 1930’s. The Great Depression paralyzed the hard-working Americans leaving one-third of the population living in low poverty. They had minimum sources of food, clothes and health care and the majority lost their jobs, homes, farms, crops, and businesses. During this time, President Roosevelt made a statement during his second inaugural that, “The test of our progress is not whether we add more to the abundance of those who have much; it is whether we provide enough for those who have little” (163). In a state of despair thousands of Americans (adults and teenagers) from all
Still, Eleanor Roosevelt would go down in history as first lady that influenced the passage of the Civil Rights legislation years later (Freedman 115-116). Although many times this powerful political couple would disagree, Eleanor’s views were respected by her husband and a large majority of the country. Franklin Delano Roosevelt
She wrote many books, newspapers, and magazine articles. Without her help, the United States wouldn’t have gotten out of the great depression. She heavily supported the Fair Labor Standards Act of 1938 which ended child labor. Her organizations helped many people, and her volunteer efforts in both wars helped many people and saved many lives. Without Eleanor Roosevelt, FDR would not have been able to run such a successful presidency.
Lastly, she helped the president’s administration. She would give advice to President FDR and went to many places to see what needed to be improved. An example, is that she improved the working environment in factories for women and children, who work tirelessly there. Eleanor Roosevelt upgraded the job of first lady into one that was meaningful and active in the presidential duty in this important political position. Other first ladies would observe Eleanor Roosevelt as an important role
Eleanor Roosevelt once said, "The future belongs to those who believe in the beauty of their dreams" ("Eleanor Roosevelt"). Eleanor Roosevelt believed the beauty of her dreams, followed through with them and became an outstanding First Lady who fought to change women's and civil rights. Eleanor Roosevelt has positively changed modern society by changing the role of the First Lady and by fighting for political and social change for women's and civil right. Eleanor Roosevelt has significantly benefited modern society by changing the role of being a first lady. As first lady, Eleanor used her job as tool a for change (Marsico 64).
Eleanor Roosevelt Eleanor Roosevelt had many wonderful personality traits that I admired. She was a caring lady. Eleanor worked in the charity kitchens, ladling out soup. She also helped in the work of the League of Women Voters, the Consumer’s League, and the Foreign Policy Association. After, she became interested in the problems of working women.
Eleanor Roosevelt, with her informal speech, the Adoption of the Declaration of Human Rights (1948), explains her opinion on the importance of the declaration and how we need to treat freedom has a right not a privilege. Eleanor supports her speech by using euphemism, apostrophe, and anadiplosis. Eleanor's purpose for the speech is to address the United Nations about human rights and its importance in the world. She formally addresses this speech to the United Nations, World War II victims, and all victims in the world. Eleanor was born October 11, 1884 has Anna Eleanor Roosevelt in New York, New York.
Eleanor Roosevelt was noted to have changed government policy by saying, "Franklin, surely you will not." President Roosevelt focused on what could be done; Eleanor Roosevelt focused on what should be done. People thought of Eleanor Roosevelt as a well-intentioned society idealist doomed to frustration by reality. She was a pragmatist, who understood and refused to shy from stark truths. The most important realization was blacks had been affected the greatest by the Great Depression.
Theodore Roosevelt started his life with illness, but worked to what he became. He had a strong family and a healthy community behind him pushing him through his life. Teddy’s life was filled with struggle and hardship, but nobody can stop a man on a mission. The path he ultimately took may have not been what he imagined, but sure ended up being very successful. Although Theodore Roosevelt began life as a weak young man, he work through those weaknesses to become a strong man, and a strong humanitarian president.
The life of Franklin D. Roosevelt and how he became to be a successful president that the United States will never forget. Franklin D. Roosevelt was the only child and grew up to be the best president that this United States had. President Franklin D. Roosevelt was born to James Roosevelt and Sara Ann Delano. Franklin was the only child, coming from a wealthy family of English descent, but Franklin was raised in an atmosphere of privilege. His parents and private tutors provided him with almost all his formative education.
Also, Eleanor had a unique perspective when it came to every idea, and she used her resources to make these ideas come to life. This created psychological changes in many who believed that Eleanor could not so what she wanted to, as she proved them wrong.
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Zephyrinus was born a Roman in the middle of the second century. He reigned as Roman bishop from 198-199 to 217.
Hippolytus, a rival, is our only extant source of biographical information on this pope. And much of it is probably exaggerated lies. Thus, he is described as a simple man without education who depended too much on his archdeacon. To be more accurate, we can look at the actions he took.
In the first three years of his bishopric, Zephyrinus had to put up with an increasingly negative view of Christians by the Emperor Septimus Severus. In 202 or 203, the emperor proclaimed an edict of persecution against Christians. Converting to this religion had terrible consequences. This edict remained in effect until Severus' death in 211. It is considered one of the worst of all the persecutions. The origins of this change of heart by the emperor may have been the Christians' refusal to honor the pagan culture, or it may have been that Severus was tired of the infighting among the various Christian sects which were now common. Zephyrinus, like the others of the faith, were obligated to stay quiet.
Callistus, the confessor who remained in Sardinia and who was given a stipend by the Roman Christians to preach there, was recalled to Rome about the time that Zephyrinus was elected. The Christians had purchased a cemetary on the Via Appia and needed someone to take care of it. Callistus was given that position. He also became the archdeacon and right hand man of the new pope.
Meanwhile, Theodotus, the Tanner, who had been excommunicated by Pope Victor, continued the preaching of his heresies and passed on his teachings to others. They taught that Jesus only became divine at his baptism. There was a man named Natalis, who had suffered greatly when persecuted. He lived through the persecution without denouncing the Faith. Somehow, the Theodotites convinced him to become a bishop within their sect, which he did for a while. Then he began to have nightmares, including one in which he was scourged all night by an angel. This made him think about what he was doing. Dressing in sackcloth, he went to Zephyrinus, begging forgiveness. He was granted forgiveness after a penance.
Another group, lead by Hippolytus, questioned the Trinity. He claimed that the Divine Logos was a separate person from God the Father, was not God at all, but a mediator between God and creation. Zephyrinus, not a theologian in his own right, did not see the fine distinctions sufficiently to argue them. And there were still the Montanists, or New Propheies sect and several other minor, less troublesome ones.
Hippolytus accused Zephyrinus of being too easy on great sinners, ie, Natalis, and not doing all he could to condemn all the heresies around him. Hippolytus grew more irritated with the Roman bishop and blamed Callistus for leading him astray. He also accused Zephyrinus of agreeing with the heretics and for undermining Chirstian discipline by not arguing with them.
There was much arguing against all these teachings but mostly by theologians in Asia Minor. It took much time to put these heresies to rest.
Emperor Septimus Servus died in 211. The next emperor, Caracalla, issued an edict in 212 proclaiming that Roman citizenship was opened to all free people of the Empire regardless of religion. Things between the Church and the State began to get better.
The "Liber Pontificalis" credits Zephyrinus with two decrees, however, there is no historical substantiation: Allowing First Communion only to those 14 and over, and allowing those excommunicated to get back into the good graces of the Church after penance.
Zephyrinus is buried in a separate sepulchre in the cematery named after Callistus in the Via Appia.
Pope Saint Zephyrinus, pray for us.
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] | 1
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Zephyrinus was born a Roman in the middle of the second century. He reigned as Roman bishop from 198-199 to 217.
Hippolytus, a rival, is our only extant source of biographical information on this pope. And much of it is probably exaggerated lies. Thus, he is described as a simple man without education who depended too much on his archdeacon. To be more accurate, we can look at the actions he took.
In the first three years of his bishopric, Zephyrinus had to put up with an increasingly negative view of Christians by the Emperor Septimus Severus. In 202 or 203, the emperor proclaimed an edict of persecution against Christians. Converting to this religion had terrible consequences. This edict remained in effect until Severus' death in 211. It is considered one of the worst of all the persecutions. The origins of this change of heart by the emperor may have been the Christians' refusal to honor the pagan culture, or it may have been that Severus was tired of the infighting among the various Christian sects which were now common. Zephyrinus, like the others of the faith, were obligated to stay quiet.
Callistus, the confessor who remained in Sardinia and who was given a stipend by the Roman Christians to preach there, was recalled to Rome about the time that Zephyrinus was elected. The Christians had purchased a cemetary on the Via Appia and needed someone to take care of it. Callistus was given that position. He also became the archdeacon and right hand man of the new pope.
Meanwhile, Theodotus, the Tanner, who had been excommunicated by Pope Victor, continued the preaching of his heresies and passed on his teachings to others. They taught that Jesus only became divine at his baptism. There was a man named Natalis, who had suffered greatly when persecuted. He lived through the persecution without denouncing the Faith. Somehow, the Theodotites convinced him to become a bishop within their sect, which he did for a while. Then he began to have nightmares, including one in which he was scourged all night by an angel. This made him think about what he was doing. Dressing in sackcloth, he went to Zephyrinus, begging forgiveness. He was granted forgiveness after a penance.
Another group, lead by Hippolytus, questioned the Trinity. He claimed that the Divine Logos was a separate person from God the Father, was not God at all, but a mediator between God and creation. Zephyrinus, not a theologian in his own right, did not see the fine distinctions sufficiently to argue them. And there were still the Montanists, or New Propheies sect and several other minor, less troublesome ones.
Hippolytus accused Zephyrinus of being too easy on great sinners, ie, Natalis, and not doing all he could to condemn all the heresies around him. Hippolytus grew more irritated with the Roman bishop and blamed Callistus for leading him astray. He also accused Zephyrinus of agreeing with the heretics and for undermining Chirstian discipline by not arguing with them.
There was much arguing against all these teachings but mostly by theologians in Asia Minor. It took much time to put these heresies to rest.
Emperor Septimus Servus died in 211. The next emperor, Caracalla, issued an edict in 212 proclaiming that Roman citizenship was opened to all free people of the Empire regardless of religion. Things between the Church and the State began to get better.
The "Liber Pontificalis" credits Zephyrinus with two decrees, however, there is no historical substantiation: Allowing First Communion only to those 14 and over, and allowing those excommunicated to get back into the good graces of the Church after penance.
Zephyrinus is buried in a separate sepulchre in the cematery named after Callistus in the Via Appia.
Pope Saint Zephyrinus, pray for us.
| 882
|
ENGLISH
| 1
|
Table of Contents
- 1 How were Viking merchant ships different from Viking longships?
- 2 Why did the Vikings design their ships this way?
- 3 Why were the Viking longships so effective?
- 4 What type of shipbuilding method did the Vikings use to build their ships?
- 5 Why were Viking longships so effective?
- 6 What were the longships used for?
How were Viking merchant ships different from Viking longships?
Two different classes of Viking era ships were found: warships called langskip (left) and merchant ships called knörr (right). Typically, a warship is narrower, longer, and shallower than a knörr, and is powered by oars, supplanted by sail. In contrast, a knörr is partially enclosed and powered primarily by sail.
Why did the Vikings design their ships this way?
Viking boats were designed to be dragged across long portages as well as to withstand fierce ocean storms. Such ships gave the Vikings the ability to trade, make war, carry animals, and cross open oceans and at the same time provided sufficient protection and security for the crew. (Fitzhugh, 15).
What was special about Viking longships?
Viking longships were used in battle, and were long, light, and slender so they could move around quickly. They had a square sail and a mast, but could also be rowed if there was no wind. Depending on its size, a longship had 24 to 50 oars. Ships were so important to Vikings that the richest nobles were buried in them.
What was so special about the longship?
The Viking ship was born. Viking longships could soon carry as many as 100 Vikings to battle. Fleets of them could land on open beaches, penetrate deep into river systems, and be moved over land if need be. When not at war, the vessels were used to transport goods and make trade journeys.
Why were the Viking longships so effective?
Though Viking boats came in many shapes and sizes, the most iconic and effective Viking vessel was undoubtedly the longship. Long, narrow and flat, longships were fast, durable and capable of navigating both choppy seas and shallow rivers. They were also light enough to be carried over land.
What type of shipbuilding method did the Vikings use to build their ships?
All Viking ships are clinker built; the planks were overlapped at one edge and riveted together. In clinker shipbuilding you start build the outside first, and then put a frame inside it. The other style of wooden shipbuilding, used by the Mary Rose and the Victory, is called carvel.
How did the Viking longships move?
How did the Vikings ships move? The ships were powered by oars or by the wind, and had one large, square sail, most probably made from wool. A steering oar or ‘steerboard’ was used to steer the ships. It was fastened to the right-hand side of the ship at the stern (back).
Why were longships important to Vikings?
Vikings used longships to make raids and carry their warriors. Often, the prow (front) of the ship was decorated with a carving of an animal head – perhaps a dragon or a snake. Cargo vessels were used to carry trade goods and possessions.
Why were Viking longships so effective?
What were the longships used for?
What features of the longship made it travel fast?
The features of the longship that made it travel fast were they were long and narrow. 2. Another name for a longship was a ‘dragonship’.
What did longships look like?
The ships were all the same long narrow shape, with shallow draughts. This meant that they could be used in shallow water. Vikings used longships to make raids and carry their warriors. Often, the prow (front) of the ship was decorated with a carving of an animal head – perhaps a dragon or a snake.
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] | 1
|
Table of Contents
- 1 How were Viking merchant ships different from Viking longships?
- 2 Why did the Vikings design their ships this way?
- 3 Why were the Viking longships so effective?
- 4 What type of shipbuilding method did the Vikings use to build their ships?
- 5 Why were Viking longships so effective?
- 6 What were the longships used for?
How were Viking merchant ships different from Viking longships?
Two different classes of Viking era ships were found: warships called langskip (left) and merchant ships called knörr (right). Typically, a warship is narrower, longer, and shallower than a knörr, and is powered by oars, supplanted by sail. In contrast, a knörr is partially enclosed and powered primarily by sail.
Why did the Vikings design their ships this way?
Viking boats were designed to be dragged across long portages as well as to withstand fierce ocean storms. Such ships gave the Vikings the ability to trade, make war, carry animals, and cross open oceans and at the same time provided sufficient protection and security for the crew. (Fitzhugh, 15).
What was special about Viking longships?
Viking longships were used in battle, and were long, light, and slender so they could move around quickly. They had a square sail and a mast, but could also be rowed if there was no wind. Depending on its size, a longship had 24 to 50 oars. Ships were so important to Vikings that the richest nobles were buried in them.
What was so special about the longship?
The Viking ship was born. Viking longships could soon carry as many as 100 Vikings to battle. Fleets of them could land on open beaches, penetrate deep into river systems, and be moved over land if need be. When not at war, the vessels were used to transport goods and make trade journeys.
Why were the Viking longships so effective?
Though Viking boats came in many shapes and sizes, the most iconic and effective Viking vessel was undoubtedly the longship. Long, narrow and flat, longships were fast, durable and capable of navigating both choppy seas and shallow rivers. They were also light enough to be carried over land.
What type of shipbuilding method did the Vikings use to build their ships?
All Viking ships are clinker built; the planks were overlapped at one edge and riveted together. In clinker shipbuilding you start build the outside first, and then put a frame inside it. The other style of wooden shipbuilding, used by the Mary Rose and the Victory, is called carvel.
How did the Viking longships move?
How did the Vikings ships move? The ships were powered by oars or by the wind, and had one large, square sail, most probably made from wool. A steering oar or ‘steerboard’ was used to steer the ships. It was fastened to the right-hand side of the ship at the stern (back).
Why were longships important to Vikings?
Vikings used longships to make raids and carry their warriors. Often, the prow (front) of the ship was decorated with a carving of an animal head – perhaps a dragon or a snake. Cargo vessels were used to carry trade goods and possessions.
Why were Viking longships so effective?
What were the longships used for?
What features of the longship made it travel fast?
The features of the longship that made it travel fast were they were long and narrow. 2. Another name for a longship was a ‘dragonship’.
What did longships look like?
The ships were all the same long narrow shape, with shallow draughts. This meant that they could be used in shallow water. Vikings used longships to make raids and carry their warriors. Often, the prow (front) of the ship was decorated with a carving of an animal head – perhaps a dragon or a snake.
| 822
|
ENGLISH
| 1
|
John Williams, tónskáld
Author: Vala Tryggvadóttir.
This assignment is written for students in 9th to 10th grade, Elementary School. It is written for an ESL class (English as second language) and is therefore in English. It is also required of the students that they will turn their assignments in, in English.
The Task breyta
(Námsmarkmið skv. aðalnámskrá.)
• A student can read both for the usefulness of reading and for pleasure. For example educational material from magazines and from electric media. • A student can write different kinds of shorter texts, for example, his own responses to texts and descriptions. • A student can use his imagination, create and write with his own words.
During this assignment you are going to get to know the composer John Williams but he has composed a lot of music for movies and quite a few of those pieces are well known.
The Process breyta
- Your sit down by the computer and use it to solve your assignment, either as an individual or as a part of a small group. It depends on your teachers instructions.
- Answer the questions that are written here below. You can decide for yourself how big the font should be, but it must be 16 to 20 pt.
- Solve the assignment in an word editor program and submit it electronically to your teacher. He will give you the e-mail address you need. Use the links under the heading Resources needed to answer the questions. Other than those links I give you, you will need to use an search engine of your own choice to answer some of the questions. It is very important to answer in whole sentences. Short, one syllable answers will not be valid.
- When the questions have been answered then send your teacher the answers as an attachment and put your name and the name of the assignment in the heading of the letter.
- Where is John Williams born and where did he grow up?
- Can you find any information about his personal life?
- How long has his career been in the music business?
- Find a list of his works online. This list of his works is quite long. There are lot of theme songs from movies on that list. Listen to some of them online, and pick your 5 to 10 favourites. List them in the assignment and write down what you think is special about them. Perhaps they set an atmosphere you think is essential for the general idea in the movie or make an impression on you that you can describe.
- When you see that list of music, can you hum any of it? What pieces can you hum?
- Has he only written film music? What other pieces has he written?
- For what special athletic occasions has he written music? Listen to that piece and tell me what you think about it?
- Has John ever been in the U.S. Army? What was his position there?
- One of his most distinguished movie themes has only two notes. That theme is an
- ominous two-note motif and has become synonymous with sharks and approaching danger . From what movie is that theme? Do you think it signifies danger?
- With what director has he worked most closely with through the years?
- For what has he had the Academy Awards? What is the name of the trophy for that award? Did he have any nominations this year (2012)?
- Search the Internet and find a film that has music that you like and write a few words about that composer. (20 - 40 words) Perhaps you already know of some filmmusic that isn't written by John Williams.
Resources needed breyta
(Niðurstaða) When the assignment is done you should hopefully appreciate John Williams work more and perhaps you are amazed of how many of his songs you already know.
The assignment will be graded according to the teachers valuation of how well the questions are answered and if they will include the answer he is looking for.
Teacher part breyta
Students get a pretty free reign online and they have an opportunity to use their own words. You need to give the students the e-mail which they are to submit their work to.
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John Williams, tónskáld
Author: Vala Tryggvadóttir.
This assignment is written for students in 9th to 10th grade, Elementary School. It is written for an ESL class (English as second language) and is therefore in English. It is also required of the students that they will turn their assignments in, in English.
The Task breyta
(Námsmarkmið skv. aðalnámskrá.)
• A student can read both for the usefulness of reading and for pleasure. For example educational material from magazines and from electric media. • A student can write different kinds of shorter texts, for example, his own responses to texts and descriptions. • A student can use his imagination, create and write with his own words.
During this assignment you are going to get to know the composer John Williams but he has composed a lot of music for movies and quite a few of those pieces are well known.
The Process breyta
- Your sit down by the computer and use it to solve your assignment, either as an individual or as a part of a small group. It depends on your teachers instructions.
- Answer the questions that are written here below. You can decide for yourself how big the font should be, but it must be 16 to 20 pt.
- Solve the assignment in an word editor program and submit it electronically to your teacher. He will give you the e-mail address you need. Use the links under the heading Resources needed to answer the questions. Other than those links I give you, you will need to use an search engine of your own choice to answer some of the questions. It is very important to answer in whole sentences. Short, one syllable answers will not be valid.
- When the questions have been answered then send your teacher the answers as an attachment and put your name and the name of the assignment in the heading of the letter.
- Where is John Williams born and where did he grow up?
- Can you find any information about his personal life?
- How long has his career been in the music business?
- Find a list of his works online. This list of his works is quite long. There are lot of theme songs from movies on that list. Listen to some of them online, and pick your 5 to 10 favourites. List them in the assignment and write down what you think is special about them. Perhaps they set an atmosphere you think is essential for the general idea in the movie or make an impression on you that you can describe.
- When you see that list of music, can you hum any of it? What pieces can you hum?
- Has he only written film music? What other pieces has he written?
- For what special athletic occasions has he written music? Listen to that piece and tell me what you think about it?
- Has John ever been in the U.S. Army? What was his position there?
- One of his most distinguished movie themes has only two notes. That theme is an
- ominous two-note motif and has become synonymous with sharks and approaching danger . From what movie is that theme? Do you think it signifies danger?
- With what director has he worked most closely with through the years?
- For what has he had the Academy Awards? What is the name of the trophy for that award? Did he have any nominations this year (2012)?
- Search the Internet and find a film that has music that you like and write a few words about that composer. (20 - 40 words) Perhaps you already know of some filmmusic that isn't written by John Williams.
Resources needed breyta
(Niðurstaða) When the assignment is done you should hopefully appreciate John Williams work more and perhaps you are amazed of how many of his songs you already know.
The assignment will be graded according to the teachers valuation of how well the questions are answered and if they will include the answer he is looking for.
Teacher part breyta
Students get a pretty free reign online and they have an opportunity to use their own words. You need to give the students the e-mail which they are to submit their work to.
| 861
|
ENGLISH
| 1
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I subscribe to “This Day in History” app, which daily sends along fascinating tidbits of history that happened that day. This past week, on January 23, my phone dinged bright and early: this day in 1849 the first female doctor in America was awarded her medical degree: Elizabeth Blackwell.
Who was this daring and pioneering woman?
This was in a time when medicine was still in its infancy. I read in a book about this era that central Baltimore was an unsanitary backwater without municipal sewers. Bathwater, chamberpot contents and manure flowed across cobblestones. Water was contamination. London would soon be ravaged by a cholera outbreak that later gave birth to public health.
Elizabeth Blackwell was born near Bristol, England on February 3, 1821, the same town that the first family with hemophilia in America hailed from, ironically.
Blackwell came from an unusual family, full of activists. She was the third of nine children of Hannah Lane and Samuel Blackwell, a sugar refiner, Quaker, and anti-slavery activist. Blackwell’s famous relatives included brother Henry, a well-known abolitionist and women’s suffrage supporter who married women’s rights activist Lucy Stone; Emily Blackwell, who followed her sister into medicine; and sister-in-law Antoinette Brown Blackwell, the first ordained female minister in a mainstream Protestant denomination.
A few years after the Blackwell family moved to Cincinnati, Ohio in 1832, the father died, leaving the family broke. Elizabeth, her mother, and two older sisters worked as teachers. Blackwell was inspired to pursue medicine by a dying friend who said her suffering would have been better had she had a female physician. But there were few medical colleges and none that accepted women, though a few women became unlicensed physicians, as did many men.
Blackwell eventually “boarded with the families of two southern physicians who mentored her. In 1847, she returned to Philadelphia, hoping that Quaker friends could assist her entrance into medical school. Rejected everywhere she applied, she was ultimately admitted to Geneva College in rural New York, however, her acceptance letter was intended as a practical joke.
Blackwell faced discrimination and obstacles in college: professors forced her to sit separately at lectures and often excluded her from labs; local townspeople shunned her as a ‘bad’ woman for defying her gender role. Blackwell eventually earned the respect of professors and classmates, graduating first in her class in 1849. She continued her training at London and Paris hospitals, though doctors there relegated her to midwifery or nursing. She began to emphasize preventative care and personal hygiene, recognizing that male doctors often caused epidemics by failing to wash their hands between patients.” *
In 1851, she returned to New York City, and with help from the Quakers, Blackwell opened a clinic to treat impoverished women. In 1857, she and her sister, now also a doctor, opened the New York Infirmary for Women and Children, with colleague Dr. Marie Zakrzewska. They provided positions for women physicians.
In 1868, Blackwell opened a medical college in New York City. A year later, she placed her sister in charge and returned to London, where in 1875, together with Florence Nightengale and Thomas Huxley and others, created the first medical school for women in England. She became a professor of gynecology here. She co-founded the National Health Society in England (which today services people with hemophilia) and published several books, including an autobiography.
She had a fascinating personality, and was a dedicated advocate and activist of many causes. A pioneer in medicine and champion that perhaps many of us in bleeding disorders can appreciate.
*Chicago – Michals, Debra. “Elizabeth Blackwell.” National Women’s History Museum. 2015. www.womenshistory.org/education-resources/biographies/elizabeth-blackwell.
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I subscribe to “This Day in History” app, which daily sends along fascinating tidbits of history that happened that day. This past week, on January 23, my phone dinged bright and early: this day in 1849 the first female doctor in America was awarded her medical degree: Elizabeth Blackwell.
Who was this daring and pioneering woman?
This was in a time when medicine was still in its infancy. I read in a book about this era that central Baltimore was an unsanitary backwater without municipal sewers. Bathwater, chamberpot contents and manure flowed across cobblestones. Water was contamination. London would soon be ravaged by a cholera outbreak that later gave birth to public health.
Elizabeth Blackwell was born near Bristol, England on February 3, 1821, the same town that the first family with hemophilia in America hailed from, ironically.
Blackwell came from an unusual family, full of activists. She was the third of nine children of Hannah Lane and Samuel Blackwell, a sugar refiner, Quaker, and anti-slavery activist. Blackwell’s famous relatives included brother Henry, a well-known abolitionist and women’s suffrage supporter who married women’s rights activist Lucy Stone; Emily Blackwell, who followed her sister into medicine; and sister-in-law Antoinette Brown Blackwell, the first ordained female minister in a mainstream Protestant denomination.
A few years after the Blackwell family moved to Cincinnati, Ohio in 1832, the father died, leaving the family broke. Elizabeth, her mother, and two older sisters worked as teachers. Blackwell was inspired to pursue medicine by a dying friend who said her suffering would have been better had she had a female physician. But there were few medical colleges and none that accepted women, though a few women became unlicensed physicians, as did many men.
Blackwell eventually “boarded with the families of two southern physicians who mentored her. In 1847, she returned to Philadelphia, hoping that Quaker friends could assist her entrance into medical school. Rejected everywhere she applied, she was ultimately admitted to Geneva College in rural New York, however, her acceptance letter was intended as a practical joke.
Blackwell faced discrimination and obstacles in college: professors forced her to sit separately at lectures and often excluded her from labs; local townspeople shunned her as a ‘bad’ woman for defying her gender role. Blackwell eventually earned the respect of professors and classmates, graduating first in her class in 1849. She continued her training at London and Paris hospitals, though doctors there relegated her to midwifery or nursing. She began to emphasize preventative care and personal hygiene, recognizing that male doctors often caused epidemics by failing to wash their hands between patients.” *
In 1851, she returned to New York City, and with help from the Quakers, Blackwell opened a clinic to treat impoverished women. In 1857, she and her sister, now also a doctor, opened the New York Infirmary for Women and Children, with colleague Dr. Marie Zakrzewska. They provided positions for women physicians.
In 1868, Blackwell opened a medical college in New York City. A year later, she placed her sister in charge and returned to London, where in 1875, together with Florence Nightengale and Thomas Huxley and others, created the first medical school for women in England. She became a professor of gynecology here. She co-founded the National Health Society in England (which today services people with hemophilia) and published several books, including an autobiography.
She had a fascinating personality, and was a dedicated advocate and activist of many causes. A pioneer in medicine and champion that perhaps many of us in bleeding disorders can appreciate.
*Chicago – Michals, Debra. “Elizabeth Blackwell.” National Women’s History Museum. 2015. www.womenshistory.org/education-resources/biographies/elizabeth-blackwell.
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Ruby Bridges made history 60 years ago when she was the first African-American student to integrate an elementary school in the South. At the age of only 6, Bridges had to be escorted by federal marshals into William Frantz Elementary School in New Orleans as a loud and angry crowd gathered outside. Bridges at the time did not know the impact she would have on the Civil Rights movement, and what she and her parent’s bravery and strength would mean 60 years later.
The 1954 Brown V. Board of Education was a landmark Supreme Court case ruling in which the justices ruled that racial segregation of children in public schools was unconstitutional. The ruling coincided with the year of Bridge’s birth, almost as an indication of how Bridges would become a symbol of change in the civil rights movement. While the ruling passed, there still were public schools that took their time to desegregate. Four years before Bridges attended William Frantz Elementry School, Black parents had filed a lawsuit against the Orleans Parish School Board for not desegregating the school system. Then in 1960, a federal court ordered that Louisiana must desegregate. A test was given to African-American students to assess if they can compete academically at all-white schools, and Bridges and 5 other students passed. Of those 6, Bridges was the only one to attend William Frantz Elementary School that year, and November 14, 1960, would be her first day at school and solidify her story in history.
On her first day of school, Bridges was escorted by four federal marshals to her class, as a loud, angry crowd gathered outside of the school, shouting slurs, throwing things, and chanting ‘two, four, six, eight, we don’t want to integrate’. In an interview with USA Today, Bridges explained how her young age and innocence shielded her from truly understanding a lot of what she saw & heard. Bridges was familiar with Mardi Gras and at first, thought that the crowds were part of the Mardi Gras celebration. She wasn’t scared until she saw some people in the crowd bring a coffin with a Black doll in it. Her first day was so chaotic that Bridges had to stay the whole day in the principal’s office as parents were pulling their children from the school, and teachers were refusing to teach her. On her second day, the only teacher that would teach her was Barbara Henry who went on to teach only her in a one student classroom for the whole year.
Outside of school, there was tremendous stress and retaliation against the Bridges. Her father, Abon Bridges, lost his job, and grocery stores refused to sell to her mother Lucille Bridges. Her grandparents, who were sharecroppers were evicted from the farm they had lived on for a quarter-century. Bridges told NPR, that the pressure put on the family was so intense that by the sixth grade her parents separated. Despite the retaliation, her family continued to support Bridges and her enrollment in William Franz Elementary. Bridges had to be escorted by federal marshals for a whole year, but by the time she made it to the second grade the protests had stopped, and several Black students enrolled in the school. Bridges’ bravery inspired the iconic painting “The Problem We All Live With” by Norman Rockwell. When Vice-President Elect Kamala Harris was elected, a viral photo surfaced online where the shadow of Bridges from Rockwell’s painting was leading Harris.
Her mother Lucille Bridges, who was a huge influence on her attending Franz Elementary, sadly passed away on November 10. Before enrolling in William Franz Elementary, her father was wary of sending her to William Franz but her mother encouraged it as she wanted her children to have a greater education than the one she received. Furthermore, her mother would walk with her every day to school.
On her Instagram, Bridges posted about her mother’s passing and wrote about the influence her mother had on her and the civil rights movement. “Today our country lost a hero. Brave, progressive, a champion for change. She helped alter the course of so many lives by setting me out on my path as a six-year-old little girl. Our nation lost a Mother of the Civil Rights Movement today. And I lost my mom. I love you and am grateful for you. May you Rest In Peace.”
Mayor LaToya Cantrell of New Orleans in a statement released on the night of Lucille Bridges passing said, “Lucille insisted, seeing the action as an opportunity to help all Black children, and walked Ruby, with federal marshals, past chanting and taunting white protesters and to the schoolhouse. Mother and daughter both revealed their character and courage.”
60 years have passed since Ruby Bridges attended William Franz Elementary School holding the weight of the civil rights movement on her young shoulders. Thanks to her and her family’s bravery, history and change were made.
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Ruby Bridges made history 60 years ago when she was the first African-American student to integrate an elementary school in the South. At the age of only 6, Bridges had to be escorted by federal marshals into William Frantz Elementary School in New Orleans as a loud and angry crowd gathered outside. Bridges at the time did not know the impact she would have on the Civil Rights movement, and what she and her parent’s bravery and strength would mean 60 years later.
The 1954 Brown V. Board of Education was a landmark Supreme Court case ruling in which the justices ruled that racial segregation of children in public schools was unconstitutional. The ruling coincided with the year of Bridge’s birth, almost as an indication of how Bridges would become a symbol of change in the civil rights movement. While the ruling passed, there still were public schools that took their time to desegregate. Four years before Bridges attended William Frantz Elementry School, Black parents had filed a lawsuit against the Orleans Parish School Board for not desegregating the school system. Then in 1960, a federal court ordered that Louisiana must desegregate. A test was given to African-American students to assess if they can compete academically at all-white schools, and Bridges and 5 other students passed. Of those 6, Bridges was the only one to attend William Frantz Elementary School that year, and November 14, 1960, would be her first day at school and solidify her story in history.
On her first day of school, Bridges was escorted by four federal marshals to her class, as a loud, angry crowd gathered outside of the school, shouting slurs, throwing things, and chanting ‘two, four, six, eight, we don’t want to integrate’. In an interview with USA Today, Bridges explained how her young age and innocence shielded her from truly understanding a lot of what she saw & heard. Bridges was familiar with Mardi Gras and at first, thought that the crowds were part of the Mardi Gras celebration. She wasn’t scared until she saw some people in the crowd bring a coffin with a Black doll in it. Her first day was so chaotic that Bridges had to stay the whole day in the principal’s office as parents were pulling their children from the school, and teachers were refusing to teach her. On her second day, the only teacher that would teach her was Barbara Henry who went on to teach only her in a one student classroom for the whole year.
Outside of school, there was tremendous stress and retaliation against the Bridges. Her father, Abon Bridges, lost his job, and grocery stores refused to sell to her mother Lucille Bridges. Her grandparents, who were sharecroppers were evicted from the farm they had lived on for a quarter-century. Bridges told NPR, that the pressure put on the family was so intense that by the sixth grade her parents separated. Despite the retaliation, her family continued to support Bridges and her enrollment in William Franz Elementary. Bridges had to be escorted by federal marshals for a whole year, but by the time she made it to the second grade the protests had stopped, and several Black students enrolled in the school. Bridges’ bravery inspired the iconic painting “The Problem We All Live With” by Norman Rockwell. When Vice-President Elect Kamala Harris was elected, a viral photo surfaced online where the shadow of Bridges from Rockwell’s painting was leading Harris.
Her mother Lucille Bridges, who was a huge influence on her attending Franz Elementary, sadly passed away on November 10. Before enrolling in William Franz Elementary, her father was wary of sending her to William Franz but her mother encouraged it as she wanted her children to have a greater education than the one she received. Furthermore, her mother would walk with her every day to school.
On her Instagram, Bridges posted about her mother’s passing and wrote about the influence her mother had on her and the civil rights movement. “Today our country lost a hero. Brave, progressive, a champion for change. She helped alter the course of so many lives by setting me out on my path as a six-year-old little girl. Our nation lost a Mother of the Civil Rights Movement today. And I lost my mom. I love you and am grateful for you. May you Rest In Peace.”
Mayor LaToya Cantrell of New Orleans in a statement released on the night of Lucille Bridges passing said, “Lucille insisted, seeing the action as an opportunity to help all Black children, and walked Ruby, with federal marshals, past chanting and taunting white protesters and to the schoolhouse. Mother and daughter both revealed their character and courage.”
60 years have passed since Ruby Bridges attended William Franz Elementary School holding the weight of the civil rights movement on her young shoulders. Thanks to her and her family’s bravery, history and change were made.
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If you are researching the history of your own family or have grown up in Indiana County, this is a book that will interest you. James Sagan traces three early generations of his family as they travel from Ireland to British America and eventually “become American,” settling into life as part of western Pennsylvania. Along the way, they deal with death, danger, extreme conditions, and even the intricacies of owning land in a place just becoming a country.
This is the story of the Robinsons and, in places, their in-laws, the Weirs. As Sagan points out in a presentation given to the Historical and Genealogical Society many of those who came to British America in the 1770s and 1780s arrived in Philadelphia and then gradually, as families, made their way west. “Trailblazers,” usually a single family member, arrived first, made connections and set down some roots, and then returned to their home countries to bring back more family. In the case of Sagan’s ancestors, John Robinson, who was the youngest son of Robert Robinson Sr. and his wife, Isabella Harris Robinson, came first to British America to be with his fiancé, Margaret Jameson.
Interestingly, in order to get free passage to British America, John had to be convicted of a petty crime. One option for criminals, even those convicted of the smallest of crimes, was to agree to be sent to British America rather than serve time in a jail. Britain wanted to colonize, and this was an effective way to do so. Two other ways to get free passage, Sagan notes, were by agreeing to be an indentured servant or an apprentice.
People who are researching their family backgrounds sometimes state with a mixture of amazement and maybe a bit of shame that they appear to have a large number of ancestors who are criminals. Sagan’s tidbit of history and immigration, one among many, might ease researchers’ concerns about their criminal lineage. Such tips about understanding the “evidence” of past family members’ lives are found throughout this book.
In 1770, John Robinson returned to his homeland, Ireland, to escort a large number of family members back to British America. This first group consisted of his older brother Robert Robinson Jr. and his wife; his youngest sister, Lavinia, along with her husband, Samuel Weir, and their children; and 18 other members of the Weir family. In fact, the Weirs made up 21 of the 85 paying passengers on the Phoenix.
In a stroke of luck, Sagan located the passenger list from the Phoenix in the Pennsylvania state archives, stored in a box tucked away and awaiting entry into public access. Most such lists have not survived, and many immigrants are not recorded. Sagan reminds researchers that if you were from Great Britain, you did not have to sign an oath of allegiance, and thus your passage and arrival might be “invisible” to later researchers.
Shortly after arriving in Philadelphia, many of the Weirs split off from the Robinsons and wound up settling in Virginia. The rest followed the pattern of movement toward the western frontier, which, at that time, was Westmoreland County. Indiana County wasn’t a separate county until 1803; until then, it was part of Westmoreland County. This might be confusing to some readers, but Sagan’s use of maps is helpful.
Sagan traces the service of various members of the Robinson family in the Revolutionary War, then moves on to the Big Sewickley settlement. This was not Sewickley as we know it now, further west and north. Instead, it was located along Big Sewickley Creek in Westmoreland County, in Mt. Pleasant Township. It was a location where many settlers found themselves feeling safe among many others despite dangers from Native Americans. Sagan spends several pages describing life in the settlement, offering readers a feel for both the pleasant aspects and the difficulties of life at that time on the frontier. While not a well-established city with many amenities, it was still comfortable enough to feel like home. It was also a place to stay while preparing to move further west for more land, despite the lack of roads and “safe harbor.”
Members of the Robinson family and their spouses, like Samuel Weir, did continue to move away from the Big Sewickley settlement, but being only 20 miles away could make a big difference in how lives were organized and what dangers people faced. In a central portion of his book, Sagan provides sketches of the lives of many members of his ancestral family. Some of these are little more than dates and locations of birth and death. Others are fleshed out with information gleaned from tax records, wills, and other legal documents. Sometimes we learn how little livestock and how few possessions his ancestors had; it’s surprising to learn just how lean life was on a “plantation,” as farms were referred to at the time. Many died from accidents or at younger ages. Help was often far away.
Sagan does spend some extra time on Samuel Weir and his likely involvement with the Whiskey Rebellion. Given that his possessions at his death included a still and that his grandson asked to be paid from the estate for a barrel of whiskey he owned but which Samuel had sold and not paid him for, it’s highly likely that Samuel was an active member of those who fought against whiskey taxes. Here again, Sagan demonstrates how looking at many documents can help not just tell a story but actually find that story to tell.
In 1785, members of the Robinson family purchased land in Armstrong Township along the Kiskiminetas River (now called Conemaugh Township in Indiana County) and named their plantation “York.” The 210 acres was in the midst of, as Sagan writes, “a howling wilderness, full of bears, wild cats, wolves, etc. No roads had been opened there except bridle paths, and the cabins of the pioneers were usually two to three miles apart.”
Over the next two decades, the Robinson family endured, though land disputes took more than 20 years to resolve. Sagan spends some time sorting out how these disputes, with the tedious process of sorting out “warrants” and “patents” in a pioneer setting with limited court access and shifting land boundaries, shaped lives. In addition, with the death of land-owning patriarchs who leave behind widows and minor children, guardians must be appointed, as widows were not permitted to own property. In the Robinson family, guardianship was taken seriously and meant being closely involved with a child’s life. Thus guardians lived not at their own property but at the property they were now “guarding” for their new wards.
The book concludes with more recent facets of the Robinson family heritage. In 1786, Robert and William cleared land on the York property and built a small but sturdy house. This house, known as the Robinson Strong House, served as a fort of sorts. Later, it became the first school in southwest Indiana County. It became known as the Robinson #1 school. It burned in 1917, having stood for well over a century. Additionally, the Robinson River Hill Cemetery still exists, though there have been no burials there since 1841. Like other plots of land, this, too, passed through several owners, with the information that it included a burial ground having been neglected in the original sale. Finally, the portion of the larger parcel that was the cemetery was sold back to Samuel Robinson, Robert Robinson’s grandson. There are no “proper” gravestones, just field stone markers for head and feet. There is documentation that Robert Robinson is buried there, however, and Sagan commented in his presentation that, despite the arduous trek required to actually access the cemetery, he would like to get some ground-penetrating radar to the site and determine how many are actually buried in the hallowed ground.
This is not a story in a traditional sense. There’s not a familiar narrative structure where readers come to know deeply a main character, follow him or her through well-detailed tense moments that change and deepen the hero or heroine, and reach a climax where a life-changing moment and decision must be navigated. In fact, as noted, in many parts the “story” is only a set of dates and a location of burial. Those looking for a conventional story might find it difficult to create such deep involvement, as they must do much of the story-telling work on their own, attempting to create much of the feeling and change we know these people experienced in their lives. Those searching for information about their own ancestors will, however, be able to feel, as Sagan does, a little thrill (or a great thrill!) at the discovery of a tiny piece of a bigger story that is being created tenuously. They will also appreciate the tips and advice that are part of his recounting of knowledge gained. The book includes many maps, pictures of documentary evidence such as the passenger list on the Phoenix and wills and tax documents. These help readers feel more involved. Historians of Indiana County (many of whom are members of the Historical and Genealogical Society!) will enjoy learning more about those who shaped Indiana County and perhaps interacted with their own ancestral family members. But for Sagan, this research is very personal. It reinforces his belief that early settlers were successful because of courage, fortitude, work ethic, and love and connection to family. Put simply, they persevered.
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] | 1
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If you are researching the history of your own family or have grown up in Indiana County, this is a book that will interest you. James Sagan traces three early generations of his family as they travel from Ireland to British America and eventually “become American,” settling into life as part of western Pennsylvania. Along the way, they deal with death, danger, extreme conditions, and even the intricacies of owning land in a place just becoming a country.
This is the story of the Robinsons and, in places, their in-laws, the Weirs. As Sagan points out in a presentation given to the Historical and Genealogical Society many of those who came to British America in the 1770s and 1780s arrived in Philadelphia and then gradually, as families, made their way west. “Trailblazers,” usually a single family member, arrived first, made connections and set down some roots, and then returned to their home countries to bring back more family. In the case of Sagan’s ancestors, John Robinson, who was the youngest son of Robert Robinson Sr. and his wife, Isabella Harris Robinson, came first to British America to be with his fiancé, Margaret Jameson.
Interestingly, in order to get free passage to British America, John had to be convicted of a petty crime. One option for criminals, even those convicted of the smallest of crimes, was to agree to be sent to British America rather than serve time in a jail. Britain wanted to colonize, and this was an effective way to do so. Two other ways to get free passage, Sagan notes, were by agreeing to be an indentured servant or an apprentice.
People who are researching their family backgrounds sometimes state with a mixture of amazement and maybe a bit of shame that they appear to have a large number of ancestors who are criminals. Sagan’s tidbit of history and immigration, one among many, might ease researchers’ concerns about their criminal lineage. Such tips about understanding the “evidence” of past family members’ lives are found throughout this book.
In 1770, John Robinson returned to his homeland, Ireland, to escort a large number of family members back to British America. This first group consisted of his older brother Robert Robinson Jr. and his wife; his youngest sister, Lavinia, along with her husband, Samuel Weir, and their children; and 18 other members of the Weir family. In fact, the Weirs made up 21 of the 85 paying passengers on the Phoenix.
In a stroke of luck, Sagan located the passenger list from the Phoenix in the Pennsylvania state archives, stored in a box tucked away and awaiting entry into public access. Most such lists have not survived, and many immigrants are not recorded. Sagan reminds researchers that if you were from Great Britain, you did not have to sign an oath of allegiance, and thus your passage and arrival might be “invisible” to later researchers.
Shortly after arriving in Philadelphia, many of the Weirs split off from the Robinsons and wound up settling in Virginia. The rest followed the pattern of movement toward the western frontier, which, at that time, was Westmoreland County. Indiana County wasn’t a separate county until 1803; until then, it was part of Westmoreland County. This might be confusing to some readers, but Sagan’s use of maps is helpful.
Sagan traces the service of various members of the Robinson family in the Revolutionary War, then moves on to the Big Sewickley settlement. This was not Sewickley as we know it now, further west and north. Instead, it was located along Big Sewickley Creek in Westmoreland County, in Mt. Pleasant Township. It was a location where many settlers found themselves feeling safe among many others despite dangers from Native Americans. Sagan spends several pages describing life in the settlement, offering readers a feel for both the pleasant aspects and the difficulties of life at that time on the frontier. While not a well-established city with many amenities, it was still comfortable enough to feel like home. It was also a place to stay while preparing to move further west for more land, despite the lack of roads and “safe harbor.”
Members of the Robinson family and their spouses, like Samuel Weir, did continue to move away from the Big Sewickley settlement, but being only 20 miles away could make a big difference in how lives were organized and what dangers people faced. In a central portion of his book, Sagan provides sketches of the lives of many members of his ancestral family. Some of these are little more than dates and locations of birth and death. Others are fleshed out with information gleaned from tax records, wills, and other legal documents. Sometimes we learn how little livestock and how few possessions his ancestors had; it’s surprising to learn just how lean life was on a “plantation,” as farms were referred to at the time. Many died from accidents or at younger ages. Help was often far away.
Sagan does spend some extra time on Samuel Weir and his likely involvement with the Whiskey Rebellion. Given that his possessions at his death included a still and that his grandson asked to be paid from the estate for a barrel of whiskey he owned but which Samuel had sold and not paid him for, it’s highly likely that Samuel was an active member of those who fought against whiskey taxes. Here again, Sagan demonstrates how looking at many documents can help not just tell a story but actually find that story to tell.
In 1785, members of the Robinson family purchased land in Armstrong Township along the Kiskiminetas River (now called Conemaugh Township in Indiana County) and named their plantation “York.” The 210 acres was in the midst of, as Sagan writes, “a howling wilderness, full of bears, wild cats, wolves, etc. No roads had been opened there except bridle paths, and the cabins of the pioneers were usually two to three miles apart.”
Over the next two decades, the Robinson family endured, though land disputes took more than 20 years to resolve. Sagan spends some time sorting out how these disputes, with the tedious process of sorting out “warrants” and “patents” in a pioneer setting with limited court access and shifting land boundaries, shaped lives. In addition, with the death of land-owning patriarchs who leave behind widows and minor children, guardians must be appointed, as widows were not permitted to own property. In the Robinson family, guardianship was taken seriously and meant being closely involved with a child’s life. Thus guardians lived not at their own property but at the property they were now “guarding” for their new wards.
The book concludes with more recent facets of the Robinson family heritage. In 1786, Robert and William cleared land on the York property and built a small but sturdy house. This house, known as the Robinson Strong House, served as a fort of sorts. Later, it became the first school in southwest Indiana County. It became known as the Robinson #1 school. It burned in 1917, having stood for well over a century. Additionally, the Robinson River Hill Cemetery still exists, though there have been no burials there since 1841. Like other plots of land, this, too, passed through several owners, with the information that it included a burial ground having been neglected in the original sale. Finally, the portion of the larger parcel that was the cemetery was sold back to Samuel Robinson, Robert Robinson’s grandson. There are no “proper” gravestones, just field stone markers for head and feet. There is documentation that Robert Robinson is buried there, however, and Sagan commented in his presentation that, despite the arduous trek required to actually access the cemetery, he would like to get some ground-penetrating radar to the site and determine how many are actually buried in the hallowed ground.
This is not a story in a traditional sense. There’s not a familiar narrative structure where readers come to know deeply a main character, follow him or her through well-detailed tense moments that change and deepen the hero or heroine, and reach a climax where a life-changing moment and decision must be navigated. In fact, as noted, in many parts the “story” is only a set of dates and a location of burial. Those looking for a conventional story might find it difficult to create such deep involvement, as they must do much of the story-telling work on their own, attempting to create much of the feeling and change we know these people experienced in their lives. Those searching for information about their own ancestors will, however, be able to feel, as Sagan does, a little thrill (or a great thrill!) at the discovery of a tiny piece of a bigger story that is being created tenuously. They will also appreciate the tips and advice that are part of his recounting of knowledge gained. The book includes many maps, pictures of documentary evidence such as the passenger list on the Phoenix and wills and tax documents. These help readers feel more involved. Historians of Indiana County (many of whom are members of the Historical and Genealogical Society!) will enjoy learning more about those who shaped Indiana County and perhaps interacted with their own ancestral family members. But for Sagan, this research is very personal. It reinforces his belief that early settlers were successful because of courage, fortitude, work ethic, and love and connection to family. Put simply, they persevered.
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In 1939 Emile Dewoitine had built the D.550 to make an attempt on the air speed record. It had been developed from the D.520 fighter, but with modifications to increase its speed that included a reduced wing span and limited fuel capacity. On 23 October the D.550 reached 420 mph at 19,680 feet, an increase of 90 mph over the D.520. Its military potential was quickly recognised, and work began on the D.551.
The D.551 used the Hispano-Suiza 12Y51 engine, giving 1,300 hp. It was to be armed with five 7.5mm machine guns, one in the engine and four in the wings. It was designed to be easy to produce, and it was hoped that it would only need 4,000 man hours per aircraft. Work advanced quickly at the SNCAM plant at Bagneres-de-Bigorre. Sixteen prototype aircraft were ordered by the French Air Force, and two more built privately by Dewoitine, but none were complete when work was stopped by the armistice (although five were close). The D.551 had an estimated speed of 411 mph at 19,680 feet.
Plans were also in place to produce the D.552, which would have had an additional pair of machine guns in the wings. Two D.551s were converted to unarmed sports planes under the D.560 designation. These aircraft were ready by January 1941, but were then forbidden to fly. All eighteen D.551s were then scrapped.
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In 1939 Emile Dewoitine had built the D.550 to make an attempt on the air speed record. It had been developed from the D.520 fighter, but with modifications to increase its speed that included a reduced wing span and limited fuel capacity. On 23 October the D.550 reached 420 mph at 19,680 feet, an increase of 90 mph over the D.520. Its military potential was quickly recognised, and work began on the D.551.
The D.551 used the Hispano-Suiza 12Y51 engine, giving 1,300 hp. It was to be armed with five 7.5mm machine guns, one in the engine and four in the wings. It was designed to be easy to produce, and it was hoped that it would only need 4,000 man hours per aircraft. Work advanced quickly at the SNCAM plant at Bagneres-de-Bigorre. Sixteen prototype aircraft were ordered by the French Air Force, and two more built privately by Dewoitine, but none were complete when work was stopped by the armistice (although five were close). The D.551 had an estimated speed of 411 mph at 19,680 feet.
Plans were also in place to produce the D.552, which would have had an additional pair of machine guns in the wings. Two D.551s were converted to unarmed sports planes under the D.560 designation. These aircraft were ready by January 1941, but were then forbidden to fly. All eighteen D.551s were then scrapped.
| 370
|
ENGLISH
| 1
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Concussions are seen as a common thing for kids. Just a bump on the head. It is actually much more serious. Concussions are in fact “mild traumatic brain injuries”. Research was conducted on the medical records of 434 children. Here is what was found:
• 341 of these had a traumatic brain injury
• 32 percent of the 341 had been diagnosed with a concussion
• Many kids were sent back to school and into regular activities prior to when they should have been
• When children are permitted back to school before they should it results in a higher risk (twice as likely) for a second injury
Due to these results it has been questioned if a concussion has a reputation of less severity than reality. It is proposed that concussions should be renamed as “brain injuries” to help people see that concussions are more severe than thought. It was also found in the study that when children were diagnosed with a concussion they were released earlier than if the child was diagnosed with a “brain injury”, though they are completely the same thing. Concussions do leave lasting symptoms which may be very subtle, such as balance.
|
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CC-MAIN-2024-10
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https://www.qualityprescriptiondrugs.com/concussions-are-minor-traumatic-brain-injuries/
|
s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2024-10/segments/1707948217723.97/warc/CC-MAIN-20240305024700-20240305054700-00316.warc.gz
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en
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] | 1
|
Concussions are seen as a common thing for kids. Just a bump on the head. It is actually much more serious. Concussions are in fact “mild traumatic brain injuries”. Research was conducted on the medical records of 434 children. Here is what was found:
• 341 of these had a traumatic brain injury
• 32 percent of the 341 had been diagnosed with a concussion
• Many kids were sent back to school and into regular activities prior to when they should have been
• When children are permitted back to school before they should it results in a higher risk (twice as likely) for a second injury
Due to these results it has been questioned if a concussion has a reputation of less severity than reality. It is proposed that concussions should be renamed as “brain injuries” to help people see that concussions are more severe than thought. It was also found in the study that when children were diagnosed with a concussion they were released earlier than if the child was diagnosed with a “brain injury”, though they are completely the same thing. Concussions do leave lasting symptoms which may be very subtle, such as balance.
| 239
|
ENGLISH
| 1
|
During the 1950s to 1960s the rise of Civil Rights for black Americans started to become a very widely covered social issue in the media. There were many minority groups in the US that were experiencing social restrictions such as black Americans who had the biggest and most segregated group of them all. The movie “The Help” shows a great depiction of the restrictions to black people in the 1960s. The movie shows an overall picture but really focuses on the social situations of black woman who worked as maids for white families. There are many examples shown throughout the film about how their social situation created many limitation of opportunities for them. Two of the biggest and most notable limitations shown in the movie would be the social …show more content…
One of the biggest highlighted event in the movie would be when the white people made separate bathrooms for the black people in their houses. People were disgusted about the idea of having to use the same toilet as a black person because of the “diseases” they carry and wanted seperate bathrooms. This was also just another way that white people to keep blacks under them by making them feel inferior. We also have the case of the segregated buses where the white sit in the front and black sit in the back. At this point of the movie a young black man had gotten shot and the driver boarded the bus to kick off all the black people just by saying “colored people off”. There was no reason for them to do so but they left fast and peacefully because they knew they would be in trouble if they refused. It was a dangerous time for them to be outside after the man was killed but they had no choice in the matter. This just goes to show how the separate places for the black and white played a huge role in keeping black inferior to whites and keep the social limitations upon them.
In Conclusion, during the 1960s the social situation of black Americans played a huge role in limiting their opportunities in in the American society. They were unfairly treated within this time just because of the ideals that black people were inferior to white people. The ideals of the white people and the segregation they had in many different ways played a huge role in keeping it so that the black people during this time would be kept under whites. With the circumstances the black people lived in it made it impossible for any black Americans to have access to more
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The 1950s were a time of turmoil between Blacks and Whites. Caught amid racism and segregation, blacks were viewed as inferior to whites, which resulted in unfair treatment by whites in almost all socio-economic circumstance. Hospitals and medical (facilities) were no exception, African-Americans were looked upon as test subjects rather than human beings, doctor’s experimented on black patients without proper consent. (from them). One instance where this occurred was Henrietta Lacks from the book, The Immortal Life of Henrietta Lacks by Rebecca Skloot.
The 1960s was a difficult time for America. African-Americans were seeking to be become officially free and to secure the right to vote through the civil rights movement. The White Governor Wallace and his allies drew in every available resource to stem the tide of progress on segregation. While Dr. Martin Luther King Jr. being of colored skin, wanted to advance this progress to secure blacks their rights. The main issue was on whether to keep the statues que on segregation or change it for every human being has their rights.
Their schools and buildings were severely underfunded and not properly maintained. Blacks could not socialize with white people in public or they risked being arrested. “A black male could not offer his hand (to shake hands) with a white male because it
African Americans face a struggle with racism which has been present in our country before the Civil War began in 1861. America still faces racism today however, around the 1920’s the daily life of an African American slowly began to improve. Thus, this time period was known by many, as the “Negro Fad” (O’Neill). The quality of life and freedom of African Americans that lived in the United States was constantly evolving and never completely considered ‘equal’. From being enslaved, to fighting for their freedom, African Americans were greatly changing the status quo and beginning to make their mark in the United States.
Nazish S. Quraishi Professor Ahmadi ENGL 101-13 10 January 2016 Courage Triumphs over Racism The film “The Help” (November 24, 2011) of genre historical fiction directed and scripted by Tate Taylor is a faithful adaptation of the bestseller novel The Help penned by Kathryn Stockett. It is a story about how three women team up to form an alliance and secretively work on a writing project that would be shunned otherwise. The film portrayed the time when segregation existed between the whites and the blacks to be specific in the early 1960s in Jackson, Mississippi. The film began with a flash-forward scene where Aibileen a black domestic maid is being interviewed, how it feels to work for a white family?
According to the play’s story, Troy Maxson is the main character of the play. He is a bit of a complicated character. He is a very stubborn, self-centered person who lives in his own world. He created his own illusions and lived in them. Troy’s actions throughout the play are influenced by his way of thinking, broken child hood, and past mistakes.
Introduction: There are many social movements that happen changed the society. For example feminist movement, civil rights movement, Arab spring movement, children rights movement, ect. In this paper I choose to write about civil rights movement, which it is one of the most important movements that happened. It led to transforming of all aspect of social, political, and cultural American life.
Black women are treated less than because of their ascribed traits, their gender and race, and are often dehumanized and belittled throughout the movie. They are treated like slaves and are seen as easily disposable. There are several moments throughout the film that show the racial, gender, and class inequalities. These moments also show exploitation and opportunity hoarding. The Help also explains historical context of the inequality that occurred during that time period.
The last part of the film that I found interesting the group of activist called the Freedom Riders. The Freedom Riders where a small group of activists, both black and white, who decided to travel by bus through the Deep South, where segregation in bus facilities wasn't just the custom; it was the law. (Let Freedom Ring) The Freedom Riders consist of 7 white students and 6 black students. The mission was to desegregated bus terminals throughout the south.
The Help (2011) directed by Tate Taylor, is an inspirational, courageous and empowering story about Southern women in the 1960s. It's the story of the help: the black maids of Jackson, Mississippi, and the relationship with their white employers. The central theme of the film is courage, and how the characters embrace courage to overcome obstacles and fight for social justice. Whether it is their ability to deviate from in-group norms, or overcome fear, courage is essential throughout the characters' journeys. In this essay, I will analyse the situations endured by the characters, and how they respond to these situations with courage.
1.0 INTRODUCTION The Help is an example of American drama film. It was released in August 9, 2011 and its length was 146 minutes and directed by Tate Taylor. The film was adapted to a novel, where there has been a long tradition of African- American women serving as “The Help” for upper-middle class white woman and their families. Descriptions of historical events of the early activities of thecivil rights movement are peppered throughout the novel, as are interactions between the maids and their white employers.
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During the 1950s to 1960s the rise of Civil Rights for black Americans started to become a very widely covered social issue in the media. There were many minority groups in the US that were experiencing social restrictions such as black Americans who had the biggest and most segregated group of them all. The movie “The Help” shows a great depiction of the restrictions to black people in the 1960s. The movie shows an overall picture but really focuses on the social situations of black woman who worked as maids for white families. There are many examples shown throughout the film about how their social situation created many limitation of opportunities for them. Two of the biggest and most notable limitations shown in the movie would be the social …show more content…
One of the biggest highlighted event in the movie would be when the white people made separate bathrooms for the black people in their houses. People were disgusted about the idea of having to use the same toilet as a black person because of the “diseases” they carry and wanted seperate bathrooms. This was also just another way that white people to keep blacks under them by making them feel inferior. We also have the case of the segregated buses where the white sit in the front and black sit in the back. At this point of the movie a young black man had gotten shot and the driver boarded the bus to kick off all the black people just by saying “colored people off”. There was no reason for them to do so but they left fast and peacefully because they knew they would be in trouble if they refused. It was a dangerous time for them to be outside after the man was killed but they had no choice in the matter. This just goes to show how the separate places for the black and white played a huge role in keeping black inferior to whites and keep the social limitations upon them.
In Conclusion, during the 1960s the social situation of black Americans played a huge role in limiting their opportunities in in the American society. They were unfairly treated within this time just because of the ideals that black people were inferior to white people. The ideals of the white people and the segregation they had in many different ways played a huge role in keeping it so that the black people during this time would be kept under whites. With the circumstances the black people lived in it made it impossible for any black Americans to have access to more
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The 1950s were a time of turmoil between Blacks and Whites. Caught amid racism and segregation, blacks were viewed as inferior to whites, which resulted in unfair treatment by whites in almost all socio-economic circumstance. Hospitals and medical (facilities) were no exception, African-Americans were looked upon as test subjects rather than human beings, doctor’s experimented on black patients without proper consent. (from them). One instance where this occurred was Henrietta Lacks from the book, The Immortal Life of Henrietta Lacks by Rebecca Skloot.
The 1960s was a difficult time for America. African-Americans were seeking to be become officially free and to secure the right to vote through the civil rights movement. The White Governor Wallace and his allies drew in every available resource to stem the tide of progress on segregation. While Dr. Martin Luther King Jr. being of colored skin, wanted to advance this progress to secure blacks their rights. The main issue was on whether to keep the statues que on segregation or change it for every human being has their rights.
Their schools and buildings were severely underfunded and not properly maintained. Blacks could not socialize with white people in public or they risked being arrested. “A black male could not offer his hand (to shake hands) with a white male because it
African Americans face a struggle with racism which has been present in our country before the Civil War began in 1861. America still faces racism today however, around the 1920’s the daily life of an African American slowly began to improve. Thus, this time period was known by many, as the “Negro Fad” (O’Neill). The quality of life and freedom of African Americans that lived in the United States was constantly evolving and never completely considered ‘equal’. From being enslaved, to fighting for their freedom, African Americans were greatly changing the status quo and beginning to make their mark in the United States.
Nazish S. Quraishi Professor Ahmadi ENGL 101-13 10 January 2016 Courage Triumphs over Racism The film “The Help” (November 24, 2011) of genre historical fiction directed and scripted by Tate Taylor is a faithful adaptation of the bestseller novel The Help penned by Kathryn Stockett. It is a story about how three women team up to form an alliance and secretively work on a writing project that would be shunned otherwise. The film portrayed the time when segregation existed between the whites and the blacks to be specific in the early 1960s in Jackson, Mississippi. The film began with a flash-forward scene where Aibileen a black domestic maid is being interviewed, how it feels to work for a white family?
According to the play’s story, Troy Maxson is the main character of the play. He is a bit of a complicated character. He is a very stubborn, self-centered person who lives in his own world. He created his own illusions and lived in them. Troy’s actions throughout the play are influenced by his way of thinking, broken child hood, and past mistakes.
Introduction: There are many social movements that happen changed the society. For example feminist movement, civil rights movement, Arab spring movement, children rights movement, ect. In this paper I choose to write about civil rights movement, which it is one of the most important movements that happened. It led to transforming of all aspect of social, political, and cultural American life.
Black women are treated less than because of their ascribed traits, their gender and race, and are often dehumanized and belittled throughout the movie. They are treated like slaves and are seen as easily disposable. There are several moments throughout the film that show the racial, gender, and class inequalities. These moments also show exploitation and opportunity hoarding. The Help also explains historical context of the inequality that occurred during that time period.
The last part of the film that I found interesting the group of activist called the Freedom Riders. The Freedom Riders where a small group of activists, both black and white, who decided to travel by bus through the Deep South, where segregation in bus facilities wasn't just the custom; it was the law. (Let Freedom Ring) The Freedom Riders consist of 7 white students and 6 black students. The mission was to desegregated bus terminals throughout the south.
The Help (2011) directed by Tate Taylor, is an inspirational, courageous and empowering story about Southern women in the 1960s. It's the story of the help: the black maids of Jackson, Mississippi, and the relationship with their white employers. The central theme of the film is courage, and how the characters embrace courage to overcome obstacles and fight for social justice. Whether it is their ability to deviate from in-group norms, or overcome fear, courage is essential throughout the characters' journeys. In this essay, I will analyse the situations endured by the characters, and how they respond to these situations with courage.
1.0 INTRODUCTION The Help is an example of American drama film. It was released in August 9, 2011 and its length was 146 minutes and directed by Tate Taylor. The film was adapted to a novel, where there has been a long tradition of African- American women serving as “The Help” for upper-middle class white woman and their families. Descriptions of historical events of the early activities of thecivil rights movement are peppered throughout the novel, as are interactions between the maids and their white employers.
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How is the 24th Amendment used today?
Similarly one may ask, how does the 24th Amendment protect citizens?
The Twenty-fourth Amendment (Amendment XXIV) of the United States Constitution prohibits both Congress and the states from conditioning the right to vote in federal elections on payment of a poll tax or other types of tax.
Subsequently, one may also ask, what was the effect of the 24th Amendment?
Not long ago, citizens in some states had to pay a fee to vote in a national election. This fee was called a poll tax. On January 23, 1964, the United States ratified the 24th Amendment to the Constitution, prohibiting any poll tax in elections for federal officials.
This method was used by most Southern states to exclude African Americans from voting. Poll taxes were declared void by the Twenty-fourth Amendment in 1964. It outlawed taxing voters, i.e. poll taxes, at presidential or congressional elections, as an effort to remove barriers to Black voters.
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] | 1
|
How is the 24th Amendment used today?
Similarly one may ask, how does the 24th Amendment protect citizens?
The Twenty-fourth Amendment (Amendment XXIV) of the United States Constitution prohibits both Congress and the states from conditioning the right to vote in federal elections on payment of a poll tax or other types of tax.
Subsequently, one may also ask, what was the effect of the 24th Amendment?
Not long ago, citizens in some states had to pay a fee to vote in a national election. This fee was called a poll tax. On January 23, 1964, the United States ratified the 24th Amendment to the Constitution, prohibiting any poll tax in elections for federal officials.
This method was used by most Southern states to exclude African Americans from voting. Poll taxes were declared void by the Twenty-fourth Amendment in 1964. It outlawed taxing voters, i.e. poll taxes, at presidential or congressional elections, as an effort to remove barriers to Black voters.
| 215
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ENGLISH
| 1
|
Tank commander by Ronald Welch, illustrated by Victor G. Ambrus (OUP, 1972)
14 chapters; 182 pages with occasional pen and ink sketches
Subjects: World War One, France, Ypres, Mons, deserters, tanks, junior fiction (Year 8-10)
At the start of the book, John Carey is a Second Lieutenant with the West Glamorgans, who are comfortably ensconced in the regimental barracks at Tidworth. It is August 1914 and war is imminent. There is one last ceremonial regimental dinner, complete with Georgian silver service, toasts and cigars, before the dress clothes are packed away and everyone sets off for war.
Ronald Welch is very good on battle strategy, he understands how and where battles are fought, and he shows how the First World War marked the end of traditional cavalry regiments. You couldn’t use cavalry in trench warfare, because they simply got mown down. He also explains how and why tanks were first used, what they were good for and what they could and couldn’t do.
However, despite the comments quoted later, this book would be unlikely to be read in the same way today as it was when first published.
For a start, there are NO WOMEN in the whole book. Even the medical staff are men. No - actually - there are two women in London who give John a white feather because he is in mufti, but by then he has already been in the trenches and wounded and decorated and it is the tradition for his Battalion to wear mufti on leave, so you get the impression those women are a bit dim because they don't understand anything.
There is little reflection on the awful toll of war, although it’s hard to know if this book was written in 1972 to reflect attitudes prevalent in WW1, or if those attitudes were still prevalent in 1972. (In the Historical note at the back, the author notes that in 1972, the year it was published, “there were still 78,000 men in Britain drawing disability allowances from wounds received in the 1914-18 War.”)
For example, the chapter on Desertion, where Private Tyler is courtmartialled and sentenced to death, shows no sensitivity to his plight (at one stage, John and his senior officer are discussing Gilbert and Sullivan operas); the man is simply treated as a despicable coward. “John stepped back, trying to free himself from the grip of those desperate fingers. He stared with revulsion and horror at that moaning, scrabbling figure on the floor at his feet.” (Compare that with Private Peaceful or David Hill's My brother’s war.)
Some of the comments below compare Ronald Welch to Rosemary Sutcliffe, and I did enjoy her books as a child. It will be interesting to see how they fare on re-reading, and if her books are equally weighted in favour of male characters.
Ronald Welch (1909-1982) was writing well before the days of authors’ websites, and it wasn’t even his real name. He was born Ronald Oliver Fenton, in Wales, to English parents. He was a well-known author of children’s historical fiction, as well as being a history teacher and later headmaster. During World War Two, he fought in the Welch Regiment, and that was what he took his pen name from.
In 1955, he won the Carnegie Medal for the most outstanding children’s book of 1954 with Knight Crusader, which was the first in the Carey Family series. There are 12 books altogether, covering wars from the 12th to the 20th century, although they weren’t written in chronological order. Tank commander is the final title in the series (it has a Family Tree at the beginning), but not the last one to be published.
This website contains an interesting account of what he was like as a headmaster.
Bear Alley is a blog run by a freelance author and editor with a special interest in old British comics, books and magazines. Here he talks about Ronald Welch and his books,and his piece is followed by a string of enthusiastic comments from readers:
- I remember reading as many of Ronald Welch’s historical novels as I could manage, when I was a boy growing up in the 1960s.
- I devoured all his books as a child, through to my late teens. I read and re-read them all. From these books and those of C.S. Forester I gained a huge interest in History and Military History in particular.
- Ronald Welch’s and Rosemary Sutcliffe’s historical novels kindled my love of reading and history which has lasted all my life.
- Why isn’t somebody reprinting him?
- As a school librarian, I do not think that the calibre of these authors can be matched today, fantasy and chick lit are the popular genres.
- I think they’re too unreflective on Empire, Class and War for modern tastes, and not lyrical enough.
Info about the illustrator
Victor G. Ambrus (1935- ) was born in Budapest and is still alive – with a website! I’m not sure why I was so surprised, except that this book does have such an old-fashioned feel.
Here is an example of his illustrating style (from his website):
|The battle of Stamford Bridge
Things I didn’t know:
- Tanks in WW1:
|A WW1 tank
Here's another article about them with some more fascinating pictures.
- New words in the war:
I went looking for other examples and found a post on language of the First World War. There was “camouflage” again:
“Many words which emerged at the time have clear associations with the conflict, such as camouflage, blimp, aerobatics, demob and shell shock.”
If you’re interested, you could also follow up the derivation of other war words such as Blighty, cushy or strafe.
- Officers in the British Army
I knew that officers in the British Army traditionally came from the upper classes. It was a well-recognised career path for a younger son.
However I didn’t realise that this was made inevitable by low rates of pay. According to Ronald Welch, “the pay of a Second Lieutenant was 5/3 per day and his Mess Bill 7/6 without any drinks at all. Not even Senior Officers could live on their pay and a private income was essential. A thousand a year in some regiments, six hundred at least in many more, and not far short of four hundred the absolute minimum. John knew of several officers in the room who were heavily in debt, and to them the coming war, if they survived it, would be an enormous relief.”
- The Battle of Waterloo:
John Carey’s first experience of war is at Mons, in Belgium. “For the first time in ninety-nine years the British army was fighting again in western Europe… It was quite possible, John thought, remembering his Military History, that some of those men falling as British bullets hit them were grandsons of the Prussian soldiers who had made a forced march ninety-nine years ago on another Sunday, not so very far to the north of Mons, so that they could fight with their British allies, already fiercely engaged in battle at a place called Waterloo.”
That means that 2015 is also the bicentenary of that battle - which is a complete diversion, but still interesting.
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] | 1
|
Tank commander by Ronald Welch, illustrated by Victor G. Ambrus (OUP, 1972)
14 chapters; 182 pages with occasional pen and ink sketches
Subjects: World War One, France, Ypres, Mons, deserters, tanks, junior fiction (Year 8-10)
At the start of the book, John Carey is a Second Lieutenant with the West Glamorgans, who are comfortably ensconced in the regimental barracks at Tidworth. It is August 1914 and war is imminent. There is one last ceremonial regimental dinner, complete with Georgian silver service, toasts and cigars, before the dress clothes are packed away and everyone sets off for war.
Ronald Welch is very good on battle strategy, he understands how and where battles are fought, and he shows how the First World War marked the end of traditional cavalry regiments. You couldn’t use cavalry in trench warfare, because they simply got mown down. He also explains how and why tanks were first used, what they were good for and what they could and couldn’t do.
However, despite the comments quoted later, this book would be unlikely to be read in the same way today as it was when first published.
For a start, there are NO WOMEN in the whole book. Even the medical staff are men. No - actually - there are two women in London who give John a white feather because he is in mufti, but by then he has already been in the trenches and wounded and decorated and it is the tradition for his Battalion to wear mufti on leave, so you get the impression those women are a bit dim because they don't understand anything.
There is little reflection on the awful toll of war, although it’s hard to know if this book was written in 1972 to reflect attitudes prevalent in WW1, or if those attitudes were still prevalent in 1972. (In the Historical note at the back, the author notes that in 1972, the year it was published, “there were still 78,000 men in Britain drawing disability allowances from wounds received in the 1914-18 War.”)
For example, the chapter on Desertion, where Private Tyler is courtmartialled and sentenced to death, shows no sensitivity to his plight (at one stage, John and his senior officer are discussing Gilbert and Sullivan operas); the man is simply treated as a despicable coward. “John stepped back, trying to free himself from the grip of those desperate fingers. He stared with revulsion and horror at that moaning, scrabbling figure on the floor at his feet.” (Compare that with Private Peaceful or David Hill's My brother’s war.)
Some of the comments below compare Ronald Welch to Rosemary Sutcliffe, and I did enjoy her books as a child. It will be interesting to see how they fare on re-reading, and if her books are equally weighted in favour of male characters.
Ronald Welch (1909-1982) was writing well before the days of authors’ websites, and it wasn’t even his real name. He was born Ronald Oliver Fenton, in Wales, to English parents. He was a well-known author of children’s historical fiction, as well as being a history teacher and later headmaster. During World War Two, he fought in the Welch Regiment, and that was what he took his pen name from.
In 1955, he won the Carnegie Medal for the most outstanding children’s book of 1954 with Knight Crusader, which was the first in the Carey Family series. There are 12 books altogether, covering wars from the 12th to the 20th century, although they weren’t written in chronological order. Tank commander is the final title in the series (it has a Family Tree at the beginning), but not the last one to be published.
This website contains an interesting account of what he was like as a headmaster.
Bear Alley is a blog run by a freelance author and editor with a special interest in old British comics, books and magazines. Here he talks about Ronald Welch and his books,and his piece is followed by a string of enthusiastic comments from readers:
- I remember reading as many of Ronald Welch’s historical novels as I could manage, when I was a boy growing up in the 1960s.
- I devoured all his books as a child, through to my late teens. I read and re-read them all. From these books and those of C.S. Forester I gained a huge interest in History and Military History in particular.
- Ronald Welch’s and Rosemary Sutcliffe’s historical novels kindled my love of reading and history which has lasted all my life.
- Why isn’t somebody reprinting him?
- As a school librarian, I do not think that the calibre of these authors can be matched today, fantasy and chick lit are the popular genres.
- I think they’re too unreflective on Empire, Class and War for modern tastes, and not lyrical enough.
Info about the illustrator
Victor G. Ambrus (1935- ) was born in Budapest and is still alive – with a website! I’m not sure why I was so surprised, except that this book does have such an old-fashioned feel.
Here is an example of his illustrating style (from his website):
|The battle of Stamford Bridge
Things I didn’t know:
- Tanks in WW1:
|A WW1 tank
Here's another article about them with some more fascinating pictures.
- New words in the war:
I went looking for other examples and found a post on language of the First World War. There was “camouflage” again:
“Many words which emerged at the time have clear associations with the conflict, such as camouflage, blimp, aerobatics, demob and shell shock.”
If you’re interested, you could also follow up the derivation of other war words such as Blighty, cushy or strafe.
- Officers in the British Army
I knew that officers in the British Army traditionally came from the upper classes. It was a well-recognised career path for a younger son.
However I didn’t realise that this was made inevitable by low rates of pay. According to Ronald Welch, “the pay of a Second Lieutenant was 5/3 per day and his Mess Bill 7/6 without any drinks at all. Not even Senior Officers could live on their pay and a private income was essential. A thousand a year in some regiments, six hundred at least in many more, and not far short of four hundred the absolute minimum. John knew of several officers in the room who were heavily in debt, and to them the coming war, if they survived it, would be an enormous relief.”
- The Battle of Waterloo:
John Carey’s first experience of war is at Mons, in Belgium. “For the first time in ninety-nine years the British army was fighting again in western Europe… It was quite possible, John thought, remembering his Military History, that some of those men falling as British bullets hit them were grandsons of the Prussian soldiers who had made a forced march ninety-nine years ago on another Sunday, not so very far to the north of Mons, so that they could fight with their British allies, already fiercely engaged in battle at a place called Waterloo.”
That means that 2015 is also the bicentenary of that battle - which is a complete diversion, but still interesting.
| 1,562
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Mary, Queen of Scots Home Page
|Arbroath Abbey is famous for being the site of the Declaration of Arbroath, a document addressed to the Pope in 1320 and in which the Scots rebelled against English domination and swore allegiance to the excommunicated Robert the Bruce. Arbroath Abbey was built in 1178 by William the Lyon to commemorate the death of his friend, Thomas Beckett. It housed Tironensian monks who were allowed considerable trading privileges. The monks were vegetarian and were allowed two meals a day, the first meal being served around noon although they got up in the middle of the night for a church service. On feast days, the monks were allowed to eat fish while two-legged animals such as chicken and other birds were also considered acceptable "vegetarian" food!
|Arbroath Abbey church in its heyday would have been impressive to look at. The high altar was situated at the top of the church, and was where daily masses were celebrated. However, there were a total of twelve altars, with their own chapels at which daily masses also took place.
Click here to see a representation of the nave
|The Sacristy consisted of a main chamber built with a floor above and only three windows. A smaller chamber may have been a strongroom but in the 18th century it held declared lunatics and was called "Jenny Batter's Hole" after its last occupant. Another doorway above the entrance to the small ground-floor chamber, leads to a small room. This may have been a secure treasury, reached by a timber stair or ladder.
When Mary visited the Abbey during a progress in 1562, she stayed at the Abbot's House. The Abbot's house served as private accommodation separated from that of the monks as well as a place to entertain the Abbot's guests. It was connected to the main cloister by the abbey kitchens. The guests were housed in the guesthouse which was added in the late 13th or early 14th century. The monks used the covered cloister walk on the south side of the church as a place for exercise, contemplation and study.
Click here to see a representation of Abbot's House and covered cloister.
After the Reformation in 1561 though, this great abbey became a quarry and much of the stone was used to build important buildings in the town, like the tolbooth. It was not until the abbey came into state care in 1924 that genuine conservation efforts were applied.
|Open all year. Tel.: 44+ (0)1241 878756. The Abbey also has a very interesting Visitor's Centre displaying the Declaration of Arbroath document.
Back to more places
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Mary, Queen of Scots Home Page
|Arbroath Abbey is famous for being the site of the Declaration of Arbroath, a document addressed to the Pope in 1320 and in which the Scots rebelled against English domination and swore allegiance to the excommunicated Robert the Bruce. Arbroath Abbey was built in 1178 by William the Lyon to commemorate the death of his friend, Thomas Beckett. It housed Tironensian monks who were allowed considerable trading privileges. The monks were vegetarian and were allowed two meals a day, the first meal being served around noon although they got up in the middle of the night for a church service. On feast days, the monks were allowed to eat fish while two-legged animals such as chicken and other birds were also considered acceptable "vegetarian" food!
|Arbroath Abbey church in its heyday would have been impressive to look at. The high altar was situated at the top of the church, and was where daily masses were celebrated. However, there were a total of twelve altars, with their own chapels at which daily masses also took place.
Click here to see a representation of the nave
|The Sacristy consisted of a main chamber built with a floor above and only three windows. A smaller chamber may have been a strongroom but in the 18th century it held declared lunatics and was called "Jenny Batter's Hole" after its last occupant. Another doorway above the entrance to the small ground-floor chamber, leads to a small room. This may have been a secure treasury, reached by a timber stair or ladder.
When Mary visited the Abbey during a progress in 1562, she stayed at the Abbot's House. The Abbot's house served as private accommodation separated from that of the monks as well as a place to entertain the Abbot's guests. It was connected to the main cloister by the abbey kitchens. The guests were housed in the guesthouse which was added in the late 13th or early 14th century. The monks used the covered cloister walk on the south side of the church as a place for exercise, contemplation and study.
Click here to see a representation of Abbot's House and covered cloister.
After the Reformation in 1561 though, this great abbey became a quarry and much of the stone was used to build important buildings in the town, like the tolbooth. It was not until the abbey came into state care in 1924 that genuine conservation efforts were applied.
|Open all year. Tel.: 44+ (0)1241 878756. The Abbey also has a very interesting Visitor's Centre displaying the Declaration of Arbroath document.
Back to more places
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ENGLISH
| 1
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A Catalyst article about Darwin's travels on the Beagle which gave him ideas about evolution. Darwin spent almost five years on board HMS Beagle as it sailed around the world. The purpose of the voyage was to map navigation channels around the coast of South America. Darwin was the ship’s naturalist and companion to the captain.
This article is from Catalyst: GCSE Science Review 2009, Volume 19, Issue 4.
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A Catalyst article about Darwin's travels on the Beagle which gave him ideas about evolution. Darwin spent almost five years on board HMS Beagle as it sailed around the world. The purpose of the voyage was to map navigation channels around the coast of South America. Darwin was the ship’s naturalist and companion to the captain.
This article is from Catalyst: GCSE Science Review 2009, Volume 19, Issue 4.
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| 182
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ENGLISH
| 1
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The scientist has an idea as to what the results will be. What is this idea called?
A scientist is studying the effects high levels of processed grains have on the mind by feeding them to rats. The scientist has an idea in his head as to what the results will be, but he would like to confirm this. His idea is that rats fed with highly processed grains will not think as clearly as those fed a healthier diet. To perform his experiment, he feeds a specific amount of highly processed grains to one sample of rats for a set amount of time, while the others are fed a diet of plant-based foods. Each set of rats is then sent through a maze individually and timed to determine the speed at which they are able to solve the maze.
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The scientist has an idea as to what the results will be. What is this idea called?
A scientist is studying the effects high levels of processed grains have on the mind by feeding them to rats. The scientist has an idea in his head as to what the results will be, but he would like to confirm this. His idea is that rats fed with highly processed grains will not think as clearly as those fed a healthier diet. To perform his experiment, he feeds a specific amount of highly processed grains to one sample of rats for a set amount of time, while the others are fed a diet of plant-based foods. Each set of rats is then sent through a maze individually and timed to determine the speed at which they are able to solve the maze.
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Let's continue studying where you left off.
| 171
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ENGLISH
| 1
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In 1965, Indonesian president Sukarno was overthrown in a military coup and replaced by General Suharto. How did Sukarno take over Indonesia in the first place?
Sukarno was born in 1906 in Surabaya, East Java. He was educated in Indonesia and the Netherlands, and became politically active in the 1930s. He was appointed prime minister in 1945, after Indonesia’s independence from the Dutch, and became president the following year.
Sukarno was a charismatic leader, and he sought to promote Indonesian nationalism and socialism. He also sought to balance the interests of different groups in Indonesia, including the army, the communist party, and Islamic groups.
However, by the 1960s, Sukarno’s rule was becoming increasingly authoritarian. He was also facing increasing opposition from the army and other groups. In 1965, a group of army officers led a military coup and overthrew Sukarno. Suharto became president and ruled Indonesia with a much firmer hand.
How did Suharto rule Indonesia?
Suharto was the second president of Indonesia, serving from 1967 until his resignation in 1998. He came to power in a bloodless coup in 1965 and ruled Indonesia with an iron fist for more than three decades. Under his rule, Indonesia experienced significant economic growth and political stability, but also widespread human rights abuses.
Suharto came to power in 1965 after leading a military coup that overthrew the democratically-elected government of Sukarno. He ruled Indonesia with an iron fist, maintaining a tight grip on the country’s political and economic systems. He was a staunch ally of the United States, and his regime received significant financial and military support from Washington.
Under Suharto’s rule, Indonesia experienced significant economic growth. The country’s GDP quadrupled between 1970 and 1990, and poverty was reduced significantly. Political stability was also maintained during Suharto’s tenure, with only a few minor coups taking place.
However, Suharto’s rule was also marred by widespread human rights abuses. The military and security forces were regularly used to suppress dissent, and political opposition was ruthlessly crushed. Corruption was also rampant during Suharto’s tenure, with the president and his family amassing a vast fortune.
In May 1998, Suharto was forced to resign following widespread protests and riots. He was later charged with corruption and abuse of power, but was never convicted. He died in 2008.
What did Ahmed Sukarno do?
Ahmed Sukarno, also known as Achmed Sukarno, was the first president of Indonesia, serving from 1945 to 1967. He played a pivotal role in the country’s transition from a Dutch colony to an independent republic. Sukarno was also a leader of the non-aligned movement and helped to found the Asian-African Conference. He is considered a national hero in Indonesia.
Sukarno was born on June 6, 1901, in Surabaya, East Java. After completing high school, he went to the Netherlands to study law at the University of Leiden. While in the Netherlands, he became involved in the Indonesian nationalist movement, and in 1920 he helped to establish the Indonesian National Party (PNI).
In 1945, Sukarno was elected president of the newly independent Republic of Indonesia. He quickly became involved in a struggle for power with the country’s military leaders. In 1957, he was forced to resign as president and went into exile in Japan.
However, Sukarno was eventually able to return to Indonesia and resume his role as president. He remained in power until 1967, when he was overthrown in a military coup. He died on June 21, 1970, in Jakarta.
Sukarno was a highly controversial figure during his time as president of Indonesia. He was praised for his efforts to achieve independence for his country, but he was also criticized for his authoritarian tendencies and his close ties to the Indonesian Communist Party. Nevertheless, Sukarno is considered a national hero in Indonesia and is widely admired for his role in the country’s history.
Was Indonesia a democracy before Sukarno?
On August 17, 1945, Sukarno was declared the first president of Indonesia, a newly-independent country. But was Indonesia a democracy before Sukarno?
The short answer is no. Indonesia was not a democracy before Sukarno, but it was on the path to becoming one.
Sukarno was a leader of the Indonesian nationalist movement, and he played a key role in the country’s fight for independence from the Netherlands. After independence was achieved, Sukarno became the first president of the Republic of Indonesia.
Sukarno was a dictator and did not believe in democracy. He instead believed in a type of government called “guided democracy.” Under Sukarno’s rule, the Indonesian government was not a true democracy, but it was more democratic than it had been under Dutch rule.
Sukarno was eventually overthrown in a military coup and replaced by Suharto, who became the second president of Indonesia. Suharto was a military general who believed in democracy and made Indonesia into a true democracy.
Who originally owned Indonesia?
The original owners of Indonesia were the indigenous people who lived there for centuries before the arrival of European colonial powers. The Dutch East India Company was the first European power to establish a presence in Indonesia in the early 17th century, and eventually the Dutch Republic became the dominant colonial power in the region. The Dutch exercised control over Indonesia for over three centuries, until the country gained its independence in 1949.
Who colonized Indonesia first?
The question of who colonized Indonesia first is a complex one that has been debated by historians for many years. There are several different theories about how Indonesia was first colonized, and it is still not entirely clear which of these theories is correct. However, there are some theories that are more widely accepted than others.
One theory is that the Dutch colonized Indonesia first. This theory is based on the fact that the Dutch were the first Europeans to establish a presence in Indonesia, and they were the first to control most of the country. The Dutch began to colonize Indonesia in the early 17th century, and by the late 18th century they had control over most of the country.
Another theory is that the British colonized Indonesia first. This theory is based on the fact that the British were the first Europeans to establish a presence in Indonesia, and they were the first to control the port of Jakarta. The British began to colonize Indonesia in the early 19th century, and by the late 19th century they had control over most of the country.
However, it is also possible that the Portuguese colonized Indonesia first. This theory is based on the fact that the Portuguese were the first Europeans to establish a presence in Indonesia, and they were the first to control the port of Malacca. The Portuguese began to colonize Indonesia in the early 16th century, and by the late 16th century they had control over most of the country.
Ultimately, it is still not clear which of these theories is correct. However, the debate over who colonized Indonesia first is an interesting topic that has generated a lot of debate among historians.
What caused the fall of Sukarno?
On 1 October 1965, six Indonesian senior generals were kidnapped and executed, allegedly by members of the Indonesian Communist Party (PKI). The event, known as the Gestapu (or “false news”) coup, was used as justification by the Indonesian military to launch a counter-revolution and purge the PKI from Indonesian society. The massacre of alleged communists and their sympathisers, which is believed to have claimed the lives of up to 500,000 people, is known as the Indonesian genocide.
The fall of Sukarno, the first president of Indonesia, can be traced back to the events of 1 October 1965. After the execution of the six generals, Sukarno found himself increasingly isolated and powerless. The military, which was loyal to General Suharto, accused Sukarno of being complicit in the coup and began to manoeuvre against him. In March 1966, Suharto ousted Sukarno from power and installed himself as president.
There are several factors that contributed to the fall of Sukarno. These include the political instability that plagued Indonesia in the 1960s, the failed coup attempt by the PKI in 1965, and the increasing influence of the military in Indonesian politics.
Where did president Sukarno proclaim that Indonesia was free?
On 17 August 1945, Sukarno proclaimed Indonesia’s independence at the Hotel Merdeka in Jakarta. This event is celebrated every year as Indonesia’s Independence Day.
Indonesia had been occupied by the Japanese since 1942, and the country was in a state of chaos after the war ended. Sukarno and other nationalist leaders decided to declare independence in order to unite the country and protect it from possible retribution by the British and Dutch.
The proclamation was met with mixed reactions. The Dutch, who had colonized Indonesia for centuries, were not prepared to give up their colony. They sent troops to Indonesia to try to reinstate control, but they were eventually defeated by the Indonesian nationalists.
The proclamation of independence was a pivotal moment in Indonesian history, and it marked the beginning of the country’s struggle for sovereignty.
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In 1965, Indonesian president Sukarno was overthrown in a military coup and replaced by General Suharto. How did Sukarno take over Indonesia in the first place?
Sukarno was born in 1906 in Surabaya, East Java. He was educated in Indonesia and the Netherlands, and became politically active in the 1930s. He was appointed prime minister in 1945, after Indonesia’s independence from the Dutch, and became president the following year.
Sukarno was a charismatic leader, and he sought to promote Indonesian nationalism and socialism. He also sought to balance the interests of different groups in Indonesia, including the army, the communist party, and Islamic groups.
However, by the 1960s, Sukarno’s rule was becoming increasingly authoritarian. He was also facing increasing opposition from the army and other groups. In 1965, a group of army officers led a military coup and overthrew Sukarno. Suharto became president and ruled Indonesia with a much firmer hand.
How did Suharto rule Indonesia?
Suharto was the second president of Indonesia, serving from 1967 until his resignation in 1998. He came to power in a bloodless coup in 1965 and ruled Indonesia with an iron fist for more than three decades. Under his rule, Indonesia experienced significant economic growth and political stability, but also widespread human rights abuses.
Suharto came to power in 1965 after leading a military coup that overthrew the democratically-elected government of Sukarno. He ruled Indonesia with an iron fist, maintaining a tight grip on the country’s political and economic systems. He was a staunch ally of the United States, and his regime received significant financial and military support from Washington.
Under Suharto’s rule, Indonesia experienced significant economic growth. The country’s GDP quadrupled between 1970 and 1990, and poverty was reduced significantly. Political stability was also maintained during Suharto’s tenure, with only a few minor coups taking place.
However, Suharto’s rule was also marred by widespread human rights abuses. The military and security forces were regularly used to suppress dissent, and political opposition was ruthlessly crushed. Corruption was also rampant during Suharto’s tenure, with the president and his family amassing a vast fortune.
In May 1998, Suharto was forced to resign following widespread protests and riots. He was later charged with corruption and abuse of power, but was never convicted. He died in 2008.
What did Ahmed Sukarno do?
Ahmed Sukarno, also known as Achmed Sukarno, was the first president of Indonesia, serving from 1945 to 1967. He played a pivotal role in the country’s transition from a Dutch colony to an independent republic. Sukarno was also a leader of the non-aligned movement and helped to found the Asian-African Conference. He is considered a national hero in Indonesia.
Sukarno was born on June 6, 1901, in Surabaya, East Java. After completing high school, he went to the Netherlands to study law at the University of Leiden. While in the Netherlands, he became involved in the Indonesian nationalist movement, and in 1920 he helped to establish the Indonesian National Party (PNI).
In 1945, Sukarno was elected president of the newly independent Republic of Indonesia. He quickly became involved in a struggle for power with the country’s military leaders. In 1957, he was forced to resign as president and went into exile in Japan.
However, Sukarno was eventually able to return to Indonesia and resume his role as president. He remained in power until 1967, when he was overthrown in a military coup. He died on June 21, 1970, in Jakarta.
Sukarno was a highly controversial figure during his time as president of Indonesia. He was praised for his efforts to achieve independence for his country, but he was also criticized for his authoritarian tendencies and his close ties to the Indonesian Communist Party. Nevertheless, Sukarno is considered a national hero in Indonesia and is widely admired for his role in the country’s history.
Was Indonesia a democracy before Sukarno?
On August 17, 1945, Sukarno was declared the first president of Indonesia, a newly-independent country. But was Indonesia a democracy before Sukarno?
The short answer is no. Indonesia was not a democracy before Sukarno, but it was on the path to becoming one.
Sukarno was a leader of the Indonesian nationalist movement, and he played a key role in the country’s fight for independence from the Netherlands. After independence was achieved, Sukarno became the first president of the Republic of Indonesia.
Sukarno was a dictator and did not believe in democracy. He instead believed in a type of government called “guided democracy.” Under Sukarno’s rule, the Indonesian government was not a true democracy, but it was more democratic than it had been under Dutch rule.
Sukarno was eventually overthrown in a military coup and replaced by Suharto, who became the second president of Indonesia. Suharto was a military general who believed in democracy and made Indonesia into a true democracy.
Who originally owned Indonesia?
The original owners of Indonesia were the indigenous people who lived there for centuries before the arrival of European colonial powers. The Dutch East India Company was the first European power to establish a presence in Indonesia in the early 17th century, and eventually the Dutch Republic became the dominant colonial power in the region. The Dutch exercised control over Indonesia for over three centuries, until the country gained its independence in 1949.
Who colonized Indonesia first?
The question of who colonized Indonesia first is a complex one that has been debated by historians for many years. There are several different theories about how Indonesia was first colonized, and it is still not entirely clear which of these theories is correct. However, there are some theories that are more widely accepted than others.
One theory is that the Dutch colonized Indonesia first. This theory is based on the fact that the Dutch were the first Europeans to establish a presence in Indonesia, and they were the first to control most of the country. The Dutch began to colonize Indonesia in the early 17th century, and by the late 18th century they had control over most of the country.
Another theory is that the British colonized Indonesia first. This theory is based on the fact that the British were the first Europeans to establish a presence in Indonesia, and they were the first to control the port of Jakarta. The British began to colonize Indonesia in the early 19th century, and by the late 19th century they had control over most of the country.
However, it is also possible that the Portuguese colonized Indonesia first. This theory is based on the fact that the Portuguese were the first Europeans to establish a presence in Indonesia, and they were the first to control the port of Malacca. The Portuguese began to colonize Indonesia in the early 16th century, and by the late 16th century they had control over most of the country.
Ultimately, it is still not clear which of these theories is correct. However, the debate over who colonized Indonesia first is an interesting topic that has generated a lot of debate among historians.
What caused the fall of Sukarno?
On 1 October 1965, six Indonesian senior generals were kidnapped and executed, allegedly by members of the Indonesian Communist Party (PKI). The event, known as the Gestapu (or “false news”) coup, was used as justification by the Indonesian military to launch a counter-revolution and purge the PKI from Indonesian society. The massacre of alleged communists and their sympathisers, which is believed to have claimed the lives of up to 500,000 people, is known as the Indonesian genocide.
The fall of Sukarno, the first president of Indonesia, can be traced back to the events of 1 October 1965. After the execution of the six generals, Sukarno found himself increasingly isolated and powerless. The military, which was loyal to General Suharto, accused Sukarno of being complicit in the coup and began to manoeuvre against him. In March 1966, Suharto ousted Sukarno from power and installed himself as president.
There are several factors that contributed to the fall of Sukarno. These include the political instability that plagued Indonesia in the 1960s, the failed coup attempt by the PKI in 1965, and the increasing influence of the military in Indonesian politics.
Where did president Sukarno proclaim that Indonesia was free?
On 17 August 1945, Sukarno proclaimed Indonesia’s independence at the Hotel Merdeka in Jakarta. This event is celebrated every year as Indonesia’s Independence Day.
Indonesia had been occupied by the Japanese since 1942, and the country was in a state of chaos after the war ended. Sukarno and other nationalist leaders decided to declare independence in order to unite the country and protect it from possible retribution by the British and Dutch.
The proclamation was met with mixed reactions. The Dutch, who had colonized Indonesia for centuries, were not prepared to give up their colony. They sent troops to Indonesia to try to reinstate control, but they were eventually defeated by the Indonesian nationalists.
The proclamation of independence was a pivotal moment in Indonesian history, and it marked the beginning of the country’s struggle for sovereignty.
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Today in Year 3 we were learning all about Stonehenge. We learnt that it is one of the world’s most famous monuments and is found in Wiltshire. Lots of us have driven past and wondered how it had been created. We all knew that it was old and had lots of guesses for suggestions of how old it was, we now know that it dates back to the late Neolithic Age, around 3000BC! We looked at the features of the monument including the two bluestones which are the oldest stones at Stonehenge. The five stone arches known as trilithons, make up the horseshoe and these stones stand around seven metres tall. The outer circle was made from thirty standing stones called sarsens. We created our own Stonehenge from biscuits, which was trickier than it looked. We tried to include the key features we were learning about: the trilithons, sarsens and bluestones.
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Today in Year 3 we were learning all about Stonehenge. We learnt that it is one of the world’s most famous monuments and is found in Wiltshire. Lots of us have driven past and wondered how it had been created. We all knew that it was old and had lots of guesses for suggestions of how old it was, we now know that it dates back to the late Neolithic Age, around 3000BC! We looked at the features of the monument including the two bluestones which are the oldest stones at Stonehenge. The five stone arches known as trilithons, make up the horseshoe and these stones stand around seven metres tall. The outer circle was made from thirty standing stones called sarsens. We created our own Stonehenge from biscuits, which was trickier than it looked. We tried to include the key features we were learning about: the trilithons, sarsens and bluestones.
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ENGLISH
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Answer: Louis IX
Some extra relevant information:
Saint Louis, also known as Louis IX, was a renowned French monarch who ruled during the 13th century. This pious king is highly regarded for his devotion to justice, piety, and his contribution to the development of French law.
Born on April 25, 1214, Louis IX succeeded to the throne at the tender age of 12, following the death of his father, Louis VIII. Despite his young age, the young monarch demonstrated wisdom and maturity beyond his years, showing great potential for his future reign.
Louis IX was deeply religious and committed to upholding moral values. He was a devout Catholic, often attending multiple masses daily, and was known for his acts of piety. His commitment to his faith earned him the title of “Saint Louis” after his canonization, which took place in 1297, nearly three decades after his death.
During his reign, Saint Louis strove to ensure justice and fairness for his subjects. He implemented significant legal reforms, such as establishing royal courts in Paris that provided quick and fair judgments. His efforts to promote justice earned him the admiration and respect of his people, as he sought to protect the weakest members of society, including the poor and the oppressed.
Saint Louis also played a pivotal role in Crusades and took part in two of them himself. He believed that it was his divine duty to liberate the Holy Land from Muslim control. Though he was ultimately unsuccessful in achieving this goal, his dedication to the Crusades showcased his unwavering commitment to his faith and his determination as a leader.
Sadly, Saint Louis’ life was cut short due to illness and hardships endured during the Seventh Crusade. He contracted dysentery and died on August 25, 1270, in Tunis, at the age of 56. Despite his untimely demise, his legacy continued to inspire generations to come.
Saint Louis left behind a significant impact on French history and culture. His contributions to the judicial system, his unwavering devotion to his faith, and his commitment to justice have made him an iconic figure in French monarchy. Today, he is remembered as an exemplar of moral leadership and is honored as one of France’s patron saints.
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Answer: Louis IX
Some extra relevant information:
Saint Louis, also known as Louis IX, was a renowned French monarch who ruled during the 13th century. This pious king is highly regarded for his devotion to justice, piety, and his contribution to the development of French law.
Born on April 25, 1214, Louis IX succeeded to the throne at the tender age of 12, following the death of his father, Louis VIII. Despite his young age, the young monarch demonstrated wisdom and maturity beyond his years, showing great potential for his future reign.
Louis IX was deeply religious and committed to upholding moral values. He was a devout Catholic, often attending multiple masses daily, and was known for his acts of piety. His commitment to his faith earned him the title of “Saint Louis” after his canonization, which took place in 1297, nearly three decades after his death.
During his reign, Saint Louis strove to ensure justice and fairness for his subjects. He implemented significant legal reforms, such as establishing royal courts in Paris that provided quick and fair judgments. His efforts to promote justice earned him the admiration and respect of his people, as he sought to protect the weakest members of society, including the poor and the oppressed.
Saint Louis also played a pivotal role in Crusades and took part in two of them himself. He believed that it was his divine duty to liberate the Holy Land from Muslim control. Though he was ultimately unsuccessful in achieving this goal, his dedication to the Crusades showcased his unwavering commitment to his faith and his determination as a leader.
Sadly, Saint Louis’ life was cut short due to illness and hardships endured during the Seventh Crusade. He contracted dysentery and died on August 25, 1270, in Tunis, at the age of 56. Despite his untimely demise, his legacy continued to inspire generations to come.
Saint Louis left behind a significant impact on French history and culture. His contributions to the judicial system, his unwavering devotion to his faith, and his commitment to justice have made him an iconic figure in French monarchy. Today, he is remembered as an exemplar of moral leadership and is honored as one of France’s patron saints.
| 466
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ENGLISH
| 1
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Maria Salomea Skłodowska–Curie, (Marie Curie) (7 November 1867 – 4 July 1934) was a Polish physicist, chemist and feminist.
This is the first installment of “Women in Nuclear History”. It was originally published on Facebook on October 2022. Since I am Polish by origin, Maria Curie is very close to my heart.
Maria Salomea Skłodowska–Curie, (Marie Curie) (7 November 1867 – 4 July 1934) was a Polish physicist, chemist and feminist. She did research on radioactivity mainly in France.
- Marie had a tragic early childhood. Aged 10, Marie’s sister died from typhus and two years later her mother died from tuberculosis.
- Marie’s father struggled to support his family, but Marie hoped to go to university, so she decided with her older sister Bronia to earn money as a governess for wealthy family and earn enough to start studies in the college in France.
- Poland was not a free country at that time. Warsaw was under Russian occupation, and women could not get to the college, so they had to go abroad to study.
- Pierre Jolie was impressed by Mary intellect, they got married after a year of knowing each other. She and her husband created a theory of radioactivity. They found different ways to separate radioactive isotopes. It was Pierre’s apparatus Marie was able to separate other radioactive elements
- Marie and Pierre discovered two new elements: radium and polonium. The term polonium was named after Poland, her home country.
- Marie Curie was the first woman to earn a Nobel Award. She is the only person to win it in two different fields: Physics and chemistry.
- Although Marie lived in France for the rest of her life the cause of Polish independence was very close to her heart. She visited Poland after WW I when Poland became independent and established a radium institute there.
- Albert Einstein Became her biggest fan and supporter and praised her intellect and will power. They did many hiking trips together.
- During World War I, Curie promoted the use of X-rays; she developed radiological cars – which later became known as “petites Curies” – to allow battlefield surgeons to X-ray wounded soldiers and operate more accurately. She, Irene her daughter, and many other women became the operators of these machines.
- She did a majority of her work and discoveries in a primitive shack, but when she became famous she founded Curie Institutes in Paris and Warsaw.
- She did a fundraising for radium in the US with help of Mrs. Meloney. In 1921, U.S. President Warren G. Harding received her at the White House to present her with the 1 gram of radium collected in the United States,
- Near the 1920s, Curie and many of her colleagues began to suffer from symptoms of cancer. Curie began to lose her sight. She died in age of 67 in 1934, on aplastic anemia.
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] | 1
|
Maria Salomea Skłodowska–Curie, (Marie Curie) (7 November 1867 – 4 July 1934) was a Polish physicist, chemist and feminist.
This is the first installment of “Women in Nuclear History”. It was originally published on Facebook on October 2022. Since I am Polish by origin, Maria Curie is very close to my heart.
Maria Salomea Skłodowska–Curie, (Marie Curie) (7 November 1867 – 4 July 1934) was a Polish physicist, chemist and feminist. She did research on radioactivity mainly in France.
- Marie had a tragic early childhood. Aged 10, Marie’s sister died from typhus and two years later her mother died from tuberculosis.
- Marie’s father struggled to support his family, but Marie hoped to go to university, so she decided with her older sister Bronia to earn money as a governess for wealthy family and earn enough to start studies in the college in France.
- Poland was not a free country at that time. Warsaw was under Russian occupation, and women could not get to the college, so they had to go abroad to study.
- Pierre Jolie was impressed by Mary intellect, they got married after a year of knowing each other. She and her husband created a theory of radioactivity. They found different ways to separate radioactive isotopes. It was Pierre’s apparatus Marie was able to separate other radioactive elements
- Marie and Pierre discovered two new elements: radium and polonium. The term polonium was named after Poland, her home country.
- Marie Curie was the first woman to earn a Nobel Award. She is the only person to win it in two different fields: Physics and chemistry.
- Although Marie lived in France for the rest of her life the cause of Polish independence was very close to her heart. She visited Poland after WW I when Poland became independent and established a radium institute there.
- Albert Einstein Became her biggest fan and supporter and praised her intellect and will power. They did many hiking trips together.
- During World War I, Curie promoted the use of X-rays; she developed radiological cars – which later became known as “petites Curies” – to allow battlefield surgeons to X-ray wounded soldiers and operate more accurately. She, Irene her daughter, and many other women became the operators of these machines.
- She did a majority of her work and discoveries in a primitive shack, but when she became famous she founded Curie Institutes in Paris and Warsaw.
- She did a fundraising for radium in the US with help of Mrs. Meloney. In 1921, U.S. President Warren G. Harding received her at the White House to present her with the 1 gram of radium collected in the United States,
- Near the 1920s, Curie and many of her colleagues began to suffer from symptoms of cancer. Curie began to lose her sight. She died in age of 67 in 1934, on aplastic anemia.
| 649
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|
Ancient China is an extremely broad period. The country spans a huge swatch of the Earth and encompasses many thousands of years of history. Any broad generalizations should be taken with a grain of salt.
The archeological record only gives us glimpses into life in the distant past. But much can be learned from those hints and clues.
This article will give you a glimpse into what life in China was like during prehistoric times and then during the Bronze Age.
Agriculture began in China over eight thousand years ago, maybe even ten thousand years ago.
The earliest evidence of rice cultivation was found near the Yangtze River and carbon-dated to eight thousand years ago. Evidence of millet agriculture has been dated to about seven thousand years ago along the Yellow River. Soybeans followed soon after.
In addition to cultivating these grains and beans, these early peoples gathered wild fruits such as apricots and pears. They also foraged for chestnuts, acorns, and edible roots.
Eventually, they domesticated dogs, birds, pigs, and cattle. This was supplemented with wild meat from cranes, rabbits, deer, and fish. They used arrows, barbed harpoons, and fishing nets.
With such a plentiful food supply, lifespans increased and infant mortality was relatively low.
Life in the Villages
There were settled villages throughout China in sites such as the Yellow River valley. These villages typically consisted of round wooden houses with thatched roots.
Some villages, such as Banpo and Jiahu, were surrounded by wide ditches – most likely used as defensive moats. These fortifications seem to have been effective deterrents to any groups that may have threatened them, because there is little evidence of violent deaths among these villagers.
Over eight thousand years ago, people in Jiahu began carving flutes out of the wing-bones of cranes. These are some of the oldest musical instruments ever discovered.
In addition to music, there’s evidence that these people made alcohol using rice, honey, and hawthorn leaves.
Some of these Neolithic villages may have supported as many as eight hundred people at one time. They buried their dead in communal graves near the village.
The kilns that they used to make pottery were also located outside of the village’s protective moat. The earliest potter’s wheels in Chinese history were found here. The designs on their pottery often depicted humans and animals.
The people of Banpo also used a number of symbols that have been classified as a sort of proto-writing, the predecessor to Chinese characters.
Artifacts of the Ancient Civilizations
In addition to pottery, people made woven baskets. Although they likely wore animal skins as their primary clothing, evidence of spinning looms suggests that they were also capable of making cloth, most likely using hemp fiber.
When the Banpo archeological site was first excavated in 1953, Marxist historians believed that the people who inhabited this ancient village had a matriarchal culture. This view has gradually fallen out of favor, and little information about the village’s social structure can be gleaned from the current archeological findings.
Towards the end of the Neolithic period, the Longshan culture began producing highly sophisticated black pottery with thin walls and complex shapes. The Longshan culture was also capable of farming silkworms and using their cocoons to make fabric.
Their principal crop was millet; they also cultivated rice and wheat. They ate pigs, sheep, goats, and dogs.
Walls of rammed Earth became common around 2600 BC, and the introduction of military weapons such as the dagger-ax suggests increased warfare around this time.
The oldest arsenic-containing copper ever found was created in the village of Jiangzhai in the Yellow River basin over six thousand years ago.
Copper bells, rings, and tools became increasingly common at this time, setting the scene for the Bronze Age cultures that would follow.
Perhaps the earliest Bronze Age culture in China – and arguably the first state-level society – was the Erlitou culture. It began in the Yellow River valley around 1900 BC and spread throughout the region.
The principal city of Erlitou had a population of around 24,000 people at its peak, supporting a large palatial complex. They produced a great deal of bronze. Ornamental bronze objects were often inlaid with turquoise.
Symbols were increasingly common but have not yet been deciphered. While they may be linked to early Chinese characters, they were probably still a form of proto-writing, or marks capable of communicating only limited bits of information.
The Shang Dynasty, also known as the Yin Dynasty, began around 1600 BC. This rich period of history has given us tens of thousands of bronze, bone, jade, stone, and ceramic artifacts.
Chinese writing originated during the Shang Dynasty around 1250 BC. The oldest examples are found inscribed on oracle bones such as turtle shells and animal scapulae. These characters were scratched into the surface to ask a question, and heating the oracle bones until cracks formed would supply an answer.
Diet, Clothing, and Cultural Practices
The mainstay of their diet was rice with vegetables, supplemented with eggs and fish. Cooking was done in dings, three-legged metal pots that sat over a fire and allowed food to cook slowly all day while families worked out in the fields.
Tea did not become a common part of Chinese food culture until around 100 BC.
Hemp clothing was common by this point, and the very highest members of the nobility wore silk. Women wore ankle-length dresses tied at the waist, and men typically wore tunics down to their knees. Padded hemp jackets were added in the winter.
Animal images, usually tigers and sometimes snakes or toads, were embroidered onto clothing for decorative and protective purposes.
Hair was worn long, usually tied up but never cut (as doing so was considered to be disrespectful towards one’s ancestors).
The practice of foot binding began three thousand years ago. It originated amongst the upper classes and eventually became commonplace for all Chinese women. The feet of small girls were bound so tightly that their toes grew curled beneath the rest of their feet.
Ancient paintings show women crawling in the rice paddies to do their work because it was so painful to walk on their deformed toes. The practice was finally outlawed in 1911 CE.
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Ancient China is an extremely broad period. The country spans a huge swatch of the Earth and encompasses many thousands of years of history. Any broad generalizations should be taken with a grain of salt.
The archeological record only gives us glimpses into life in the distant past. But much can be learned from those hints and clues.
This article will give you a glimpse into what life in China was like during prehistoric times and then during the Bronze Age.
Agriculture began in China over eight thousand years ago, maybe even ten thousand years ago.
The earliest evidence of rice cultivation was found near the Yangtze River and carbon-dated to eight thousand years ago. Evidence of millet agriculture has been dated to about seven thousand years ago along the Yellow River. Soybeans followed soon after.
In addition to cultivating these grains and beans, these early peoples gathered wild fruits such as apricots and pears. They also foraged for chestnuts, acorns, and edible roots.
Eventually, they domesticated dogs, birds, pigs, and cattle. This was supplemented with wild meat from cranes, rabbits, deer, and fish. They used arrows, barbed harpoons, and fishing nets.
With such a plentiful food supply, lifespans increased and infant mortality was relatively low.
Life in the Villages
There were settled villages throughout China in sites such as the Yellow River valley. These villages typically consisted of round wooden houses with thatched roots.
Some villages, such as Banpo and Jiahu, were surrounded by wide ditches – most likely used as defensive moats. These fortifications seem to have been effective deterrents to any groups that may have threatened them, because there is little evidence of violent deaths among these villagers.
Over eight thousand years ago, people in Jiahu began carving flutes out of the wing-bones of cranes. These are some of the oldest musical instruments ever discovered.
In addition to music, there’s evidence that these people made alcohol using rice, honey, and hawthorn leaves.
Some of these Neolithic villages may have supported as many as eight hundred people at one time. They buried their dead in communal graves near the village.
The kilns that they used to make pottery were also located outside of the village’s protective moat. The earliest potter’s wheels in Chinese history were found here. The designs on their pottery often depicted humans and animals.
The people of Banpo also used a number of symbols that have been classified as a sort of proto-writing, the predecessor to Chinese characters.
Artifacts of the Ancient Civilizations
In addition to pottery, people made woven baskets. Although they likely wore animal skins as their primary clothing, evidence of spinning looms suggests that they were also capable of making cloth, most likely using hemp fiber.
When the Banpo archeological site was first excavated in 1953, Marxist historians believed that the people who inhabited this ancient village had a matriarchal culture. This view has gradually fallen out of favor, and little information about the village’s social structure can be gleaned from the current archeological findings.
Towards the end of the Neolithic period, the Longshan culture began producing highly sophisticated black pottery with thin walls and complex shapes. The Longshan culture was also capable of farming silkworms and using their cocoons to make fabric.
Their principal crop was millet; they also cultivated rice and wheat. They ate pigs, sheep, goats, and dogs.
Walls of rammed Earth became common around 2600 BC, and the introduction of military weapons such as the dagger-ax suggests increased warfare around this time.
The oldest arsenic-containing copper ever found was created in the village of Jiangzhai in the Yellow River basin over six thousand years ago.
Copper bells, rings, and tools became increasingly common at this time, setting the scene for the Bronze Age cultures that would follow.
Perhaps the earliest Bronze Age culture in China – and arguably the first state-level society – was the Erlitou culture. It began in the Yellow River valley around 1900 BC and spread throughout the region.
The principal city of Erlitou had a population of around 24,000 people at its peak, supporting a large palatial complex. They produced a great deal of bronze. Ornamental bronze objects were often inlaid with turquoise.
Symbols were increasingly common but have not yet been deciphered. While they may be linked to early Chinese characters, they were probably still a form of proto-writing, or marks capable of communicating only limited bits of information.
The Shang Dynasty, also known as the Yin Dynasty, began around 1600 BC. This rich period of history has given us tens of thousands of bronze, bone, jade, stone, and ceramic artifacts.
Chinese writing originated during the Shang Dynasty around 1250 BC. The oldest examples are found inscribed on oracle bones such as turtle shells and animal scapulae. These characters were scratched into the surface to ask a question, and heating the oracle bones until cracks formed would supply an answer.
Diet, Clothing, and Cultural Practices
The mainstay of their diet was rice with vegetables, supplemented with eggs and fish. Cooking was done in dings, three-legged metal pots that sat over a fire and allowed food to cook slowly all day while families worked out in the fields.
Tea did not become a common part of Chinese food culture until around 100 BC.
Hemp clothing was common by this point, and the very highest members of the nobility wore silk. Women wore ankle-length dresses tied at the waist, and men typically wore tunics down to their knees. Padded hemp jackets were added in the winter.
Animal images, usually tigers and sometimes snakes or toads, were embroidered onto clothing for decorative and protective purposes.
Hair was worn long, usually tied up but never cut (as doing so was considered to be disrespectful towards one’s ancestors).
The practice of foot binding began three thousand years ago. It originated amongst the upper classes and eventually became commonplace for all Chinese women. The feet of small girls were bound so tightly that their toes grew curled beneath the rest of their feet.
Ancient paintings show women crawling in the rice paddies to do their work because it was so painful to walk on their deformed toes. The practice was finally outlawed in 1911 CE.
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Handwara Mar 22: The above lines rightly serves the purpose for observing world water day. 22 March is internationally celebrated as world water day, a day dedicated to drawing attention to the water related issues faced by humans in almost every country. World water day became a United Nations observance day in 1993. Focusing on the theme of this year i.e., “Groundwater: making the invisible visible.” an awareness drive mainly focusing the attention on global water crisis was done in the Mawar valley.
The importance of water and how we can come together to save it for out better future was imparted to the youth through poems, speech and skits.
The importance of celebrating this day and how the need of addressing this issue became the need of the hour was also explained to the children. They were also told about how the water resources are relinquishing at a very faster rate and how groundwater levels are going down thereby creating the necessity of developing the artificial resources to conserve the natural water.
A drawing competition was also conducted and all the winners were felicitated with attractive prizes and the event culminated by a rally conducted by the children educating people addressing the same issue. The event and the rally was welcomed with warm heart by the people of Mawar valley.
(Greater Now News)
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Handwara Mar 22: The above lines rightly serves the purpose for observing world water day. 22 March is internationally celebrated as world water day, a day dedicated to drawing attention to the water related issues faced by humans in almost every country. World water day became a United Nations observance day in 1993. Focusing on the theme of this year i.e., “Groundwater: making the invisible visible.” an awareness drive mainly focusing the attention on global water crisis was done in the Mawar valley.
The importance of water and how we can come together to save it for out better future was imparted to the youth through poems, speech and skits.
The importance of celebrating this day and how the need of addressing this issue became the need of the hour was also explained to the children. They were also told about how the water resources are relinquishing at a very faster rate and how groundwater levels are going down thereby creating the necessity of developing the artificial resources to conserve the natural water.
A drawing competition was also conducted and all the winners were felicitated with attractive prizes and the event culminated by a rally conducted by the children educating people addressing the same issue. The event and the rally was welcomed with warm heart by the people of Mawar valley.
(Greater Now News)
| 266
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ENGLISH
| 1
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The Rum Rebellion was a coup d'état that took place in the then-British penal colony of New South Wales on 26 January 1808. The rebellion was led by officers of the New South Wales Corps (also referred to as the Rum Corps), who were opposed to the rule of Governor William Bligh.
The Rum Rebellion was the culmination of a long-running conflict between Bligh and the officers of the New South Wales Corps. Bligh was a strict disciplinarian, and he clashed with the officers over a number of issues, including the management of the rum trade. The officers were also concerned about Bligh's plans to reform the colony's legal system.
On 26 January 1808, a group of officers of the New South Wales Corps led by Major George Johnston arrested Governor Bligh and deposed him from office. Johnston then assumed control of the colony as Lieutenant-Governor. Bligh was initially imprisoned on Norfolk Island, but he was eventually allowed to return to England.
The Rum Rebellion had a number of consequences. It marked the end of Bligh's governorship, and it led to a period of instability in the colony. The rebellion also damaged the reputation of the New South Wales Corps, and it led to the disbandment of the Corps in 1818.
The Rum Rebellion served as the first and only military coup in Australia. The rebellion also highlighted the problems of corruption and patronage that existed in the colony.
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] | 1
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The Rum Rebellion was a coup d'état that took place in the then-British penal colony of New South Wales on 26 January 1808. The rebellion was led by officers of the New South Wales Corps (also referred to as the Rum Corps), who were opposed to the rule of Governor William Bligh.
The Rum Rebellion was the culmination of a long-running conflict between Bligh and the officers of the New South Wales Corps. Bligh was a strict disciplinarian, and he clashed with the officers over a number of issues, including the management of the rum trade. The officers were also concerned about Bligh's plans to reform the colony's legal system.
On 26 January 1808, a group of officers of the New South Wales Corps led by Major George Johnston arrested Governor Bligh and deposed him from office. Johnston then assumed control of the colony as Lieutenant-Governor. Bligh was initially imprisoned on Norfolk Island, but he was eventually allowed to return to England.
The Rum Rebellion had a number of consequences. It marked the end of Bligh's governorship, and it led to a period of instability in the colony. The rebellion also damaged the reputation of the New South Wales Corps, and it led to the disbandment of the Corps in 1818.
The Rum Rebellion served as the first and only military coup in Australia. The rebellion also highlighted the problems of corruption and patronage that existed in the colony.
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ENGLISH
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Table of Contents
Egypt is said to be blessed with the Nile River.
There is a narrow green strip on both the banks of this river.
And this is the fertile area where the Egyptian civilization developed.
Historians divide the history of Egypt into three periods.
The ancient state is also called the age of the pyramids.
In this era, the city of Mamphus located near Cairo was the capital of this state.
This period (3000-2000 BC) and the medieval state (2000- 1750 BC) Egyptian civilization developed due to the advancement of art, religion and sciences.
Eighteenth century BC Hyksos invaders attacked Egypt.
They came from the east.
They were nomads and their civilization was much more developed than that of the Egyptians.
Their rule lasted only a short time and soon the Egyptian kings reconquered their country.
In this way a new state was established.
Social Classes of Egypt -From King to Slave:
The king of Egypt was called the Pharaoh.
He had complete power.
The Pharaoh was the owner of the entire earth.
Whatever he said became law.
He was considered a deity and his statues were installed in temples.
Details of his exploits and victories were engraved on the walls of temples.
After the pharaohs, there were priests,
royal servants, artists and artisans in the society, followed by farmers who lived outside the cities.
They were followed by slaves who were usually prisoners of war.
and the king was their master.
Business, Arts and Crafts in Ancient Egypt:
The most important business of the people was agriculture.
The rivers here made the land fertile every year.
The inhabitants there used to build canals so that they could get water to grow crops throughout the year.
It seems that in 3000 BC.
They used to plow with the help of oxen.
Like people of other early civilizations, Egyptians also practiced animal husbandry.
Generally they reared goats, dogs, donkeys, pigs and ducks.
It seems they also had camels.
The Hyksos people first brought horses to Egypt.
Horses used to pull their chariots during war.
Flax was cultivated extensively in Egypt.
The people of Mesopotamia used to wear woolen clothes but the people of Egypt used to wear flax clothes.
These clothes were very suitable for the climate of Egypt.
The people of Egypt used to make beautiful stone vases and send them to foreign countries.
Like the people of Mesopotamia, they also used to make glass vessels.
Art developed and they started making glass vessels with beautiful shapes.
Their carpenters used to make very beautiful furniture.
Ivory and precious gems were embedded in the furniture.
This type of furniture was kept very safely in the royal tombs.
The people of Egypt believed that there was a great power behind every play of nature and the Sun was their most important god.
They considered him to be the creator of everything and worshiped him under many names.
Other famous gods of the Egyptians were the king of the afterlife,
the god of floods and the moon god.
The Egyptians had a strong belief in life after death.
The Egyptians believed that even after death, both body and soul remain alive,
only the life of dead people is somewhat different from the life of living humans,
hence they used to protect the dead body of the dead person with great care.
The dead body was smeared with spices and wrapped in fine clothes.
The body preserved in this way is called a mummy.
The mummy was kept in a wooden box, decorated with paintings and sealed in a stone box and buried in a tomb.
Inside the tomb, all those things were kept which the dead person liked and which he used while alive.
When kings and queens were buried, very expensive chests and tombs were built to contain the bodies.
But when ordinary people were buried, both those things were ordinary.
Clothes, food, beverages, precious furniture and jewelery were kept in these tombs.
The pyramids were the tombs of great kings.
Egyptian architecture and sculpture:
The pyramids were the finest of Egyptian buildings in early art.
Among the great achievements of that period, 30 large and very small pyramids still exist.
The grandest of them all is the Great Pyramid of Goza near Cairo, built in 2650 BC.
This large building was built by the pharaohs of the ancient kingdom of Seyof (Khafu) around 1000 AD.
This large building is made by joining very large pieces of stone.
The pyramids are counted among the seven wonders of the ancient world.
Since the pyramids were the tombs of the Egyptian kings,
they kept mummies and all kinds of valuable objects used in them.
It has been centuries since these pyramids were built.
During this long period, they were looted but in the third decade of the present century,
the tomb of Tritan Khaman was found in completely safe condition.
The valuable objects of this tomb can still be seen in the Cairo Museum.
There are many large and beautiful paintings on the walls of this tomb.
From them we get a lot of information about the life of the contemporary Egyptians.
Another curious specimen of Egyptian architecture is the Sphinx.
Sphinx is an animal described in mythology which has the body of a lion and the head of a human.
The statue of the Sphinx was carved out of a large solid rock.
The Egyptians probably developed the art of writing around 3000 BC.
Learn from the Sumerians even before the 1st century AD, but their script is not a copy of the cuneiform script.
The Egyptian script is called hieroglyphic, meaning sacred script.
It had 24 signs, each of which symbolized a consonant.
Vowel letters were not written in this script.
Later the Egyptians started using symbols for ideas.
Thus the number of symbols increased to 500. After a few days,
people came to know the importance of script and like Sumer, writing developed into a special art.
Scribes had a prominent place in the society.
They used to write with reed pens on the leaves of a tree called papyrus.
From this the English word paper was formed which means paper.
Science and Mathematics in Ancient Egypt The Egyptians made significant progress in many areas of knowledge.
A decimal system of numbers was developed.
To write the desired number, the same symbol of the digits 1 to 9 was repeated again and again.
There were different symbols for 10 and its multiplication numbers.
The Egyptians could calculate the area of a triangle and a rectangle.
The greatest achievement of the Egyptians was the solar calendar.
Almost all the ancient peoples, like the Sumerians,
had made their calendars on the basis of lunar months,
but this system is not sufficient for the farming people who need to know about the seasons,
rainfall and flood times before their work.
After careful observation for many years,
the Egyptians came to know that there is an average of 365 days between one rainy season and the next.
He also found that the rainy season floods reached Cairo
when the bright star Sirius appeared last on the horizon, and this happened every 365 days.
These two independent observations led the Egyptians to conclude that there are 365 days in the year.
After this the year was divided into 12 months and each month into 30 days.
The remaining 5 days were set aside for religious festivals.
The Egyptian solar calendar was a great achievement.
The Egyptians’ practice of preserving the bodies of their dead by coating them with medicines encouraged the development of science.
This increased the knowledge related to the structure of the human body and the skills of surgery.
Mainly priests performed medicine and surgery.
( Egyptian Civilization )
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Table of Contents
Egypt is said to be blessed with the Nile River.
There is a narrow green strip on both the banks of this river.
And this is the fertile area where the Egyptian civilization developed.
Historians divide the history of Egypt into three periods.
The ancient state is also called the age of the pyramids.
In this era, the city of Mamphus located near Cairo was the capital of this state.
This period (3000-2000 BC) and the medieval state (2000- 1750 BC) Egyptian civilization developed due to the advancement of art, religion and sciences.
Eighteenth century BC Hyksos invaders attacked Egypt.
They came from the east.
They were nomads and their civilization was much more developed than that of the Egyptians.
Their rule lasted only a short time and soon the Egyptian kings reconquered their country.
In this way a new state was established.
Social Classes of Egypt -From King to Slave:
The king of Egypt was called the Pharaoh.
He had complete power.
The Pharaoh was the owner of the entire earth.
Whatever he said became law.
He was considered a deity and his statues were installed in temples.
Details of his exploits and victories were engraved on the walls of temples.
After the pharaohs, there were priests,
royal servants, artists and artisans in the society, followed by farmers who lived outside the cities.
They were followed by slaves who were usually prisoners of war.
and the king was their master.
Business, Arts and Crafts in Ancient Egypt:
The most important business of the people was agriculture.
The rivers here made the land fertile every year.
The inhabitants there used to build canals so that they could get water to grow crops throughout the year.
It seems that in 3000 BC.
They used to plow with the help of oxen.
Like people of other early civilizations, Egyptians also practiced animal husbandry.
Generally they reared goats, dogs, donkeys, pigs and ducks.
It seems they also had camels.
The Hyksos people first brought horses to Egypt.
Horses used to pull their chariots during war.
Flax was cultivated extensively in Egypt.
The people of Mesopotamia used to wear woolen clothes but the people of Egypt used to wear flax clothes.
These clothes were very suitable for the climate of Egypt.
The people of Egypt used to make beautiful stone vases and send them to foreign countries.
Like the people of Mesopotamia, they also used to make glass vessels.
Art developed and they started making glass vessels with beautiful shapes.
Their carpenters used to make very beautiful furniture.
Ivory and precious gems were embedded in the furniture.
This type of furniture was kept very safely in the royal tombs.
The people of Egypt believed that there was a great power behind every play of nature and the Sun was their most important god.
They considered him to be the creator of everything and worshiped him under many names.
Other famous gods of the Egyptians were the king of the afterlife,
the god of floods and the moon god.
The Egyptians had a strong belief in life after death.
The Egyptians believed that even after death, both body and soul remain alive,
only the life of dead people is somewhat different from the life of living humans,
hence they used to protect the dead body of the dead person with great care.
The dead body was smeared with spices and wrapped in fine clothes.
The body preserved in this way is called a mummy.
The mummy was kept in a wooden box, decorated with paintings and sealed in a stone box and buried in a tomb.
Inside the tomb, all those things were kept which the dead person liked and which he used while alive.
When kings and queens were buried, very expensive chests and tombs were built to contain the bodies.
But when ordinary people were buried, both those things were ordinary.
Clothes, food, beverages, precious furniture and jewelery were kept in these tombs.
The pyramids were the tombs of great kings.
Egyptian architecture and sculpture:
The pyramids were the finest of Egyptian buildings in early art.
Among the great achievements of that period, 30 large and very small pyramids still exist.
The grandest of them all is the Great Pyramid of Goza near Cairo, built in 2650 BC.
This large building was built by the pharaohs of the ancient kingdom of Seyof (Khafu) around 1000 AD.
This large building is made by joining very large pieces of stone.
The pyramids are counted among the seven wonders of the ancient world.
Since the pyramids were the tombs of the Egyptian kings,
they kept mummies and all kinds of valuable objects used in them.
It has been centuries since these pyramids were built.
During this long period, they were looted but in the third decade of the present century,
the tomb of Tritan Khaman was found in completely safe condition.
The valuable objects of this tomb can still be seen in the Cairo Museum.
There are many large and beautiful paintings on the walls of this tomb.
From them we get a lot of information about the life of the contemporary Egyptians.
Another curious specimen of Egyptian architecture is the Sphinx.
Sphinx is an animal described in mythology which has the body of a lion and the head of a human.
The statue of the Sphinx was carved out of a large solid rock.
The Egyptians probably developed the art of writing around 3000 BC.
Learn from the Sumerians even before the 1st century AD, but their script is not a copy of the cuneiform script.
The Egyptian script is called hieroglyphic, meaning sacred script.
It had 24 signs, each of which symbolized a consonant.
Vowel letters were not written in this script.
Later the Egyptians started using symbols for ideas.
Thus the number of symbols increased to 500. After a few days,
people came to know the importance of script and like Sumer, writing developed into a special art.
Scribes had a prominent place in the society.
They used to write with reed pens on the leaves of a tree called papyrus.
From this the English word paper was formed which means paper.
Science and Mathematics in Ancient Egypt The Egyptians made significant progress in many areas of knowledge.
A decimal system of numbers was developed.
To write the desired number, the same symbol of the digits 1 to 9 was repeated again and again.
There were different symbols for 10 and its multiplication numbers.
The Egyptians could calculate the area of a triangle and a rectangle.
The greatest achievement of the Egyptians was the solar calendar.
Almost all the ancient peoples, like the Sumerians,
had made their calendars on the basis of lunar months,
but this system is not sufficient for the farming people who need to know about the seasons,
rainfall and flood times before their work.
After careful observation for many years,
the Egyptians came to know that there is an average of 365 days between one rainy season and the next.
He also found that the rainy season floods reached Cairo
when the bright star Sirius appeared last on the horizon, and this happened every 365 days.
These two independent observations led the Egyptians to conclude that there are 365 days in the year.
After this the year was divided into 12 months and each month into 30 days.
The remaining 5 days were set aside for religious festivals.
The Egyptian solar calendar was a great achievement.
The Egyptians’ practice of preserving the bodies of their dead by coating them with medicines encouraged the development of science.
This increased the knowledge related to the structure of the human body and the skills of surgery.
Mainly priests performed medicine and surgery.
( Egyptian Civilization )
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ENGLISH
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Black Death Causes
In the mid fourteenth century, Black Death or Plague was one of the most devastating catastrophes that killed more than twenty five million people in Europe. The plague only took less than two years before it ended. In comparison to the current days that we are live in, the Black Death can be compared to the nuclear bombs. The most amazing thing about the epidemic was how it was spread or migrating from one place to another at a high rate. Additionally, the different signs and symptoms people were exhibiting after they were infected by the plague happened quickly, that is, less than forty days. However, different specialists in the medical field have argued about how the disease was spread or how it migrated in relation to the signs and symptoms caused by it.
According to one of the biomedical researchers, Norman Cantor, the plague migrated from China through the Silk Road or the ship into Europe. It is believed to have been caused by "Yesinia pests." This pest was passed by a flea that was carried by the black rats (Cantor 14). These rats were usually found on the ships traveling from China to Europe. In his article, the plague is estimated to have infected scores of people, approximately twenty-five million people. The most common symptoms that were exhibited by the people who were infected were the appearance of big boils known as buboes in the grown, the neck and the armpits. After a person was infected, it took only thirty-eight days before the person died. Based on the symptoms of the disease, Cantor has characterized the disease, as the plague and the only possible cause for the spread of this disease were the black rats from china.
Another biomedical specialist, Samuel Cohn has indicated that the plague spread from other continents into Europe through the Silk Road. The black rats have been famed to carry the disease spreading it all over Europe like lightening. He has described the plague as the rat based bubonic plague. This meant that the rats were transmitting the disease from one continent to another. Cohn has also indicated that the plague was spreading from one person to another, based on the evidence of the mid-fourteenth century. People were being infected through close contact with people who were infected. The most common symptoms of the plague were the boils that appeared in the groin, the neck and the armpits and the fevers people were experiencing. This is similar to what Cantor has discussed in his article.
On the contrary, based on the article by Lila Guterman, the plague could have not migrated from China through the Silk Road. This information is from two biologists who thought that the black rats, though carriers of bubonic plague could not have been able to spread the disease. This was because of the cold seasons of England and France that were experienced during winter. In the article, the information about the migration of the disease has not been covered but how the disease was spreading has been explained by the biologists. They have indicated that the disease was being spread by the people who were infected. This was when a person was exposed to an infected person. According to the biologists, the symptoms of the disease were red spots on the chest and hemorrhagic fever. As compared to the other articles, it is in contrast with what the other specialist have written but all have agreed that the Black Death was a great pandemic in Europe in the mid fourteenth century.
The Black Death was a great epidemic in Europe and it was spreading like lighting all over Europe and other parts of the world like the Middle East. The issue about how it migrated and spread all over has been a great dispute between the different biomedical specialists. Most of them say that the plague was spread by the black rats through the Silk Road from China. On the other hand, there are those who have refuted the claim and they have indicated it was not possible due to the cold weather and the only way it could have spread is by being exposed to an infected person. Therefore, this has made the issue to be under review so that a conclusive answer can be obtained.
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Black Death Causes
In the mid fourteenth century, Black Death or Plague was one of the most devastating catastrophes that killed more than twenty five million people in Europe. The plague only took less than two years before it ended. In comparison to the current days that we are live in, the Black Death can be compared to the nuclear bombs. The most amazing thing about the epidemic was how it was spread or migrating from one place to another at a high rate. Additionally, the different signs and symptoms people were exhibiting after they were infected by the plague happened quickly, that is, less than forty days. However, different specialists in the medical field have argued about how the disease was spread or how it migrated in relation to the signs and symptoms caused by it.
According to one of the biomedical researchers, Norman Cantor, the plague migrated from China through the Silk Road or the ship into Europe. It is believed to have been caused by "Yesinia pests." This pest was passed by a flea that was carried by the black rats (Cantor 14). These rats were usually found on the ships traveling from China to Europe. In his article, the plague is estimated to have infected scores of people, approximately twenty-five million people. The most common symptoms that were exhibited by the people who were infected were the appearance of big boils known as buboes in the grown, the neck and the armpits. After a person was infected, it took only thirty-eight days before the person died. Based on the symptoms of the disease, Cantor has characterized the disease, as the plague and the only possible cause for the spread of this disease were the black rats from china.
Another biomedical specialist, Samuel Cohn has indicated that the plague spread from other continents into Europe through the Silk Road. The black rats have been famed to carry the disease spreading it all over Europe like lightening. He has described the plague as the rat based bubonic plague. This meant that the rats were transmitting the disease from one continent to another. Cohn has also indicated that the plague was spreading from one person to another, based on the evidence of the mid-fourteenth century. People were being infected through close contact with people who were infected. The most common symptoms of the plague were the boils that appeared in the groin, the neck and the armpits and the fevers people were experiencing. This is similar to what Cantor has discussed in his article.
On the contrary, based on the article by Lila Guterman, the plague could have not migrated from China through the Silk Road. This information is from two biologists who thought that the black rats, though carriers of bubonic plague could not have been able to spread the disease. This was because of the cold seasons of England and France that were experienced during winter. In the article, the information about the migration of the disease has not been covered but how the disease was spreading has been explained by the biologists. They have indicated that the disease was being spread by the people who were infected. This was when a person was exposed to an infected person. According to the biologists, the symptoms of the disease were red spots on the chest and hemorrhagic fever. As compared to the other articles, it is in contrast with what the other specialist have written but all have agreed that the Black Death was a great pandemic in Europe in the mid fourteenth century.
The Black Death was a great epidemic in Europe and it was spreading like lighting all over Europe and other parts of the world like the Middle East. The issue about how it migrated and spread all over has been a great dispute between the different biomedical specialists. Most of them say that the plague was spread by the black rats through the Silk Road from China. On the other hand, there are those who have refuted the claim and they have indicated it was not possible due to the cold weather and the only way it could have spread is by being exposed to an infected person. Therefore, this has made the issue to be under review so that a conclusive answer can be obtained.
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ENGLISH
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Chester Arthur was a politician and lawyer from the United States. He served as the 21st president of the United States from 1881 to 1885. Before being elected president, Arthur served as the 20th US vice president. He succeeded James A. Garfield as president in September 1881, when Garfield was shot by an assassin.
Chester Arthur was an American politician and lawyer. He served as the 21st President of the United States from 1881 to 1885. He was previously the 20th US Vice President. He succeeded James A. Garfield, who was assassinated in September 1881. He died at the age of fifty-five.
Chester Arthur was born in 1829 in Fairfield, Vermont. His parents were abolitionists. He attended a Baptist church and attended Union College. During his college years, he began to become interested in extracurricular activities and political demonstrations. He later worked as a lawyer for a prominent New York City law firm, where he was involved in two cases regarding the rights of African Americans. He was also involved in a case that challenged segregated streetcars.
Although his birthplace is a subject of speculation, Arthur served as the 21st President of the United States. He was born in Fairfield, Vermont, and grew up as the son of a Baptist preacher. He went to Union College and practiced law in New York City before being sworn in as President of the United States in 1881. In addition to his presiding office, Chester Arthur pushed for civil service reforms.
After leaving the military, Arthur devoted himself to a law practice and became incredibly wealthy by the end of the Civil War. While in the office, he was the engineer-in-chief of the Republican governor of New York and also a quartermaster general for the New York Volunteers. He served in this post with incredible efficiency. His job required him to deal with hundreds of contractors and he gained a reputation as a master of administrative genius.
Before embarking on a political career, Chester Arthur began his legal career in New York City. As a young attorney, he won numerous high-profile civil rights cases. His successful defense of Elizabeth Jennings Graham, an African-American woman, led to the desegregation of public transportation in New York City. In addition, he was involved in the Lemmon slave case, which ruled in favor of freeing enslaved people. Arthur’s victory in this case led to the enactment of an anti-slavery law in New York City.
Arthur was born in Fairfield, Vermont, and later based his political career in New York City. While practicing law, he also served as the quartermaster general of the New York Militia during the American Civil War. After the war, Arthur dedicated his time to New York Republican politics. Eventually, he rose through the ranks of Senator Roscoe Conkling’s political organization, and was appointed Collector of the Port of New York under President Ulysses S. Grant. He also supported Rutherford B. Hayes’ reform of the federal patronage system in New York.
Arthur became active in Republican politics and a member of the Executive Committee of the State Republican Committee. He also served in the Union Army during the Civil War, and later became the Quartermaster General of New York troops. In 1871, Arthur was appointed tax collector of the Port of New York, where he collected 75% of the tariff revenues of the United States. He held this post until 1878. In 1876, Arthur was nominated to be Vice President and was elected with James Garfield. When Garfield died, Arthur became president and he was reelected.
The association between Chester Arthur and Roscoe Conkling stretches back to the 1870s. Both men fought for civil rights and were involved in Republican politics. Arthur was the 21st president of the United States. He was born in Fairfield, Vermont, the son of a Baptist minister. He was educated at Union College and later entered the law practice in New York. Arthur later served as the Quartermaster General of New York during the Civil War. In 1871, Arthur was appointed Collector of the Port of New York by President Grant. In that role, he marshaled the Customs House employees to support Conkling’s Stalwart Republican machine.
The political acolyte of a Whig president, Conkling was also an abolitionist. At fourteen years of age, he became a political activist. Later, he married a prominent family of New York, where his brother was governor. His brother, Horatio Seymour, strongly opposed his brother’s marriage. He was dignified and respected, yet clashed with his cocksure brother-in-law.
Arthur became involved in Republican politics, serving as acting quartermaster general of New York state’s troops during the Civil War. After the war, he returned to law practice. His association with Conkling, the Republican boss of New York, led to Arthur’s appointment as collector of the Port of New York in 1871. The position offered lucrative benefits, and Arthur was rewarded handsomely for his political support.
Chester Arthur was born in Vermont and studied law at Union College in Schenectady, New York. He became a barrister and practiced law in New York City, and was widely respected for his work on civil rights cases. After the Civil War, he joined a prominent New York law firm and worked on numerous black rights cases. Arthur also held administrative positions in the New York City Tax Commission and as the Collector of the Port of New York.
Arthur surprised his critics and surprised his country by pursuing reform and reducing partisanship in the federal government. He signed the Pendleton Civil Service Act in January 1883, which removed partisan control over appointments to the federal civil service. The act required civil service applicants to pass examinations and provided indefinite tenure.
While Arthur’s administration had won the respect of many in the political world, he failed to garner a strong following among his political party. His chief rival for the Republican nomination was the perennially powerful Blaine, who had been accused of corruption during his time as speaker of the house.
Arthur’s appointments to the United States Supreme court were controversial. As a result, he was often opposed by political opponents. However, he eventually won elections and was elected 21st president of the United States. The first of his three terms as president, Arthur appointed five justices to the Supreme Court.
Chester Arthur was born in 1829 in Fairfield, Vermont. He was raised by his father, a minister and teacher. He visited several cities across the eastern United States during his life. During his youth, he appeared to be in good health. His family history was unremarkable. There were no records of other illnesses or family deaths. However, his health began to decline in his later years.
In the late 1880s, Arthur became ill and died of cerebral hemorrhage. He was 57 years old when he died. He was buried next to his wife at the Albany Rural Cemetery in Menards, New York. He had a long and distinguished career in politics and was admired by both his political enemies and his political friends.
He tried to win the Republican presidential nomination in 1884, but was defeated. After he left office, his health rapidly deteriorated. He died from Bright’s disease less than two years after leaving office. His health was not good for public office, and Arthur was never re-elected.
Chester Arthur began his career as a lawyer in New York City and won several high-profile civil rights cases. In 1855, he successfully represented the black woman Elizabeth Jennings Graham. This led to the desegregation of public transportation in New York. He also became involved in the Lemmon slave case, which resulted in the freeing of slaves. As a political figure, Arthur was a member of the Republican Party, founded by anti-slavery activists.
A Brief Look at Ben Affleck Benjamin Affleck is a well-known American actor and director.
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Chester Arthur was a politician and lawyer from the United States. He served as the 21st president of the United States from 1881 to 1885. Before being elected president, Arthur served as the 20th US vice president. He succeeded James A. Garfield as president in September 1881, when Garfield was shot by an assassin.
Chester Arthur was an American politician and lawyer. He served as the 21st President of the United States from 1881 to 1885. He was previously the 20th US Vice President. He succeeded James A. Garfield, who was assassinated in September 1881. He died at the age of fifty-five.
Chester Arthur was born in 1829 in Fairfield, Vermont. His parents were abolitionists. He attended a Baptist church and attended Union College. During his college years, he began to become interested in extracurricular activities and political demonstrations. He later worked as a lawyer for a prominent New York City law firm, where he was involved in two cases regarding the rights of African Americans. He was also involved in a case that challenged segregated streetcars.
Although his birthplace is a subject of speculation, Arthur served as the 21st President of the United States. He was born in Fairfield, Vermont, and grew up as the son of a Baptist preacher. He went to Union College and practiced law in New York City before being sworn in as President of the United States in 1881. In addition to his presiding office, Chester Arthur pushed for civil service reforms.
After leaving the military, Arthur devoted himself to a law practice and became incredibly wealthy by the end of the Civil War. While in the office, he was the engineer-in-chief of the Republican governor of New York and also a quartermaster general for the New York Volunteers. He served in this post with incredible efficiency. His job required him to deal with hundreds of contractors and he gained a reputation as a master of administrative genius.
Before embarking on a political career, Chester Arthur began his legal career in New York City. As a young attorney, he won numerous high-profile civil rights cases. His successful defense of Elizabeth Jennings Graham, an African-American woman, led to the desegregation of public transportation in New York City. In addition, he was involved in the Lemmon slave case, which ruled in favor of freeing enslaved people. Arthur’s victory in this case led to the enactment of an anti-slavery law in New York City.
Arthur was born in Fairfield, Vermont, and later based his political career in New York City. While practicing law, he also served as the quartermaster general of the New York Militia during the American Civil War. After the war, Arthur dedicated his time to New York Republican politics. Eventually, he rose through the ranks of Senator Roscoe Conkling’s political organization, and was appointed Collector of the Port of New York under President Ulysses S. Grant. He also supported Rutherford B. Hayes’ reform of the federal patronage system in New York.
Arthur became active in Republican politics and a member of the Executive Committee of the State Republican Committee. He also served in the Union Army during the Civil War, and later became the Quartermaster General of New York troops. In 1871, Arthur was appointed tax collector of the Port of New York, where he collected 75% of the tariff revenues of the United States. He held this post until 1878. In 1876, Arthur was nominated to be Vice President and was elected with James Garfield. When Garfield died, Arthur became president and he was reelected.
The association between Chester Arthur and Roscoe Conkling stretches back to the 1870s. Both men fought for civil rights and were involved in Republican politics. Arthur was the 21st president of the United States. He was born in Fairfield, Vermont, the son of a Baptist minister. He was educated at Union College and later entered the law practice in New York. Arthur later served as the Quartermaster General of New York during the Civil War. In 1871, Arthur was appointed Collector of the Port of New York by President Grant. In that role, he marshaled the Customs House employees to support Conkling’s Stalwart Republican machine.
The political acolyte of a Whig president, Conkling was also an abolitionist. At fourteen years of age, he became a political activist. Later, he married a prominent family of New York, where his brother was governor. His brother, Horatio Seymour, strongly opposed his brother’s marriage. He was dignified and respected, yet clashed with his cocksure brother-in-law.
Arthur became involved in Republican politics, serving as acting quartermaster general of New York state’s troops during the Civil War. After the war, he returned to law practice. His association with Conkling, the Republican boss of New York, led to Arthur’s appointment as collector of the Port of New York in 1871. The position offered lucrative benefits, and Arthur was rewarded handsomely for his political support.
Chester Arthur was born in Vermont and studied law at Union College in Schenectady, New York. He became a barrister and practiced law in New York City, and was widely respected for his work on civil rights cases. After the Civil War, he joined a prominent New York law firm and worked on numerous black rights cases. Arthur also held administrative positions in the New York City Tax Commission and as the Collector of the Port of New York.
Arthur surprised his critics and surprised his country by pursuing reform and reducing partisanship in the federal government. He signed the Pendleton Civil Service Act in January 1883, which removed partisan control over appointments to the federal civil service. The act required civil service applicants to pass examinations and provided indefinite tenure.
While Arthur’s administration had won the respect of many in the political world, he failed to garner a strong following among his political party. His chief rival for the Republican nomination was the perennially powerful Blaine, who had been accused of corruption during his time as speaker of the house.
Arthur’s appointments to the United States Supreme court were controversial. As a result, he was often opposed by political opponents. However, he eventually won elections and was elected 21st president of the United States. The first of his three terms as president, Arthur appointed five justices to the Supreme Court.
Chester Arthur was born in 1829 in Fairfield, Vermont. He was raised by his father, a minister and teacher. He visited several cities across the eastern United States during his life. During his youth, he appeared to be in good health. His family history was unremarkable. There were no records of other illnesses or family deaths. However, his health began to decline in his later years.
In the late 1880s, Arthur became ill and died of cerebral hemorrhage. He was 57 years old when he died. He was buried next to his wife at the Albany Rural Cemetery in Menards, New York. He had a long and distinguished career in politics and was admired by both his political enemies and his political friends.
He tried to win the Republican presidential nomination in 1884, but was defeated. After he left office, his health rapidly deteriorated. He died from Bright’s disease less than two years after leaving office. His health was not good for public office, and Arthur was never re-elected.
Chester Arthur began his career as a lawyer in New York City and won several high-profile civil rights cases. In 1855, he successfully represented the black woman Elizabeth Jennings Graham. This led to the desegregation of public transportation in New York. He also became involved in the Lemmon slave case, which resulted in the freeing of slaves. As a political figure, Arthur was a member of the Republican Party, founded by anti-slavery activists.
A Brief Look at Ben Affleck Benjamin Affleck is a well-known American actor and director.
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Exploring Space in Year 1
Wow! What a great start back to Year One zooming straight into our Space Topic! We have been reading "The Way Back Home" by Oliver Jeffers and have been writing some fantastic sentences about the little boys unexpected journey to the moon. In Maths, we have made sure we are being extremely accurate, as we have been measuring using 1cm cubes. We have been lining up the cubes very carefully so that they are the same as a ruler. This has helped us to make comparisons and use language such as "longer", "shorter" and "equal". We are practising our joining skills in Design and Technology, ready to make hand puppets in a few weeks (we can't wait to show you them!) We have used glue and staples to join two pieces of fabric together and discussed which was stronger. Using a stapler was tricky, and we needed to make sure we were very safe when attaching the fabrics together. We have also learnt how to draw a continuous line drawing of our friends, remembering not to take our pencil off of the paper...can you see who we have drawn!
In Year One, we are explorers!
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Exploring Space in Year 1
Wow! What a great start back to Year One zooming straight into our Space Topic! We have been reading "The Way Back Home" by Oliver Jeffers and have been writing some fantastic sentences about the little boys unexpected journey to the moon. In Maths, we have made sure we are being extremely accurate, as we have been measuring using 1cm cubes. We have been lining up the cubes very carefully so that they are the same as a ruler. This has helped us to make comparisons and use language such as "longer", "shorter" and "equal". We are practising our joining skills in Design and Technology, ready to make hand puppets in a few weeks (we can't wait to show you them!) We have used glue and staples to join two pieces of fabric together and discussed which was stronger. Using a stapler was tricky, and we needed to make sure we were very safe when attaching the fabrics together. We have also learnt how to draw a continuous line drawing of our friends, remembering not to take our pencil off of the paper...can you see who we have drawn!
In Year One, we are explorers!
Please enter some content for your blog post here.
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ENGLISH
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Answer: Charles Martel
Some extra relevant information:
One commander in history who effectively ruled over their kingdom without officially being the head of state was Zhuge Liang of the Shu Han Kingdom during the Three Kingdoms period in ancient China.
Zhuge Liang, also known as Zhuge Kongming, was a brilliant strategist, statesman, and scholar. He served as the chief military advisor to the ruler of Shu, Liu Bei. Despite not holding the official title of the head of state, Zhuge Liang was the de facto ruler of the kingdom.
During his time in power, Zhuge Liang implemented various reforms, developed strategies for military campaigns, improved governance, and promoted agricultural and economic development. His talent and leadership were instrumental in expanding and stabilizing the Shu Han Kingdom.
The reason Zhuge Liang never officially became the head of state was due to his loyalty and respect for Liu Bei. He faithfully supported Liu Bei’s claim to the throne and acted as his trusted advisor. Even after Liu Bei’s death, Zhuge Liang continued to serve the Liu family, acting as a regent for Liu Bei’s son, Liu Shan.
Zhuge Liang’s rule was marked by his pursuit of the “Way of the King,” embodying Confucian principles of benevolence, righteousness, and virtue. His leadership influenced the governance of Shu and earned him respect and admiration from both his allies and enemies.
Despite never holding the position of the head of state, Zhuge Liang’s impact on the Shu Han Kingdom was profound. His intelligence, strategic thinking, and administrative abilities allowed the kingdom to flourish during a time of political turmoil and warfare.
In conclusion, Zhuge Liang was one commander in history who effectively ruled over a kingdom without officially being the head of state. His contributions to the Shu Han Kingdom during the Three Kingdoms period in ancient China were undeniable, solidifying his place as one of history’s greatest strategists and statesmen.
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Answer: Charles Martel
Some extra relevant information:
One commander in history who effectively ruled over their kingdom without officially being the head of state was Zhuge Liang of the Shu Han Kingdom during the Three Kingdoms period in ancient China.
Zhuge Liang, also known as Zhuge Kongming, was a brilliant strategist, statesman, and scholar. He served as the chief military advisor to the ruler of Shu, Liu Bei. Despite not holding the official title of the head of state, Zhuge Liang was the de facto ruler of the kingdom.
During his time in power, Zhuge Liang implemented various reforms, developed strategies for military campaigns, improved governance, and promoted agricultural and economic development. His talent and leadership were instrumental in expanding and stabilizing the Shu Han Kingdom.
The reason Zhuge Liang never officially became the head of state was due to his loyalty and respect for Liu Bei. He faithfully supported Liu Bei’s claim to the throne and acted as his trusted advisor. Even after Liu Bei’s death, Zhuge Liang continued to serve the Liu family, acting as a regent for Liu Bei’s son, Liu Shan.
Zhuge Liang’s rule was marked by his pursuit of the “Way of the King,” embodying Confucian principles of benevolence, righteousness, and virtue. His leadership influenced the governance of Shu and earned him respect and admiration from both his allies and enemies.
Despite never holding the position of the head of state, Zhuge Liang’s impact on the Shu Han Kingdom was profound. His intelligence, strategic thinking, and administrative abilities allowed the kingdom to flourish during a time of political turmoil and warfare.
In conclusion, Zhuge Liang was one commander in history who effectively ruled over a kingdom without officially being the head of state. His contributions to the Shu Han Kingdom during the Three Kingdoms period in ancient China were undeniable, solidifying his place as one of history’s greatest strategists and statesmen.
| 402
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ENGLISH
| 1
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History of golden gate bridge. Do you know why the golden gate bridge has its iconic name? The answer might surprise you. Rather than being named for the area’s association with the gold rush, it’s called for the water beneath it—the golden gate strait.
Why Is Golden Gate Bridge Called Golden?
It is well known that the Golden Gate Bridge is one of the most iconic landmarks in the world, and the bridge itself is even more iconic due to its name. But why is it called the “Golden Gate Bridge”?
Well, the truth is that the bridge is called the “Golden Gate Bridge” because of its location. The bridge is located at the entrance to San Francisco Bay, in between the Pacific Ocean and San Francisco itself. The area of the bridge was named the Golden Gate because the access to the bay resembled a golden gate, which was also the reason for the naming of the Golden Gate Strait.
It is said that the bridge’s original name was the Bridge of San Francisco Bay, however, the location of the bridge meant that it was naturally going to be referred to as the “Golden Gate Bridge” due to its location.
The bridge is also famously painted orange, which further adds to the bridge’s golden-gate appeal. Although the paint was initially meant to be black, rumors suggest that the color was changed due to a painter in San Francisco who liked the color orange and wanted to use it in the bridge painting.
Since then, the bridge has
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History of golden gate bridge. Do you know why the golden gate bridge has its iconic name? The answer might surprise you. Rather than being named for the area’s association with the gold rush, it’s called for the water beneath it—the golden gate strait.
Why Is Golden Gate Bridge Called Golden?
It is well known that the Golden Gate Bridge is one of the most iconic landmarks in the world, and the bridge itself is even more iconic due to its name. But why is it called the “Golden Gate Bridge”?
Well, the truth is that the bridge is called the “Golden Gate Bridge” because of its location. The bridge is located at the entrance to San Francisco Bay, in between the Pacific Ocean and San Francisco itself. The area of the bridge was named the Golden Gate because the access to the bay resembled a golden gate, which was also the reason for the naming of the Golden Gate Strait.
It is said that the bridge’s original name was the Bridge of San Francisco Bay, however, the location of the bridge meant that it was naturally going to be referred to as the “Golden Gate Bridge” due to its location.
The bridge is also famously painted orange, which further adds to the bridge’s golden-gate appeal. Although the paint was initially meant to be black, rumors suggest that the color was changed due to a painter in San Francisco who liked the color orange and wanted to use it in the bridge painting.
Since then, the bridge has
| 295
|
ENGLISH
| 1
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The Basics of Inflationary Economics: Understanding Supply, Demand and Financial Investment
Malik had always found economics fascinating since he was a young boy. He was always inquisitive about inflation, supply and demand, and financial investment. But today, his inquisitiveness had surpassed his usual level and he decided that it was finally time to understand these concepts properly.
His friend Audrey overheard him talking about it in the cafeteria and asked if she could join him in his exploration of the world of economics. Malik appreciated her enthusiasm and welcomed her on board.
They started by sitting down together one evening and discussing their respective understanding of inflation. Audrey said "I think inflation refers to a general rise in prices for goods and services over time due to increased demand". Malik nodded, impressed by her insightfulness.
He then proceeded to explain that when demand increases more than the available supply, prices will rise due to a decrease in the supply relative to the demand. Audrey understood this concept quite well but wanted to explore further how this concept related to financial investments too.
Malik then went on to explain that while inflation can be seen as an increase in prices due to an increase in spending, it can also be viewed as an increase in asset values due to increased investment activity occurring at a higher rate than the rate at which money is supplied into the economy by banks or other lenders.
Audrey found this helpful as she realised that when more people invest their money into assets such as stocks or real estate, the prices of those assets are likely to rise due to increased demand for them relative to their available supply; thus leading a general increase in prices for goods and services all over the economy.
With this newfound knowledge, they decided that it would be best for them both if they researched further about other economic concepts such as recessions, depression, stagflation etc and just how each of these affected our economy both locally and globally.
"Let's have weekly meetings where we can discuss any new information we come across," suggested Malik."That sounds like a great idea," replied Audrey with enthusiasm."We could keep track of our progress with journals so we can compare our findings," suggested Malik excitedly."Yes! Let's do it!" exclaimed Audrey happily giving high-fives with Malik at their newfound journey into economics together!
Thus began their new endeavour into exploring different economic concepts every week with each other's help; all while being mindful not just of their own interests but also those around them affected by economic changes which simply cannot be ignored anymore!
Little did they know that this step of theirs would take them deeper into understanding economic concepts which later helped them make wise decisions with regards to investments - something they were both happy about!
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https://www.bedtimestory.ai/vivicacj1/story/PgWNHjO
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The Basics of Inflationary Economics: Understanding Supply, Demand and Financial Investment
Malik had always found economics fascinating since he was a young boy. He was always inquisitive about inflation, supply and demand, and financial investment. But today, his inquisitiveness had surpassed his usual level and he decided that it was finally time to understand these concepts properly.
His friend Audrey overheard him talking about it in the cafeteria and asked if she could join him in his exploration of the world of economics. Malik appreciated her enthusiasm and welcomed her on board.
They started by sitting down together one evening and discussing their respective understanding of inflation. Audrey said "I think inflation refers to a general rise in prices for goods and services over time due to increased demand". Malik nodded, impressed by her insightfulness.
He then proceeded to explain that when demand increases more than the available supply, prices will rise due to a decrease in the supply relative to the demand. Audrey understood this concept quite well but wanted to explore further how this concept related to financial investments too.
Malik then went on to explain that while inflation can be seen as an increase in prices due to an increase in spending, it can also be viewed as an increase in asset values due to increased investment activity occurring at a higher rate than the rate at which money is supplied into the economy by banks or other lenders.
Audrey found this helpful as she realised that when more people invest their money into assets such as stocks or real estate, the prices of those assets are likely to rise due to increased demand for them relative to their available supply; thus leading a general increase in prices for goods and services all over the economy.
With this newfound knowledge, they decided that it would be best for them both if they researched further about other economic concepts such as recessions, depression, stagflation etc and just how each of these affected our economy both locally and globally.
"Let's have weekly meetings where we can discuss any new information we come across," suggested Malik."That sounds like a great idea," replied Audrey with enthusiasm."We could keep track of our progress with journals so we can compare our findings," suggested Malik excitedly."Yes! Let's do it!" exclaimed Audrey happily giving high-fives with Malik at their newfound journey into economics together!
Thus began their new endeavour into exploring different economic concepts every week with each other's help; all while being mindful not just of their own interests but also those around them affected by economic changes which simply cannot be ignored anymore!
Little did they know that this step of theirs would take them deeper into understanding economic concepts which later helped them make wise decisions with regards to investments - something they were both happy about!
| 539
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ENGLISH
| 1
|
There are several good reasons why Benjamin Franklin‘s portrait is in the highest US bill denomination . So important was Benjamin Franklin that his portrait is on 17.7 billion $100 notes in circulation as of December 2021 according to the Federal Reserve.
He was not a president; in fact currently, there are only two non presidents in the front of US bills. One is Benjamin Franklin and the other is Alexander Hamilton on the $10 bill. Hamilton was the first Secretary of the Treasury from 1789 to 1795 under George Washington and he is credited as the architect of the US economic system. A third non president on a US dollar note will be Harriet Tubman on the $20 bill scheduled to be in circulation by 2030.
Franklin played a key role in building the nation. He was the most important founding father, he was the oldest and the one who had contributed the most to the cause of independence. Franklin signed the Treaty of Alliance with France, convincing the French government to support America against powerful Britain. He also worked out loans and trade with European countries. He was the only founding father to have signed the three most important documents that led to Independence: Treaty of Alliance with France, Treaty of Paris and the Declaration of Independence. He was also one of the signers of the Constitution. In addition to being an outstanding statesman, Franklin was also an entrepreneur and a scientist. He was the most famous American in Europe in the 18th century.
The decision to honor Franklin on the $100 bill was made by the U.S. Department of the Treasury, specifically by the Secretary of the Treasury. This decision was influenced by the above factors, and the desire to represent a diverse group of notable figures on U.S. currency. The Department of the Treasury also sought input from various sources, including historians, scholars, and the general public, when making the decision.
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There are several good reasons why Benjamin Franklin‘s portrait is in the highest US bill denomination . So important was Benjamin Franklin that his portrait is on 17.7 billion $100 notes in circulation as of December 2021 according to the Federal Reserve.
He was not a president; in fact currently, there are only two non presidents in the front of US bills. One is Benjamin Franklin and the other is Alexander Hamilton on the $10 bill. Hamilton was the first Secretary of the Treasury from 1789 to 1795 under George Washington and he is credited as the architect of the US economic system. A third non president on a US dollar note will be Harriet Tubman on the $20 bill scheduled to be in circulation by 2030.
Franklin played a key role in building the nation. He was the most important founding father, he was the oldest and the one who had contributed the most to the cause of independence. Franklin signed the Treaty of Alliance with France, convincing the French government to support America against powerful Britain. He also worked out loans and trade with European countries. He was the only founding father to have signed the three most important documents that led to Independence: Treaty of Alliance with France, Treaty of Paris and the Declaration of Independence. He was also one of the signers of the Constitution. In addition to being an outstanding statesman, Franklin was also an entrepreneur and a scientist. He was the most famous American in Europe in the 18th century.
The decision to honor Franklin on the $100 bill was made by the U.S. Department of the Treasury, specifically by the Secretary of the Treasury. This decision was influenced by the above factors, and the desire to represent a diverse group of notable figures on U.S. currency. The Department of the Treasury also sought input from various sources, including historians, scholars, and the general public, when making the decision.
| 397
|
ENGLISH
| 1
|
Woodpeckers are birds who are known for pecking at tree trunks. Over 180 species of woodpeckers exist, pecking into trees to find their livelihood. They are equipped with strong, pointed beaks that serve as chisels and crowbars. They also have a very long tongue that is up to four inches long. It is coated with a glue-like substance at the tip to make catching insects easier.
Their diet consists of insects, which is what they peck for, but they also eat fruit and nuts. These unique birds are found all over the world.
Woodpeckers peck for one of three reasons. The first one is called drumming. Drumming is a common woodpecker behavior that is done to either attract a mate or to let others know that the territory is claimed.
The next reason is obvious: these birds pecks for food. Woodpeckers drill into wood to look for various insects like beetles, larvae, and more. The holes they make are often shallow.
The last reason a woodpecker pecks is for nesting. The birds like to create a hollowed out nesting site that requires a large amount of pecking localized to one specific area. The hole created for a nest is much large than those created to find food. They create more damage to wooden structures as well, especially since a woodpecker will likely make several “test sites” before settling in their permanent nest.
For obvious reasons, woodpeckers prefer to live in wooded areas and forests. Because they need wood for more than just food, it is likely that wooden structures like houses can fall prey to these intensive tappings.
Males and females will work in collaboration to build a nest together so that they mate and incubate eggs. A female will lay around four eggs at once, and when the eggs hatch, the parents take care of the young together until they are 25 to 30 days.
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Woodpeckers are birds who are known for pecking at tree trunks. Over 180 species of woodpeckers exist, pecking into trees to find their livelihood. They are equipped with strong, pointed beaks that serve as chisels and crowbars. They also have a very long tongue that is up to four inches long. It is coated with a glue-like substance at the tip to make catching insects easier.
Their diet consists of insects, which is what they peck for, but they also eat fruit and nuts. These unique birds are found all over the world.
Woodpeckers peck for one of three reasons. The first one is called drumming. Drumming is a common woodpecker behavior that is done to either attract a mate or to let others know that the territory is claimed.
The next reason is obvious: these birds pecks for food. Woodpeckers drill into wood to look for various insects like beetles, larvae, and more. The holes they make are often shallow.
The last reason a woodpecker pecks is for nesting. The birds like to create a hollowed out nesting site that requires a large amount of pecking localized to one specific area. The hole created for a nest is much large than those created to find food. They create more damage to wooden structures as well, especially since a woodpecker will likely make several “test sites” before settling in their permanent nest.
For obvious reasons, woodpeckers prefer to live in wooded areas and forests. Because they need wood for more than just food, it is likely that wooden structures like houses can fall prey to these intensive tappings.
Males and females will work in collaboration to build a nest together so that they mate and incubate eggs. A female will lay around four eggs at once, and when the eggs hatch, the parents take care of the young together until they are 25 to 30 days.
| 402
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ENGLISH
| 1
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As mathematicians we have been learning the part-whole method and using stem sentencers to discuss what are parts and what is the whole. Through oracy we have discussed how our number is made up and began to write number-sentences as well as fact-families.
As artists we have explored colour-mixing using water colours and powder paint. We then developed these skills in the discovery area independently. We found various different colours and shades we could make based on amounts of colour mixed.
WE WILL REMEMBER THEM
We began our new focus this week by learning about soldiers and how we remeber people who died in wars.
We made purple poppies as they help people to show respect to animals who died in wars.
We have been using our continued skills and knowledge to build upon our learning. For example, by colour mixing to make a world, building a bridge and also creating poppies.
As artists we have been looking at the cover of our class text and trying to recreate the colours. We mixed black to make paint darking and white to make it lighter.
As mathematicians we have been using part-whole to write number sentences and using fact-families to find different ways to show the same answer.
As mathematicians we have been adding and finding number bonds to 10 by making up our own games. We have also been matching up the words and the number and blending using our phonics.
We have also opened up the London Booking Office, and children have used oracy to offer deals on London attractions and landmarks using their new-found knowledge.
We have also been discussing and sorting physical and human features within the world and having discussions to determine if humans made or created things or had an influence on them.
Children also came up with their own ideas and have been adding them to a group board.
We were Historians this week learning all about our new focus based around life in the past 'Victorian Christmas.'
We dived into our focus by visiting a local museum and looked at different toys and artefacts. We found out that people in the past did not have the same resources we have in the present such as plastic and therefore most toys were made from wood.
We looked at other items around the home like the iron and washing machine only to find they were non-electronic and heated through a fire within the house.
As our topic progresses, we hope to learn more about life in the 1800s.
Another busy week as we prepare for Christmas and our nativity. We can barely fit everything in!
As ever we have been busy trying new fruit and veg for our 'Try it Tuesday' and this week we had physalises and they were sweet like tomatoes but also like oranges.
We have also been mathematicians using tens-frames to count more. We wrote our number sentences on tables and challenges ourselves to read number problem stories and find the number sentence.
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] | 1
|
As mathematicians we have been learning the part-whole method and using stem sentencers to discuss what are parts and what is the whole. Through oracy we have discussed how our number is made up and began to write number-sentences as well as fact-families.
As artists we have explored colour-mixing using water colours and powder paint. We then developed these skills in the discovery area independently. We found various different colours and shades we could make based on amounts of colour mixed.
WE WILL REMEMBER THEM
We began our new focus this week by learning about soldiers and how we remeber people who died in wars.
We made purple poppies as they help people to show respect to animals who died in wars.
We have been using our continued skills and knowledge to build upon our learning. For example, by colour mixing to make a world, building a bridge and also creating poppies.
As artists we have been looking at the cover of our class text and trying to recreate the colours. We mixed black to make paint darking and white to make it lighter.
As mathematicians we have been using part-whole to write number sentences and using fact-families to find different ways to show the same answer.
As mathematicians we have been adding and finding number bonds to 10 by making up our own games. We have also been matching up the words and the number and blending using our phonics.
We have also opened up the London Booking Office, and children have used oracy to offer deals on London attractions and landmarks using their new-found knowledge.
We have also been discussing and sorting physical and human features within the world and having discussions to determine if humans made or created things or had an influence on them.
Children also came up with their own ideas and have been adding them to a group board.
We were Historians this week learning all about our new focus based around life in the past 'Victorian Christmas.'
We dived into our focus by visiting a local museum and looked at different toys and artefacts. We found out that people in the past did not have the same resources we have in the present such as plastic and therefore most toys were made from wood.
We looked at other items around the home like the iron and washing machine only to find they were non-electronic and heated through a fire within the house.
As our topic progresses, we hope to learn more about life in the 1800s.
Another busy week as we prepare for Christmas and our nativity. We can barely fit everything in!
As ever we have been busy trying new fruit and veg for our 'Try it Tuesday' and this week we had physalises and they were sweet like tomatoes but also like oranges.
We have also been mathematicians using tens-frames to count more. We wrote our number sentences on tables and challenges ourselves to read number problem stories and find the number sentence.
| 584
|
ENGLISH
| 1
|
|2.8 2118 CE
|2118 CE: The answer to the world’s problems would come from on high. The newly established Space Development Organization made a shocking discovery. At 02:15:12 GMT on June 6, 2118, the SDO discovered a stellar object approximately eight months away from possible impact with the Earth. About 62 km in diameter, this solid chunk of rock would pass within just a couple of thousand kilometers of the Earth. Damage estimates were such that they already weakened biosphere would be rendered uninhabitable by Human life.
Two massive projects were launched. The first was to establish environmentally sealed colonies on Luna and Mars to insure that in a worst-case scenario some remnant of Humanity would survive. The second was to find some way of averting the disaster all together. It was determined that the combined remaining stockpile of Earth’s nuclear and conventional weapons would be insufficient to deviate the course of this rock, now dubbed Ragnarock. The entirety of the Earth’s scientific and industrial capacity was directed to solving both of these issues.
Major investments in fusion technology were made for both plans. The results of this were twofold: first came the development of the first Atomic Fusion Engines, allowing a ship to make the journey to Mars in just two weeks. Second, new Fusion Torpedo weapons were developed which allowed the projection of an active nuclear reaction suspended inside of a decaying magnetic field, which was maintained by a small control module. These torpedoes would have their warhead supplied by a cache of deuterium on board the vessel, which excited it to a state of fusion in a specialized reactor before containment in it’s field mere micro seconds before launch. While the low mass of this weapon allowed it to have great speed and ammo capacity, it’s limited range made it unsuitable for use by an Earth based weapon for attack on Ragnarock. By the time the asteroid would be in range, it would be too late. Additionally, numerous problems with maintaining the stability of the torpedo field existed, causing the field to occasionally collapse prematurely.
Construction on two ships, Hope and Genesis, was started in orbit before the Fusion drive technology was even developed. So quickly were they built, that their construction scaffolds were actually completed two days after these vessels were ready for initial system tests. It took three months to complete and outfit both vessels, but on October 30, 2118 both the Hope and the Genesis left Earth orbit for their destinations.
Hope was set on course for Luna, where automated construction systems had been working for the last four months. After the initial population was deployed, it would return to Earth for continual ferrying of population to the new Luna base. New personnel on Luna would throw themselves into the construction process for their new home.
Genesis was a one-time use vessel. She was much larger than her sister ship, Hope. Her total passenger compliment was eight thousand; four times that of the Hope. Additionally, her hull was designed to be broken down for the initial colony base, making her journey a one-way trip.
Both ships performed remarkably well in their assigned duties. Neither had any major system failures, and completes their missions on time. All told, the Hope was able to move 12,000 people to the Luna Dome, and the Genesis was successfully disassembled into the Mars Dome 16 days after her launch.
In secret, the GCC had been playing a major gambit. In stationary orbit over the North Pole, the GCC had been working on a ship construction yard for the last year and a half. Designated Bifrost Station, it was originally designed to build long range probes and colony ships to the rest of the worlds in the Sol system for possible use in the rebuilding of Earth. Now, she had a different mission. Hoping for the best, the GCC decided to build a torpedo warship in Bifrost Station’s births. Designated the Guardian, this ship was specifically designed to get to Ragnarock and deliver as much weapons fire as possible in the hopes of diverting it’s path. Small by today’s standards, her crew of twenty-eight pledged to keep the asteroid from hitting Earth, or die trying. She was launched on November 21, 2118 at 20:04:00 GMT.
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|2.8 2118 CE
|2118 CE: The answer to the world’s problems would come from on high. The newly established Space Development Organization made a shocking discovery. At 02:15:12 GMT on June 6, 2118, the SDO discovered a stellar object approximately eight months away from possible impact with the Earth. About 62 km in diameter, this solid chunk of rock would pass within just a couple of thousand kilometers of the Earth. Damage estimates were such that they already weakened biosphere would be rendered uninhabitable by Human life.
Two massive projects were launched. The first was to establish environmentally sealed colonies on Luna and Mars to insure that in a worst-case scenario some remnant of Humanity would survive. The second was to find some way of averting the disaster all together. It was determined that the combined remaining stockpile of Earth’s nuclear and conventional weapons would be insufficient to deviate the course of this rock, now dubbed Ragnarock. The entirety of the Earth’s scientific and industrial capacity was directed to solving both of these issues.
Major investments in fusion technology were made for both plans. The results of this were twofold: first came the development of the first Atomic Fusion Engines, allowing a ship to make the journey to Mars in just two weeks. Second, new Fusion Torpedo weapons were developed which allowed the projection of an active nuclear reaction suspended inside of a decaying magnetic field, which was maintained by a small control module. These torpedoes would have their warhead supplied by a cache of deuterium on board the vessel, which excited it to a state of fusion in a specialized reactor before containment in it’s field mere micro seconds before launch. While the low mass of this weapon allowed it to have great speed and ammo capacity, it’s limited range made it unsuitable for use by an Earth based weapon for attack on Ragnarock. By the time the asteroid would be in range, it would be too late. Additionally, numerous problems with maintaining the stability of the torpedo field existed, causing the field to occasionally collapse prematurely.
Construction on two ships, Hope and Genesis, was started in orbit before the Fusion drive technology was even developed. So quickly were they built, that their construction scaffolds were actually completed two days after these vessels were ready for initial system tests. It took three months to complete and outfit both vessels, but on October 30, 2118 both the Hope and the Genesis left Earth orbit for their destinations.
Hope was set on course for Luna, where automated construction systems had been working for the last four months. After the initial population was deployed, it would return to Earth for continual ferrying of population to the new Luna base. New personnel on Luna would throw themselves into the construction process for their new home.
Genesis was a one-time use vessel. She was much larger than her sister ship, Hope. Her total passenger compliment was eight thousand; four times that of the Hope. Additionally, her hull was designed to be broken down for the initial colony base, making her journey a one-way trip.
Both ships performed remarkably well in their assigned duties. Neither had any major system failures, and completes their missions on time. All told, the Hope was able to move 12,000 people to the Luna Dome, and the Genesis was successfully disassembled into the Mars Dome 16 days after her launch.
In secret, the GCC had been playing a major gambit. In stationary orbit over the North Pole, the GCC had been working on a ship construction yard for the last year and a half. Designated Bifrost Station, it was originally designed to build long range probes and colony ships to the rest of the worlds in the Sol system for possible use in the rebuilding of Earth. Now, she had a different mission. Hoping for the best, the GCC decided to build a torpedo warship in Bifrost Station’s births. Designated the Guardian, this ship was specifically designed to get to Ragnarock and deliver as much weapons fire as possible in the hopes of diverting it’s path. Small by today’s standards, her crew of twenty-eight pledged to keep the asteroid from hitting Earth, or die trying. She was launched on November 21, 2118 at 20:04:00 GMT.
| 892
|
ENGLISH
| 1
|
Outside toilets, no central heating, corporal punishment and “The White Cliffs of Dover”, those who grew up in the 40s will remember the world being a very different place.
As part of our new series, we will be taking a decade in view and outlining what life was like for those who grew up in that time. We will identify key highlights and events, hopefully unlocking memories for those who remember life in that decade.
The first decade we have chosen is the 1940s, a period dominated by the Second World War and the struggles that arose with wartime. Britain was at war from 1939–45, and during the six years, food and clothing were rationed and in short supply. The bombing caused fear, injury, death and destruction, and families were often separated due to evacuation and fathers went away to fight.
Those who grew up in the 40s will either personally remember or know of someone who was evacuated during the war. As cities were being bombed, children were evacuated to the countryside to remain safe. Some found it an adventure, but for some, the separation from family and the feeling of homesickness caused distress.
Home life in the 40s was a stark contrast to how we live today. A quarter of British homes had no electricity, telephone or indoor toilet! There was also no central heating and houses were kept warm from the heat of a fire in the fireplace. Fitted carpets were also few and far between, with most homes having wooden or stone floors.
For those who were not fighting in the war, most people in Britain worked in manufacturing industries and factories. Heavy industries like coal mining, iron and steel making, ship building and engineering employed millions of workers.
Music and Entertainment
The Second World War brought fast, frantic (and often American) music – such as the jazz, boogie-woogie or jitterbug – as dances were held in church and village halls. Slower, sentimental romantic songs were also popular as loved ones went away to fight, such as Vera Lynn’s ‘We’ll Meet Again’ and ‘The ‘White Cliffs of Dover’.
Although televisions were starting to emerge, they were not affordable or available to many during the war. There was, however, use of the radio, which provided some entertainment as well as broadcasting updates on the war. Families would gather around and listen intently to the daily news on their radio.
For children, toys were hard to come by at this time. Factories were used for war equipment, which took manufacturing priority. Those who had toys were usually passed them down from older children or relatives.
In cities, playing outside was not permitted as it was too dangerous. Evacuees on the other hand had to make up their own games. As autumn approached, trips to the woods were common to find the largest, shiniest conkers, being careful to not get stabbed by the harsh prickly cases that protected it. Threaded onto a bootlace, or a piece of string, a winning conker would be the one that had smashed others to smithereens in combat.
Some staple activities of the time were skipping, football and hopscotch, making use of the countryside and the opportunity to be outside, or cards, dice, pick-up-sticks, noughts and crosses, and jacks.
School in the 40s was very different to today. Teachers were strict and corporal punishment was extremely common. Children were punished by getting hit by a cane (thin walking stick).
Classrooms were cold and the windows were often high up so you couldn’t look out, and sometimes classes were in the open air as many school buildings had been bombed. Each child had their own desk with a lid, though schools in rural areas were often overcrowded because evacuated children joined the classes.
Lessons were quite formal with an emphasis on learning things via repetition and by heart. There were very few textbooks to go around, so most things had to be copied off the blackboard. During the War years, teachers often moved to the countryside also, with many retired teachers coming back to work while the younger aged went to war.
Those who grew up in the 40s will most certainly remember ration books, as they lasted well after the war had ended. Ration books worked on a coupon system, so people could only purchase their entitlement and no more.
A typical weekly food ration allowed: 1 egg, 2 ounces each of tea and butter, an ounce of cheese, eight ounces of sugar, four ounces of bacon and four ounces of margarine. Meat wasn’t rationed immediately, but when it was its availability was decided by price rather than points, meaning cheaper cuts quickly became the most popular for many housewives. Catchy phrases like ‘go easy with bread, try potatoes instead’ were devised and circulated by the Ministry of Food to urge housewives to be frugal.
It was not just food that was rationed, clothes were too, and worked on the same coupon system. Adults were allowed to use 66 coupons a year – children were allocated additional coupons to allow for them outgrowing their clothes during the year. For example, a pair of shoes used five coupons while a suit used 18 coupons.
Pages of the book had different coloured coupons and only one colour could be used at a time. The government announced when the next colour could be used, to prevent people using all their coupons too quickly. Rationing should have imposed a ‘fair share for all’ but this was not always the case.
The government also devised a number of memorable campaigns to encourage people to become more conscious about using their ration coupons. The first being ‘Dig for Victory’, which encouraged Britons to turn green spaces they could into allotments so that they could grow food to feed their own family, as well as raise their own pigs and chickens to provide meat and eggs.
The equally memorable ‘Make do and Mend’, promoted repairing clothing and other goods. rather than replacing it.
The decade also saw a number of notable events, including:
1941 – The Blitz
Arguably the greatest test of Britain’s resolve against Nazi Germany, the Blitz began in September 1940 after Germany lost air superiority in the Battle of Britain. Many British cities were attacked, with London bearing the worst of it, being hit 56 times over 57 nights.
1945 – UK Joins the United Nations
The United Nations was formed in the aftermath of WWII, and the UK was one of the first to join. Britain became one of the five founding members of the United Nations Security Council, along with the United States, USSR, China, France and a majority of 46 other signatory nations.
1947 – Clement Attlee becomes Prime Minister
During World War II, the UK formed the coalition government between the Conservative and Labour Party in order to present Britain with a united front against Nazi Germany. After Germany’s defeat, Labor politicians called for a dissolution of the coalition government and a General Election was called.
Labour won a commanding number of seats having promised to bring British soldiers home and expand social programs.
1948 – NHS Founded
The National Health Service Act was passed in 1946, but it took a further two years for the NHS to be formally established. The formation of the National Health Service means universal healthcare was established in the UK.
Learning about various decades and how they differ to today is something we love about what we do at My Story Told. Creating a biography is a great way to capture your life and remember them in your own words.
Our aim is to provide a lasting document that can serve as a token of your or your legacy for generations to come. It is a way to tell life stories in the form of the written word, backed up by meaningful images and documents helping paint the picture of each chapter. For more on our process, please click here.
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] | 1
|
Outside toilets, no central heating, corporal punishment and “The White Cliffs of Dover”, those who grew up in the 40s will remember the world being a very different place.
As part of our new series, we will be taking a decade in view and outlining what life was like for those who grew up in that time. We will identify key highlights and events, hopefully unlocking memories for those who remember life in that decade.
The first decade we have chosen is the 1940s, a period dominated by the Second World War and the struggles that arose with wartime. Britain was at war from 1939–45, and during the six years, food and clothing were rationed and in short supply. The bombing caused fear, injury, death and destruction, and families were often separated due to evacuation and fathers went away to fight.
Those who grew up in the 40s will either personally remember or know of someone who was evacuated during the war. As cities were being bombed, children were evacuated to the countryside to remain safe. Some found it an adventure, but for some, the separation from family and the feeling of homesickness caused distress.
Home life in the 40s was a stark contrast to how we live today. A quarter of British homes had no electricity, telephone or indoor toilet! There was also no central heating and houses were kept warm from the heat of a fire in the fireplace. Fitted carpets were also few and far between, with most homes having wooden or stone floors.
For those who were not fighting in the war, most people in Britain worked in manufacturing industries and factories. Heavy industries like coal mining, iron and steel making, ship building and engineering employed millions of workers.
Music and Entertainment
The Second World War brought fast, frantic (and often American) music – such as the jazz, boogie-woogie or jitterbug – as dances were held in church and village halls. Slower, sentimental romantic songs were also popular as loved ones went away to fight, such as Vera Lynn’s ‘We’ll Meet Again’ and ‘The ‘White Cliffs of Dover’.
Although televisions were starting to emerge, they were not affordable or available to many during the war. There was, however, use of the radio, which provided some entertainment as well as broadcasting updates on the war. Families would gather around and listen intently to the daily news on their radio.
For children, toys were hard to come by at this time. Factories were used for war equipment, which took manufacturing priority. Those who had toys were usually passed them down from older children or relatives.
In cities, playing outside was not permitted as it was too dangerous. Evacuees on the other hand had to make up their own games. As autumn approached, trips to the woods were common to find the largest, shiniest conkers, being careful to not get stabbed by the harsh prickly cases that protected it. Threaded onto a bootlace, or a piece of string, a winning conker would be the one that had smashed others to smithereens in combat.
Some staple activities of the time were skipping, football and hopscotch, making use of the countryside and the opportunity to be outside, or cards, dice, pick-up-sticks, noughts and crosses, and jacks.
School in the 40s was very different to today. Teachers were strict and corporal punishment was extremely common. Children were punished by getting hit by a cane (thin walking stick).
Classrooms were cold and the windows were often high up so you couldn’t look out, and sometimes classes were in the open air as many school buildings had been bombed. Each child had their own desk with a lid, though schools in rural areas were often overcrowded because evacuated children joined the classes.
Lessons were quite formal with an emphasis on learning things via repetition and by heart. There were very few textbooks to go around, so most things had to be copied off the blackboard. During the War years, teachers often moved to the countryside also, with many retired teachers coming back to work while the younger aged went to war.
Those who grew up in the 40s will most certainly remember ration books, as they lasted well after the war had ended. Ration books worked on a coupon system, so people could only purchase their entitlement and no more.
A typical weekly food ration allowed: 1 egg, 2 ounces each of tea and butter, an ounce of cheese, eight ounces of sugar, four ounces of bacon and four ounces of margarine. Meat wasn’t rationed immediately, but when it was its availability was decided by price rather than points, meaning cheaper cuts quickly became the most popular for many housewives. Catchy phrases like ‘go easy with bread, try potatoes instead’ were devised and circulated by the Ministry of Food to urge housewives to be frugal.
It was not just food that was rationed, clothes were too, and worked on the same coupon system. Adults were allowed to use 66 coupons a year – children were allocated additional coupons to allow for them outgrowing their clothes during the year. For example, a pair of shoes used five coupons while a suit used 18 coupons.
Pages of the book had different coloured coupons and only one colour could be used at a time. The government announced when the next colour could be used, to prevent people using all their coupons too quickly. Rationing should have imposed a ‘fair share for all’ but this was not always the case.
The government also devised a number of memorable campaigns to encourage people to become more conscious about using their ration coupons. The first being ‘Dig for Victory’, which encouraged Britons to turn green spaces they could into allotments so that they could grow food to feed their own family, as well as raise their own pigs and chickens to provide meat and eggs.
The equally memorable ‘Make do and Mend’, promoted repairing clothing and other goods. rather than replacing it.
The decade also saw a number of notable events, including:
1941 – The Blitz
Arguably the greatest test of Britain’s resolve against Nazi Germany, the Blitz began in September 1940 after Germany lost air superiority in the Battle of Britain. Many British cities were attacked, with London bearing the worst of it, being hit 56 times over 57 nights.
1945 – UK Joins the United Nations
The United Nations was formed in the aftermath of WWII, and the UK was one of the first to join. Britain became one of the five founding members of the United Nations Security Council, along with the United States, USSR, China, France and a majority of 46 other signatory nations.
1947 – Clement Attlee becomes Prime Minister
During World War II, the UK formed the coalition government between the Conservative and Labour Party in order to present Britain with a united front against Nazi Germany. After Germany’s defeat, Labor politicians called for a dissolution of the coalition government and a General Election was called.
Labour won a commanding number of seats having promised to bring British soldiers home and expand social programs.
1948 – NHS Founded
The National Health Service Act was passed in 1946, but it took a further two years for the NHS to be formally established. The formation of the National Health Service means universal healthcare was established in the UK.
Learning about various decades and how they differ to today is something we love about what we do at My Story Told. Creating a biography is a great way to capture your life and remember them in your own words.
Our aim is to provide a lasting document that can serve as a token of your or your legacy for generations to come. It is a way to tell life stories in the form of the written word, backed up by meaningful images and documents helping paint the picture of each chapter. For more on our process, please click here.
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William Shakespeare biography William Shakespeare was a well-known English poet, playwright and actor of the 16th century. Friends, you must have heard about them in history. He is widely regarded as the greatest writer of the English language and the pre-eminent playwright of the world. He was also called the national poet of England and his nickname was “Bard of Avon”. He wrote 38 plays, 154 sonnets, 2 long narrative poems and some other verses, some of which are of uncertain authorship. His plays have been translated into every language, and his plays have been performed and are still being performed more times than those of any other playwright. People have appreciated his work a lot. Literature without William Shakespeare is like an aquarium without fish. He generated about 1700 English words. His life has been told in this article.
Biography Of William Shakespeare
The life introduction of William Shakespeare is shown in the following table-
|Life Introduction Point
|26 April 1564
|Edmund Shakespeare, Joan Shakespeare, Gilbert Shakespeare, Margaret Shakespeare, Anne Shakespeare, Richard Shakespeare
|Susanna Hall, Hamnett Shakespeare, Judith Quinney.
|23 April 1616
Information About The Whole Life Of William Shakespeare
- Birth and early life of William Shakespeare
- Personal Life of William Shakespeare
- Theatrical debut of William Shakespeare
- william shakespeare’s career in poetry
- William Shakespeare’s work and style
- death of william shakespeare
- Some interesting facts about William Shakespeare
- Some precious words of william Shakespeare
Birth And Early Life Of William Shakespeare
William Shakespeare was born on 26 April 1564 in the city of Stratford-upon-Avon in Warwickshire, England. Although the exact date of his birth is not known, but according to the records of the church, he was born on 26 April 1564. His father, John Shakespeare, was a successful local merchant, as well as holding a responsible position in the government of Stratford, and in 1569 he also served as mayor. And mother Mary Shakespeare was the daughter of a wealthy landlord of a neighboring village. His parents had 8 children, among them William Shakespeare was the third and he was the eldest son of his parents.
However no personal documents survive from Shakespeare’s school years. He probably attended Stratford Grammar School and studied classics, Latin grammar and literature. It is believed that he left his studies around the age of 13 to help his father financially. This is how his early life was spent.
Personal Life Of William Shakespeare
According to early tradition, William Shakespeare was married to Anne Hathaway. William was just 18 and Anne was 26 when they got married. Anne was 8 years older than William. After 6 months of their marriage, they had a daughter, Susanna, who was married to John Hall. After this, they had 2 twin children, Hamnet and Judith. Hamnett died at the age of 11 and Judith who married Thomas Quiney. In this way William Shakespeare had three children. There has been much debate about Shakespeare’s sexuality. It is speculated that he was bisexual. Information about his life after his marriage is scarce, but he spent much of his time in London writing and performing his plays.
Theatrical Debut Of William Shakespeare
According to some information, William started his theatrical career in 1585, and worked on it for 7 years. According to his performance records, in 1592 he started his career on the London stage. At that time he became very famous. Shakespeare attracted the attention of both critics and fans. Robert Greene, one of Shakespeare’s first critics, was university-educated and displeased with Shakespeare’s efforts. From 1594 onwards, almost all of Shakespeare’s plays were performed by the Lord Chamberlain’s Men. The group rose to the top position in no time, being played by a leading company in London. Not only this, William Shakespeare bought his own theater in the year 1599 and named it Globe.
William Shakespeare Biography
Meanwhile, Shakespeare’s reputation as a playwright and actor grew rapidly, to the point that his name itself became a strong selling point. The company’s success solidified Shakespeare’s financial stability. After the death of Queen Elizabeth in 1603, they were awarded by a company with a royal patent. The group became very popular after many popular works of Shakespeare were published and sold. Shakespeare acted in many plays written by himself and others. Some of which include ‘Every Men in His Humour’, ‘Seasons His Fall’, ‘The First Folio’, ‘As You Like It’, ‘Hamlet’ and ‘Henry 6’. The late 16th and early 17th centuries saw a flourishing rise in Shakespeare’s career graph. He wrote about 37 plays out of which 15 were published. He earned enough money from his successful outing to buy a huge mansion in Stratford, which he named New House. Shakespeare began buying real estate in Les. Thus he nicely converted into an entrepreneur. It was his investment in it, and he also assured financial benefits from it. Shakespeare wanted to concentrate for more time in his play. Thus began the theatrical career of William Shakespeare.
William Shakespeare’s Career In Poetry
William Shakespeare was a playwright and actor as well as an English poet. In 1593 and 1594, along with his theatrical art, he started trying to write poetry. He wrote 2 poems ‘Venus and Adonis’ and ‘The Rape of Lucres’ at that time. both of which were dedicated to Henry Wriothesley, Earl of Southampton. The poem ‘Venus and Adonis’ depicts the sexual advances of Venus and the aventurous rejection of Adonis. ‘The Rape of Lucrece’ as the name suggests, the poem presents the emotional turmoil of Lucrece who is raped by Tarquin. Both the poems were very popular and at the same time it was frequently printed. Shakespeare also wrote the poems ‘A Lover’s Complaint’ and ‘The Phoenix and the Turtle’. The poem tells a brief story of a woman who was in agony because of her lover’s attempts at seduction, and also expresses the mourning of the phoenix and the lover’s death.
In 1609, Shakespeare named his work as ‘Sonnets’. This was his last work in the field of poetry which was printed. About 154 of these were sonnets. Although these sonnets were questionable at the time of writing. It is believed that all those sonnets were written by Shakespeare through his career but for individual readers. Sonnets were a style of their own which was unique, unusual and celebrated the feeling of love, passion. It delves deep and also gives information about childbirth, death and time. In this way, his tenure in poetry went on which was liked by the people very much.
William Shakespeare’s Work And Style
Talking about Shakespeare’s style of working, Shakespeare adopted his work and he was also very innovative. He had a traditional and conventional style of his own way by adding metaphors and rhetorical phrases. Most of Shakespeare’s plays featured a stanza pattern consisting of lines of unrhymed iambic pentameter or blank verse. In the early years of his writing, i.e. during the 1590s, Shakespeare mostly took the themes of his works from history, such as ‘Richard 2’, ‘Henry 5’, ‘Henry 6’ and many more. The only work that was an exception during that time was ‘Romeo and Juliet’. Shakespeare was a versatile person who tried to touch different genres with his wide range of works.
Along with romance in Shakespeare’s plays, there was also comedy. He also presented many comedy dramas and people liked him very much. In the years that followed, he also touched the genre of tragedy. Shakespeare also presented human behavior and actions in his character-representation. There are many behaviors in humans, such as betrayal, retaliation, incest and moral failure, etc. Classically, its works include ‘Hamlet’, ‘King Lear’, ‘Othello’ and ‘Macbeth’.
William Shakespeare Biography
Most of his works had tragic endings, and thus fell under the genre of dark tragedies. It was his last work that Shakespeare combined tragedy and comedy with a Tragicomedice, although it was intended to tell a sad story, but the play had a happy ending. Till 1610, Shakespeare wrote many plays. It is speculated that the last three plays he wrote were in collaboration with John Fletcher, who went on to become a successful post-Shakespearean playwright for the King’s Men Theater Group. Such was his work and style of doing it.
Death of William Shakespeare
In 1613, Shakespeare retired from Stratford. William Shakespeare died on 23 April 1616, 3 days before his birthday. Only a few records of his life were alive before 3 years of his death. According to church records, he entered the chancel of Holy Trinity Church on 5 April 1616. He was there with his wife and 2 daughters. An epitaph was written on his tombstone that ‘Good friend, for Jesus’. These stones are not needed for such a rich man. A funerary monument was erected to honor Shakespeare’s work and on its north wall was his work. About his writing work was written on half the effigy. In addition there are funerary monuments in Southwark Cathedral, and there are Poets’ Corners dedicated to him in Westminster Abbey. Apart from this, many statues, monuments have been established in the memory of Shakespeare around the world, which stand as a testimony to the glory of the work of this prolific poet and dramatist.
Some Interesting Facts About William Shakespeare
Some interesting facts about William Shakespeare are as follows-
- William Shakespeare never attended college.
- During Shakespeare’s time, women were not allowed to act in his plays, so the female characters in all of his plays were played by men.
- Shakespeare was not interested in publishing his plays, he wanted to perform his plays on stage.
- Shakespeare created about 1700 English words, some of which were very popular.
- He was also called the national poet of England and his nickname was “Bard of Avon”.
- There has been much debate about Shakespeare’s sexuality. It is speculated that he was bisexual.
Some precious words of william Shakespeare
Some of the precious words of William Shakespeare are as follows-
- Love all, trust few, do evil to none.
- A fool thinks he is wise, but a wise man knows that he is a fool.
- Don’t be afraid of greatness. Some greats are born to achieve greatness.
- Love is not seen with the eyes but with the mind and hence those who covet wings are depicted as blind.
- The fault is not in our stars but in ourselves.
- I challenge you to a battle of wits, but I see you are unarmed.
- Nothing is good or bad, but thinking makes it.
- Catching our destiny is not in the stars but in ourselves.
- Hell is empty and all the devils are here.
- We know what we are but do not know what we can be.
- The word is as easy as the wind; Loyal friends are hard to find.
- Prick my thumb, some rascals come this way.
- Though she may be but little, she is fierce.
- O Lord, what fools are these men.
- The path of true love is never easy.
- Don’t waste your love on someone who doesn’t value it.
- With a kiss like this I die.
- Do not argue with him, he is mad.
- I love this place, and would be glad to waste my time on it.
- With happiness and laughter come old wrinkles.
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William Shakespeare biography William Shakespeare was a well-known English poet, playwright and actor of the 16th century. Friends, you must have heard about them in history. He is widely regarded as the greatest writer of the English language and the pre-eminent playwright of the world. He was also called the national poet of England and his nickname was “Bard of Avon”. He wrote 38 plays, 154 sonnets, 2 long narrative poems and some other verses, some of which are of uncertain authorship. His plays have been translated into every language, and his plays have been performed and are still being performed more times than those of any other playwright. People have appreciated his work a lot. Literature without William Shakespeare is like an aquarium without fish. He generated about 1700 English words. His life has been told in this article.
Biography Of William Shakespeare
The life introduction of William Shakespeare is shown in the following table-
|Life Introduction Point
|26 April 1564
|Edmund Shakespeare, Joan Shakespeare, Gilbert Shakespeare, Margaret Shakespeare, Anne Shakespeare, Richard Shakespeare
|Susanna Hall, Hamnett Shakespeare, Judith Quinney.
|23 April 1616
Information About The Whole Life Of William Shakespeare
- Birth and early life of William Shakespeare
- Personal Life of William Shakespeare
- Theatrical debut of William Shakespeare
- william shakespeare’s career in poetry
- William Shakespeare’s work and style
- death of william shakespeare
- Some interesting facts about William Shakespeare
- Some precious words of william Shakespeare
Birth And Early Life Of William Shakespeare
William Shakespeare was born on 26 April 1564 in the city of Stratford-upon-Avon in Warwickshire, England. Although the exact date of his birth is not known, but according to the records of the church, he was born on 26 April 1564. His father, John Shakespeare, was a successful local merchant, as well as holding a responsible position in the government of Stratford, and in 1569 he also served as mayor. And mother Mary Shakespeare was the daughter of a wealthy landlord of a neighboring village. His parents had 8 children, among them William Shakespeare was the third and he was the eldest son of his parents.
However no personal documents survive from Shakespeare’s school years. He probably attended Stratford Grammar School and studied classics, Latin grammar and literature. It is believed that he left his studies around the age of 13 to help his father financially. This is how his early life was spent.
Personal Life Of William Shakespeare
According to early tradition, William Shakespeare was married to Anne Hathaway. William was just 18 and Anne was 26 when they got married. Anne was 8 years older than William. After 6 months of their marriage, they had a daughter, Susanna, who was married to John Hall. After this, they had 2 twin children, Hamnet and Judith. Hamnett died at the age of 11 and Judith who married Thomas Quiney. In this way William Shakespeare had three children. There has been much debate about Shakespeare’s sexuality. It is speculated that he was bisexual. Information about his life after his marriage is scarce, but he spent much of his time in London writing and performing his plays.
Theatrical Debut Of William Shakespeare
According to some information, William started his theatrical career in 1585, and worked on it for 7 years. According to his performance records, in 1592 he started his career on the London stage. At that time he became very famous. Shakespeare attracted the attention of both critics and fans. Robert Greene, one of Shakespeare’s first critics, was university-educated and displeased with Shakespeare’s efforts. From 1594 onwards, almost all of Shakespeare’s plays were performed by the Lord Chamberlain’s Men. The group rose to the top position in no time, being played by a leading company in London. Not only this, William Shakespeare bought his own theater in the year 1599 and named it Globe.
William Shakespeare Biography
Meanwhile, Shakespeare’s reputation as a playwright and actor grew rapidly, to the point that his name itself became a strong selling point. The company’s success solidified Shakespeare’s financial stability. After the death of Queen Elizabeth in 1603, they were awarded by a company with a royal patent. The group became very popular after many popular works of Shakespeare were published and sold. Shakespeare acted in many plays written by himself and others. Some of which include ‘Every Men in His Humour’, ‘Seasons His Fall’, ‘The First Folio’, ‘As You Like It’, ‘Hamlet’ and ‘Henry 6’. The late 16th and early 17th centuries saw a flourishing rise in Shakespeare’s career graph. He wrote about 37 plays out of which 15 were published. He earned enough money from his successful outing to buy a huge mansion in Stratford, which he named New House. Shakespeare began buying real estate in Les. Thus he nicely converted into an entrepreneur. It was his investment in it, and he also assured financial benefits from it. Shakespeare wanted to concentrate for more time in his play. Thus began the theatrical career of William Shakespeare.
William Shakespeare’s Career In Poetry
William Shakespeare was a playwright and actor as well as an English poet. In 1593 and 1594, along with his theatrical art, he started trying to write poetry. He wrote 2 poems ‘Venus and Adonis’ and ‘The Rape of Lucres’ at that time. both of which were dedicated to Henry Wriothesley, Earl of Southampton. The poem ‘Venus and Adonis’ depicts the sexual advances of Venus and the aventurous rejection of Adonis. ‘The Rape of Lucrece’ as the name suggests, the poem presents the emotional turmoil of Lucrece who is raped by Tarquin. Both the poems were very popular and at the same time it was frequently printed. Shakespeare also wrote the poems ‘A Lover’s Complaint’ and ‘The Phoenix and the Turtle’. The poem tells a brief story of a woman who was in agony because of her lover’s attempts at seduction, and also expresses the mourning of the phoenix and the lover’s death.
In 1609, Shakespeare named his work as ‘Sonnets’. This was his last work in the field of poetry which was printed. About 154 of these were sonnets. Although these sonnets were questionable at the time of writing. It is believed that all those sonnets were written by Shakespeare through his career but for individual readers. Sonnets were a style of their own which was unique, unusual and celebrated the feeling of love, passion. It delves deep and also gives information about childbirth, death and time. In this way, his tenure in poetry went on which was liked by the people very much.
William Shakespeare’s Work And Style
Talking about Shakespeare’s style of working, Shakespeare adopted his work and he was also very innovative. He had a traditional and conventional style of his own way by adding metaphors and rhetorical phrases. Most of Shakespeare’s plays featured a stanza pattern consisting of lines of unrhymed iambic pentameter or blank verse. In the early years of his writing, i.e. during the 1590s, Shakespeare mostly took the themes of his works from history, such as ‘Richard 2’, ‘Henry 5’, ‘Henry 6’ and many more. The only work that was an exception during that time was ‘Romeo and Juliet’. Shakespeare was a versatile person who tried to touch different genres with his wide range of works.
Along with romance in Shakespeare’s plays, there was also comedy. He also presented many comedy dramas and people liked him very much. In the years that followed, he also touched the genre of tragedy. Shakespeare also presented human behavior and actions in his character-representation. There are many behaviors in humans, such as betrayal, retaliation, incest and moral failure, etc. Classically, its works include ‘Hamlet’, ‘King Lear’, ‘Othello’ and ‘Macbeth’.
William Shakespeare Biography
Most of his works had tragic endings, and thus fell under the genre of dark tragedies. It was his last work that Shakespeare combined tragedy and comedy with a Tragicomedice, although it was intended to tell a sad story, but the play had a happy ending. Till 1610, Shakespeare wrote many plays. It is speculated that the last three plays he wrote were in collaboration with John Fletcher, who went on to become a successful post-Shakespearean playwright for the King’s Men Theater Group. Such was his work and style of doing it.
Death of William Shakespeare
In 1613, Shakespeare retired from Stratford. William Shakespeare died on 23 April 1616, 3 days before his birthday. Only a few records of his life were alive before 3 years of his death. According to church records, he entered the chancel of Holy Trinity Church on 5 April 1616. He was there with his wife and 2 daughters. An epitaph was written on his tombstone that ‘Good friend, for Jesus’. These stones are not needed for such a rich man. A funerary monument was erected to honor Shakespeare’s work and on its north wall was his work. About his writing work was written on half the effigy. In addition there are funerary monuments in Southwark Cathedral, and there are Poets’ Corners dedicated to him in Westminster Abbey. Apart from this, many statues, monuments have been established in the memory of Shakespeare around the world, which stand as a testimony to the glory of the work of this prolific poet and dramatist.
Some Interesting Facts About William Shakespeare
Some interesting facts about William Shakespeare are as follows-
- William Shakespeare never attended college.
- During Shakespeare’s time, women were not allowed to act in his plays, so the female characters in all of his plays were played by men.
- Shakespeare was not interested in publishing his plays, he wanted to perform his plays on stage.
- Shakespeare created about 1700 English words, some of which were very popular.
- He was also called the national poet of England and his nickname was “Bard of Avon”.
- There has been much debate about Shakespeare’s sexuality. It is speculated that he was bisexual.
Some precious words of william Shakespeare
Some of the precious words of William Shakespeare are as follows-
- Love all, trust few, do evil to none.
- A fool thinks he is wise, but a wise man knows that he is a fool.
- Don’t be afraid of greatness. Some greats are born to achieve greatness.
- Love is not seen with the eyes but with the mind and hence those who covet wings are depicted as blind.
- The fault is not in our stars but in ourselves.
- I challenge you to a battle of wits, but I see you are unarmed.
- Nothing is good or bad, but thinking makes it.
- Catching our destiny is not in the stars but in ourselves.
- Hell is empty and all the devils are here.
- We know what we are but do not know what we can be.
- The word is as easy as the wind; Loyal friends are hard to find.
- Prick my thumb, some rascals come this way.
- Though she may be but little, she is fierce.
- O Lord, what fools are these men.
- The path of true love is never easy.
- Don’t waste your love on someone who doesn’t value it.
- With a kiss like this I die.
- Do not argue with him, he is mad.
- I love this place, and would be glad to waste my time on it.
- With happiness and laughter come old wrinkles.
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Coloring based on 'The Virgin of the Rocks (National Gallery London version)' by Leonardo da Vinci (1491)
Leonardo da Vinci (1452 – 1519) was an Italian artist, inventor, and polymath who is widely regarded as one of the greatest geniuses in human history.
He is known for his masterful paintings such as the Mona Lisa and The Last Supper, as well as his innovative designs for flying machines, weaponry, and other mechanical devices.
Da Vinci’s work was characterized by his deep curiosity and his ability to combine scientific and artistic approaches to problem-solving. His contributions to fields such as anatomy, optics, and engineering have had a lasting impact on modern science and technology.
Leonardo da Vinci is considered a true Renaissance man, and his legacy continues to inspire artists, scientists, and thinkers to this day.
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Coloring based on 'The Virgin of the Rocks (National Gallery London version)' by Leonardo da Vinci (1491)
Leonardo da Vinci (1452 – 1519) was an Italian artist, inventor, and polymath who is widely regarded as one of the greatest geniuses in human history.
He is known for his masterful paintings such as the Mona Lisa and The Last Supper, as well as his innovative designs for flying machines, weaponry, and other mechanical devices.
Da Vinci’s work was characterized by his deep curiosity and his ability to combine scientific and artistic approaches to problem-solving. His contributions to fields such as anatomy, optics, and engineering have had a lasting impact on modern science and technology.
Leonardo da Vinci is considered a true Renaissance man, and his legacy continues to inspire artists, scientists, and thinkers to this day.
| 177
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ENGLISH
| 1
|
Strategies For Parents
Communicating with a middle-school aged child is different than communicating with a younger child. The middle-school years are truly defining and challenging times for a family. Younger kids’ (say 6 to 8 year olds) friends are typically friends of convenience. But starting around ages 10 or 11 kids' peers begin to have shared values and perceptions of the world. A child's perception of his or her parents changes around the same time. It is normal for children in this age group to start challenging their parents. There are also many physiological changes, and the brain is changing rapidly. Instead of seeing things in black and white, middle-school kids start seeing things in about 250 shades of gray! Unfortunately, they can't sort all of that out yet. Kids in this age group are not getting all the reinforcing feedback they got when they were younger. Parents tend to back off when kids get to the middle-school years, yet kids are still desperate for information. Parents aren't encouraged to keep communicating and kids might not look like they're listening, but in actuality they really are.
Many parents protest that their kids won't talk to them. From my experience a lot of middle-school kids do openly talk to their parents, but when kids don't or can't, there are usually two types of issues involved: social and sexual. Social and sexual changes are big topics and parents tend to underestimate them. But before kids feel comfortable talking about big ticket items like sex, drugs, and violence, they've got to talk about small stuff, like cheerleading or soccer practice. If we start with the small stuff; it isn't as threatening. Kids this age are socially very sensitive. They're much more aware of losing face than a younger child. Some of the best communication you can have is when you're not squared off at a table looking at your child. Perhaps that sensitive conversation you need to have with your son or daughter could occur when you're making dinner or driving somewhere together. Your child doesn't have to face you, and you both can be doing something else. This is particularly true with boys. Girls feel more comfortable than boys just talking, but boys feel more comfortable talking while doing something else.
The main cause of poor communication is really pretty clear. We are out of practice! The majority of parents and kids spend less than an hour (many less than half an hour) a day talking. Clearly, there's room for improvement. We need to spend more time communicating with our kids. Parents tend to think the most important things in their kids' lives are fun, friends, and physical appearance. When kids are asked that question, they often have completely different answers. Kids are often much more conservative than we think. I have heard many middle-schoolers express that family, school work, and their future are the most important things to them. It seems clear these kids are listening to and retaining what their parents, teachers and other trusted adults are saying. Communication pays dividends!
If you want to foster better communication with your child make sure you listen to the little stuff. There's a difference between "How was your day, dear?" -- kids know that sort of thing is perfunctory -- and really talking every day. Don't wait for the big sex, drugs, and violence issues to come up. Your child might not ever initiate that conversation with you. Instead, listen carefully to them and read between the lines; don't just listen to the words. Kids this age don't always use many words. Make sure you are aware of and acknowledge emotion. Middle-school kids think differently so it’s necessary to ask their opinion, and then listen to it. When you do, you'll find they are more likely to ask back for your opinion and listen to it.
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] | 1
|
Strategies For Parents
Communicating with a middle-school aged child is different than communicating with a younger child. The middle-school years are truly defining and challenging times for a family. Younger kids’ (say 6 to 8 year olds) friends are typically friends of convenience. But starting around ages 10 or 11 kids' peers begin to have shared values and perceptions of the world. A child's perception of his or her parents changes around the same time. It is normal for children in this age group to start challenging their parents. There are also many physiological changes, and the brain is changing rapidly. Instead of seeing things in black and white, middle-school kids start seeing things in about 250 shades of gray! Unfortunately, they can't sort all of that out yet. Kids in this age group are not getting all the reinforcing feedback they got when they were younger. Parents tend to back off when kids get to the middle-school years, yet kids are still desperate for information. Parents aren't encouraged to keep communicating and kids might not look like they're listening, but in actuality they really are.
Many parents protest that their kids won't talk to them. From my experience a lot of middle-school kids do openly talk to their parents, but when kids don't or can't, there are usually two types of issues involved: social and sexual. Social and sexual changes are big topics and parents tend to underestimate them. But before kids feel comfortable talking about big ticket items like sex, drugs, and violence, they've got to talk about small stuff, like cheerleading or soccer practice. If we start with the small stuff; it isn't as threatening. Kids this age are socially very sensitive. They're much more aware of losing face than a younger child. Some of the best communication you can have is when you're not squared off at a table looking at your child. Perhaps that sensitive conversation you need to have with your son or daughter could occur when you're making dinner or driving somewhere together. Your child doesn't have to face you, and you both can be doing something else. This is particularly true with boys. Girls feel more comfortable than boys just talking, but boys feel more comfortable talking while doing something else.
The main cause of poor communication is really pretty clear. We are out of practice! The majority of parents and kids spend less than an hour (many less than half an hour) a day talking. Clearly, there's room for improvement. We need to spend more time communicating with our kids. Parents tend to think the most important things in their kids' lives are fun, friends, and physical appearance. When kids are asked that question, they often have completely different answers. Kids are often much more conservative than we think. I have heard many middle-schoolers express that family, school work, and their future are the most important things to them. It seems clear these kids are listening to and retaining what their parents, teachers and other trusted adults are saying. Communication pays dividends!
If you want to foster better communication with your child make sure you listen to the little stuff. There's a difference between "How was your day, dear?" -- kids know that sort of thing is perfunctory -- and really talking every day. Don't wait for the big sex, drugs, and violence issues to come up. Your child might not ever initiate that conversation with you. Instead, listen carefully to them and read between the lines; don't just listen to the words. Kids this age don't always use many words. Make sure you are aware of and acknowledge emotion. Middle-school kids think differently so it’s necessary to ask their opinion, and then listen to it. When you do, you'll find they are more likely to ask back for your opinion and listen to it.
| 772
|
ENGLISH
| 1
|
The Gilded Age in America lasted from 1878- 1889. During this time many industries experienced drastic growth and as a result, an influx of immigrants flooded America. The 3 biggest industries included railroads, factories, and coal mines. Working conditions during the Gilded Age were poor, with low pay, unsafe working conditions, and long hours. Large corporations throughout the Gilded Age controlled the pay of many workers within the United States , held great political power by influencing legislation, and had a negative impact on a majority of American citizens. Large corporations had a large impact on the economy within America, as they were able to control the pay of many citizens in America. In document 1, it expresses the amount of power these corporations had in the United States. They were able to fire workers without cause, control their pay, which oftentimes was very little, or even withhold their wage from them all together. This caused many issues as many relied on that source of income to stay afloat in daily life. With minimal or no income, many Americans lived with a poor standard of living. Document 5 also supports this claim as it describes the demands of workers’, one of which is an adequate wage. In 1886 the American Federation of …show more content…
In document 3, it demonstrates how large companies in industries such as coal, oil, and sugar worked with the government to influence legislation in order to hold a monopoly over the industry. This resulted in many goods being overpriced. Overpriced goods, in addition to low wages, lead to many Americans to struggle financially during this time period. In document 4, it expresses the want for the government’s power to shift from the rich and powerful business owner to “the plain people.” This implies that large corporations have great influence on legislation, which is making for an unfair monopoly over many
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The Gilded Age was the period through 1868 to 1896 that came to be during Ulysses S. Grant’s presidency. This period introduced many highlights for instance, high voter turnouts and growth in entrepreneurship with names like Andrew Carnegie and Cornelius Vanderbilt dominating the business world. However, it was disgusted with many faults, for example, unethical political strategies like patronage and inhumane working conditions. Many would argue that the industrial developments during the Gilded Age brought many negative effects onto american society the growth of unethical business practices like monopolies. However, due to the increase of national wealth through the emergence of entrepreneurship in steel and shipping industries along with
Eventually allowed these business owners such as Andrew Carnegie, Cornelius Vanderbilt, and J. D. Rockefeller to control everything around them including the government. From 1870 to 1900, corporations grew significantly in number, size, and influence in the United States causing big corporations to control the government and the people in America. After the civil war, railroads became the main way to transport people or goods.
The Gilded Age was a period of time when economic change was happening. In this period many workers were affected since this is when monopolies were a thing and when many of the robber barons were paying extremely low wages to the workers even though they were extremely rich since they basically created monopolies which controlled most of the industry. Many robber barons paid such low wages and increased their prices, when most workers demanded much higher wages they said their business wasn't doing good and they couldn't pay more which in reality most were filthy rich. This would also happen In the late 1800s when robber barons were a group of rich guys who created monopolies. Their creation of monopolies would affect many workers since they got paid very low wages in addition to other working rights not being respected.
It’s hard to truly say whether growth in the late 19th century was good. It gave rise to a new era of industrialization, and ushered in a new, globalised society. It also toppled the old notion of the American Dream, and drew to question what words like freedom and equality truly meant. It put power in the hands of the wealthy and took freedom from the disadvantaged. A new system of power was borne unto the world, one where money is power, and power is freedom.
The Gilded Age, named by Mark Twain, lasted from the 1870’s to about 1900. It was a time of rapid economic growth and is also known as the “Progressive Era”. Many industries skyrocketed at this time such as the railroad, coal, steel, oil, meat, sugar, farm machinery, electricity, and petroleum industries. Products were now being mass produced, therefore, the price of living decreased. People developed an appreciation for art, theatre, and many other forms of expression and entertainment.
The Gilded Age was the period between the late 19th century and early 20th century. During this time, the United States underwent a period of immense economic, political, and social growth. During this time, politics were highly corrupt and were dominated by political machines, people or organizations that influenced the common people to get more votes in favor of certain politicians. Scandals broke out that put the government in a negative light and tarnished its reputation. There were many forms of corruption like political machines which were organizations that were designed to keep certain political parties.
The Gilded Age was a time of dramatic social and economic change in the United States. Rapid industrialization led to the rise of large businesses and the growth of a wealthy class of entrepreneurs and investors. This new class of wealthy Americans enjoyed a life of luxury, while the working class struggled to make ends meet. The Gilded Age was also a time of political corruption, as special interests used their money and influence to gain power in Washington. The era came to an end with the Panic of 1893, a economic crisis that led to widespread unemployment and poverty.
As reconstruction ended in the South, there began a new era known as the “Gilded Age.” This term was coined by Mark Twain and meant that although everything seemed prosperous on the surface, if you dig deeper life wasn’t all that great for the working class. During the Gilded Age, new inventions and a growing immigrant workforce led to the rise of industries. Inventions like the Bessemer Process, which allowed for the production of higher quality steel, and the growth of railroads, such as the Transcontinental railroad, led to a boom in industrial production. This massive growth in the industrial sector had positive effects on the American economy, although just like the term “Gilded, ” not everything was perfect under the surface.
The Gilded Age boasted a lot of great things for the United States. It created so much in such a short amount of time, but that time also brought bad things. Monopolies, factory accidents, horrible working conditions, and an ever-growing gap between the rich and the poor. These problems were handled very poorly due. This was due to nobody really caring about the poor and not eliminating trusts.
Prior to the year 1890 the United States went through the era of industrialization. The era focused on manufacturing, and factory work which led to mass production. Industrialization caused the U.S cities and market economy to expand rapidly. Industrialization also shaped the development of a large working class, to provide work for the large industries. Workers experienced poor working conditions such as long hours, poor sanitation, and little pay.
As the industrial revolution progressed into the Gilded Age, life changed a lot for those in the marginalized populations. Working conditions worsened, women in the workforce increased, and wealthy people believed they were above everyone else. Wealth created huge problems for the marginalized populations due to their bad working conditions which included health risks, little pay, and long hours. The number of factories were increasing so fast that the manufacturers started to disregard their workers. During the Gilded Age, many rich people believed that they had superiority over poor people.
The Gilded Age, which lasted from the 1870s to the 1890s, was a time of rapid economic growth and industrialization in the United States. While it brought about some positive effects, such as increased production and higher wages for some, the negative aspects of industrialization were profound and pervasive. One of the major negative aspects of industrialization during the Gilded Age was the exploitation of workers. Many workers were paid extremely low wages, and they were forced to work long hours in unsafe and unhealthy working conditions.
The Gilded Age was the time Civil War and the World War 1. It is also known for the population and economic growth that went rapidly during this time. All the good things led to a lot of political corruption and bad deals. The American political landscape during this time was more corrupt and they didn’t care about political ethics. The business owners had more power than the politicians.
The number, size, and power of corporations increased quickly, having both beneficial and detrimental effects. The Gilded Age, which spanned the years 1870 to 1900, had a significant impact on major enterprises and businesses in particular. Mass manufacturing, one of the new ways that efficiency was being used,
Document 2 includes a speech given by Theodore Roosevelt in which he speaks of the danger of trusts and why the government needs to regulate them. This was a fairly new idea as laissez-faire was a popular idea during the Gilded Age, and it was believed that businesses did not need regulations. However, now the president realizes that trusts gain too much power and they need to be supervised and regulated. This was an important understanding to come to, and one of the most important political changes throughout the Progressive Era. The point of view of this document is the president of the United States.
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The Gilded Age in America lasted from 1878- 1889. During this time many industries experienced drastic growth and as a result, an influx of immigrants flooded America. The 3 biggest industries included railroads, factories, and coal mines. Working conditions during the Gilded Age were poor, with low pay, unsafe working conditions, and long hours. Large corporations throughout the Gilded Age controlled the pay of many workers within the United States , held great political power by influencing legislation, and had a negative impact on a majority of American citizens. Large corporations had a large impact on the economy within America, as they were able to control the pay of many citizens in America. In document 1, it expresses the amount of power these corporations had in the United States. They were able to fire workers without cause, control their pay, which oftentimes was very little, or even withhold their wage from them all together. This caused many issues as many relied on that source of income to stay afloat in daily life. With minimal or no income, many Americans lived with a poor standard of living. Document 5 also supports this claim as it describes the demands of workers’, one of which is an adequate wage. In 1886 the American Federation of …show more content…
In document 3, it demonstrates how large companies in industries such as coal, oil, and sugar worked with the government to influence legislation in order to hold a monopoly over the industry. This resulted in many goods being overpriced. Overpriced goods, in addition to low wages, lead to many Americans to struggle financially during this time period. In document 4, it expresses the want for the government’s power to shift from the rich and powerful business owner to “the plain people.” This implies that large corporations have great influence on legislation, which is making for an unfair monopoly over many
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The Gilded Age was the period through 1868 to 1896 that came to be during Ulysses S. Grant’s presidency. This period introduced many highlights for instance, high voter turnouts and growth in entrepreneurship with names like Andrew Carnegie and Cornelius Vanderbilt dominating the business world. However, it was disgusted with many faults, for example, unethical political strategies like patronage and inhumane working conditions. Many would argue that the industrial developments during the Gilded Age brought many negative effects onto american society the growth of unethical business practices like monopolies. However, due to the increase of national wealth through the emergence of entrepreneurship in steel and shipping industries along with
Eventually allowed these business owners such as Andrew Carnegie, Cornelius Vanderbilt, and J. D. Rockefeller to control everything around them including the government. From 1870 to 1900, corporations grew significantly in number, size, and influence in the United States causing big corporations to control the government and the people in America. After the civil war, railroads became the main way to transport people or goods.
The Gilded Age was a period of time when economic change was happening. In this period many workers were affected since this is when monopolies were a thing and when many of the robber barons were paying extremely low wages to the workers even though they were extremely rich since they basically created monopolies which controlled most of the industry. Many robber barons paid such low wages and increased their prices, when most workers demanded much higher wages they said their business wasn't doing good and they couldn't pay more which in reality most were filthy rich. This would also happen In the late 1800s when robber barons were a group of rich guys who created monopolies. Their creation of monopolies would affect many workers since they got paid very low wages in addition to other working rights not being respected.
It’s hard to truly say whether growth in the late 19th century was good. It gave rise to a new era of industrialization, and ushered in a new, globalised society. It also toppled the old notion of the American Dream, and drew to question what words like freedom and equality truly meant. It put power in the hands of the wealthy and took freedom from the disadvantaged. A new system of power was borne unto the world, one where money is power, and power is freedom.
The Gilded Age, named by Mark Twain, lasted from the 1870’s to about 1900. It was a time of rapid economic growth and is also known as the “Progressive Era”. Many industries skyrocketed at this time such as the railroad, coal, steel, oil, meat, sugar, farm machinery, electricity, and petroleum industries. Products were now being mass produced, therefore, the price of living decreased. People developed an appreciation for art, theatre, and many other forms of expression and entertainment.
The Gilded Age was the period between the late 19th century and early 20th century. During this time, the United States underwent a period of immense economic, political, and social growth. During this time, politics were highly corrupt and were dominated by political machines, people or organizations that influenced the common people to get more votes in favor of certain politicians. Scandals broke out that put the government in a negative light and tarnished its reputation. There were many forms of corruption like political machines which were organizations that were designed to keep certain political parties.
The Gilded Age was a time of dramatic social and economic change in the United States. Rapid industrialization led to the rise of large businesses and the growth of a wealthy class of entrepreneurs and investors. This new class of wealthy Americans enjoyed a life of luxury, while the working class struggled to make ends meet. The Gilded Age was also a time of political corruption, as special interests used their money and influence to gain power in Washington. The era came to an end with the Panic of 1893, a economic crisis that led to widespread unemployment and poverty.
As reconstruction ended in the South, there began a new era known as the “Gilded Age.” This term was coined by Mark Twain and meant that although everything seemed prosperous on the surface, if you dig deeper life wasn’t all that great for the working class. During the Gilded Age, new inventions and a growing immigrant workforce led to the rise of industries. Inventions like the Bessemer Process, which allowed for the production of higher quality steel, and the growth of railroads, such as the Transcontinental railroad, led to a boom in industrial production. This massive growth in the industrial sector had positive effects on the American economy, although just like the term “Gilded, ” not everything was perfect under the surface.
The Gilded Age boasted a lot of great things for the United States. It created so much in such a short amount of time, but that time also brought bad things. Monopolies, factory accidents, horrible working conditions, and an ever-growing gap between the rich and the poor. These problems were handled very poorly due. This was due to nobody really caring about the poor and not eliminating trusts.
Prior to the year 1890 the United States went through the era of industrialization. The era focused on manufacturing, and factory work which led to mass production. Industrialization caused the U.S cities and market economy to expand rapidly. Industrialization also shaped the development of a large working class, to provide work for the large industries. Workers experienced poor working conditions such as long hours, poor sanitation, and little pay.
As the industrial revolution progressed into the Gilded Age, life changed a lot for those in the marginalized populations. Working conditions worsened, women in the workforce increased, and wealthy people believed they were above everyone else. Wealth created huge problems for the marginalized populations due to their bad working conditions which included health risks, little pay, and long hours. The number of factories were increasing so fast that the manufacturers started to disregard their workers. During the Gilded Age, many rich people believed that they had superiority over poor people.
The Gilded Age, which lasted from the 1870s to the 1890s, was a time of rapid economic growth and industrialization in the United States. While it brought about some positive effects, such as increased production and higher wages for some, the negative aspects of industrialization were profound and pervasive. One of the major negative aspects of industrialization during the Gilded Age was the exploitation of workers. Many workers were paid extremely low wages, and they were forced to work long hours in unsafe and unhealthy working conditions.
The Gilded Age was the time Civil War and the World War 1. It is also known for the population and economic growth that went rapidly during this time. All the good things led to a lot of political corruption and bad deals. The American political landscape during this time was more corrupt and they didn’t care about political ethics. The business owners had more power than the politicians.
The number, size, and power of corporations increased quickly, having both beneficial and detrimental effects. The Gilded Age, which spanned the years 1870 to 1900, had a significant impact on major enterprises and businesses in particular. Mass manufacturing, one of the new ways that efficiency was being used,
Document 2 includes a speech given by Theodore Roosevelt in which he speaks of the danger of trusts and why the government needs to regulate them. This was a fairly new idea as laissez-faire was a popular idea during the Gilded Age, and it was believed that businesses did not need regulations. However, now the president realizes that trusts gain too much power and they need to be supervised and regulated. This was an important understanding to come to, and one of the most important political changes throughout the Progressive Era. The point of view of this document is the president of the United States.
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