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D108472
http://priceofstamp.com/
.
Error. Page cannot be displayed. Please contact your service provider for more details. (16)
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D1842
http://www.mayoclinic.org/healthy-lifestyle/fitness/expert-answers/heart-rate/faq-20057979
Fitness
Appointments at Mayo Clinic Mayo Clinic offers appointments in Arizona, Florida and Minnesota and at Mayo Clinic Health System locations. Request Appointment Healthy Lifestyle Fitness Basics In-Depth Expert Answers Multimedia Resources News From Mayo Clinic What's New Products and services Free E-newsletter Subscribe to Housecall Our general interest e-newsletter keeps you up to date on a wide variety of health topics. Sign up now What's a normal resting heart rate? Answers from Edward R. Laskowski, M. D. A normal resting heart rate for adults ranges from 60 to 100 beats a minute. Generally, a lower heart rate at rest implies more efficient heart function and better cardiovascular fitness. For example, a well-trained athlete might have a normal resting heart rate closer to 40 beats a minute. To measure your heart rate, simply check your pulse. Place your index and third fingers on your neck to the side of your windpipe. To check your pulse at your wrist, place two fingers between the bone and the tendon over your radial artery — which is located on the thumb side of your wrist. When you feel your pulse, count the number of beats in 15 seconds. Multiply this number by 4 to calculate your beats a minute. Keep in mind that many factors can influence heart rate, including: Activity level Fitness level Air temperature Body position (standing up or lying down, for example)Emotions Body size Medications Although there's a wide range of normal, an unusually high or low heart rate may indicate an underlying problem. Consult your doctor if your resting heart rate is consistently above 100 beats a minute (tachycardia) or if you're not a trained athlete and your resting heart rate is below 60 beats a minute (bradycardia) — especially if you have other signs or symptoms, such as fainting, dizziness or shortness of breath. With Edward R. Laskowski, M. D. Healthy heart for life: Avoiding heart disease Kids and exercise Aug. 22, 2015References See more Expert Answers Products and Services Mayo Clinic Sports Medicine Mayo Clinic Healthy Living Program Book: The Mayo Clinic Diet The Mayo Clinic Diet Online Book: Mayo Clinic Fitness for Everybody Book: Mayo Clinic Healthy Heart for Life!See also Slide show: 5 smart exercise choices for psoriatic arthritis Accentuate the positive to make lasting health changes Balance training: Boost your long-term health with these exercises Barriers to fitness Blood Doping BMI calculator Body fat analyzers Show More Advertisement Mayo Clinic does not endorse companies or products. Advertising revenue supports our not-for-profit mission. Advertising & Sponsorship Policy Opportunities Ad Choices Mayo Clinic Marketplace Check out these best-sellers and special offers on books and newsletters from Mayo Clinic. FREE TRIAL – Mayo Clinic Health Letter Stop Osteoporosis in Its Tracks Improve Your Hearing and Balance Best Treatment Strategies for Arthritis The Mayo Clinic Diet Online Other Topics in Patient Care & Health Info Healthy Lifestyle Symptoms A-Z Diseases and Conditions A-Z Tests and Procedures A-ZDrugs and Supplements A-Z Appointments Patient and Visitor Guide Billing and Insurance Patient Online Services
[ "Appointments at Mayo Clinic Mayo Clinic offers appointments in Arizona, Florida and Minnesota and at Mayo Clinic Health System locations.", "Request Appointment Healthy Lifestyle Fitness Basics In-Depth Expert Answers Multimedia Resources News From Mayo Clinic What's New Products and services Free E-newsletter Subscribe to Housecall Our general interest e-newsletter keeps you up to date on a wide variety of health topics.", "Sign up now What's a normal resting heart rate?", "Answers from Edward R. Laskowski, M. D. A normal resting heart rate for adults ranges from 60 to 100 beats a minute.", "Generally, a lower heart rate at rest implies more efficient heart function and better cardiovascular fitness.", "For example, a well-trained athlete might have a normal resting heart rate closer to 40 beats a minute.", "To measure your heart rate, simply check your pulse.", "Place your index and third fingers on your neck to the side of your windpipe.", "To check your pulse at your wrist, place two fingers between the bone and the tendon over your radial artery — which is located on the thumb side of your wrist.", "When you feel your pulse, count the number of beats in 15 seconds.", "Multiply this number by 4 to calculate your beats a minute.", "Keep in mind that many factors can influence heart rate, including: Activity level Fitness level Air temperature Body position (standing up or lying down, for example)Emotions Body size Medications Although there's a wide range of normal, an unusually high or low heart rate may indicate an underlying problem.", "Consult your doctor if your resting heart rate is consistently above 100 beats a minute (tachycardia) or if you're not a trained athlete and your resting heart rate is below 60 beats a minute (bradycardia) — especially if you have other signs or symptoms, such as fainting, dizziness or shortness of breath.", "With Edward R. Laskowski, M. D. Healthy heart for life: Avoiding heart disease Kids and exercise Aug. 22, 2015References See more Expert Answers Products and Services Mayo Clinic Sports Medicine Mayo Clinic Healthy Living Program Book: The Mayo Clinic Diet The Mayo Clinic Diet Online Book: Mayo Clinic Fitness for Everybody Book: Mayo Clinic Healthy Heart for Life!See also Slide show: 5 smart exercise choices for psoriatic arthritis Accentuate the positive to make lasting health changes Balance training: Boost your long-term health with these exercises Barriers to fitness Blood Doping BMI calculator Body fat analyzers Show More Advertisement Mayo Clinic does not endorse companies or products.", "Advertising revenue supports our not-for-profit mission.", "Advertising & Sponsorship Policy Opportunities Ad Choices Mayo Clinic Marketplace Check out these best-sellers and special offers on books and newsletters from Mayo Clinic.", "FREE TRIAL – Mayo Clinic Health Letter Stop Osteoporosis in Its Tracks Improve Your Hearing and Balance Best Treatment Strategies for Arthritis The Mayo Clinic Diet Online Other Topics in Patient Care & Health Info Healthy Lifestyle Symptoms A-Z Diseases and Conditions A-Z Tests and Procedures A-ZDrugs and Supplements A-Z Appointments Patient and Visitor Guide Billing and Insurance Patient Online Services" ]
D54870
http://www.homeadvisor.com/cost/bathrooms/remodel-a-bathroom/
How Much Does It Cost To Remodel A Bathroom?
Find more information below on the costs of common accessories included in a bathroom remodel, along with design ideas and considerations concerning hiring a remodeling bathroom contractor. You want to get the best bathroom possible for your dime, so make sure you are armed with plenty of knowledge before you start calling. Return to Top Estimating Bathroom Remodel Costs Determining your budget could be tricky when planning your renovation. A large factor in determining cost will be the size of your bathroom, ranging from small to medium or master bathroom size. The fixtures you will need to fit in your bathroom will range in price depending on their size. The list of fixtures involved in remodeling a bathroom can include elements like faucets and fixtures, floor plan changes (like converting a half bath to full bath ), new showers or baths, new flooring, countertops, cabinets and lighting. This long list of comes with a lot of different prices and options to compare before choosing what to buy for your bath remodel. Here is a chart with some of the many options involved in a bathroom remodel, including the least expensive (small) to most expensive (master) costs for each: Option Low Range Mid Range High Range Install bathtub$400 - $1,500 $2,600 - $4,100 $6,000 - $8,000Install cabinets$1,200 - $3,500 $4,700 - $7,000 $8,000 - $13,000Install countertops$900 - $2,000 $2,800 - $4,100 $5,000 - $6,500Install flooring$800 - $2,000 $2,500 - $3,600 $5,000 - $7,000Install lighting fixture $120 - $900 $1,100 - $1,700 $2,500 - $4,000Install shower$450 - $2,000 $3,000 - $4,800 $6,000 - $10,000Install sink$190 - $900 $1,400 - $2,300 $3,500 - $6,500Install toilet $130 - $250 $340 - $480 $550 - $780Remember: you don't have to include all of these items in your bathroom remodel, unless you're building a whole new bathroom from scratch. You always have the option to add some pieces–sink, toilet and lighting fixtures–after you've done the bigger projects to spread out costs. Also consider that some of these projects–bathtub installation/remodel, shower installation or cabinet installation–have smaller, cheaper alternatives. For example, you can refinish cabinets to make them look brand new and flow with the new bathroom for less money. There is also the option of replacing faucets and other plumbing fixtures, which costs less than replacing bathtubs and showers. For those who want a similar style from room to room, it's worth considering the cost of kitchen cabinets ahead of time. If you plan to have your kitchen remodeled after you tackle the bathroom, consider the cost of your bathroom cabinets and fixtures on a larger scale. This will give you a more detailed estimate of your kitchen remodel cost. Return to Top Small Bathroom Remodeling Costs Small bathrooms are often less expensive to remodel than larger bathrooms because they have less square footage. This means fewer materials involved to make them look brand new, and their cost will be on the low range of the chart above since you need less of them or their smaller sizes to fit in the bathroom. The cost of labor will also be lower because the time spent to remodel a small bathroom won't be as long as a large bathroom, unless the professionals run into snags with the electricity or plumbing. However, there is still a lot of heavy lifting, planning and general time involved in the process. Here are some cost factors you might deal with in the midst of a small bathroom remodel: Changing the layout: If you decide to increase the square footage of the small bathroom, it will increase the total cost of the remodel. This means changing the electrical wiring in the walls, adding more flooring, and possibly more plumbing. All of this will increase materials and labor cost. Fixtures and appliances: If you replace any of your current fixtures and appliances in the bathroom--countertops, bathtub, toilet, sink, etc.--this will increase the cost because the professionals will need to remove the originals and install the new ones. You can save on this cost by refinishing some of the appliances or buying the materials yourself. Plumbing and electrical: Any issues with your plumbing or electricity during the renovation will add onto the cost of the remodel. You might have them checked by separate professionals ahead of time just in case. However, there could be issues that occur during the renovation that can't be planned for. Return to Top Bathroom Remodeling Ideas and Inspiration Why do you want to remodel the bathroom? Is it to modernize the functionality of your current bathroom? To update the style and color? Who is this bathroom for: female, male, adult or kid? Ask yourself if the bathroom design style should be classic or contemporary, mid-century modern or Bohemian chic. How will it flow with the rest of the house based on the style you choose? Does your bathroom fit your lifestyle? Maybe you live a fast-paced lifestyle where you never have time for more than a quick shower in the morning. Perhaps you like a long, leisurely, relaxing soak in a jacuzzi tub at night. Either way, how you plan to design the bathroom reflects both your aesthetic taste and lifestyle, and all of this impacts your costs and price range for accessories. Approach your contractor with many examples of your remodel ideas, including pictures from home decor magazines, links to bathroom design ideas on the web and paint chips from the hardware store. The more information a contractor has ahead of time, the more your bath remodel ideas will turn out exactly how you want it. Here are some remodeled bathroom examples that might help you define how to remodel your bathroom: Modern Bathroomsby Planet Home Remodeling Corp., a Bathroom Remodeler in Berkeley, CA. The average cost of a bathroom remodel in Berkeley is approximately $14,000 to $18,000.by Luxury for the Home, a Bathroom Remodeler in Dallas, TX. The average cost to remodel a bathroom in Dallas is approximately $7,300 to $10,000. Small Bathroom Remodelby Beyond Designs and Remodeling, Inc., a Bathroom Remodeling Contractor in Brooklyn, NY. For most homeowners in Brooklyn, the average cost for a bathroom remodel is approximately $9,800 to $13,000. Traditional Bathroom Remodelby Luxury for the Home, a Bathroom Remodeling Contractor in Milwaukee, WI. The average reported cost of a bathroom remodel in Milwaukee is $9,000 to $12,000. Eclectic Bathroom Remodelby Luxe Interiors, a Bathroom Remodeling Contractor in Denver, CO. The average cost of a remodeled bathroom in Denver ranges from $5,500 to $8,000. Contemporary Bathroom Remodelby Ideas and Solutions, a New York Bathroom Remodeling Contractor. And the average cost of a bathroom remodel in New York City is roughly $9,500 to $13,000. Return to Top Custom-Built or Store-Bought Accessories? Once you have ideas for your renovation planned out, the next step is to find accessories for your remodeled bathroom in your price range. If your idea for the bathroom doesn't fit exactly within a type of style like modern or contemporary, you may need to hire a professional craftsman to custom build accessories like the vanity, countertop or mirror frame. These specialized contractors will have different prices for their work depending on the material you want the accessories made from and how they calculate their prices: by the hour, job or otherwise. However, if you want to stay close within your budget, there is the option to buy accessories like sinks, toilets, countertop materials, cabinets and different lighting options at home improvement stores. They have a variety of options when it comes to items like bath lighting, toilets, sinks, vanities and cabinetry because they come straight from different manufacturers. Of course, you might leave the selection to your general contractor if you're uncertain about buying what fits best within your budget and design. Contractors often also have wider access to bath remodel accessories because of their personal relationships with manufacturers. This also means they could buy them for better prices than at a home improvement store. Return to Top Remodeling Project Price & Schedule Agreement An experienced contractor should be able to give you a written schedule and list of the construction tasks they are going to perform and what their deadlines are for the completion of each task. This helps prevent disagreements along the way and gives you clear expectations about how long the project should take to complete when remodeling a bathroom. A bathroom remodel is often a lengthy project, and thus a contractor may ask for money in advance of the work being started and after completion of specific milestones along the way. Make sure that the payment schedule and total amount is agreed upon and put in writing before the start of the project. Then at the end of the project, the contractor will be able to give you an itemized list of everything included in the remodel and how much it costs in total. Return to Top Remodeling Contractor's Work A bathroom remodel involves various areas of expertise: construction, plumbing, electrical and lighting. Talk to your bathroom remodel contractor at the start of the project about how they deal with mistakes, damage and repairs that may arise. Make sure the work will be backed up by an expressed warranty or guarantee. You want to get the value of a new bathroom for the amount of money you are paying the remodeling contractor. What you don't want is the additional cost of repairs and maintenance for mistakes made in the initial remodel. Return to Top Refer a Pro who does this service and receive an Amazon Gift Card!Help us improve this article Was this page helpful?1 Not Helpful 2 3 4 5 Very Helpful Share your cost experience Help others plan and budget for their projects
[ "Find more information below on the costs of common accessories included in a bathroom remodel, along with design ideas and considerations concerning hiring a remodeling bathroom contractor.", "You want to get the best bathroom possible for your dime, so make sure you are armed with plenty of knowledge before you start calling.", "Return to Top Estimating Bathroom Remodel Costs Determining your budget could be tricky when planning your renovation.", "A large factor in determining cost will be the size of your bathroom, ranging from small to medium or master bathroom size.", "The fixtures you will need to fit in your bathroom will range in price depending on their size.", "The list of fixtures involved in remodeling a bathroom can include elements like faucets and fixtures, floor plan changes (like converting a half bath to full bath ), new showers or baths, new flooring, countertops, cabinets and lighting.", "This long list of comes with a lot of different prices and options to compare before choosing what to buy for your bath remodel.", "Here is a chart with some of the many options involved in a bathroom remodel, including the least expensive (small) to most expensive (master) costs for each: Option Low Range Mid Range High Range Install bathtub$400 - $1,500 $2,600 - $4,100 $6,000 - $8,000Install cabinets$1,200 - $3,500 $4,700 - $7,000 $8,000 - $13,000Install countertops$900 - $2,000 $2,800 - $4,100 $5,000 - $6,500Install flooring$800 - $2,000 $2,500 - $3,600 $5,000 - $7,000Install lighting fixture $120 - $900 $1,100 - $1,700 $2,500 - $4,000Install shower$450 - $2,000 $3,000 - $4,800 $6,000 - $10,000Install sink$190 - $900 $1,400 - $2,300 $3,500 - $6,500Install toilet $130 - $250 $340 - $480 $550 - $780Remember: you don't have to include all of these items in your bathroom remodel, unless you're building a whole new bathroom from scratch.", "You always have the option to add some pieces–sink, toilet and lighting fixtures–after you've done the bigger projects to spread out costs.", "Also consider that some of these projects–bathtub installation/remodel, shower installation or cabinet installation–have smaller, cheaper alternatives.", "For example, you can refinish cabinets to make them look brand new and flow with the new bathroom for less money.", "There is also the option of replacing faucets and other plumbing fixtures, which costs less than replacing bathtubs and showers.", "For those who want a similar style from room to room, it's worth considering the cost of kitchen cabinets ahead of time.", "If you plan to have your kitchen remodeled after you tackle the bathroom, consider the cost of your bathroom cabinets and fixtures on a larger scale.", "This will give you a more detailed estimate of your kitchen remodel cost.", "Return to Top Small Bathroom Remodeling Costs Small bathrooms are often less expensive to remodel than larger bathrooms because they have less square footage.", "This means fewer materials involved to make them look brand new, and their cost will be on the low range of the chart above since you need less of them or their smaller sizes to fit in the bathroom.", "The cost of labor will also be lower because the time spent to remodel a small bathroom won't be as long as a large bathroom, unless the professionals run into snags with the electricity or plumbing.", "However, there is still a lot of heavy lifting, planning and general time involved in the process.", "Here are some cost factors you might deal with in the midst of a small bathroom remodel: Changing the layout: If you decide to increase the square footage of the small bathroom, it will increase the total cost of the remodel.", "This means changing the electrical wiring in the walls, adding more flooring, and possibly more plumbing.", "All of this will increase materials and labor cost.", "Fixtures and appliances: If you replace any of your current fixtures and appliances in the bathroom--countertops, bathtub, toilet, sink, etc.--this will increase the cost because the professionals will need to remove the originals and install the new ones.", "You can save on this cost by refinishing some of the appliances or buying the materials yourself.", "Plumbing and electrical: Any issues with your plumbing or electricity during the renovation will add onto the cost of the remodel.", "You might have them checked by separate professionals ahead of time just in case.", "However, there could be issues that occur during the renovation that can't be planned for.", "Return to Top Bathroom Remodeling Ideas and Inspiration Why do you want to remodel the bathroom?", "Is it to modernize the functionality of your current bathroom?", "To update the style and color?", "Who is this bathroom for: female, male, adult or kid?", "Ask yourself if the bathroom design style should be classic or contemporary, mid-century modern or Bohemian chic.", "How will it flow with the rest of the house based on the style you choose?", "Does your bathroom fit your lifestyle?", "Maybe you live a fast-paced lifestyle where you never have time for more than a quick shower in the morning.", "Perhaps you like a long, leisurely, relaxing soak in a jacuzzi tub at night.", "Either way, how you plan to design the bathroom reflects both your aesthetic taste and lifestyle, and all of this impacts your costs and price range for accessories.", "Approach your contractor with many examples of your remodel ideas, including pictures from home decor magazines, links to bathroom design ideas on the web and paint chips from the hardware store.", "The more information a contractor has ahead of time, the more your bath remodel ideas will turn out exactly how you want it.", "Here are some remodeled bathroom examples that might help you define how to remodel your bathroom: Modern Bathroomsby Planet Home Remodeling Corp., a Bathroom Remodeler in Berkeley, CA.", "The average cost of a bathroom remodel in Berkeley is approximately $14,000 to $18,000.by Luxury for the Home, a Bathroom Remodeler in Dallas, TX.", "The average cost to remodel a bathroom in Dallas is approximately $7,300 to $10,000.", "Small Bathroom Remodelby Beyond Designs and Remodeling, Inc., a Bathroom Remodeling Contractor in Brooklyn, NY.", "For most homeowners in Brooklyn, the average cost for a bathroom remodel is approximately $9,800 to $13,000.", "Traditional Bathroom Remodelby Luxury for the Home, a Bathroom Remodeling Contractor in Milwaukee, WI.", "The average reported cost of a bathroom remodel in Milwaukee is $9,000 to $12,000.", "Eclectic Bathroom Remodelby Luxe Interiors, a Bathroom Remodeling Contractor in Denver, CO.", "The average cost of a remodeled bathroom in Denver ranges from $5,500 to $8,000.", "Contemporary Bathroom Remodelby Ideas and Solutions, a New York Bathroom Remodeling Contractor.", "And the average cost of a bathroom remodel in New York City is roughly $9,500 to $13,000.", "Return to Top Custom-Built or Store-Bought Accessories?", "Once you have ideas for your renovation planned out, the next step is to find accessories for your remodeled bathroom in your price range.", "If your idea for the bathroom doesn't fit exactly within a type of style like modern or contemporary, you may need to hire a professional craftsman to custom build accessories like the vanity, countertop or mirror frame.", "These specialized contractors will have different prices for their work depending on the material you want the accessories made from and how they calculate their prices: by the hour, job or otherwise.", "However, if you want to stay close within your budget, there is the option to buy accessories like sinks, toilets, countertop materials, cabinets and different lighting options at home improvement stores.", "They have a variety of options when it comes to items like bath lighting, toilets, sinks, vanities and cabinetry because they come straight from different manufacturers.", "Of course, you might leave the selection to your general contractor if you're uncertain about buying what fits best within your budget and design.", "Contractors often also have wider access to bath remodel accessories because of their personal relationships with manufacturers.", "This also means they could buy them for better prices than at a home improvement store.", "Return to Top Remodeling Project Price & Schedule Agreement An experienced contractor should be able to give you a written schedule and list of the construction tasks they are going to perform and what their deadlines are for the completion of each task.", "This helps prevent disagreements along the way and gives you clear expectations about how long the project should take to complete when remodeling a bathroom.", "A bathroom remodel is often a lengthy project, and thus a contractor may ask for money in advance of the work being started and after completion of specific milestones along the way.", "Make sure that the payment schedule and total amount is agreed upon and put in writing before the start of the project.", "Then at the end of the project, the contractor will be able to give you an itemized list of everything included in the remodel and how much it costs in total.", "Return to Top Remodeling Contractor's Work A bathroom remodel involves various areas of expertise: construction, plumbing, electrical and lighting.", "Talk to your bathroom remodel contractor at the start of the project about how they deal with mistakes, damage and repairs that may arise.", "Make sure the work will be backed up by an expressed warranty or guarantee.", "You want to get the value of a new bathroom for the amount of money you are paying the remodeling contractor.", "What you don't want is the additional cost of repairs and maintenance for mistakes made in the initial remodel.", "Return to Top Refer a Pro who does this service and receive an Amazon Gift Card!Help us improve this article Was this page helpful?1 Not Helpful 2 3 4 5 Very Helpful Share your cost experience Help others plan and budget for their projects" ]
D118713
http://www.simplyrecipes.com/recipes/how_to_make_perfect_hard_boiled_eggs/
How to Make Perfect Hard Boiled Eggs
by Elise Bauer Jump to Recipe How to Make Perfect Hard Boiled Eggsxxxxx yyyyy 29 464 How To Quick and Easy Low Carb Paleo Hard boiled eggs recipe. Tips for how to boil eggs so they come out perfectly every time. Photography Credit: Elise Bauer I love hard boiled eggs. They’re great for deviled eggs, egg salad, or just eating plain with a sprinkle of salt. Used to be that people were scared of eating eggs because of the cholesterol in the egg yolks. Not only has research found that eggs also raise the good cholesterol that bodies need, but the latest Federal dietary guidelines no longer warn against dietary cholesterol which made people limit the eggs in their diet in the first place. When it comes to boiling eggs, the biggest problem is that people can easily over-cook them, leading to a dark green color around the yolk, and a somewhat sulphuric taste. Here’s my method for how to cook hard boiled eggs so that they don’t get over-cooked. Follow me on Pinterest How to Make Perfect Hard Boiled Eggs Print Cook time: 12 minutes Did you know? Older eggs are easier to peel than fresh eggs. If you are planning to make hard boiled eggs for Easter and want to make sure that the eggs are easy to peel, buy your eggs at least a week ahead of time (two weeks even better, they'll keep). If you need easy-to-peel eggs and you have fresh eggs, you might want to try steaming the eggs for 15 minutes. Pour an inch of water into a pot and insert a steamer basket. Bring to a boil. Place the eggs in the steamer basket, cover and steam for 15 minutes (more or less, check!). (Or if you don't have a steamer basket, steam the eggs in a half inch of water.) The steam penetrates the shell a bit making the eggs easier to peel. (You can also steam eggs in a pressure cooker ! )If you've boiled a batch of eggs that you are now finding difficult to peel, try cracking the shells all around without peeling them and soaking the eggs in water for a while. The water often seems to seep in enough under the shell to make the egg easier to peel. If you live at high altitude, let the eggs sit in the hot water longer or lower the heat and maintain a low simmer for 10 to 12 minutes. Method Hide Photos1. Cover the eggs in a saucepan with water: Fill a saucepan about a quarter of the way with water. Place the eggs in a single layer at the bottom of the saucepan. Add more water so that the eggs are covered by at least an inch or two of water. The more eggs that are crowding the pan the more water you should have over the eggs. 6 eggs should be covered by at least an inch, 7 to 12 eggs, 2 inches.2. Heat the pot on high heat and bring the water to a full rolling boil. Adding a teaspoon of vinegar to the water may help keep egg whites from running out if an egg does crack while cooking. Also some people find adding 1/2 teaspoon of salt to the water helps prevent cracking as well as making the eggs easier to peel.3. Turn off the heat, keep the pan on the hot burner, cover, and let sit for 10-12 minutes. If you have the type of stove burner that doesn't retain heat when turned off, you might want to lower the temp to low, simmer for a minute, and then turn it off. Depending on how cooked you like your hard boiled eggs, the eggs should be done perfectly in 10-12 minutes. That said, depending on your altitude, the shape of the pan, the size of the eggs, the ratio of water to eggs, it can take a few minutes more. Or if you like your eggs not fully hard cooked, it can take a few minutes less. When you find a time that works for you, given your preferences, the types of eggs you buy, your pots, stove, and cooking environment, stick with it. If I'm cooking a large batch of eggs, after 10 minutes I'll sacrifice one to check for doneness, by removing it with a spoon, running it under cold water, and cutting it open. If it's not done enough for my taste, I'll cook the other eggs a minute or two longer. I also find that it is very hard to overcook eggs using this method. I can let the eggs sit, covered, for up to 15-18 minutes without the eggs getting overcooked.4. Strain the water from the pan and run cold water over the eggs to cool them quickly and stop them from cooking further. Or, if you are cooking a large batch of eggs, remove them with a slotted spoon to a large bowl of ice water. I find it easiest to peel the eggs under a bit of running water. The best way to store hard boiled eggs is in a covered container in the refrigerator. Eggs can release odors in the fridge which is why it helps to keep them covered. They should be eaten within 5 days. Products We Love Saucepan, 3-Quart, with Lid$49.95 on Amazon Buy Steamer Basket, Stainless Steel$4.98 (75% savings) on Amazon Buy Slotted Spoon, Stainless Steel$12.41 on Amazon Buy Hello! All photos and content are copyright protected. Please do not use our photos without prior written permission. If you wish to republish this recipe, please rewrite the recipe in your own unique words and link back to How to Make Perfect Hard Boiled Eggs on Simply Recipes. Thank you!Print If you make this recipe, snap a pic and hashtag it #simplyrecipes — We love to see your creations on Instagram, Facebook, & Twitter!The good thing about this method is that even if you forget and the eggs sit in the water a few minutes longer than you had planned, they'll still be fine. Some people like their eggs less or more hard cooked than others. If you want your eggs still a little translucent in the center, let them seep in the hot water for only 6 minutes or so. Filed under: Breakfast and Brunch Easter How To Quick and Easy Gluten-Free Low Carb Paleo Egg Hard Boiled Egg You may also like How to Steam Hard Boiled Eggs Easy-Peel Hard Boiled Eggs in the Pressure Cooker Deviled Eggs Cloud Eggs (Egg Nests)Easy Poached Eggs Guacamole Deviled Eggs493 Comments / Reviews How to Make Perfect Hard Boiled Eggs54321 Did you make it? Rate it!Tere I tried this and they came out perfect I just left them covered for about 18 minutes, thank you for the tip ;)xxxxx yyyyy April 8, 2018Kimberly12 minutes, and absolutely perfect! !xxxxx yyyyy April 7, 2018austin morrison I’m with Derek..eggs fell apart when trying to peel……ended up boiling constantly for 8 minutes……cold water rinse after……..shell came right off!April 7, 2018Matthew Krpata Perfect!April 7, 2018Julia Worked like a charm.xxxxx yyyyy April 6, 2018View More
[ "by Elise Bauer Jump to Recipe How to Make Perfect Hard Boiled Eggsxxxxx yyyyy 29 464 How To Quick and Easy Low Carb Paleo Hard boiled eggs recipe.", "Tips for how to boil eggs so they come out perfectly every time.", "Photography Credit: Elise Bauer I love hard boiled eggs.", "They’re great for deviled eggs, egg salad, or just eating plain with a sprinkle of salt.", "Used to be that people were scared of eating eggs because of the cholesterol in the egg yolks.", "Not only has research found that eggs also raise the good cholesterol that bodies need, but the latest Federal dietary guidelines no longer warn against dietary cholesterol which made people limit the eggs in their diet in the first place.", "When it comes to boiling eggs, the biggest problem is that people can easily over-cook them, leading to a dark green color around the yolk, and a somewhat sulphuric taste.", "Here’s my method for how to cook hard boiled eggs so that they don’t get over-cooked.", "Follow me on Pinterest How to Make Perfect Hard Boiled Eggs Print Cook time: 12 minutes Did you know?", "Older eggs are easier to peel than fresh eggs.", "If you are planning to make hard boiled eggs for Easter and want to make sure that the eggs are easy to peel, buy your eggs at least a week ahead of time (two weeks even better, they'll keep).", "If you need easy-to-peel eggs and you have fresh eggs, you might want to try steaming the eggs for 15 minutes.", "Pour an inch of water into a pot and insert a steamer basket.", "Bring to a boil.", "Place the eggs in the steamer basket, cover and steam for 15 minutes (more or less, check!).", "(Or if you don't have a steamer basket, steam the eggs in a half inch of water.)", "The steam penetrates the shell a bit making the eggs easier to peel.", "(You can also steam eggs in a pressure cooker !", ")If you've boiled a batch of eggs that you are now finding difficult to peel, try cracking the shells all around without peeling them and soaking the eggs in water for a while.", "The water often seems to seep in enough under the shell to make the egg easier to peel.", "If you live at high altitude, let the eggs sit in the hot water longer or lower the heat and maintain a low simmer for 10 to 12 minutes.", "Method Hide Photos1.", "Cover the eggs in a saucepan with water: Fill a saucepan about a quarter of the way with water.", "Place the eggs in a single layer at the bottom of the saucepan.", "Add more water so that the eggs are covered by at least an inch or two of water.", "The more eggs that are crowding the pan the more water you should have over the eggs.", "6 eggs should be covered by at least an inch, 7 to 12 eggs, 2 inches.2.", "Heat the pot on high heat and bring the water to a full rolling boil.", "Adding a teaspoon of vinegar to the water may help keep egg whites from running out if an egg does crack while cooking.", "Also some people find adding 1/2 teaspoon of salt to the water helps prevent cracking as well as making the eggs easier to peel.3.", "Turn off the heat, keep the pan on the hot burner, cover, and let sit for 10-12 minutes.", "If you have the type of stove burner that doesn't retain heat when turned off, you might want to lower the temp to low, simmer for a minute, and then turn it off.", "Depending on how cooked you like your hard boiled eggs, the eggs should be done perfectly in 10-12 minutes.", "That said, depending on your altitude, the shape of the pan, the size of the eggs, the ratio of water to eggs, it can take a few minutes more.", "Or if you like your eggs not fully hard cooked, it can take a few minutes less.", "When you find a time that works for you, given your preferences, the types of eggs you buy, your pots, stove, and cooking environment, stick with it.", "If I'm cooking a large batch of eggs, after 10 minutes I'll sacrifice one to check for doneness, by removing it with a spoon, running it under cold water, and cutting it open.", "If it's not done enough for my taste, I'll cook the other eggs a minute or two longer.", "I also find that it is very hard to overcook eggs using this method.", "I can let the eggs sit, covered, for up to 15-18 minutes without the eggs getting overcooked.4.", "Strain the water from the pan and run cold water over the eggs to cool them quickly and stop them from cooking further.", "Or, if you are cooking a large batch of eggs, remove them with a slotted spoon to a large bowl of ice water.", "I find it easiest to peel the eggs under a bit of running water.", "The best way to store hard boiled eggs is in a covered container in the refrigerator.", "Eggs can release odors in the fridge which is why it helps to keep them covered.", "They should be eaten within 5 days.", "Products We Love Saucepan, 3-Quart, with Lid$49.95 on Amazon Buy Steamer Basket, Stainless Steel$4.98 (75% savings) on Amazon Buy Slotted Spoon, Stainless Steel$12.41 on Amazon Buy Hello!", "All photos and content are copyright protected.", "Please do not use our photos without prior written permission.", "If you wish to republish this recipe, please rewrite the recipe in your own unique words and link back to How to Make Perfect Hard Boiled Eggs on Simply Recipes.", "Thank you!Print If you make this recipe, snap a pic and hashtag it #simplyrecipes — We love to see your creations on Instagram, Facebook, & Twitter!The good thing about this method is that even if you forget and the eggs sit in the water a few minutes longer than you had planned, they'll still be fine.", "Some people like their eggs less or more hard cooked than others.", "If you want your eggs still a little translucent in the center, let them seep in the hot water for only 6 minutes or so.", "Filed under: Breakfast and Brunch Easter How To Quick and Easy Gluten-Free Low Carb Paleo Egg Hard Boiled Egg You may also like How to Steam Hard Boiled Eggs Easy-Peel Hard Boiled Eggs in the Pressure Cooker Deviled Eggs Cloud Eggs (Egg Nests)Easy Poached Eggs Guacamole Deviled Eggs493 Comments / Reviews How to Make Perfect Hard Boiled Eggs54321 Did you make it?", "Rate it!Tere I tried this and they came out perfect I just left them covered for about 18 minutes, thank you for the tip ;)xxxxx yyyyy April 8, 2018Kimberly12 minutes, and absolutely perfect!", "!xxxxx yyyyy April 7, 2018austin morrison I’m with Derek..eggs fell apart when trying to peel……ended up boiling constantly for 8 minutes……cold water rinse after……..shell came right off!April 7, 2018Matthew Krpata Perfect!April 7, 2018Julia Worked like a charm.xxxxx yyyyy April 6, 2018View More" ]
D269237
http://www.webexhibits.org/daylightsaving/b.html
.
"When we change our clocks Most of the United States begins Daylight Saving Time at 2:00 a.m. on the second Sunday in March and reverts to standard time on the first Sunday in November. In the U. S., each time zone switches at a different time. In the European Union, Summer Time begins and ends at 1:00 a.m. Universal Time (Greenwich Mean Time). It begins the last Sunday in March and ends the last Sunday in October. In the EU, all time zones change at the same moment. See more information about elsewhere in the world. Spring forward, Fall back During DST, clocks are turned forward an hour, effectively moving an hour of daylight from the morning to the evening. United States European Union Year DST Begins at 2 a.m. DST Ends at 2 a.m. Summertime period begins at 1 a.m. UT Summertime period ends at 1 a.m. UT2014 March 9 November 2 March 30 October 262015 March 8 November 1 March 29 October 252016 March 13 November 6 March 27 October 302017 March 12 November 5 March 26 October 292018 March 11 November 4 March 25 October 282019 March 10 November 3 March 31 October 272020 March 8 November 1 March 29 October 25March 14 November 7 March 28 October 31US calculator valid 1976-2099; EU 1996-2099. Change with up/down key. Spelling and grammar The official spelling is Daylight Saving Time, not Daylight Saving S Time. Saving is used here as a verbal adjective (a participle). It modifies time and tells us more about its nature; namely, that it is characterized by the activity of saving daylight. It is a saving daylight kind of time. Because of this, it would be more accurate to refer to DST as daylight-saving time. Similar examples would be a mind-expanding book or a man-eating tiger. Saving is used in the same way as saving a ball game, rather than as a savings account. Nevertheless, many people feel the word savings (with an 's') flows more mellifluously off the tongue. Daylight Savings Time is also in common usage, and can be found in dictionaries. Adding to the confusion is that the phrase Daylight Saving Time is inaccurate, since no daylight is actually saved. Daylight Shifting Time would be better, and Daylight Time Shifting more accurate, but neither is politically desirable. When in the morning? In the U. S., clocks change at 2:00 a.m. local time. In spring, clocks spring forward from 1:59 a.m. to 3:00 a.m.; in fall, clocks fall back from 1:59 a.m. to 1:00 a.m. In the EU, clocks change at 1:00 a.m. Universal Time. In spring, clocks spring forward from 12:59 a.m. to 2:00 a.m.; in fall, clocks fall back from 1:59 a.m. to 1:00 a.m. In the United States, Daylight Saving Time commences at 2:00 a.m. to minimize disruption. However, many states restrict bars from serving alcohol between 2:00 a.m. and 6:00 a.m. At 2:00 a.m. in the fall, however, the time switches back one hour. So, can bars serve alcohol for that additional hour? Some states claim that bars actually stop serving liquor at 1:59 a.m., so they have already stopped serving when the time reverts to Standard Time. Other states solve the problem by saying that liquor can be served until ""two hours after midnight."" In practice, however, many establishments stay open an extra hour in the fall. In the U. S., 2:00 a.m. was originally chosen as the changeover time because it was practical and minimized disruption. Most people were at home and this was the time when the fewest trains were running. It is late enough to minimally affect bars and restaurants, and it prevents the day from switching to yesterday, which would be confusing. It is early enough that the entire continental U. S. switches by daybreak, and the changeover occurs before most early shift workers and early churchgoers are affected. Some U. S. areas For the U. S. and its territories, Daylight Saving Time is NOT observed in Hawaii, American Samoa, Guam, Puerto Rico, the Virgin Islands, the Commonwealth of Northern Mariana Islands, and Arizona. The Navajo Nation participates in the Daylight Saving Time policy, even in Arizona, due to its large size and location in three states. A safety reminder Many fire departments encourage people to change the batteries in their smoke detectors when they change their clocks because Daylight Saving Time provides a convenient reminder. ""A working smoke detector more than doubles a person's chances of surviving a home fire,"" says William Mc Nabb of the Troy Fire Department in Michigan. More than 90 percent of homes in the United States have smoke detectors, but one-third are estimated to have dead or missing batteries.> For information about world calendars, see Calendars through the Ages. Page: 123 4 5 6 7 8 "
[ "\"When we change our clocks Most of the United States begins Daylight Saving Time at 2:00 a.m. on the second Sunday in March and reverts to standard time on the first Sunday in November.", "In the U. S., each time zone switches at a different time.", "In the European Union, Summer Time begins and ends at 1:00 a.m. Universal Time (Greenwich Mean Time).", "It begins the last Sunday in March and ends the last Sunday in October.", "In the EU, all time zones change at the same moment.", "See more information about elsewhere in the world.", "Spring forward, Fall back During DST, clocks are turned forward an hour, effectively moving an hour of daylight from the morning to the evening.", "United States European Union Year DST Begins at 2 a.m. DST Ends at 2 a.m. Summertime period begins at 1 a.m. UT Summertime period ends at 1 a.m. UT2014 March 9 November 2 March 30 October 262015 March 8 November 1 March 29 October 252016 March 13 November 6 March 27 October 302017 March 12 November 5 March 26 October 292018 March 11 November 4 March 25 October 282019 March 10 November 3 March 31 October 272020 March 8 November 1 March 29 October 25March 14 November 7 March 28 October 31US calculator valid 1976-2099; EU 1996-2099.", "Change with up/down key.", "Spelling and grammar The official spelling is Daylight Saving Time, not Daylight Saving S Time.", "Saving is used here as a verbal adjective (a participle).", "It modifies time and tells us more about its nature; namely, that it is characterized by the activity of saving daylight.", "It is a saving daylight kind of time.", "Because of this, it would be more accurate to refer to DST as daylight-saving time.", "Similar examples would be a mind-expanding book or a man-eating tiger.", "Saving is used in the same way as saving a ball game, rather than as a savings account.", "Nevertheless, many people feel the word savings (with an 's') flows more mellifluously off the tongue.", "Daylight Savings Time is also in common usage, and can be found in dictionaries.", "Adding to the confusion is that the phrase Daylight Saving Time is inaccurate, since no daylight is actually saved.", "Daylight Shifting Time would be better, and Daylight Time Shifting more accurate, but neither is politically desirable.", "When in the morning?", "In the U. S., clocks change at 2:00 a.m. local time.", "In spring, clocks spring forward from 1:59 a.m. to 3:00 a.m.; in fall, clocks fall back from 1:59 a.m. to 1:00 a.m.", "In the EU, clocks change at 1:00 a.m. Universal Time.", "In spring, clocks spring forward from 12:59 a.m. to 2:00 a.m.; in fall, clocks fall back from 1:59 a.m. to 1:00 a.m.", "In the United States, Daylight Saving Time commences at 2:00 a.m. to minimize disruption.", "However, many states restrict bars from serving alcohol between 2:00 a.m. and 6:00 a.m. At 2:00 a.m. in the fall, however, the time switches back one hour.", "So, can bars serve alcohol for that additional hour?", "Some states claim that bars actually stop serving liquor at 1:59 a.m., so they have already stopped serving when the time reverts to Standard Time.", "Other states solve the problem by saying that liquor can be served until \"\"two hours after midnight.\"\"", "In practice, however, many establishments stay open an extra hour in the fall.", "In the U. S., 2:00 a.m. was originally chosen as the changeover time because it was practical and minimized disruption.", "Most people were at home and this was the time when the fewest trains were running.", "It is late enough to minimally affect bars and restaurants, and it prevents the day from switching to yesterday, which would be confusing.", "It is early enough that the entire continental U. S. switches by daybreak, and the changeover occurs before most early shift workers and early churchgoers are affected.", "Some U. S. areas For the U. S. and its territories, Daylight Saving Time is NOT observed in Hawaii, American Samoa, Guam, Puerto Rico, the Virgin Islands, the Commonwealth of Northern Mariana Islands, and Arizona.", "The Navajo Nation participates in the Daylight Saving Time policy, even in Arizona, due to its large size and location in three states.", "A safety reminder Many fire departments encourage people to change the batteries in their smoke detectors when they change their clocks because Daylight Saving Time provides a convenient reminder.", "\"\"A working smoke detector more than doubles a person's chances of surviving a home fire,\"\" says William Mc Nabb of the Troy Fire Department in Michigan.", "More than 90 percent of homes in the United States have smoke detectors, but one-third are estimated to have dead or missing batteries.> For information about world calendars, see Calendars through the Ages.", "Page: 123 4 5 6 7 8 \"" ]
D174111
http://www.foodnetwork.com/recipes/oven-baked-salmon-recipe.html
Oven-Baked Salmon
Prev Recipe Next Recipe Oven-Baked Salmon Getting reviews... Recipe courtesy of Kathleen Daelemans Show: Cooking Thin Episode: Mangia Maria Save Recipe WATCH2 videos | Baked Salmon (04:02)Total: 20 min Prep: 5 min Cook: 15 min Yield: 4 servings Level: Easy Nutrition Info Healthy Baked Salmon (04:02)How to Pick and Store Fish (01:44)Ingredients12 ounce salmon fillet, cut into 4 pieces Coarse-grained salt Freshly ground black pepper Toasted Almond Parsley Salsa, for serving Baked squash, for serving, optional Toasted Almond Parsley Salad:1 shallot1 tablespoons red wine vinegar Coarse grain salt2 tablespoons capers, rinsed1 cup fresh flat-leaf parsley1/2 cup toasted almonds Extra-virgin olive oil Add Checked Items to Grocery List Directions Watch how to make this recipe. Preheat the oven to 450 degrees F. Season salmon with salt and pepper. Place salmon, skin side down, on a non-stick baking sheet or in a non-stick pan with an oven-proof handle. Bake until salmon is cooked through, about 12 to 15 minutes. Serve with the Toasted Almond Parsley Salad and squash, if desired. Toasted Almond Parsley Salad: Mince the shallot and add to a small bowl. Pour the vinegar over the shallots and add a pinch of salt. Let sit for 30 minutes. Roughly chop the capers, parsley and almonds and add to the shallots. Add the olive oil, tasting as you go. Mix again and adjust the seasonings. Pairs well with Chardonnay Categories: Easy Main Dish Easy Main Dish Healthy Dinner Healthy Baked Fish Baked Salmon Fish Salmon Low Sodium More from: Healthy Weeknight Dinners Get the Recipe Whole Roasted Stuffed Cauliflower Cauliflower gets the royal treatment with a cheesy, bacony kale stuffing. Whole Roasted Stuffed Cauliflower 00:42Mint Julep Cupcakes01:29Asparagus Fettuccine Carbonara 00:51Asparagus Fries 00:35Ina's Parmesan Chicken 04:10Snowy Pink Coconut Bundt Cake 01:02Take a Tour of the Food Network Fantasy Kitchen 01:37Previous Next1 - 3 of 7 videos IDEAS YOU'LL LOVENaan: Indian Oven-Baked Flat Bread Recipe courtesy of Aarti Sequeira Oven-Baked Sweet Potato Fries with Homemade Ranch Dressing Recipe courtesy of Food Network Salmon Baked in Foil Recipe courtesy of Giada De Laurentiis Salmon with Lemon, Capers, and Rosemary Recipe courtesy of Giada De Laurentiis Pan-Seared Salmon with Kale and Apple Salad Recipe courtesy of Food Network Kitchen Whole-Wheat Spaghetti with Lemon, Basil, and Salmon Recipe courtesy of Giada De Laurentiis Salmon Cakes Recipe courtesy of Ina Garten Smoked Salmon Recipe courtesy of Alton Brown Blackened Salmon Recipe courtesy of Alex Guarnaschelli Browse Reviews By Keyworddry (4)family (12)garlic (7)lemon (10)modifications (14)olive (9)parsley (5)pepper (10)salmon (28)salt (9)all reviews Filter reviews by keyword by clicking on the keywords above, or try these popular keywords:salmon (28) modifications (14) family (12)
[ "Prev Recipe Next Recipe Oven-Baked Salmon Getting reviews...", "Recipe courtesy of Kathleen Daelemans Show: Cooking Thin Episode: Mangia Maria Save Recipe WATCH2 videos | Baked Salmon (04:02)Total: 20 min Prep: 5 min Cook: 15 min Yield: 4 servings Level: Easy Nutrition Info Healthy Baked Salmon (04:02)How to Pick and Store Fish (01:44)Ingredients12 ounce salmon fillet, cut into 4 pieces Coarse-grained salt Freshly ground black pepper Toasted Almond Parsley Salsa, for serving Baked squash, for serving, optional Toasted Almond Parsley Salad:1 shallot1 tablespoons red wine vinegar Coarse grain salt2 tablespoons capers, rinsed1 cup fresh flat-leaf parsley1/2 cup toasted almonds Extra-virgin olive oil Add Checked Items to Grocery List Directions Watch how to make this recipe.", "Preheat the oven to 450 degrees F. Season salmon with salt and pepper.", "Place salmon, skin side down, on a non-stick baking sheet or in a non-stick pan with an oven-proof handle.", "Bake until salmon is cooked through, about 12 to 15 minutes.", "Serve with the Toasted Almond Parsley Salad and squash, if desired.", "Toasted Almond Parsley Salad: Mince the shallot and add to a small bowl.", "Pour the vinegar over the shallots and add a pinch of salt.", "Let sit for 30 minutes.", "Roughly chop the capers, parsley and almonds and add to the shallots.", "Add the olive oil, tasting as you go.", "Mix again and adjust the seasonings.", "Pairs well with Chardonnay Categories: Easy Main Dish Easy Main Dish Healthy Dinner Healthy Baked Fish Baked Salmon Fish Salmon Low Sodium More from: Healthy Weeknight Dinners Get the Recipe Whole Roasted Stuffed Cauliflower Cauliflower gets the royal treatment with a cheesy, bacony kale stuffing.", "Whole Roasted Stuffed Cauliflower 00:42Mint Julep Cupcakes01:29Asparagus Fettuccine Carbonara 00:51Asparagus Fries 00:35Ina's Parmesan Chicken 04:10Snowy Pink Coconut Bundt Cake 01:02Take a Tour of the Food Network Fantasy Kitchen 01:37Previous Next1 - 3 of 7 videos IDEAS YOU'LL LOVENaan: Indian Oven-Baked Flat Bread Recipe courtesy of Aarti Sequeira Oven-Baked Sweet Potato Fries with Homemade Ranch Dressing Recipe courtesy of Food Network Salmon Baked in Foil Recipe courtesy of Giada De Laurentiis Salmon with Lemon, Capers, and Rosemary Recipe courtesy of Giada De Laurentiis Pan-Seared Salmon with Kale and Apple Salad Recipe courtesy of Food Network Kitchen Whole-Wheat Spaghetti with Lemon, Basil, and Salmon Recipe courtesy of Giada De Laurentiis Salmon Cakes Recipe courtesy of Ina Garten Smoked Salmon Recipe courtesy of Alton Brown Blackened Salmon Recipe courtesy of Alex Guarnaschelli Browse Reviews By Keyworddry (4)family (12)garlic (7)lemon (10)modifications (14)olive (9)parsley (5)pepper (10)salmon (28)salt (9)all reviews Filter reviews by keyword by clicking on the keywords above, or try these popular keywords:salmon (28) modifications (14) family (12)" ]
D42150
http://home.costhelper.com/driveway.html
Driveway Cost
"Cost Helper > Home and Garden > Driveways, Pools & Outdoor Living > Driveway Driveway Cost How Much Does a Driveway Cost? Gravel Driveway: $300-$1,000 for 12'x25' Concrete Driveway: $900-$7,500 for 12'x25' Cobblestone Driveway: $6,000-$21,000 for 12'x25'E-mail Post Tweet Comments (39)A driveway is often the first thing that visitors see and the most-used outdoor area of a home, and is also key to the property's drainage. Depending on the materials used, a driveway can be utilitarian, like gravel, asphalt, or concrete, or decorative, like stamped asphalt, stamped concrete, or cobblestone. Typical costs: A gravel driveway starts at roughly $0.75 -$3 or more a square foot, or $300 -$1,000 for a 12'x25' single-car driveway. Costs can double for a roadway-quality driveway. Loose gravel will need replenishing periodically, but a correctly designed, installed and maintained gravel driveway can last 50-100 years or more. Also called tar and chip or oil and stone, macadam driveway can cost $1 -$3 or more a square foot on an existing driveway, or $600 -$1,800 for 12'x50'; and $2 -$4 or more a square foot for a completely new driveway with gravel base, or $1,200 -$2,400 for 12'x50'. Macadam typically lasts 6-10 years and provides the decorative and rustic appearance of a gravel driveway but with a firm base. An asphalt driveway costs about $2 -$5 a square foot, or $1,200 -$3,000 for 12'x50' to $31,000 -$75,000 for a 12' lane a quarter mile long. A stamped asphalt pattern (typically in the shape of bricks or stones) on a new or existing asphalt driveway can cost $3 -$9 a square foot, or $900 -$2,700 for 12'x25' or $3,600 -$11,000 for 24'x50' for just the stamping. Concrete is a popular, durable and relatively low-maintenance choice for paving a driveway. A plain concrete driveway can cost $3 -$10 or more a square foot, or $900 -$3,000 for 12'x25' or $2,900 -$9,600 for 24'x40', while a customized concrete driveway with multiple decorative elements can cost $15 -$25 or more a square foot, or $4,500 -$7,500 for 12'x25' or $14,400 -$24,000 for 24'x40'). There are three basic types of driveway pavers: Interlocking concrete pavers mimic the look of stone or brick and cost about $6 -$20 or more a square foot, or $1,800 -$4,500 for 12'x25'; a brick paver driveway with the timeless elegance of traditional brick typically costs $10 -$30 or more a square foot, or $3,000 -$9,000 for 12'x25'; and a cobblestone driveway offers ""old world"" charm"" plus durability (lasting up to 100 years), and can cost $20 -$70 or more a square foot, or $6,000 -$21,000 for 12'x25'. Paving contractors typically do not charge by the square foot, but instead quote their price for a specific project. Related articles: Fence What should be included: A typical single-car driveway is 9'-12' wide, and a two-car driveway is 20'-24' wide, according to Landscaping Network.com [ 1] ; 9'-wide can be a tight fit for delivery vans or trucks, while wider than 12' but less than 20' is too wide for a single vehicle and not wide enough for two. Driveway length is typically a minimum of 20' per car. Additional costs: Because a driveway connects to a public street, there are often regulations governing the width of the driving and the materials used to build it. Typically a permit will be required, and permit fees can vary from nominal to pricey, depending on location. Discounts: Check whether neighbors also need a driveway; there is a basic cost to bring equipment and a crew to a site, and some contractors charge less for multiple jobs in the same area. Shopping for a driveway: Driveways are typically installed by asphalt, concrete, masonry or paving contractors, although general building or landscaping contractors make take on the task as part of a larger project, and sub out the work. Ask friends, neighbors or local construction companies for recommendations. The Better Business Bureau lists tips for selecting an asphalt driveway contractor [ 2] ; the Concrete Network.com provides a searchable database of concrete contractors [ 3] ; the Stone Foundation provides a directory of stonemasons and contractors by state [ 4] ; or search for members of the National Association of Remodeling Contractors [ 5] and look for ""concrete services contractor,"" ""landscapers"" or ""masonry contractor"" in each company's list of specialties. Get several estimates; ask for and check references (if possible, visit a previous project, to see how the driveway looks after use); make sure the company is properly insured and licensed [ 6] ; and check for any complaints filed with the Better Business Bureau [ 7] . E-mail Post Tweet Comments (39)Cost Helper News10 Most Popular Cosmetic Procedures Before the Holidays With reunions and other get-togethers scheduled during the holiday season, most people want to look their best at this time of year. For some, that means filling in those wrinkles with a bit of botox, or having a nip and tuck down here and there.|| Posted November 23 2013And the Best Bacon Is... This little piggy went to market. After that, Consumer Reports bought samples and tasted to determine which little piggy offered the best bacon. Top honors go to Costco, it turns out.|| Posted October 5 2013‣ All Cost Helper Blog Posts What People Are Paying - Recent Comments Page 2 of 2 - << Previous 1 2Car Guy Dream Driveway Amount: $169,000.00Posted by: Tai Lopez in Hollywood, CA. Posted: June 21st, 2017 05:06AMType of Driveway: Custom Lamborghini Pavers Sq Ft of Driveway: Approximately 50'x120'Contractor: Undisclosed I explained to the contractor I wanted to park four Lamborghini's side by side in my driveway and we came up with a great solution. Very wide driveway leading to massive detached garage (4 car wide, 2.5 cars deep). Additional pavers added for parking on the sides of the garage. Custom brick pavers with the Lamborghini emblem utilized. Unique paver design patterned to say 'knowledge' at the driveway entrance. Was this post helpful to you? yes no Report prohibited or spam Replace concrete driveway Amount: $19,000.00Posted by: Sail Girl in Marietta, GA. Posted: February 7th, 2017 10:02AMContractor: Rpm I haven't had the work done yet. There is 2800 square feet of concrete to remove and replace. It is a long driveway that curves as it goes uphill. Is this bid too high? Was this post helpful to you? yes no Report prohibited or spami need a new asphalat driveway Amount: $3,000.00Posted by: marsbar in Grimsby, CA. Posted: July 10th, 2015 11:07AMType of Driveway: asphalt Sq Ft of Driveway: double , 6 cars I am seeking to have my driveway done. I don't know the exact measurements. Would like it done by Fall. Marlene Was this post helpful to you? yes no Report prohibited or spam Ashphalt Drive topped off Amount: $6,000.00Posted by: MRO_Software in Marple, PA. Posted: October 10th, 2014 10:10AMType of Driveway: Ashphalt Sq Ft of Driveway: 4353Contractor: Joe Chiusa Drive is in sections 200 x 10 then it widens to 70 x 30 then new section 23 x 11 Jackhammered out cracks and filled with gravel topped with 2.5 inches asphalt. Excellent job. Very neat. Very nice. Estimated that this cost about 1.37 per s.f. Was this post helpful to you? yes no Report prohibited or spam New Asphalt Driveway Amount: $2,300.00Posted by: TJW242 in Bensalem, PA. Posted: August 22nd, 2012 07:08AMType of Driveway: Asphalt Sq Ft of Driveway: 990Contractor: HBI, Feasterville, PAI just had a 45' x 22' (990 sq ft) asphalt driveway paved. Most of it was over an existing older gravel drive, but I extended about 12' into my yard and widened it buy about 3' down one side. Where I added I dug down and added two inches of modified stone ($25/ton). Paving guys came in used 1.5"" base course and 1.5"" top course. Cost for that was $2,300 or about $2.32/sq ft. I'm just outside of Philadelphia. Was this post helpful to you? yes no Report prohibited or spam Aspahlt Shim and overlay Amount: $3,700.00Posted by: Garry T in portsmouth, NH. Posted: July 27th, 2011 11:07AMType of Driveway: asphalt Sq Ft of Driveway: 2700had low spots and a few cracks from a 26 year old driveway but the base was OK and it hadn't sunk any more in about 5 years. Had it shimmed to level it with larger stone asphalt, they spread that and rolled it and then 1.5 inches of asphalt applied on top of that whcih was spread and rolled. Driveway is 270 feet by ten feet so this works out to be 2700 feet and the cost for the overlay came out to about 1.40 per square foot. Was this post helpful to you? yes no Report prohibited or spam Overlay Asphalt/Resurface Driveway Amount: $3,000.00Posted by: Dan The Man in Manchester, IN. Posted: June 14th, 2011 03:06PMType of Driveway: Asphalt Sq Ft of Driveway: 2500Contractor: gypsy Gypsy came by saying ""We have some asphalt left over from our job down the road..."" I'll admit, I'm a sucker for these guys - they did my driveway years ago (a different gypsy), but I've neglected to seal it for about 7 - 8 years. It started to crumble in many places, so I had these guys resurface just the bad areas - about 2500 sq. ft. of a 4000 sq. ft. driveway. They did a pretty good job, not perfect, but good. He started at $2 a sq. ft...then $1.75...and it ended up $1.20. I figure it all depends on the area you're in. Was this post helpful to you? yes no Report prohibited or spam Street hockey/basketball court Amount: $0.00Posted by: steafo in Roseville, MI. Posted: April 4th, 2011 04:04PMType of Driveway: na Sq Ft of Driveway: 1800sqft Contractor: na I am looking to lay some asphalt in a 60'x30' area in my backyard. I'm looking to turn this into a hockey rink/basketball court. Is asphalt the best way to go? Would 2"" thick suffice? And what would I pay for this, would it cost under $3000? Was this post helpful to you? yes no Report prohibited or spamspare asphalt left on the truck story Amount: $2,000.00Posted by: skyrun in golden, CO. Posted: April 1st, 2011 10:04AMType of Driveway: asphalt Sq Ft of Driveway: 2750i've heard the 'we are in the area and have some left over' story 2x now. we got various parts of our driveway done both times including grading to 3.5"" thick for 0.75/sq ft (the price was about double before i walked away). reading this and other stuff. anything in the $1-2/sq ft is a great assuming the job is done right. Was this post helpful to you? yes no Report prohibited or spam Reasonable cost - good work. Amount: $3,800.00Posted by: Coast in Fredericksburg, VA in Fredericksburg, VA. Posted: March 30th, 2011 05:03AMType of Driveway: Asphalt Sq Ft of Driveway: 3000Contractor: Maximum Paving This contractor (Paul Jones) stopped by in December and offered to do this as his work load had been light during the off-season, but said that prices would probably go up soon. This was done on an existing gravel driveway. He provided good references. It's a family business (4 generations now) and they seem to put a lot of effort into their jobs. After pondering it for a while and getting a few other estimates, I just had the pavement put down yesterday for the original estimate that Paul provided in December. 300 sq ft of it was for a turn-around over what used to be a grassy area that they dug out, filled with a good base of gravel and 5 to 6"" of asphalt. 3"" was put down over the existing gravel driveway after grading and weedkiller were done. Cost was about $1.26/sq foot. It looks good so far, but we'll see how it holds up. He suggests putting a sealant down immediately. Is that normally recommended? Was this post helpful to you? yes no Report prohibited or spam Looking at getting my driveway paved. Amount: $0.00Posted by: Wesley in Schofield, WI. Posted: March 18th, 2011 04:03PMType of Driveway: Asphalt Sq Ft of Driveway: 1340Contractor: In need of one Our driveway is gravel now but we are looking at getting it paved. It's 67ft x 20ft that needs to be done. Any ideas how much that would cost? Was this post helpful to you? yes no Report prohibited or spamestimate for a driveway in California Amount: $15,750.00Posted by: rudy achenbach in riverside, CA. Posted: March 2nd, 2011 11:03AMType of Driveway: cement with a patern Sq Ft of Driveway: 1187Was this post helpful to you? yes no Report prohibited or spam Awesome Cheap Pavers Amount: $6,500.00Posted by: Chris Cruver in Tampa, FL. Posted: November 4th, 2010 09:11AMType of Driveway: Pavers Sq Ft of Driveway: 1893Contractor: Alltimate Pavers And Landscaping Wow, while everyone else is charging 4 and above per square foot, I found a great guy charging only 3.70 something a square foot, that includes ripping out the old concrete and installing a complete driveway with a round about addition. I recommend him all the way 813 368 5546Was this post helpful to you? yes no Report prohibited or spamblack asphalt Amount: $0.00Posted by: a user in glen gardner,, NJ. Posted: October 16th, 2010 05:10AMType of Driveway: existing stone Sq Ft of Driveway: 2939Contractor: Henry's Henry, Jr stopped by, said he had extra black asphalt for $17.00 sq. yd ($1.88 sq. ft. Another worker stopped by & started & gave ne a contract for 5200 sq. ft. for $5200.00. I said that was not what Henry ,jr told me, called Henry ,JR.ended up getting 2500 sq.ft of drveway & 432 sq. ft of barn floor for $3700.00? ($1.26sqft)was this a good deal or not Was this post helpful to you? yes no Report prohibited or spam Does this sound like a fair deal? Amount: $5,000.00Posted by: Stuart Sweeney in North Kingstown, RI. Posted: September 20th, 2010 07:09AMType of Driveway: Asphalt Sq Ft of Driveway: 1600A nieghbor was having there drive redone, and they stopped here to ask if we would like to have ours done. The guy said if he did it today it would cost only $4,000. he gave me a card that had only a cell number on it. I didn't like that and DID NOT have it done. I do however still need to have my drive replaced. Was the pricing that off from what I will be paying? Was this post helpful to you? yes no Report prohibited or spam Asphalt over existing rock Amount: $10,300.00Posted by: Harry Hill in Fayette, MO. Posted: September 14th, 2010 01:09PMType of Driveway: 2 1/2"" asphalt Sq Ft of Driveway: 6176Contractor: Charlton's Asphalt Maintenance27' x 60' parking area in front of Garage with a 536' driveway. Sealer is to be added in 3 to 4 weeks. I was very suspicious because a sales person was going door to door and there was no address on their business card only a cell phone number and they wanted cash when the work was completed. They did have references I knew so I went for it. Was this post helpful to you? yes no Report prohibited or spam Redo the existing asphalt driveway Amount: $0.00Posted by: Al Rastogi in long valley, NJ. Posted: September 11th, 2010 02:09PMType of Driveway: Aspahlt11 yr old cracked Sq Ft of Driveway: 2100Contractor: Looking forwhat should be the right way to redo this kind of a driveway when it is sinking some places, cradked few places. Remove old one or repave right on top of the old one. How much this kind of job may cost. Any suggestion and advise? Was this post helpful to you? yes no Report prohibited or spam Does this sound like a fair price Amount: $7,000.00Posted by: Em in Norfolk, VA. Posted: August 28th, 2010 04:08AMType of Driveway: concrete Sq Ft of Driveway: 1590We are getting ready to install a 1590 sq. foot two car concrete driveway. They need to come out and break up some existing concrete and are taking down our carport as well. (He said it would be $6600 if we did the carport ourselves) or $7000 if he did all of it. I liked the guy who came out and would like him to do it, just wondering if this is about an average price? Was this post helpful to you? yes no Report prohibited or spambad business practice Amount: $1,500.00Posted by: darla in ennis, TX. Posted: August 18th, 2010 06:08PMType of Driveway: dry asphalt Sq Ft of Driveway: 800Contractor: sam stanleyhe qouted 850 for what he had on the truck,and would cover what he could, so he did my carport, and part of the drivway,at a $1.00 sq ft,and wanted 1500, he wouldent give me an upfront quote on the entire drive, wich is 4500sq ft, we i demanded the following day, that he measure the drive and give me a price or leave he did,and quoted me $5,300 to finish up .was that fair? Was this post helpful to you? yes no Report prohibited or spamwiden driveway Amount: $1.00Posted by: Bernie in womelsdforf, PA. Posted: August 5th, 2010 03:08PMType of Driveway: currently asphalt Sq Ft of Driveway: 50'Would like approximate cost to widen driveway, 3/4 of existing driveway asphalt - flat area 1/4 has a sloped hill to be dug in. wold like to widen approx 5'. Just not sure an approximate.....1,000 or 10,000... I have no idea, but want a ballpark before I start getting bugged by contractors. Was this post helpful to you? yes no Report prohibited or spamdriveway redo Amount: $3,500.00Posted by: ducky in des moines, IA. Posted: July 19th, 2010 06:07PMType of Driveway: concrete Sq Ft of Driveway: 810Contractor: yesi got a first bid of this contractor was 4000 usd but bargained with him to 3500 usd and it was done deal. what he had done he tear out old concrete and haul it away next day pour in new concrete at 4 inches depth 4000 psi total 810 s.f i paid the cost of concrete 920 usd plus 2600 usd for the crew of three men. if u read it do you think i paid too much for it. my wife said so thanks Was this post helpful to you? yes no Report prohibited or spamdriveway holds too much water Amount: $2,000.00Posted by: Webb, Anthony C in Euclid, OH. Posted: May 23rd, 2010 02:05PMType of Driveway: onelane quarter mile with two car garage Sq Ft of Driveway: nadriveway holds too much water. the water begins too flood the grass yard. now, the water is cuasing the driveway to crack and break up. I need a new driveway soon for I might get citations from the local city. I'm a war veteran just now returning home and don't have much saved and I need help now. Was this post helpful to you? yes no Report prohibited or spamis this worth it? Amount: $10,255.00Posted by: Erika in Falls Church, VA. Posted: May 12th, 2010 03:05PMType of Driveway: concrete Sq Ft of Driveway: 903Contractor: lookingfollowing bid came in: tear up 473 sf of asphalt $ 2,365 install 903 sf of concrete (3500 psi with wire mesh and broom finish) $ 7,890 is this worth it? Was this post helpful to you? yes no Report prohibited or spam Asphalt driveway Amount: $6,800.00Posted by: Husky in Rochester, NY. Posted: May 11th, 2010 07:05AMType of Driveway: Asphalt Sq Ft of Driveway: 2500Contractor: yes Tore up old driveway. Re-grade putting in 8"" base. 2"" of number 1 binder. re-graded side of driveway with fill dirt as slope changed due to adding 6' on width of driveway. Was this post helpful to you? yes no Report prohibited or spam Page 2 of 2 - << Previous 1 2Comment On Your Experience With a Driveway Subject: *Amount Spent: *Type of Driveway: Sq Ft of Driveway: Contractor: Comments: Purchased: Year: City: * State: *Information about you: Email: * Email addresses are not displayed. Name: This is the name we'll display with your post. Remember me on this computer*=required field. External Resources:www.landscapingnetwork.com/driveways/width.htmlwww.bbb.org/dayton/business-reviews/paving-contractors/industry-tips/asphalt-driveway-c...www.concretenetwork.com/www.stonefoundation.org/membersusa.html#TXwww.nari.org/homeowners/findapro/www.contractors-license.org/www.bbb.org/us/Find-Business-Reviews/More Home and Garden Topics Check Out All Costs for Home and Garden How Much Does Painting a House Cost? How Much Does a Fence Cost? How Much Does a Furnace Cost? Search Thousands of Topics on Cost Helper.com How much does cost? Today's Featured Cost Articles The price of a ""Forever"" stamp increases to 50 cents on January 21, 2018. What would a personal trainer cost to reach those New Years resolutions? Need help uncovering your driveway? You may need a snow removal service. A space heater can keep you warm on chilly December nights. Need someone to take care of the kids while you hit the mall for all those sales? About Cost Helper Cost Helper is based in Silicon Valley and provides consumers with unbiased price information about thousands of goods and services. Our writers are experienced journalists who adhere to our strict editorial ethics policy. Cost Helper Community Sliced finger opened Paid: 400.00 So a coworker sliced his finger opened whilst he was cutting veggies... [more]-Megaman Emergency Room Visit Cost2013 VW Tiguan Panoramic Sunroof Paid: 0.00 I got my Tiguan as a trade in on my diesel VW Jetta. One of the few times I had purchased an extended warranty. My panoramic sunroof was ""eaten"" by the mechanic/motor... [more]-Larene Sunroof Cost Coating Basement Walls With Waterproof Coating Paid: 580.00 We applied a water based epoxy coating Hydro-Seal 75 to our basement walls and came out 1 foot on the floor in our basement, 750 square feet total for $580, 58$ per gallon... [more]-Basement Waterproofing Cost Cinderella carriage Paid: 1000.00 Looking for Cinderella carriage... [more]-Horse and Carriage Rental Cost Tire Patch Paid: 27.00 Guy was really nice, but $27 seems like a bit. I wish I was strong enough to do it myself for $3... [more]-College Towns are Expensive Flat Tire Repair Cost Dream Baby Shower Paid: 3000.00 Venue: 5hrs with server and Tap bar4 course meal, desert table, lighting, cloth napkins and centerpiece all for $2000Cake and cake pops: $240Additional decorations for dessert table: balloons, wooden ornaments and frames $600Prizes for baby... [more]-Baby Shower Cost "
[ "\"Cost Helper > Home and Garden > Driveways, Pools & Outdoor Living > Driveway Driveway Cost How Much Does a Driveway Cost?", "Gravel Driveway: $300-$1,000 for 12'x25' Concrete Driveway: $900-$7,500 for 12'x25' Cobblestone Driveway: $6,000-$21,000 for 12'x25'E-mail Post Tweet Comments (39)A driveway is often the first thing that visitors see and the most-used outdoor area of a home, and is also key to the property's drainage.", "Depending on the materials used, a driveway can be utilitarian, like gravel, asphalt, or concrete, or decorative, like stamped asphalt, stamped concrete, or cobblestone.", "Typical costs: A gravel driveway starts at roughly $0.75 -$3 or more a square foot, or $300 -$1,000 for a 12'x25' single-car driveway.", "Costs can double for a roadway-quality driveway.", "Loose gravel will need replenishing periodically, but a correctly designed, installed and maintained gravel driveway can last 50-100 years or more.", "Also called tar and chip or oil and stone, macadam driveway can cost $1 -$3 or more a square foot on an existing driveway, or $600 -$1,800 for 12'x50'; and $2 -$4 or more a square foot for a completely new driveway with gravel base, or $1,200 -$2,400 for 12'x50'.", "Macadam typically lasts 6-10 years and provides the decorative and rustic appearance of a gravel driveway but with a firm base.", "An asphalt driveway costs about $2 -$5 a square foot, or $1,200 -$3,000 for 12'x50' to $31,000 -$75,000 for a 12' lane a quarter mile long.", "A stamped asphalt pattern (typically in the shape of bricks or stones) on a new or existing asphalt driveway can cost $3 -$9 a square foot, or $900 -$2,700 for 12'x25' or $3,600 -$11,000 for 24'x50' for just the stamping.", "Concrete is a popular, durable and relatively low-maintenance choice for paving a driveway.", "A plain concrete driveway can cost $3 -$10 or more a square foot, or $900 -$3,000 for 12'x25' or $2,900 -$9,600 for 24'x40', while a customized concrete driveway with multiple decorative elements can cost $15 -$25 or more a square foot, or $4,500 -$7,500 for 12'x25' or $14,400 -$24,000 for 24'x40').", "There are three basic types of driveway pavers: Interlocking concrete pavers mimic the look of stone or brick and cost about $6 -$20 or more a square foot, or $1,800 -$4,500 for 12'x25'; a brick paver driveway with the timeless elegance of traditional brick typically costs $10 -$30 or more a square foot, or $3,000 -$9,000 for 12'x25'; and a cobblestone driveway offers \"\"old world\"\" charm\"\" plus durability (lasting up to 100 years), and can cost $20 -$70 or more a square foot, or $6,000 -$21,000 for 12'x25'.", "Paving contractors typically do not charge by the square foot, but instead quote their price for a specific project.", "Related articles: Fence What should be included: A typical single-car driveway is 9'-12' wide, and a two-car driveway is 20'-24' wide, according to Landscaping Network.com [ 1] ; 9'-wide can be a tight fit for delivery vans or trucks, while wider than 12' but less than 20' is too wide for a single vehicle and not wide enough for two.", "Driveway length is typically a minimum of 20' per car.", "Additional costs: Because a driveway connects to a public street, there are often regulations governing the width of the driving and the materials used to build it.", "Typically a permit will be required, and permit fees can vary from nominal to pricey, depending on location.", "Discounts: Check whether neighbors also need a driveway; there is a basic cost to bring equipment and a crew to a site, and some contractors charge less for multiple jobs in the same area.", "Shopping for a driveway: Driveways are typically installed by asphalt, concrete, masonry or paving contractors, although general building or landscaping contractors make take on the task as part of a larger project, and sub out the work.", "Ask friends, neighbors or local construction companies for recommendations.", "The Better Business Bureau lists tips for selecting an asphalt driveway contractor [ 2] ; the Concrete Network.com provides a searchable database of concrete contractors [ 3] ; the Stone Foundation provides a directory of stonemasons and contractors by state [ 4] ; or search for members of the National Association of Remodeling Contractors [ 5] and look for \"\"concrete services contractor,\"\" \"\"landscapers\"\" or \"\"masonry contractor\"\" in each company's list of specialties.", "Get several estimates; ask for and check references (if possible, visit a previous project, to see how the driveway looks after use); make sure the company is properly insured and licensed [ 6] ; and check for any complaints filed with the Better Business Bureau [ 7] .", "E-mail Post Tweet Comments (39)Cost Helper News10 Most Popular Cosmetic Procedures Before the Holidays With reunions and other get-togethers scheduled during the holiday season, most people want to look their best at this time of year.", "For some, that means filling in those wrinkles with a bit of botox, or having a nip and tuck down here and there.|| Posted November 23 2013And the Best Bacon Is...", "This little piggy went to market.", "After that, Consumer Reports bought samples and tasted to determine which little piggy offered the best bacon.", "Top honors go to Costco, it turns out.|| Posted October 5 2013‣ All Cost Helper Blog Posts What People Are Paying - Recent Comments Page 2 of 2 - << Previous 1 2Car Guy Dream Driveway Amount: $169,000.00Posted by: Tai Lopez in Hollywood, CA.", "Posted: June 21st, 2017 05:06AMType of Driveway: Custom Lamborghini Pavers Sq Ft of Driveway: Approximately 50'x120'Contractor: Undisclosed I explained to the contractor I wanted to park four Lamborghini's side by side in my driveway and we came up with a great solution.", "Very wide driveway leading to massive detached garage (4 car wide, 2.5 cars deep).", "Additional pavers added for parking on the sides of the garage.", "Custom brick pavers with the Lamborghini emblem utilized.", "Unique paver design patterned to say 'knowledge' at the driveway entrance.", "Was this post helpful to you?", "yes no Report prohibited or spam Replace concrete driveway Amount: $19,000.00Posted by: Sail Girl in Marietta, GA. Posted: February 7th, 2017 10:02AMContractor: Rpm I haven't had the work done yet.", "There is 2800 square feet of concrete to remove and replace.", "It is a long driveway that curves as it goes uphill.", "Is this bid too high?", "Was this post helpful to you?", "yes no Report prohibited or spami need a new asphalat driveway Amount: $3,000.00Posted by: marsbar in Grimsby, CA.", "Posted: July 10th, 2015 11:07AMType of Driveway: asphalt Sq Ft of Driveway: double , 6 cars I am seeking to have my driveway done.", "I don't know the exact measurements.", "Would like it done by Fall.", "Marlene Was this post helpful to you?", "yes no Report prohibited or spam Ashphalt Drive topped off Amount: $6,000.00Posted by: MRO_Software in Marple, PA. Posted: October 10th, 2014 10:10AMType of Driveway: Ashphalt Sq Ft of Driveway: 4353Contractor: Joe Chiusa Drive is in sections 200 x 10 then it widens to 70 x 30 then new section 23 x 11 Jackhammered out cracks and filled with gravel topped with 2.5 inches asphalt.", "Excellent job.", "Very neat.", "Very nice.", "Estimated that this cost about 1.37 per s.f.", "Was this post helpful to you?", "yes no Report prohibited or spam New Asphalt Driveway Amount: $2,300.00Posted by: TJW242 in Bensalem, PA. Posted: August 22nd, 2012 07:08AMType of Driveway: Asphalt Sq Ft of Driveway: 990Contractor: HBI, Feasterville, PAI just had a 45' x 22' (990 sq ft) asphalt driveway paved.", "Most of it was over an existing older gravel drive, but I extended about 12' into my yard and widened it buy about 3' down one side.", "Where I added I dug down and added two inches of modified stone ($25/ton).", "Paving guys came in used 1.5\"\" base course and 1.5\"\" top course.", "Cost for that was $2,300 or about $2.32/sq ft.", "I'm just outside of Philadelphia.", "Was this post helpful to you?", "yes no Report prohibited or spam Aspahlt Shim and overlay Amount: $3,700.00Posted by: Garry T in portsmouth, NH.", "Posted: July 27th, 2011 11:07AMType of Driveway: asphalt Sq Ft of Driveway: 2700had low spots and a few cracks from a 26 year old driveway but the base was OK and it hadn't sunk any more in about 5 years.", "Had it shimmed to level it with larger stone asphalt, they spread that and rolled it and then 1.5 inches of asphalt applied on top of that whcih was spread and rolled.", "Driveway is 270 feet by ten feet so this works out to be 2700 feet and the cost for the overlay came out to about 1.40 per square foot.", "Was this post helpful to you?", "yes no Report prohibited or spam Overlay Asphalt/Resurface Driveway Amount: $3,000.00Posted by: Dan The Man in Manchester, IN.", "Posted: June 14th, 2011 03:06PMType of Driveway: Asphalt Sq Ft of Driveway: 2500Contractor: gypsy Gypsy came by saying \"\"We have some asphalt left over from our job down the road...\"\" I'll admit, I'm a sucker for these guys - they did my driveway years ago (a different gypsy), but I've neglected to seal it for about 7 - 8 years.", "It started to crumble in many places, so I had these guys resurface just the bad areas - about 2500 sq.", "ft. of a 4000 sq.", "ft. driveway.", "They did a pretty good job, not perfect, but good.", "He started at $2 a sq.", "ft...then $1.75...and it ended up $1.20.", "I figure it all depends on the area you're in.", "Was this post helpful to you?", "yes no Report prohibited or spam Street hockey/basketball court Amount: $0.00Posted by: steafo in Roseville, MI.", "Posted: April 4th, 2011 04:04PMType of Driveway: na Sq Ft of Driveway: 1800sqft Contractor: na I am looking to lay some asphalt in a 60'x30' area in my backyard.", "I'm looking to turn this into a hockey rink/basketball court.", "Is asphalt the best way to go?", "Would 2\"\" thick suffice?", "And what would I pay for this, would it cost under $3000?", "Was this post helpful to you?", "yes no Report prohibited or spamspare asphalt left on the truck story Amount: $2,000.00Posted by: skyrun in golden, CO. Posted: April 1st, 2011 10:04AMType of Driveway: asphalt Sq Ft of Driveway: 2750i've heard the 'we are in the area and have some left over' story 2x now.", "we got various parts of our driveway done both times including grading to 3.5\"\" thick for 0.75/sq ft (the price was about double before i walked away).", "reading this and other stuff.", "anything in the $1-2/sq ft is a great assuming the job is done right.", "Was this post helpful to you?", "yes no Report prohibited or spam Reasonable cost - good work.", "Amount: $3,800.00Posted by: Coast in Fredericksburg, VA in Fredericksburg, VA. Posted: March 30th, 2011 05:03AMType of Driveway: Asphalt Sq Ft of Driveway: 3000Contractor: Maximum Paving This contractor (Paul Jones) stopped by in December and offered to do this as his work load had been light during the off-season, but said that prices would probably go up soon.", "This was done on an existing gravel driveway.", "He provided good references.", "It's a family business (4 generations now) and they seem to put a lot of effort into their jobs.", "After pondering it for a while and getting a few other estimates, I just had the pavement put down yesterday for the original estimate that Paul provided in December.", "300 sq ft of it was for a turn-around over what used to be a grassy area that they dug out, filled with a good base of gravel and 5 to 6\"\" of asphalt.", "3\"\" was put down over the existing gravel driveway after grading and weedkiller were done.", "Cost was about $1.26/sq foot.", "It looks good so far, but we'll see how it holds up.", "He suggests putting a sealant down immediately.", "Is that normally recommended?", "Was this post helpful to you?", "yes no Report prohibited or spam Looking at getting my driveway paved.", "Amount: $0.00Posted by: Wesley in Schofield, WI.", "Posted: March 18th, 2011 04:03PMType of Driveway: Asphalt Sq Ft of Driveway: 1340Contractor: In need of one Our driveway is gravel now but we are looking at getting it paved.", "It's 67ft x 20ft that needs to be done.", "Any ideas how much that would cost?", "Was this post helpful to you?", "yes no Report prohibited or spamestimate for a driveway in California Amount: $15,750.00Posted by: rudy achenbach in riverside, CA.", "Posted: March 2nd, 2011 11:03AMType of Driveway: cement with a patern Sq Ft of Driveway: 1187Was this post helpful to you?", "yes no Report prohibited or spam Awesome Cheap Pavers Amount: $6,500.00Posted by: Chris Cruver in Tampa, FL.", "Posted: November 4th, 2010 09:11AMType of Driveway: Pavers Sq Ft of Driveway: 1893Contractor: Alltimate Pavers And Landscaping Wow, while everyone else is charging 4 and above per square foot, I found a great guy charging only 3.70 something a square foot, that includes ripping out the old concrete and installing a complete driveway with a round about addition.", "I recommend him all the way 813 368 5546Was this post helpful to you?", "yes no Report prohibited or spamblack asphalt Amount: $0.00Posted by: a user in glen gardner,, NJ.", "Posted: October 16th, 2010 05:10AMType of Driveway: existing stone Sq Ft of Driveway: 2939Contractor: Henry's Henry, Jr stopped by, said he had extra black asphalt for $17.00 sq.", "yd ($1.88 sq.", "ft. Another worker stopped by & started & gave ne a contract for 5200 sq.", "ft. for $5200.00.", "I said that was not what Henry ,jr told me, called Henry ,JR.ended up getting 2500 sq.ft of drveway & 432 sq.", "ft of barn floor for $3700.00?", "($1.26sqft)was this a good deal or not Was this post helpful to you?", "yes no Report prohibited or spam Does this sound like a fair deal?", "Amount: $5,000.00Posted by: Stuart Sweeney in North Kingstown, RI.", "Posted: September 20th, 2010 07:09AMType of Driveway: Asphalt Sq Ft of Driveway: 1600A nieghbor was having there drive redone, and they stopped here to ask if we would like to have ours done.", "The guy said if he did it today it would cost only $4,000.", "he gave me a card that had only a cell number on it.", "I didn't like that and DID NOT have it done.", "I do however still need to have my drive replaced.", "Was the pricing that off from what I will be paying?", "Was this post helpful to you?", "yes no Report prohibited or spam Asphalt over existing rock Amount: $10,300.00Posted by: Harry Hill in Fayette, MO.", "Posted: September 14th, 2010 01:09PMType of Driveway: 2 1/2\"\" asphalt Sq Ft of Driveway: 6176Contractor: Charlton's Asphalt Maintenance27' x 60' parking area in front of Garage with a 536' driveway.", "Sealer is to be added in 3 to 4 weeks.", "I was very suspicious because a sales person was going door to door and there was no address on their business card only a cell phone number and they wanted cash when the work was completed.", "They did have references I knew so I went for it.", "Was this post helpful to you?", "yes no Report prohibited or spam Redo the existing asphalt driveway Amount: $0.00Posted by: Al Rastogi in long valley, NJ.", "Posted: September 11th, 2010 02:09PMType of Driveway: Aspahlt11 yr old cracked Sq Ft of Driveway: 2100Contractor: Looking forwhat should be the right way to redo this kind of a driveway when it is sinking some places, cradked few places.", "Remove old one or repave right on top of the old one.", "How much this kind of job may cost.", "Any suggestion and advise?", "Was this post helpful to you?", "yes no Report prohibited or spam Does this sound like a fair price Amount: $7,000.00Posted by: Em in Norfolk, VA. Posted: August 28th, 2010 04:08AMType of Driveway: concrete Sq Ft of Driveway: 1590We are getting ready to install a 1590 sq.", "foot two car concrete driveway.", "They need to come out and break up some existing concrete and are taking down our carport as well.", "(He said it would be $6600 if we did the carport ourselves) or $7000 if he did all of it.", "I liked the guy who came out and would like him to do it, just wondering if this is about an average price?", "Was this post helpful to you?", "yes no Report prohibited or spambad business practice Amount: $1,500.00Posted by: darla in ennis, TX.", "Posted: August 18th, 2010 06:08PMType of Driveway: dry asphalt Sq Ft of Driveway: 800Contractor: sam stanleyhe qouted 850 for what he had on the truck,and would cover what he could, so he did my carport, and part of the drivway,at a $1.00 sq ft,and wanted 1500, he wouldent give me an upfront quote on the entire drive, wich is 4500sq ft, we i demanded the following day, that he measure the drive and give me a price or leave he did,and quoted me $5,300 to finish up .was that fair?", "Was this post helpful to you?", "yes no Report prohibited or spamwiden driveway Amount: $1.00Posted by: Bernie in womelsdforf, PA. Posted: August 5th, 2010 03:08PMType of Driveway: currently asphalt Sq Ft of Driveway: 50'Would like approximate cost to widen driveway, 3/4 of existing driveway asphalt - flat area 1/4 has a sloped hill to be dug in.", "wold like to widen approx 5'.", "Just not sure an approximate.....1,000 or 10,000...", "I have no idea, but want a ballpark before I start getting bugged by contractors.", "Was this post helpful to you?", "yes no Report prohibited or spamdriveway redo Amount: $3,500.00Posted by: ducky in des moines, IA.", "Posted: July 19th, 2010 06:07PMType of Driveway: concrete Sq Ft of Driveway: 810Contractor: yesi got a first bid of this contractor was 4000 usd but bargained with him to 3500 usd and it was done deal.", "what he had done he tear out old concrete and haul it away next day pour in new concrete at 4 inches depth 4000 psi total 810 s.f i paid the cost of concrete 920 usd plus 2600 usd for the crew of three men.", "if u read it do you think i paid too much for it.", "my wife said so thanks Was this post helpful to you?", "yes no Report prohibited or spamdriveway holds too much water Amount: $2,000.00Posted by: Webb, Anthony C in Euclid, OH.", "Posted: May 23rd, 2010 02:05PMType of Driveway: onelane quarter mile with two car garage Sq Ft of Driveway: nadriveway holds too much water.", "the water begins too flood the grass yard.", "now, the water is cuasing the driveway to crack and break up.", "I need a new driveway soon for I might get citations from the local city.", "I'm a war veteran just now returning home and don't have much saved and I need help now.", "Was this post helpful to you?", "yes no Report prohibited or spamis this worth it?", "Amount: $10,255.00Posted by: Erika in Falls Church, VA. Posted: May 12th, 2010 03:05PMType of Driveway: concrete Sq Ft of Driveway: 903Contractor: lookingfollowing bid came in: tear up 473 sf of asphalt $ 2,365 install 903 sf of concrete (3500 psi with wire mesh and broom finish) $ 7,890 is this worth it?", "Was this post helpful to you?", "yes no Report prohibited or spam Asphalt driveway Amount: $6,800.00Posted by: Husky in Rochester, NY.", "Posted: May 11th, 2010 07:05AMType of Driveway: Asphalt Sq Ft of Driveway: 2500Contractor: yes Tore up old driveway.", "Re-grade putting in 8\"\" base.", "2\"\" of number 1 binder.", "re-graded side of driveway with fill dirt as slope changed due to adding 6' on width of driveway.", "Was this post helpful to you?", "yes no Report prohibited or spam Page 2 of 2 - << Previous 1 2Comment On Your Experience With a Driveway Subject: *Amount Spent: *Type of Driveway: Sq Ft of Driveway: Contractor: Comments: Purchased: Year: City: * State: *Information about you: Email: * Email addresses are not displayed.", "Name: This is the name we'll display with your post.", "Remember me on this computer*=required field.", "External Resources:www.landscapingnetwork.com/driveways/width.htmlwww.bbb.org/dayton/business-reviews/paving-contractors/industry-tips/asphalt-driveway-c...www.concretenetwork.com/www.stonefoundation.org/membersusa.html#TXwww.nari.org/homeowners/findapro/www.contractors-license.org/www.bbb.org/us/Find-Business-Reviews/More Home and Garden Topics Check Out All Costs for Home and Garden How Much Does Painting a House Cost?", "How Much Does a Fence Cost?", "How Much Does a Furnace Cost?", "Search Thousands of Topics on Cost Helper.com How much does cost?", "Today's Featured Cost Articles The price of a \"\"Forever\"\" stamp increases to 50 cents on January 21, 2018.", "What would a personal trainer cost to reach those New Years resolutions?", "Need help uncovering your driveway?", "You may need a snow removal service.", "A space heater can keep you warm on chilly December nights.", "Need someone to take care of the kids while you hit the mall for all those sales?", "About Cost Helper Cost Helper is based in Silicon Valley and provides consumers with unbiased price information about thousands of goods and services.", "Our writers are experienced journalists who adhere to our strict editorial ethics policy.", "Cost Helper Community Sliced finger opened Paid: 400.00 So a coworker sliced his finger opened whilst he was cutting veggies... [more]-Megaman Emergency Room Visit Cost2013 VW Tiguan Panoramic Sunroof Paid: 0.00 I got my Tiguan as a trade in on my diesel VW Jetta.", "One of the few times I had purchased an extended warranty.", "My panoramic sunroof was \"\"eaten\"\" by the mechanic/motor... [more]-Larene Sunroof Cost Coating Basement Walls With Waterproof Coating Paid: 580.00 We applied a water based epoxy coating Hydro-Seal 75 to our basement walls and came out 1 foot on the floor in our basement, 750 square feet total for $580, 58$ per gallon... [more]-Basement Waterproofing Cost Cinderella carriage Paid: 1000.00 Looking for Cinderella carriage... [more]-Horse and Carriage Rental Cost Tire Patch Paid: 27.00 Guy was really nice, but $27 seems like a bit.", "I wish I was strong enough to do it myself for $3... [more]-College Towns are Expensive Flat Tire Repair Cost Dream Baby Shower Paid: 3000.00 Venue: 5hrs with server and Tap bar4 course meal, desert table, lighting, cloth napkins and centerpiece all for $2000Cake and cake pops: $240Additional decorations for dessert table: balloons, wooden ornaments and frames $600Prizes for baby... [more]-Baby Shower Cost \"" ]
D149686
https://www.nasi.org/learn/socialsecurity/retirement-age
What is the Social Security Retirement Age?
"Print Entire Section Home » Learn » Social Security »What is the Social Security Retirement Age? Social Security's full-benefit retirement age is increasing gradually because of legislation passed by Congress in 1983. Traditionally, the full benefit age was 65, and early retirement benefits were first available at age 62, with a permanent reduction to 80 percent of the full benefit amount. Currently, the full benefit age is 66 years and 2 months for people born in 1955, and it will gradually rise to 67 for those born in 1960 or later. Early retirement benefits will continue to be available at age 62, but they will be reduced more. When the full-benefit age reaches 67, benefits taken at age 62 will be reduced to 70 percent of the full benefit and benefits first taken at age 65 will be reduced to 86.7 percent of the full benefit. There is a financial bonus for delayed retirement. An individual reaching the full-benefit age in 2017 (66 years and 2 months old) receives a monthly benefit that is 8 percent higher for each year he or she delays collecting benefits. When the full benefit age reaches 67, benefits claimed at age 70 will be 24 percent higher because of that delay. The maximum retirement benefit in 2017 for someone who waits until age 70 to collect benefits is $3,538 a month. For more information, see: Social Security Benefits, Finances, and Policy Options: A Primer Toolkit: When to Take Social Security: It Pays to Wait INFOGRAPHIC: Can You Wait to Receive Social Security Benefits? When to Take Social Security: Questions to Consider, Social Security Brief No. 31Economic Status of the Elderly in the United States Strengthening Social Security for Workers in Physically Demanding Occupations Social Security and Retirement Income Adequacy, Social Security Brief No. 25Increasing the Early Retirement Age under Social Security: Health, Work, and Financial Resources, Health and Income Security for an Aging Workforce Brief No. 7Read what some Academy members think:*Tatsuko Go Hollo: Delaying Retirement: Should Average Life Expectancy Determine Retirement Age?” (2013)Thomas N. Bethell: ""World’s best investment? Delaying Social Security” (2012)Anna Rappaport: ""Understanding Mortality Improvement” (2011)Eric Kingson: “Social Security and the Vanishing 401 (k)” (2008)* The views of Academy members are their own and not an official position of the National Academy of Social Insurance or its funders.« Who Gets Social Security? How Do Benefits Compare to Earnings? » "
[ "\"Print Entire Section Home » Learn » Social Security »What is the Social Security Retirement Age?", "Social Security's full-benefit retirement age is increasing gradually because of legislation passed by Congress in 1983.", "Traditionally, the full benefit age was 65, and early retirement benefits were first available at age 62, with a permanent reduction to 80 percent of the full benefit amount.", "Currently, the full benefit age is 66 years and 2 months for people born in 1955, and it will gradually rise to 67 for those born in 1960 or later.", "Early retirement benefits will continue to be available at age 62, but they will be reduced more.", "When the full-benefit age reaches 67, benefits taken at age 62 will be reduced to 70 percent of the full benefit and benefits first taken at age 65 will be reduced to 86.7 percent of the full benefit.", "There is a financial bonus for delayed retirement.", "An individual reaching the full-benefit age in 2017 (66 years and 2 months old) receives a monthly benefit that is 8 percent higher for each year he or she delays collecting benefits.", "When the full benefit age reaches 67, benefits claimed at age 70 will be 24 percent higher because of that delay.", "The maximum retirement benefit in 2017 for someone who waits until age 70 to collect benefits is $3,538 a month.", "For more information, see: Social Security Benefits, Finances, and Policy Options: A Primer Toolkit: When to Take Social Security: It Pays to Wait INFOGRAPHIC: Can You Wait to Receive Social Security Benefits?", "When to Take Social Security: Questions to Consider, Social Security Brief No.", "31Economic Status of the Elderly in the United States Strengthening Social Security for Workers in Physically Demanding Occupations Social Security and Retirement Income Adequacy, Social Security Brief No.", "25Increasing the Early Retirement Age under Social Security: Health, Work, and Financial Resources, Health and Income Security for an Aging Workforce Brief No.", "7Read what some Academy members think:*Tatsuko Go Hollo: Delaying Retirement: Should Average Life Expectancy Determine Retirement Age?” (2013)Thomas N. Bethell: \"\"World’s best investment?", "Delaying Social Security” (2012)Anna Rappaport: \"\"Understanding Mortality Improvement” (2011)Eric Kingson: “Social Security and the Vanishing 401 (k)” (2008)* The views of Academy members are their own and not an official position of the National Academy of Social Insurance or its funders.« Who Gets Social Security?", "How Do Benefits Compare to Earnings?", "» \"" ]
D90442
http://www.webmd.com/diabetes/guide/glycated-hemoglobin-test-hba1c
Hemoglobin A1c (HbA1c) Test for Diabetes
Hemoglobin A1c (Hb A1c) Test for Diabetes In this Article What Is Hemoglobin? How the Test Works What's a Normal Hemoglobin A1c Test? Setting Goals for A1c Levels The hemoglobin A1c test tells you your average level of blood sugar over the past 2 to 3 months. It's also called Hb A1c, glycated hemoglobin test, and glycohemoglobin. People who have diabetes need this test regularly to see if their levels are staying within range. It can tell if you need to adjust your diabetes medicines. The A1c test is also used to diagnose diabetes. What Is Hemoglobin? Hemoglobin is a protein found in red blood cells. It gives blood its red color, and it's job is to carry oxygen throughout your body. How the Test Works The sugar in your blood is called glucose. When glucose builds up in your blood, it binds to the hemoglobin in your red blood cells. The A1c test measures how much glucose is bound. Red blood cells live for about 3 months, so the test shows the average level of glucose in your blood for the past 3 months. If your glucose levels have been high over recent weeks, your hemoglobin A1c test will be higher. Continue Reading Belowyou might like SLIDESHOWSlideshow: Control Your Blood Sugars Do you think your blood sugars are out of control? Web MD shows you the signs that you should look for. What's a Normal Hemoglobin A1c Test? For people without diabetes, the normal range for the hemoglobin A1c level is between 4% and 5.6%. Hemoglobin A1c levels between 5.7% and 6.4% mean you have a higher chance of getting diabetes. Levels of 6.5% or higher mean you have diabetes. Setting Goals for A1c Levels The target A1c level for people with diabetes is usually less than 7%. The higher the hemoglobin A1c, the higher your risk of having complications related to diabetes. A combination of diet, exercise, and medication can bring your levels down. People with diabetes should have an A1c test every 3 months to make sure their blood sugar is in their target range. If your diabetes is under good control, you may be able to wait longer between the blood tests. But experts recommend checking at least two times a year. People with diseases affecting hemoglobin, such as anemia, may get misleading results with this test. Other things that can affect the results of the hemoglobin A1c include supplements such as vitamins C and E and high cholesterol levels. Kidney disease and liver disease may also affect the test. Web MD Medical Reference Reviewed by Michael Dansinger, MD on October 26, 2016Sources© 2016 Web MD, LLC. All rights reserved. Next Article Diabetes and Urine Testing Diabetes Guide Overview & Types Symptoms & Diagnosis Treatments & Care Living & Managing Related Conditions
[ "Hemoglobin A1c (Hb A1c) Test for Diabetes In this Article What Is Hemoglobin?", "How the Test Works What's a Normal Hemoglobin A1c Test?", "Setting Goals for A1c Levels The hemoglobin A1c test tells you your average level of blood sugar over the past 2 to 3 months.", "It's also called Hb A1c, glycated hemoglobin test, and glycohemoglobin.", "People who have diabetes need this test regularly to see if their levels are staying within range.", "It can tell if you need to adjust your diabetes medicines.", "The A1c test is also used to diagnose diabetes.", "What Is Hemoglobin?", "Hemoglobin is a protein found in red blood cells.", "It gives blood its red color, and it's job is to carry oxygen throughout your body.", "How the Test Works The sugar in your blood is called glucose.", "When glucose builds up in your blood, it binds to the hemoglobin in your red blood cells.", "The A1c test measures how much glucose is bound.", "Red blood cells live for about 3 months, so the test shows the average level of glucose in your blood for the past 3 months.", "If your glucose levels have been high over recent weeks, your hemoglobin A1c test will be higher.", "Continue Reading Belowyou might like SLIDESHOWSlideshow: Control Your Blood Sugars Do you think your blood sugars are out of control?", "Web MD shows you the signs that you should look for.", "What's a Normal Hemoglobin A1c Test?", "For people without diabetes, the normal range for the hemoglobin A1c level is between 4% and 5.6%.", "Hemoglobin A1c levels between 5.7% and 6.4% mean you have a higher chance of getting diabetes.", "Levels of 6.5% or higher mean you have diabetes.", "Setting Goals for A1c Levels The target A1c level for people with diabetes is usually less than 7%.", "The higher the hemoglobin A1c, the higher your risk of having complications related to diabetes.", "A combination of diet, exercise, and medication can bring your levels down.", "People with diabetes should have an A1c test every 3 months to make sure their blood sugar is in their target range.", "If your diabetes is under good control, you may be able to wait longer between the blood tests.", "But experts recommend checking at least two times a year.", "People with diseases affecting hemoglobin, such as anemia, may get misleading results with this test.", "Other things that can affect the results of the hemoglobin A1c include supplements such as vitamins C and E and high cholesterol levels.", "Kidney disease and liver disease may also affect the test.", "Web MD Medical Reference Reviewed by Michael Dansinger, MD on October 26, 2016Sources© 2016 Web MD, LLC.", "All rights reserved.", "Next Article Diabetes and Urine Testing Diabetes Guide Overview & Types Symptoms & Diagnosis Treatments & Care Living & Managing Related Conditions" ]
D6709
http://health.costhelper.com/dental-implant.html
Dental Implants Cost
"Cost Helper > Health & Personal Care > Dentistry & Orthodontics > Dental Implants Dental Implants Cost How Much Do Dental Implants Cost? Single Dental Implant Average Cost: $2,488 Abutment, Implant and Crown Average Cost: $4,263E-mail Post Tweet Comments (353)A dental implant functions as an artificial root to anchor a replacement tooth or teeth. A small titanium post is surgically implanted in the jawbone, and as part of the healing process it bonds with the bone. A metal abutment is connected to the implant, and then a crown, bridge or denture is attached to the abutment. The work is typically done in stages, often with separate prices for the implant surgery, the abutment placement and the replacement tooth or teeth. There may also be a charge for a temporary ""flipper"" tooth while the jaw heals after surgery. Typical costs: A single implant typically costs $2,400-$3,000, but can be $4,000-$10,000 or more if additional procedures like extractions, bone grafts, tissue grafts or a sinus lift are needed. Cost Helper readers report paying $1,000-$5,000 for an implant with an average cost of $2,488. Placing an abutment and a dental crown on a single implant typically adds $500-$3,000 to the cost of just the implant, for a total of $1,500-$13,000 or more. Cost Helper readers report paying $1,750-$8,270 for an implant, flipper tooth, abutment, crown and all needed procedures, with an average cost of $4,263. Two to six implants topped with a partial or full-mouth dental bridge can cost $3,500-$30,000 or more, depending on the number of implants, bridge size and materials, and any other needed procedures. Cost Helper readers report paying $4,000-$16,000 for a three- or four-tooth bridge on two implants, with an average price of $8,486. Two to six implants with a removable denture plate can cost $3,500-$30,000 or more depending on the number and type of implants (mini-implants are less expensive), denture materials (in some cases an existing denture plate can be adapted for use with implants) and any other procedures needed. A full set (upper and lower) of implants and dentures can cost $7,000-$90,000 or more. Cost Helper readers report paying $3,800-$27,858 for implants with a single denture plate, at an average cost of $14,226; and $6,549-$80,000 for a full set of implant-supported dentures (upper and lower), for an average expense of $34,119. Dental insurance typically does not cover implants, because most insurance companies categorize implants as cosmetic procedures. However, some surgical costs might be covered by health insurance. Related articles: Dental Veneers, Root Canal, Dental Crown, Tooth Extraction, Dentures, Dental Bridge What should be included: Implant surgery is typically performed by a dental surgical specialist -- a periodontist, an oral surgeon or a dentist with advanced training in implant surgery. Abutments and implant-supported crowns, bridges or dentures are typically placed by a dentist or a prosthodontist (specializing in restorative procedures). The International Congress of Oral Implantology has an overview of dental implants [ 1] . Typically the implant site is allowed to heal for three to six months after surgery and one to two weeks after the abutment is placed. A temporary ""flipper"" tooth may be worn during this period. Although there are ""instant"" mini-implants where a bridge or denture is installed immediately after implant surgery, the standard process (including bone and tissue grafts or other procedures, if needed) takes three months to a year or more to complete. The Mayo Clinic explains what to expect [ 2] after dental implant surgery. Additional costs: Ask detailed questions about what is included in a price quote. An estimate for an implant may not include the abutment and crown. Discounts: Dental school clinics [ 3] offer reduced rates for services by supervised students or faculty. A Cost Helper reader in North Carolina reports paying $60 for an extraction, $75 for a bone graft, $1,200 for a single implant and $600 for a crown at the University of North Carolina. Another reader was quoted $75,000 by a private dentist but paid about $20,000 to have the work done at the University of Medicine and Dentistry in New Jersey. The National Institute of Dental and Craniofacial Research provides tips for finding low-cost dental care [ 4] . Shopping for dental implants: A comprehensive dental exam (with X-rays and possibly a CT scan, plus models made of the patient's mouth) is used to create an individualized treatment plan. The Mayo Clinic explains what to expect before dental implant surgery [ 5] . If insurance coverage is available for any portion of the process, the company will provide a list of approved dentists and specialists. Or search for local members of the American Academy of Implant Dentistry [ 6] , the American Academy of Periodontology [ 7] , the American Association of Oral and Maxillofacial Surgeons [ 8] , the American College of Prosthodontists [ 9] , the American Dental Association [ 10] or the International Congress of Implantologists [ 11] . Material on this page is for informational purposes only and should not be construed as medical advice. Always consult your physician or pharmacist regarding medications or medical procedures. E-mail Post Tweet Comments (353)Cost Helper News10 Most Popular Cosmetic Procedures Before the Holidays With reunions and other get-togethers scheduled during the holiday season, most people want to look their best at this time of year. For some, that means filling in those wrinkles with a bit of botox, or having a nip and tuck down here and there.|| Posted November 23 2013And the Best Bacon Is... This little piggy went to market. After that, Consumer Reports bought samples and tasted to determine which little piggy offered the best bacon. Top honors go to Costco, it turns out.|| Posted October 5 2013‣ All Cost Helper Blog Posts What People Are Paying - Recent Comments Page 12 of 12 - << Previous 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12Please help Amount: $12,000.00 not covered by insurance Posted by: Carly Cantrell in Knoxville, TN. Posted: January 16th, 2018 12:01PMWhich Tooth: Upper dental implants Hi My name is Carly Cantrell I'm 35, I need an upper full dental implant. This is so embarrassing and humbling. I hate to ask but is there anyone that can help me come up with $12,000.00 or can donate ANY amount? I would be so thankful. I have prayed, entered every dental cost I could find for years I've even wrote Oprah Lol. I don't have Anyone to ask or help me. I don't have dental insurance I receive $ 1500.00 a month income $735.00 for myself and $737 for my son (where his father passed away) If you don't trust sending me money you can pay it directly to the dental office. My email address is [email protected] Thank you, Carly Was this post helpful to you? yes no Report prohibited or spam5 Implants Amount: $35,000.00 not covered by insurance Posted by: DENIS HOFFMAN in Knoxville, AL. Posted: December 16th, 2017 03:12PMWhich Tooth: 7 upper teeth I had 6 upper and 6 lower existing baby teeth removed with cross ways impacted baby teeth upper and lower removed plus bone grafts ($9,500.00 surgery). Had 4 plus 1 single implant because of cracked broken tooth after start of process ($10,000.00). A 6 tooth bridge over 4 implants and a single tooth implant with abutments over each implant ($15,000)Was this post helpful to you? yes no Report prohibited or spamdental implants Amount: $27.12 not covered by insurance Posted by: Kirk thole in El Cerrito, CA. Posted: December 6th, 2017 09:12PMWhich Tooth: a brand new smile I need help to raise $30.000 for dental implants to get a new smile. I got medi-cal I was told implants not cover by medical I got Kaiser but Kaiser don't got a dental business.i did not purchase because I can't afford it. Was this post helpful to you? yes no Report prohibited or spam Affordable Dental implants Amount: $1,000.00 not covered by insurance Posted by: Jeff Parker in West Greenwich, RI. Posted: December 6th, 2017 10:12AMWhich Tooth: Top incisor and all bottom After receiving quote s of over $18000 to replace several bottom molars that had been removed over the years and a recent root canal/crown ($2700) on a bicuspid tooth that was very noticable and that had broken off after only 6 months (no guarantee or free replacement and dental insurance only covers the same tooth once). I decided to look at foreign dental options. After a lot of research I decided Costa Rica had some of the highest rated and affordable dentist. At about $500 for airfare and 4 days of hotels at $70 day I had several all x-rays/scans, extractions of roots, impression and 6 implants. 4 bottom along with a full acrylic bottom temporary set and 2 on top to fix the incisor and adjacent too. Total cost $3000 of which my dental plan covered $2000. Granted I have to return for final crowns but the cost averaged $500 per implant and the office and equipment were state of the art. Was this post helpful to you? yes no Report prohibited or spam Had all teeth removed and dental implants put in Amount: $38,000.00 not covered by insurance Posted by: brock Kearsley in Phoenix, AZ. Posted: November 9th, 2017 12:11PMWhich Tooth: All Teeth removed I had it all done. I live in AZ. I got 3 quotes for full dental implants in AZ. They Ranged from $46000-$60,000. I got in touch with a friend who knew somebody in Salt Lake City that did implants. He did it for $38000. IT sucked because I had to stay in a hotel for a week after the implant surgery. But I saved $16000. I couldn't be happier. Its a lot of money but in the long run well worth it. I can eat and no more tooth pain. I can smile for pictures now. Was this post helpful to you? yes no Report prohibited or spam Go to another country Amount: $22,000.00 not covered by insurance Posted by: navigatrix in San Jose, Other. Posted: October 20th, 2017 02:10PMWhich Tooth: All After getting an estimate of $65,000 in Seattle for a whole smile makeover, I researched other countries and decided on Costa Rica. Best investment I ever made - 5 implants, new crowns on all my teeth, including some design to improve my bite (not included in the local estimate). Expert and qualified dental specialists, and lifetime guarantee. Was this post helpful to you? yes no Report prohibited or spam Dental Implants Amount: $16,000.00 not covered by insurance Posted by: babysrn in Las Vegas, NV. Posted: October 11th, 2017 04:10AMWhich Tooth: 2 upper and 2 lower teeth I had 4 dental implants before it was cool!! Sitting down? it was 4500 per tooth. That did include everything. Titanium rod, the surgery, and the tooth. I will say I have had no problems with the implants themselves. Care is just like your real teeth. I can eat a steak and corn on the cob as well. No worries.... It is so worth it just shop around for the best Dentist. Cheapest is not always the best to go with. Ask your friends for a referral . If you find someone you trust and have faith in keep him. Forever. One negative comment Every implant has a tooth next to it that has chipped or gotten a cavity . Dentist says it has nothing to do with the implants . Interesting . 4 issues with teeth next to 4 implants . I think it is likely there is a connection between the two. Its a lot of money but how important is it to have a great smile and be able to chew/ eat your food. That alone is priceless Was this post helpful to you? yes no Report prohibited or spam Dental Implants Amount: $72,000.00 not covered by insurance Posted by: Jack Sprat in Mulberry, FL. Posted: September 3rd, 2017 12:09PMWhich Tooth: Backed out Why do full dental implants cost more than purchasing a condominium? Was this post helpful to you? yes no Report prohibited or spam Implants Amount: $25,995.00 not covered by insurance Posted by: Karen Lee in Philadelphia, PA. Posted: September 1st, 2017 02:09PMWhich Tooth: Full upper Needed bone replacement surgery and sinus lift on upper have been wearing dentures for years. Went through surgery was swollen for 2 weeks. Reconstruction to begin in December. 6 months post surgery. Over denture to be placed on 6 implants. Was this post helpful to you? yes no Report prohibited or spamimplant Amount: $1,500.00 not covered by insurance Posted by: happy with cost in pasadena, CA. Posted: August 4th, 2017 08:08PMWhich Tooth: back toothimplant, abutment and cap, complete Was this post helpful to you? yes no Report prohibited or spam Why Can\\\'t we get Better prices? Amount: $45,000.00 not covered by insurance Posted by: Cherry in Gary, TX. Posted: July 24th, 2017 09:07PMWhich Tooth: Full Mouthupper and lower Not begging for money or crying poor me. I am poor, I am a 44 year old lady and I live WAY below the poverty level beside I know what it is to go hungry and go without luxury's. I also know the only way to get fixed dentures (not snap on) is to come up with the money on my own. Haven't been able to start Can anyone tell me who is good, yet reasonable in Tx How hard is it to get a care credit loan? Has anyone gone abroad for dental work, what was the cost including air fair etc? I wantto have teeth and so I can smile again and dignity and with a confidence smile. If their is a will their is a way and by God I will figure out a way!Was this post helpful to you? yes no Report prohibited or spamdentures Amount: $8,600.00 not covered by insurance Posted by: William Berry in Ashland, KY. Posted: May 26th, 2017 08:05PMWhich Tooth: allimplants - $30,000.00 Dentures - $8600.00 Not what I wanted but all I could afford. Was this post helpful to you? yes no Report prohibited or spam Implants Amount: $0.00 not covered by insurance Posted by: Ashton in Saint Petersburg, FL. Posted: May 25th, 2017 07:05AMWhich Tooth: Upper and lower I would like to hear from individuals in the St. Petersburg Fl. Area on thier experience, costs etc I have had Dentures since my early 20""s due to an auto accident. Now in my Mid 60's (the same dentures for 40+ years)) both positive and negative experiences will be apreciated Was this post helpful to you? yes no Report prohibited or spam Do 8 implants snap in for very low cost in Utah. Amount: $19,000.00 not covered by insurance Posted by: Saeed (Sam) in Salt Lake City, UT. Posted: April 13th, 2017 04:04PMWhich Tooth: all my tooth Please any one want to have fun with their denture and beautiful smile with 4 implants on top and 4 implants bottom jaw which you feel you have your own tooth and you can eat anything perhaps you couldn't eat before. Please I love to help because when I did it had no experience or anyone give me some advise for what I need to do at first not to suffer or go through mighty pain. Please email me before you want to do denture so I can share my experience to give you some idea with so many option to chose at least I may able to save you money and not go through hell with mighty pain. Thank you your friend Sam Was this post helpful to you? yes no Report prohibited or spamhybridge dentures Amount: $6,000.00 not covered by insurance Posted by: Jenna severino in TOMS RIVER, NJ. Posted: February 11th, 2017 07:02AMWhich Tooth: All or just bottoms I was talked into getting ALL my teeth pulled and get dentures. It has ruined my life. I hate wearing them and the bottoms are the worst. I feel like I have a big plastic mouth piece in my mouth. Not to mention that I WAS a model. I haven't been out to socialize in years. It has ruined my life. I have saved money and want to know where I can get at least the bottoms done. I was qouted 50,000. That isn't happening. I am in nj but I will travel to get it done for a good price. Anyone have a suggestion? Was this post helpful to you? yes no Report prohibited or spamfull lower implants Amount: $12,000.00 not covered by insurance Posted by: Tianna in Buffalo, NY. Posted: January 28th, 2017 03:01PMWhich Tooth: lower I am wearing a denture over the implants. Everything I eat gets stuck underneath it, I have to take it out & clean it several times a day,. The only other option is to have the tooth attached to something resembling chicken wire which leaves your face looking emaciated like you have no teeth. I am more comfortable not wearing the denture but am too embarrassed to awe seen without it. Had I known, I would have opted to have all my teeth crowned when they became brittle and started breaking at 40 yrs of age. I have sjogrens syndrome leaving me with a very dry mouth which causes bacteria.l I have always tried to be meticulous in brushing, flossing. Unfortunately work long hours, not able to brush at work. Was this post helpful to you? yes no Report prohibited or spam Implants Amount: $0.00 not covered by insurance Posted by: Carl SIMION in Melbourne, FLA, 32901, FL. Posted: January 7th, 2017 03:01PMWhich Tooth: All Will places like donated dental cover these expences? Also can you get implants with other health issues, such as heart failure? Was this post helpful to you? yes no Report prohibited or spamlooking at high cost Amount: $6,000.00 not covered by insurance Posted by: Shirley G in Manteca, CA. Posted: December 20th, 2016 11:12AMWhich Tooth: front tooth I think dental care has gotten way out of control. Is it because many employers are not providing dental insurance to the employees. Then to top it off they want all the money in three months... Was this post helpful to you? yes no Report prohibited or spam Dental implants Amount: $7,680.00 not covered by insurance Posted by: Travler in San Jose Costa Rica, WI. Posted: November 3rd, 2016 11:11AMWhich Tooth: 3 teeth all molars Includes: Extraction, bone grafts, implants, abutments, crowns. Three trips to Costa Rica. Even including air fare and hotel, this was much less than what I was quoted in the US which was approx. $48,000.00. In case you are wondering, Costa Rica has an excellent medical care system which is ranked higher than that of the US and it is affordable. Was this post helpful to you? yes no Report prohibited or spam Dental Implant Broke Amount: $4,000.00 not covered by insurance Posted by: Silvia Angelov in Louisville, KY. Posted: September 21st, 2016 10:09AMWhich Tooth: 30Abutment with crown came out because a small part of the implant was broken. My dentist Dr. Mathis said that he do not do implants anymore and will send me to another dentist to remove old implant and replace with new one. I do not know how much will cost me. Any suggestions what can I do? Was this post helpful to you? yes no Report prohibited or spam Dentures Amount: $2,500.00 not covered by insurance Posted by: Sandy Roberts in Richmond, MO. Posted: August 16th, 2016 09:08PMWhich Tooth: Full upper denture I recently had my remaining 6 upper front teeth pulled and now wearing a temporary denture until gums healed Since my former dentist suggested I go theu implant procedures for my bottom teeth years ago I took his advise and have 8 bottom front teeth of my own and two implants on each side now holding bridges Wow I can chew great My recommend: implants for bottom teeth and denture for top Was this post helpful to you? yes no Report prohibited or spam Single Implant Amount: $2,130.00 not covered by insurance Posted by: Amanda_C in Annapolis, AL. Posted: July 26th, 2016 10:07AMWhich Tooth: #12 (molar next to top right canine)Due to my intense dental fear and horrible teeth (thanks, Dad!) I neglected the dentist for 5 years. When I finally got the courage to go back, I found out I needed 4 extractions (one was severely infected, one was a decayed wisdom tooth, and 2 were broken teeth), as well as fillings for 5 cavities. When I completed everything, I asked how we would begin the implant process. Sometimes, my dentist can do same-day extractions and implants, but I had some infection in my jaw so this is not an option for me. I am going in today for an extraction, bone graft, and will receive and acrylic-based upper partial (whatever that is) and then will go back in 4 months (after the bone graft can be reabsorbed by my bone) for the implant and then 4 months later for the permanent crown. The amount of time this takes as well as the pre-insurance estimate of $6600 absolutely floored me! Luckily, we have decent insurance and will pay about a third of the estimated cost. Good luck to everyone else!Was this post helpful to you? yes no Report prohibited or spam Total implants and new tweth Amount: $0.00 not covered by insurance Posted by: PJ S. in Port Charlotte, FL. Posted: July 22nd, 2016 10:07AMWhich Tooth: All I need entirely new teeth. I already paid $20,000 for the implants. While healing, someone ran a red light and totalled my car and me! Now I need to find affordable permanent uppers and lowers in Florida (early quote $30K). I need a better price and maybe a loan or payment plan. Was this post helpful to you? yes no Report prohibited or spamso called permanent bridge Amount: $10,000.00 not covered by insurance Posted by: tara thomas in lake orion, MI. Posted: December 2nd, 2015 11:12PMWhich Tooth: all four of my front teeth I cry almost everyday I live in Pontiac mi in 2009 my,mom paid 10,000 to have a permanent bridge place in my up front four teeth I went to the dentist because my bridge feels like its getting ready to fall out so I thought I have medicad and I also have two bottom teeth missing and was suppose to get flipper on the bottom don't you know that now I have to have all my teeth pulled and there trying to place dentures in my mouth no I think not they move they rub sores in your mouth but the dentist at mark Taylor in Waterford said I would be a great candidate for implants well thats nice the only thing is I don't have 1,900 5,000 to 10,000""out of pocket I'm so embarrassed by my smile I never show my teeth or anything im getting married soon and im 40 years in may im to young to go through this does anyone know where you can make payment arrangement who don't go by your credit here in Michigan I don't want my soon to be husband to look at his toothless bride I cry all the time please help! !Was this post helpful to you? yes no Report prohibited or spam Dental implant Amount: $35,000.00 not covered by insurance Posted by: cortex-dental in Richmond, VA. Posted: November 29th, 2015 04:11AMWhich Tooth: upper mouththe clinic did a good job, but the cost is astronomic and it doesn't covered by the insurance. Was this post helpful to you? yes no Report prohibited or spam Dental Implant Amount: $1,200.00 not covered by insurance Posted by: Nurdaulet Sharenov in Dearborn, MI. Posted: October 3rd, 2015 12:10PMWhich Tooth: 32I paid 1200 for a zirconium implant Was this post helpful to you? yes no Report prohibited or spamcost not inclusive Amount: $45.00 not covered by insurance Posted by: im stupid in san jose, CA. Posted: August 22nd, 2015 10:08PMWhich Tooth: 5 teeth on top The estimate started at 25-30 k one would think the price of an implant includes abutment and cap. now they want 50 k total to do the job, does this always happen? think I've been taken advantage of,,,, should have followed intuition,,Was this post helpful to you? yes no Report prohibited or spamdental implants Amount: $8,000.00 not covered by insurance Posted by: WV Mama in Berkeley Springs,, WV. Posted: August 19th, 2015 12:08PMWhich Tooth: complete upper and lower dentures My 83 year old husband needs dentures. He cannot chew and has lost 45 lbs in the last 2 years. I took him to the local dentist for evaluations for dentures. dentist said he could not reline the dentures- not enough bone to hold them. He was sent to a periodontists who said he could do nothing aftering evaluating the xrays taken in his office and referred to an oral surgeon. Oral surgeon told patient he could do 2 implants implants at a cost of $4800.00 not counting cost anesthesia or and added""I don't think you will have a good fit"". You need to just live with what you have. I could sent you to the university to be evaluated for a bone graft. local dentist would make the dentures at a estimated cost of $4000.00 after oral surgeon did implants. He is 83 yr on fixed income and cannot afford it. Is there any help with this type of dental work. Was this post helpful to you? yes no Report prohibited or spamdental implants Amount: $8,000.00 not covered by insurance Posted by: WV Mama in Berkeley Springs,, WV. Posted: August 19th, 2015 12:08PMWhich Tooth: complete upper and lower dentures My 83 year old husband needs dentures. He cannot chew and has lost 45 lbs in the last 2 years. I took him to the local dentist for evaluations for dentures. dentist said he could not reline the dentures- not enough bone to hold them. He was sent to a periodontists who said he could do nothing aftering evaluating the xrays taken in his office and referred to an oral surgeon. Oral surgeon told patient he could do 2 implants implants at a cost of $4800.00 not counting cost anesthesia or and added""I don't think you will have a good fit"". You need to just live with what you have. I could sent you to the university to be evaluated for a bone graft. local dentist would make the dentures at a estimated cost of $4000.00 after oral surgeon did implants. He is 83 yr on fixed income and cannot afford it. Is there any help with this type of dental work. Was this post helpful to you? yes no Report prohibited or spamimplants for four front teeth Amount: $20,000.00 not covered by insurance Posted by: rtrev64 in Dallas, TX. Posted: August 5th, 2015 05:08PMWhich Tooth: four front teeth It is amazing how so expensive the procedure is. i had a bridge that lasted for 15 years until a month ago, they gave way. I dont have flippers because well i did not need them, i had a bridge, i don't want flippers, I cannot believe how much they are and they look so plastic, fake but are expensive to boot. I am frustrated. I visited three dentist here in Dallas and all just say it's either implants or flippers.. really? either i pay what i cannot afford its like buying a brand new car or live with flippers. So my search continues. Some say snap on's as an alternative or one tooth at a time, place a implant on one side, pay it off, then pay for the next one, pay it off and so forth till i have all of them in place. I am thinking, I would not mind permanent bridges like i had before but they will not do that. so i am thinking two implants, then the bridge to cover the gap in the middle.. I set up a gofundme account..http://www.gofundme.com/robertt Was this post helpful to you? yes no Report prohibited or spam Permanent fixed dentures. Amount: $0.00 not covered by insurance Posted by: cookieb403 in jax, FL. Posted: August 4th, 2015 02:08PMWhich Tooth: upper and lower Not begging for money or crying poor me. I am poor, I am a 60 year old disabled lady and I live WAY below the poverty level beside caring for my disabled sister and fostering shelter dogs that were on death row. So I know what it is to go hungry and go without luxury's. I also know the only way to get fixed dentures (not snap on) is to come up with the money on my own. I have been scrubbing floors and cleaning houses for friends to save money. Haven't been able to wear my lower dentures since I got them over 4 years ago. Can anyone tell me who is good, yet reasonable in central Florida? How hard is it to get a care credit loan? Has anyone gone abroad for dental work, what was the cost including air fair etc? I refuse to visit my family up north until I have teeth and can smile. I have a Grandbaby I haven't seen since losing my teeth, dignity, confidence and smile. If their is a will their is a way and by God I will figure out a way! So please give me some advice from REAL people!Was this post helpful to you? yes no Report prohibited or spam Page 12 of 12 - << Previous 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12Comment On Your Experience With Dental Implants Subject: *Amount Spent: * not covered by insurance Which Tooth: Comments: Purchased: Year: City: * State: *Information about you: Email: * Email addresses are not displayed. Name: This is the name we'll display with your post. Remember me on this computer*=required field. External Resources:dentalimplants.com/understanding-dental-implants.phpwww.mayoclinic.com/health/dental-implant-surgery/MY00084/DSECTION=what-you-can-expectwww.ada.org/267.aspxwww.nidcr.nih.gov/oralhealth/popularpublications/findinglowcostdentalcare/www.mayoclinic.com/health/dental-implant-surgery/MY00084/DSECTION=how-you-preparewww.associationdigital.com/aaid/online/findadoctor/searchinput.aspxwww.perio.org/?q=locator-advancedwww.aaoms.org/findoms.phpwww.gotoapro.org/find-a-prosthodontist/www.mouthhealthy.org/en/find-a-dentist.aspxdentalimplants.com/search.php More Health & Personal Care Topics Check Out All Costs for Health & Personal Care How Much Does an X-Ray Cost? How Much Do Body Piercings Cost? How Much Does a Heart Stent Cost? Search Thousands of Topics on Cost Helper.com How much does cost? Today's Featured Cost Articles The price of a ""Forever"" stamp increases to 50 cents on January 21, 2018. What would a personal trainer cost to reach those New Years resolutions? 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[ "\"Cost Helper > Health & Personal Care > Dentistry & Orthodontics > Dental Implants Dental Implants Cost How Much Do Dental Implants Cost?", "Single Dental Implant Average Cost: $2,488 Abutment, Implant and Crown Average Cost: $4,263E-mail Post Tweet Comments (353)A dental implant functions as an artificial root to anchor a replacement tooth or teeth.", "A small titanium post is surgically implanted in the jawbone, and as part of the healing process it bonds with the bone.", "A metal abutment is connected to the implant, and then a crown, bridge or denture is attached to the abutment.", "The work is typically done in stages, often with separate prices for the implant surgery, the abutment placement and the replacement tooth or teeth.", "There may also be a charge for a temporary \"\"flipper\"\" tooth while the jaw heals after surgery.", "Typical costs: A single implant typically costs $2,400-$3,000, but can be $4,000-$10,000 or more if additional procedures like extractions, bone grafts, tissue grafts or a sinus lift are needed.", "Cost Helper readers report paying $1,000-$5,000 for an implant with an average cost of $2,488.", "Placing an abutment and a dental crown on a single implant typically adds $500-$3,000 to the cost of just the implant, for a total of $1,500-$13,000 or more.", "Cost Helper readers report paying $1,750-$8,270 for an implant, flipper tooth, abutment, crown and all needed procedures, with an average cost of $4,263.", "Two to six implants topped with a partial or full-mouth dental bridge can cost $3,500-$30,000 or more, depending on the number of implants, bridge size and materials, and any other needed procedures.", "Cost Helper readers report paying $4,000-$16,000 for a three- or four-tooth bridge on two implants, with an average price of $8,486.", "Two to six implants with a removable denture plate can cost $3,500-$30,000 or more depending on the number and type of implants (mini-implants are less expensive), denture materials (in some cases an existing denture plate can be adapted for use with implants) and any other procedures needed.", "A full set (upper and lower) of implants and dentures can cost $7,000-$90,000 or more.", "Cost Helper readers report paying $3,800-$27,858 for implants with a single denture plate, at an average cost of $14,226; and $6,549-$80,000 for a full set of implant-supported dentures (upper and lower), for an average expense of $34,119.", "Dental insurance typically does not cover implants, because most insurance companies categorize implants as cosmetic procedures.", "However, some surgical costs might be covered by health insurance.", "Related articles: Dental Veneers, Root Canal, Dental Crown, Tooth Extraction, Dentures, Dental Bridge What should be included: Implant surgery is typically performed by a dental surgical specialist -- a periodontist, an oral surgeon or a dentist with advanced training in implant surgery.", "Abutments and implant-supported crowns, bridges or dentures are typically placed by a dentist or a prosthodontist (specializing in restorative procedures).", "The International Congress of Oral Implantology has an overview of dental implants [ 1] .", "Typically the implant site is allowed to heal for three to six months after surgery and one to two weeks after the abutment is placed.", "A temporary \"\"flipper\"\" tooth may be worn during this period.", "Although there are \"\"instant\"\" mini-implants where a bridge or denture is installed immediately after implant surgery, the standard process (including bone and tissue grafts or other procedures, if needed) takes three months to a year or more to complete.", "The Mayo Clinic explains what to expect [ 2] after dental implant surgery.", "Additional costs: Ask detailed questions about what is included in a price quote.", "An estimate for an implant may not include the abutment and crown.", "Discounts: Dental school clinics [ 3] offer reduced rates for services by supervised students or faculty.", "A Cost Helper reader in North Carolina reports paying $60 for an extraction, $75 for a bone graft, $1,200 for a single implant and $600 for a crown at the University of North Carolina.", "Another reader was quoted $75,000 by a private dentist but paid about $20,000 to have the work done at the University of Medicine and Dentistry in New Jersey.", "The National Institute of Dental and Craniofacial Research provides tips for finding low-cost dental care [ 4] .", "Shopping for dental implants: A comprehensive dental exam (with X-rays and possibly a CT scan, plus models made of the patient's mouth) is used to create an individualized treatment plan.", "The Mayo Clinic explains what to expect before dental implant surgery [ 5] .", "If insurance coverage is available for any portion of the process, the company will provide a list of approved dentists and specialists.", "Or search for local members of the American Academy of Implant Dentistry [ 6] , the American Academy of Periodontology [ 7] , the American Association of Oral and Maxillofacial Surgeons [ 8] , the American College of Prosthodontists [ 9] , the American Dental Association [ 10] or the International Congress of Implantologists [ 11] .", "Material on this page is for informational purposes only and should not be construed as medical advice.", "Always consult your physician or pharmacist regarding medications or medical procedures.", "E-mail Post Tweet Comments (353)Cost Helper News10 Most Popular Cosmetic Procedures Before the Holidays With reunions and other get-togethers scheduled during the holiday season, most people want to look their best at this time of year.", "For some, that means filling in those wrinkles with a bit of botox, or having a nip and tuck down here and there.|| Posted November 23 2013And the Best Bacon Is...", "This little piggy went to market.", "After that, Consumer Reports bought samples and tasted to determine which little piggy offered the best bacon.", "Top honors go to Costco, it turns out.|| Posted October 5 2013‣ All Cost Helper Blog Posts What People Are Paying - Recent Comments Page 12 of 12 - << Previous 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12Please help Amount: $12,000.00 not covered by insurance Posted by: Carly Cantrell in Knoxville, TN.", "Posted: January 16th, 2018 12:01PMWhich Tooth: Upper dental implants Hi My name is Carly Cantrell I'm 35, I need an upper full dental implant.", "This is so embarrassing and humbling.", "I hate to ask but is there anyone that can help me come up with $12,000.00 or can donate ANY amount?", "I would be so thankful.", "I have prayed, entered every dental cost I could find for years I've even wrote Oprah Lol.", "I don't have Anyone to ask or help me.", "I don't have dental insurance I receive $ 1500.00 a month income $735.00 for myself and $737 for my son (where his father passed away) If you don't trust sending me money you can pay it directly to the dental office.", "My email address is [email protected] Thank you, Carly Was this post helpful to you?", "yes no Report prohibited or spam5 Implants Amount: $35,000.00 not covered by insurance Posted by: DENIS HOFFMAN in Knoxville, AL.", "Posted: December 16th, 2017 03:12PMWhich Tooth: 7 upper teeth I had 6 upper and 6 lower existing baby teeth removed with cross ways impacted baby teeth upper and lower removed plus bone grafts ($9,500.00 surgery).", "Had 4 plus 1 single implant because of cracked broken tooth after start of process ($10,000.00).", "A 6 tooth bridge over 4 implants and a single tooth implant with abutments over each implant ($15,000)Was this post helpful to you?", "yes no Report prohibited or spamdental implants Amount: $27.12 not covered by insurance Posted by: Kirk thole in El Cerrito, CA.", "Posted: December 6th, 2017 09:12PMWhich Tooth: a brand new smile I need help to raise $30.000 for dental implants to get a new smile.", "I got medi-cal I was told implants not cover by medical I got Kaiser but Kaiser don't got a dental business.i did not purchase because I can't afford it.", "Was this post helpful to you?", "yes no Report prohibited or spam Affordable Dental implants Amount: $1,000.00 not covered by insurance Posted by: Jeff Parker in West Greenwich, RI.", "Posted: December 6th, 2017 10:12AMWhich Tooth: Top incisor and all bottom After receiving quote s of over $18000 to replace several bottom molars that had been removed over the years and a recent root canal/crown ($2700) on a bicuspid tooth that was very noticable and that had broken off after only 6 months (no guarantee or free replacement and dental insurance only covers the same tooth once).", "I decided to look at foreign dental options.", "After a lot of research I decided Costa Rica had some of the highest rated and affordable dentist.", "At about $500 for airfare and 4 days of hotels at $70 day I had several all x-rays/scans, extractions of roots, impression and 6 implants.", "4 bottom along with a full acrylic bottom temporary set and 2 on top to fix the incisor and adjacent too.", "Total cost $3000 of which my dental plan covered $2000.", "Granted I have to return for final crowns but the cost averaged $500 per implant and the office and equipment were state of the art.", "Was this post helpful to you?", "yes no Report prohibited or spam Had all teeth removed and dental implants put in Amount: $38,000.00 not covered by insurance Posted by: brock Kearsley in Phoenix, AZ.", "Posted: November 9th, 2017 12:11PMWhich Tooth: All Teeth removed I had it all done.", "I live in AZ.", "I got 3 quotes for full dental implants in AZ.", "They Ranged from $46000-$60,000.", "I got in touch with a friend who knew somebody in Salt Lake City that did implants.", "He did it for $38000.", "IT sucked because I had to stay in a hotel for a week after the implant surgery.", "But I saved $16000.", "I couldn't be happier.", "Its a lot of money but in the long run well worth it.", "I can eat and no more tooth pain.", "I can smile for pictures now.", "Was this post helpful to you?", "yes no Report prohibited or spam Go to another country Amount: $22,000.00 not covered by insurance Posted by: navigatrix in San Jose, Other.", "Posted: October 20th, 2017 02:10PMWhich Tooth: All After getting an estimate of $65,000 in Seattle for a whole smile makeover, I researched other countries and decided on Costa Rica.", "Best investment I ever made - 5 implants, new crowns on all my teeth, including some design to improve my bite (not included in the local estimate).", "Expert and qualified dental specialists, and lifetime guarantee.", "Was this post helpful to you?", "yes no Report prohibited or spam Dental Implants Amount: $16,000.00 not covered by insurance Posted by: babysrn in Las Vegas, NV.", "Posted: October 11th, 2017 04:10AMWhich Tooth: 2 upper and 2 lower teeth I had 4 dental implants before it was cool!!", "Sitting down?", "it was 4500 per tooth.", "That did include everything.", "Titanium rod, the surgery, and the tooth.", "I will say I have had no problems with the implants themselves.", "Care is just like your real teeth.", "I can eat a steak and corn on the cob as well.", "No worries....", "It is so worth it just shop around for the best Dentist.", "Cheapest is not always the best to go with.", "Ask your friends for a referral .", "If you find someone you trust and have faith in keep him.", "Forever.", "One negative comment Every implant has a tooth next to it that has chipped or gotten a cavity .", "Dentist says it has nothing to do with the implants .", "Interesting .", "4 issues with teeth next to 4 implants .", "I think it is likely there is a connection between the two.", "Its a lot of money but how important is it to have a great smile and be able to chew/ eat your food.", "That alone is priceless Was this post helpful to you?", "yes no Report prohibited or spam Dental Implants Amount: $72,000.00 not covered by insurance Posted by: Jack Sprat in Mulberry, FL.", "Posted: September 3rd, 2017 12:09PMWhich Tooth: Backed out Why do full dental implants cost more than purchasing a condominium?", "Was this post helpful to you?", "yes no Report prohibited or spam Implants Amount: $25,995.00 not covered by insurance Posted by: Karen Lee in Philadelphia, PA. Posted: September 1st, 2017 02:09PMWhich Tooth: Full upper Needed bone replacement surgery and sinus lift on upper have been wearing dentures for years.", "Went through surgery was swollen for 2 weeks.", "Reconstruction to begin in December.", "6 months post surgery.", "Over denture to be placed on 6 implants.", "Was this post helpful to you?", "yes no Report prohibited or spamimplant Amount: $1,500.00 not covered by insurance Posted by: happy with cost in pasadena, CA.", "Posted: August 4th, 2017 08:08PMWhich Tooth: back toothimplant, abutment and cap, complete Was this post helpful to you?", "yes no Report prohibited or spam Why Can\\\\\\'t we get Better prices?", "Amount: $45,000.00 not covered by insurance Posted by: Cherry in Gary, TX.", "Posted: July 24th, 2017 09:07PMWhich Tooth: Full Mouthupper and lower Not begging for money or crying poor me.", "I am poor, I am a 44 year old lady and I live WAY below the poverty level beside I know what it is to go hungry and go without luxury's.", "I also know the only way to get fixed dentures (not snap on) is to come up with the money on my own.", "Haven't been able to start Can anyone tell me who is good, yet reasonable in Tx How hard is it to get a care credit loan?", "Has anyone gone abroad for dental work, what was the cost including air fair etc?", "I wantto have teeth and so I can smile again and dignity and with a confidence smile.", "If their is a will their is a way and by God I will figure out a way!Was this post helpful to you?", "yes no Report prohibited or spamdentures Amount: $8,600.00 not covered by insurance Posted by: William Berry in Ashland, KY. Posted: May 26th, 2017 08:05PMWhich Tooth: allimplants - $30,000.00 Dentures - $8600.00 Not what I wanted but all I could afford.", "Was this post helpful to you?", "yes no Report prohibited or spam Implants Amount: $0.00 not covered by insurance Posted by: Ashton in Saint Petersburg, FL.", "Posted: May 25th, 2017 07:05AMWhich Tooth: Upper and lower I would like to hear from individuals in the St. Petersburg Fl.", "Area on thier experience, costs etc I have had Dentures since my early 20\"\"s due to an auto accident.", "Now in my Mid 60's (the same dentures for 40+ years)) both positive and negative experiences will be apreciated Was this post helpful to you?", "yes no Report prohibited or spam Do 8 implants snap in for very low cost in Utah.", "Amount: $19,000.00 not covered by insurance Posted by: Saeed (Sam) in Salt Lake City, UT.", "Posted: April 13th, 2017 04:04PMWhich Tooth: all my tooth Please any one want to have fun with their denture and beautiful smile with 4 implants on top and 4 implants bottom jaw which you feel you have your own tooth and you can eat anything perhaps you couldn't eat before.", "Please I love to help because when I did it had no experience or anyone give me some advise for what I need to do at first not to suffer or go through mighty pain.", "Please email me before you want to do denture so I can share my experience to give you some idea with so many option to chose at least I may able to save you money and not go through hell with mighty pain.", "Thank you your friend Sam Was this post helpful to you?", "yes no Report prohibited or spamhybridge dentures Amount: $6,000.00 not covered by insurance Posted by: Jenna severino in TOMS RIVER, NJ.", "Posted: February 11th, 2017 07:02AMWhich Tooth: All or just bottoms I was talked into getting ALL my teeth pulled and get dentures.", "It has ruined my life.", "I hate wearing them and the bottoms are the worst.", "I feel like I have a big plastic mouth piece in my mouth.", "Not to mention that I WAS a model.", "I haven't been out to socialize in years.", "It has ruined my life.", "I have saved money and want to know where I can get at least the bottoms done.", "I was qouted 50,000.", "That isn't happening.", "I am in nj but I will travel to get it done for a good price.", "Anyone have a suggestion?", "Was this post helpful to you?", "yes no Report prohibited or spamfull lower implants Amount: $12,000.00 not covered by insurance Posted by: Tianna in Buffalo, NY.", "Posted: January 28th, 2017 03:01PMWhich Tooth: lower I am wearing a denture over the implants.", "Everything I eat gets stuck underneath it, I have to take it out & clean it several times a day,.", "The only other option is to have the tooth attached to something resembling chicken wire which leaves your face looking emaciated like you have no teeth.", "I am more comfortable not wearing the denture but am too embarrassed to awe seen without it.", "Had I known, I would have opted to have all my teeth crowned when they became brittle and started breaking at 40 yrs of age.", "I have sjogrens syndrome leaving me with a very dry mouth which causes bacteria.l I have always tried to be meticulous in brushing, flossing.", "Unfortunately work long hours, not able to brush at work.", "Was this post helpful to you?", "yes no Report prohibited or spam Implants Amount: $0.00 not covered by insurance Posted by: Carl SIMION in Melbourne, FLA, 32901, FL.", "Posted: January 7th, 2017 03:01PMWhich Tooth: All Will places like donated dental cover these expences?", "Also can you get implants with other health issues, such as heart failure?", "Was this post helpful to you?", "yes no Report prohibited or spamlooking at high cost Amount: $6,000.00 not covered by insurance Posted by: Shirley G in Manteca, CA.", "Posted: December 20th, 2016 11:12AMWhich Tooth: front tooth I think dental care has gotten way out of control.", "Is it because many employers are not providing dental insurance to the employees.", "Then to top it off they want all the money in three months... Was this post helpful to you?", "yes no Report prohibited or spam Dental implants Amount: $7,680.00 not covered by insurance Posted by: Travler in San Jose Costa Rica, WI.", "Posted: November 3rd, 2016 11:11AMWhich Tooth: 3 teeth all molars Includes: Extraction, bone grafts, implants, abutments, crowns.", "Three trips to Costa Rica.", "Even including air fare and hotel, this was much less than what I was quoted in the US which was approx.", "$48,000.00.", "In case you are wondering, Costa Rica has an excellent medical care system which is ranked higher than that of the US and it is affordable.", "Was this post helpful to you?", "yes no Report prohibited or spam Dental Implant Broke Amount: $4,000.00 not covered by insurance Posted by: Silvia Angelov in Louisville, KY. Posted: September 21st, 2016 10:09AMWhich Tooth: 30Abutment with crown came out because a small part of the implant was broken.", "My dentist Dr. Mathis said that he do not do implants anymore and will send me to another dentist to remove old implant and replace with new one.", "I do not know how much will cost me.", "Any suggestions what can I do?", "Was this post helpful to you?", "yes no Report prohibited or spam Dentures Amount: $2,500.00 not covered by insurance Posted by: Sandy Roberts in Richmond, MO.", "Posted: August 16th, 2016 09:08PMWhich Tooth: Full upper denture I recently had my remaining 6 upper front teeth pulled and now wearing a temporary denture until gums healed Since my former dentist suggested I go theu implant procedures for my bottom teeth years ago I took his advise and have 8 bottom front teeth of my own and two implants on each side now holding bridges Wow I can chew great My recommend: implants for bottom teeth and denture for top Was this post helpful to you?", "yes no Report prohibited or spam Single Implant Amount: $2,130.00 not covered by insurance Posted by: Amanda_C in Annapolis, AL.", "Posted: July 26th, 2016 10:07AMWhich Tooth: #12 (molar next to top right canine)Due to my intense dental fear and horrible teeth (thanks, Dad!)", "I neglected the dentist for 5 years.", "When I finally got the courage to go back, I found out I needed 4 extractions (one was severely infected, one was a decayed wisdom tooth, and 2 were broken teeth), as well as fillings for 5 cavities.", "When I completed everything, I asked how we would begin the implant process.", "Sometimes, my dentist can do same-day extractions and implants, but I had some infection in my jaw so this is not an option for me.", "I am going in today for an extraction, bone graft, and will receive and acrylic-based upper partial (whatever that is) and then will go back in 4 months (after the bone graft can be reabsorbed by my bone) for the implant and then 4 months later for the permanent crown.", "The amount of time this takes as well as the pre-insurance estimate of $6600 absolutely floored me!", "Luckily, we have decent insurance and will pay about a third of the estimated cost.", "Good luck to everyone else!Was this post helpful to you?", "yes no Report prohibited or spam Total implants and new tweth Amount: $0.00 not covered by insurance Posted by: PJ S. in Port Charlotte, FL.", "Posted: July 22nd, 2016 10:07AMWhich Tooth: All I need entirely new teeth.", "I already paid $20,000 for the implants.", "While healing, someone ran a red light and totalled my car and me!", "Now I need to find affordable permanent uppers and lowers in Florida (early quote $30K).", "I need a better price and maybe a loan or payment plan.", "Was this post helpful to you?", "yes no Report prohibited or spamso called permanent bridge Amount: $10,000.00 not covered by insurance Posted by: tara thomas in lake orion, MI.", "Posted: December 2nd, 2015 11:12PMWhich Tooth: all four of my front teeth I cry almost everyday I live in Pontiac mi in 2009 my,mom paid 10,000 to have a permanent bridge place in my up front four teeth I went to the dentist because my bridge feels like its getting ready to fall out so I thought I have medicad and I also have two bottom teeth missing and was suppose to get flipper on the bottom don't you know that now I have to have all my teeth pulled and there trying to place dentures in my mouth no I think not they move they rub sores in your mouth but the dentist at mark Taylor in Waterford said I would be a great candidate for implants well thats nice the only thing is I don't have 1,900 5,000 to 10,000\"\"out of pocket I'm so embarrassed by my smile I never show my teeth or anything im getting married soon and im 40 years in may im to young to go through this does anyone know where you can make payment arrangement who don't go by your credit here in Michigan I don't want my soon to be husband to look at his toothless bride I cry all the time please help!", "!Was this post helpful to you?", "yes no Report prohibited or spam Dental implant Amount: $35,000.00 not covered by insurance Posted by: cortex-dental in Richmond, VA. Posted: November 29th, 2015 04:11AMWhich Tooth: upper mouththe clinic did a good job, but the cost is astronomic and it doesn't covered by the insurance.", "Was this post helpful to you?", "yes no Report prohibited or spam Dental Implant Amount: $1,200.00 not covered by insurance Posted by: Nurdaulet Sharenov in Dearborn, MI.", "Posted: October 3rd, 2015 12:10PMWhich Tooth: 32I paid 1200 for a zirconium implant Was this post helpful to you?", "yes no Report prohibited or spamcost not inclusive Amount: $45.00 not covered by insurance Posted by: im stupid in san jose, CA.", "Posted: August 22nd, 2015 10:08PMWhich Tooth: 5 teeth on top The estimate started at 25-30 k one would think the price of an implant includes abutment and cap.", "now they want 50 k total to do the job, does this always happen?", "think I've been taken advantage of,,,, should have followed intuition,,Was this post helpful to you?", "yes no Report prohibited or spamdental implants Amount: $8,000.00 not covered by insurance Posted by: WV Mama in Berkeley Springs,, WV.", "Posted: August 19th, 2015 12:08PMWhich Tooth: complete upper and lower dentures My 83 year old husband needs dentures.", "He cannot chew and has lost 45 lbs in the last 2 years.", "I took him to the local dentist for evaluations for dentures.", "dentist said he could not reline the dentures- not enough bone to hold them.", "He was sent to a periodontists who said he could do nothing aftering evaluating the xrays taken in his office and referred to an oral surgeon.", "Oral surgeon told patient he could do 2 implants implants at a cost of $4800.00 not counting cost anesthesia or and added\"\"I don't think you will have a good fit\"\".", "You need to just live with what you have.", "I could sent you to the university to be evaluated for a bone graft.", "local dentist would make the dentures at a estimated cost of $4000.00 after oral surgeon did implants.", "He is 83 yr on fixed income and cannot afford it.", "Is there any help with this type of dental work.", "Was this post helpful to you?", "yes no Report prohibited or spamdental implants Amount: $8,000.00 not covered by insurance Posted by: WV Mama in Berkeley Springs,, WV.", "Posted: August 19th, 2015 12:08PMWhich Tooth: complete upper and lower dentures My 83 year old husband needs dentures.", "He cannot chew and has lost 45 lbs in the last 2 years.", "I took him to the local dentist for evaluations for dentures.", "dentist said he could not reline the dentures- not enough bone to hold them.", "He was sent to a periodontists who said he could do nothing aftering evaluating the xrays taken in his office and referred to an oral surgeon.", "Oral surgeon told patient he could do 2 implants implants at a cost of $4800.00 not counting cost anesthesia or and added\"\"I don't think you will have a good fit\"\".", "You need to just live with what you have.", "I could sent you to the university to be evaluated for a bone graft.", "local dentist would make the dentures at a estimated cost of $4000.00 after oral surgeon did implants.", "He is 83 yr on fixed income and cannot afford it.", "Is there any help with this type of dental work.", "Was this post helpful to you?", "yes no Report prohibited or spamimplants for four front teeth Amount: $20,000.00 not covered by insurance Posted by: rtrev64 in Dallas, TX.", "Posted: August 5th, 2015 05:08PMWhich Tooth: four front teeth It is amazing how so expensive the procedure is.", "i had a bridge that lasted for 15 years until a month ago, they gave way.", "I dont have flippers because well i did not need them, i had a bridge, i don't want flippers, I cannot believe how much they are and they look so plastic, fake but are expensive to boot.", "I am frustrated.", "I visited three dentist here in Dallas and all just say it's either implants or flippers.. really?", "either i pay what i cannot afford its like buying a brand new car or live with flippers.", "So my search continues.", "Some say snap on's as an alternative or one tooth at a time, place a implant on one side, pay it off, then pay for the next one, pay it off and so forth till i have all of them in place.", "I am thinking, I would not mind permanent bridges like i had before but they will not do that.", "so i am thinking two implants, then the bridge to cover the gap in the middle..", "I set up a gofundme account..http://www.gofundme.com/robertt Was this post helpful to you?", "yes no Report prohibited or spam Permanent fixed dentures.", "Amount: $0.00 not covered by insurance Posted by: cookieb403 in jax, FL.", "Posted: August 4th, 2015 02:08PMWhich Tooth: upper and lower Not begging for money or crying poor me.", "I am poor, I am a 60 year old disabled lady and I live WAY below the poverty level beside caring for my disabled sister and fostering shelter dogs that were on death row.", "So I know what it is to go hungry and go without luxury's.", "I also know the only way to get fixed dentures (not snap on) is to come up with the money on my own.", "I have been scrubbing floors and cleaning houses for friends to save money.", "Haven't been able to wear my lower dentures since I got them over 4 years ago.", "Can anyone tell me who is good, yet reasonable in central Florida?", "How hard is it to get a care credit loan?", "Has anyone gone abroad for dental work, what was the cost including air fair etc?", "I refuse to visit my family up north until I have teeth and can smile.", "I have a Grandbaby I haven't seen since losing my teeth, dignity, confidence and smile.", "If their is a will their is a way and by God I will figure out a way!", "So please give me some advice from REAL people!Was this post helpful to you?", "yes no Report prohibited or spam Page 12 of 12 - << Previous 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12Comment On Your Experience With Dental Implants Subject: *Amount Spent: * not covered by insurance Which Tooth: Comments: Purchased: Year: City: * State: *Information about you: Email: * Email addresses are not displayed.", "Name: This is the name we'll display with your post.", "Remember me on this computer*=required field.", "External Resources:dentalimplants.com/understanding-dental-implants.phpwww.mayoclinic.com/health/dental-implant-surgery/MY00084/DSECTION=what-you-can-expectwww.ada.org/267.aspxwww.nidcr.nih.gov/oralhealth/popularpublications/findinglowcostdentalcare/www.mayoclinic.com/health/dental-implant-surgery/MY00084/DSECTION=how-you-preparewww.associationdigital.com/aaid/online/findadoctor/searchinput.aspxwww.perio.org/?q=locator-advancedwww.aaoms.org/findoms.phpwww.gotoapro.org/find-a-prosthodontist/www.mouthhealthy.org/en/find-a-dentist.aspxdentalimplants.com/search.php More Health & Personal Care Topics Check Out All Costs for Health & Personal Care How Much Does an X-Ray Cost?", "How Much Do Body Piercings Cost?", "How Much Does a Heart Stent Cost?", "Search Thousands of Topics on Cost Helper.com How much does cost?", "Today's Featured Cost Articles The price of a \"\"Forever\"\" stamp increases to 50 cents on January 21, 2018.", "What would a personal trainer cost to reach those New Years resolutions?", "Need help uncovering your driveway?", "You may need a snow removal service.", "A space heater can keep you warm on chilly December nights.", "Need someone to take care of the kids while you hit the mall for all those sales?", "About Cost Helper Cost Helper is based in Silicon Valley and provides consumers with unbiased price information about thousands of goods and services.", "Our writers are experienced journalists who adhere to our strict editorial ethics policy.", "Cost Helper Community Sliced finger opened Paid: 400.00 So a coworker sliced his finger opened whilst he was cutting veggies... [more]-Megaman Emergency Room Visit Cost2013 VW Tiguan Panoramic Sunroof Paid: 0.00 I got my Tiguan as a trade in on my diesel VW Jetta.", "One of the few times I had purchased an extended warranty.", "My panoramic sunroof was \"\"eaten\"\" by the mechanic/motor... [more]-Larene Sunroof Cost Coating Basement Walls With Waterproof Coating Paid: 580.00 We applied a water based epoxy coating Hydro-Seal 75 to our basement walls and came out 1 foot on the floor in our basement, 750 square feet total for $580, 58$ per gallon... [more]-Basement Waterproofing Cost Cinderella carriage Paid: 1000.00 Looking for Cinderella carriage... [more]-Horse and Carriage Rental Cost Tire Patch Paid: 27.00 Guy was really nice, but $27 seems like a bit.", "I wish I was strong enough to do it myself for $3... [more]-College Towns are Expensive Flat Tire Repair Cost Dream Baby Shower Paid: 3000.00 Venue: 5hrs with server and Tap bar4 course meal, desert table, lighting, cloth napkins and centerpiece all for $2000Cake and cake pops: $240Additional decorations for dessert table: balloons, wooden ornaments and frames $600Prizes for baby... [more]-Baby Shower Cost \"" ]
D49878
http://www.webmd.com/food-recipes/protein
Protein: Are You Getting Enough?
Protein: Are You Getting Enough? In this Article Choose the Healthiest Sources of Protein Most people get enough protein. But are you making the best protein choices, or are you in a rut? You need protein for your muscles, bones, and the rest of your body. Exactly how much you need changes with age: Babies need about 10 grams a day. School-age kids need 19-34 grams a day. Teenage boys need up to 52 grams a day. Teenage girls need 46 grams a day. Adult men need about 56 grams a day. Adult women need about 46 grams a day (71 grams, if pregnant or breastfeeding)You should get at least 10% of your daily calories, but not more than 35%, from protein, according to the Institute of Medicine. Choose the Healthiest Sources of Protein Just about every type of food has protein. Some have more than others. Whether you eat meat or not, you can get enough protein from your diet. Continue Reading Belowyou might like Apart from protein, you might also want to think about what else you're getting from protein-rich foods. For instance, to limit saturated fat, you'd want to choose lean cuts of meat over fattier cuts. And to cut back on sodium, skip the processed meats like hot dogs and sausage. If you're trying to get more omega-3s, you might choose salmon, tuna, or eggs fortified with omega-3s. If you need to get more fiber, look to beans, vegetables, nuts, and legumes. To help lower the chance of getting heart disease, it's a good idea to limit the amount of red meat, especially processed red meat, and eat more fish, poultry, and beans, according to researchers at the Harvard School of Public Health. Most nutritionists agree the best approach is to choose from a variety of protein sources. If you're watching your weight, try including protein with every meal. It will help you feel full longer. Spreading protein evenly across your meals is also good for your muscles, which is especially important as you get older and start to lose muscle mass. Web MD Medical Reference Reviewed by Maryann Tomovich Jacobsen, MS, RD on September 20, 2016Sources© 2016 Web MD, LLC. All rights reserved.
[ "Protein: Are You Getting Enough?", "In this Article Choose the Healthiest Sources of Protein Most people get enough protein.", "But are you making the best protein choices, or are you in a rut?", "You need protein for your muscles, bones, and the rest of your body.", "Exactly how much you need changes with age: Babies need about 10 grams a day.", "School-age kids need 19-34 grams a day.", "Teenage boys need up to 52 grams a day.", "Teenage girls need 46 grams a day.", "Adult men need about 56 grams a day.", "Adult women need about 46 grams a day (71 grams, if pregnant or breastfeeding)You should get at least 10% of your daily calories, but not more than 35%, from protein, according to the Institute of Medicine.", "Choose the Healthiest Sources of Protein Just about every type of food has protein.", "Some have more than others.", "Whether you eat meat or not, you can get enough protein from your diet.", "Continue Reading Belowyou might like Apart from protein, you might also want to think about what else you're getting from protein-rich foods.", "For instance, to limit saturated fat, you'd want to choose lean cuts of meat over fattier cuts.", "And to cut back on sodium, skip the processed meats like hot dogs and sausage.", "If you're trying to get more omega-3s, you might choose salmon, tuna, or eggs fortified with omega-3s.", "If you need to get more fiber, look to beans, vegetables, nuts, and legumes.", "To help lower the chance of getting heart disease, it's a good idea to limit the amount of red meat, especially processed red meat, and eat more fish, poultry, and beans, according to researchers at the Harvard School of Public Health.", "Most nutritionists agree the best approach is to choose from a variety of protein sources.", "If you're watching your weight, try including protein with every meal.", "It will help you feel full longer.", "Spreading protein evenly across your meals is also good for your muscles, which is especially important as you get older and start to lose muscle mass.", "Web MD Medical Reference Reviewed by Maryann Tomovich Jacobsen, MS, RD on September 20, 2016Sources© 2016 Web MD, LLC.", "All rights reserved." ]
D126540
http://homeguides.sfgate.com/average-cost-homeowners-insurance-3020.html
What Is the Average Cost for Homeowners Insurance?
"Related Articles How to Estimate Homeowners Insurance Costs Is Hazard Insurance the Same as Homeowner's Insurance? How to Calculate Mortgage Insurance Premium What Is Hazard Insurance in My Mortgage Payment? Homeowners insurance, also referred to as hazard insurance, provides a way for a homeowner to cover her losses if a disaster should cause damage to her home. According to the U. S. Department of Housing and Urban Development, a lender often requires that a homeowners insurance policy be in place before finalizing a mortgage settlement. Many factors influence the total annual cost of this insurance, including the extent of the coverage and the location of the property. Estimates According to the Federal Reserve Bureau, the average cost of an annual premium for homeowners insurance is between $300 and $1,000. For most homeowners, the annual costs for a homeowners insurance policy can be estimated by dividing the value of the home by 1,000, then multiplying the result by $3.50. Types One factor in the cost of homeowners insurance is what circumstances are covered under a particular policy. Some examples of typical disasters and incidents that are covered under a basic homeowners insurance policy are fire, vandalism and wind, says the Federal Reserve Board. Geography The location of a home directly affects which types of disasters are covered on a homeowners insurance policy, CNN Money explains. There are additional circumstances that may not be covered due to the home being located in a high-risk area for that type of disaster. California is a prime example of this issue because of a large portion of the state's residential areas falling on or near a major fault line. In this case, homeowners may need to purchase a separate policy for earthquake coverage. Considerations While annual premiums are typically paid in monthly installments, some lenders might require a homeowner to pay the first year's annual premium in full before completing a mortgage settlement, says the U. S. Department of Housing and Urban Development. Expert Insight According to the Federal Citizen Information Center, there are several ways for homeowners to reduce the costs of their annual premium on a homeowners insurance policy. For example, installing a new roof or storm shutters--both of which can protect against natural disasters--may reduce the annual premium for some homeowners. The installation of security alarm systems, dead-bolt locks and smoke detectors can also result in discounts of about 5 percent. References (4)The Federal Reserve Board: A Consumer's Guide to Mortgage Settlement Costs CNN Money.com: Getting Homeowners Insurance U. S. Department of Housing and Urban Development: Your Settlement Costs Federal Citizen Information Center: 12 Ways to Lower Your Homeowners Insurance Costs About the Author Ashley Henshaw is a writer based in Chicago. Her work has appeared on the websites of The Huffington Post, ""USA Today"" and ""The San Francisco Chronicle,"" among others. Henshaw received a Bachelor of Arts in English from Loyola University Chicago. Photo Creditsfire in house image by Ivonne Wierink from Fotolia.com Cite this Article "
[ "\"Related Articles How to Estimate Homeowners Insurance Costs Is Hazard Insurance the Same as Homeowner's Insurance?", "How to Calculate Mortgage Insurance Premium What Is Hazard Insurance in My Mortgage Payment?", "Homeowners insurance, also referred to as hazard insurance, provides a way for a homeowner to cover her losses if a disaster should cause damage to her home.", "According to the U. S. Department of Housing and Urban Development, a lender often requires that a homeowners insurance policy be in place before finalizing a mortgage settlement.", "Many factors influence the total annual cost of this insurance, including the extent of the coverage and the location of the property.", "Estimates According to the Federal Reserve Bureau, the average cost of an annual premium for homeowners insurance is between $300 and $1,000.", "For most homeowners, the annual costs for a homeowners insurance policy can be estimated by dividing the value of the home by 1,000, then multiplying the result by $3.50.", "Types One factor in the cost of homeowners insurance is what circumstances are covered under a particular policy.", "Some examples of typical disasters and incidents that are covered under a basic homeowners insurance policy are fire, vandalism and wind, says the Federal Reserve Board.", "Geography The location of a home directly affects which types of disasters are covered on a homeowners insurance policy, CNN Money explains.", "There are additional circumstances that may not be covered due to the home being located in a high-risk area for that type of disaster.", "California is a prime example of this issue because of a large portion of the state's residential areas falling on or near a major fault line.", "In this case, homeowners may need to purchase a separate policy for earthquake coverage.", "Considerations While annual premiums are typically paid in monthly installments, some lenders might require a homeowner to pay the first year's annual premium in full before completing a mortgage settlement, says the U. S. Department of Housing and Urban Development.", "Expert Insight According to the Federal Citizen Information Center, there are several ways for homeowners to reduce the costs of their annual premium on a homeowners insurance policy.", "For example, installing a new roof or storm shutters--both of which can protect against natural disasters--may reduce the annual premium for some homeowners.", "The installation of security alarm systems, dead-bolt locks and smoke detectors can also result in discounts of about 5 percent.", "References (4)The Federal Reserve Board: A Consumer's Guide to Mortgage Settlement Costs CNN Money.com: Getting Homeowners Insurance U. S. Department of Housing and Urban Development: Your Settlement Costs Federal Citizen Information Center: 12 Ways to Lower Your Homeowners Insurance Costs About the Author Ashley Henshaw is a writer based in Chicago.", "Her work has appeared on the websites of The Huffington Post, \"\"USA Today\"\" and \"\"The San Francisco Chronicle,\"\" among others.", "Henshaw received a Bachelor of Arts in English from Loyola University Chicago.", "Photo Creditsfire in house image by Ivonne Wierink from Fotolia.com Cite this Article \"" ]
D69888
http://www.homeadvisor.com/cost/heating-and-cooling/install-an-ac-unit/
How Much Does A New Air Conditioning Unit Cost To Install?
When the hot summer months approach and you find yourself standing in front of the fan to keep cool, you dream of having air conditioning to cool down your whole house. While air conditioning installation isn't always complicated, it's usually best to work with an air conditioning contractor who will help to ensure it's done correctly. Here is more information on air conditioner installation and finding the right model for your home: On This Page: Air Conditioner Cost Factors Common Air Conditioner Brands and Costs A/C Unit Installation Cost Factors How Much Does Air Conditioning Cost? Most homeowners report spending between $3,734 and $7,163 to have air conditioning installed. This price is more typical of a central A/C unit installation rather than a window central air conditioner addition which typically averages about $300. Your total cost for the job will depend on the type of system you choose. The size of your home will determine the type of air conditioning system you will need. There are several types of systems, including: Window units: installed in windows as a singular A/C system unit Split systems: either as mini-split (ductless) or central systems that are installed as inside and outside units Central system: uses duct system that's usually combined with the heating system to cool a whole house Portable units: comes as a split, hose or evaporative system for ease of movement around the house A window air conditioning unit will generally suffice to keep a smaller home cool on warm spring and summer days. The cost to install a window air conditioner averages between $150 and $300, depending on the size you need. Installing a window air conditioning unit can bring added comfort for a reasonable price, but it will be less powerful than a central air conditioning system. If you have a bigger home with multiple rooms, you will probably need to have a central air conditioner installed. Homeowners can pay between $500 and $4,000 for central air conditioning. The final cost will depend on the unit, additional installation items such as ductwork and the professional's installation rates. Here are some additional factors that will determine the kind of system you will need, as well as its price. Measuring Home Size in BTUs The first major factor in determining what kind of air conditioning system you'll need is the size of your home. Air conditioning units are measured in tons or the amount of heat they can remove from a home in one hour in British thermal units (BTUs)-- more information on this measurement below. The larger your house, the more cooling power you'll need. However, bigger isn't better in every scenario. If the system is too large it will cycle on and off all the time, wasting energy and emitting a loud, disruptive sound. On the other hand, if the system is too small, it will run constantly and cool your house inefficiently. New Air Conditioning Unit Load Calculation An air conditioning contractor will do a load calculation to determine the proper central air conditioning unit for your home. This calculation takes into account the climate, size, shape and orientation of your home, as well as its square footage. A professional will also look at the insulation, windows, walls, floors and other materials that compose your home. He will then examine any leaks, seals and existing ducts or vents. The general rule is that every 500 or 600 square feet requires one ton of cooling. However, this calculation varies from place to place and contractor to contractor. Load calculating is often referred to as the Manual J methodology. Cooling professionals use a variety of computations to analyze your home air conditioner characteristics, determining how much air it will lose. Factoring in environmental considerations like geography and solar rays, professionals can decide which system will best cool your home. There are two types of Manual J load calculations: Whole House: Provides the air conditioning load calculations for a whole house with an existing duct system. Room by Room: Used for calculating the air conditioning loads in every room of a house, which contributes to determining individual duct sizes and layout of a duct system What are EER and SEER Ratings? The best cooling unit for your home will be the most energy efficient and the least expensive to run. Home air conditioner professionals help determine this factor in their load calculations, but the next step is looking at the energy efficiency ratio (EER) and seasonal energy efficiency ratio (SEER) ratings of cooling units. Here's what you need to know about these two units of efficiency. EER Ratings An EER certifies the cooling efficiency of HVAC units. It's calculated by the rate of the cooling in British thermal units (BTUs) per hour and divided by the rate of energy input in watts at a specific temperature. The calculation goes as BTUH/WATT at dry bulb (db) versus wet bulb (wb) temperatures. The optimal rating for a cooling unit is about 80db/67wb inside and 95db/75wb outside. SEER Ratings An air conditioning system's SEER is especially important if you live in a climate that changes temperature dramatically. The SEER is determined by the cooling output during the winter divided by its electric input during the winter. The higher the SEER rating, the more efficient it will be. Cooling units specifically must have a minimum SEER of 13 as of January 2006, according to U. S. standards, so if you live in a home with a system installed before then, consider having it replaced. SEER 13 units increase home efficiency by 30 percent. Want to get a quote for installing a central A/C system today? Click here. Return to Top Common AC Unit Brands and Average Costs Once you've determined the size of the unit you need, it's time to look at different brands. Various manufacturers produce heating and cooling units, and there are pros and cons to each. Central air units also vary in cost, depending on bells and whistles. So, consult with a professional about what you need and ask about any additional features that may benefit your home. Here are some of the cooling unit manufacturers and their average costs (in alphabetical order): Aire-Flo -- $1,700Amana -- $2,600American Standard -- $3,200Armstrong -- $2,000Bryant -- $2,200Carrier -- $3,200Coleman -- $1,700Comfortmaker -- $1,700Frigidaire -- $2,900Gibson -- $2,300Goodman -- $2,100Heil -- $2,600Lennox -- $3,400Payne -- $1,400Rheem -- $2,500Ruud -- $2,400Tempstar -- $1,800Trane -- $3,300Whirlpool -- $1,900York -- $2,800Return to Top Air Conditioning Installation Cost Factors There are a few factors in addition to load calculation, energy efficiency ratings and brand manufacturers that homeowners should consider before they invest in an air conditioning system: Installing the Air Conditioning Unit It's important to have made an informed decision about an air conditioning system before initiating an installation, as this will determine a large percentage of your cost. If you decide to have a split or central system installed, you will need to hire an air conditioning professional to install the system. You cannot do this installation as a DIY project because it involves handling refrigerant, which cools the air. Professionals must be licensed by the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) before they can handle this substance because it's a harmful chemical. Installing an air conditioning system is an involved process. To that end, it requires the help of many professionals whose rates will drive up the cost. You will need at least: Air conditioning contractor: he or she performs an assessment to determine what kind of system you need and installs it Assistant (s): additional team that helps with the wiring, ductwork and metal bracket mounting You will also be charged for the materials involved in the installation, including the air conditioning unit and chemicals. Check with your contractor to see whether you might cut costs by buying the air conditioning system yourself or using existing heating system ductwork in your home. Additional Questions and Considerations Do you already have a central heating system? Many central air conditioning systems use the furnace blower to distribute cool air through the home. If you do not have a central heating system installed, it is cost-effective to install a heating and air conditioning (HVAC) system at the same time. If you already have central heat, you can use the existing fans and duct system for the central air system. Do you need ductwork? Although most new homes have ducts and vents already in place, many older homes have old convection heating systems or baseboard heaters without ductwork. In such cases, you will need to install ducts and vents to provide the air conditioning with a flow system. This would be the time to explore upgrading the existing heating system as well, as it will be much cheaper to do together. How's the insulation in your home? If your home is well built and well insulated, your heating and cooling systems will work more efficiently and save you money. If you have poor insulation, you will spend considerably more on utility bills. Explore the costs of new insulation or upgrading your old insulation as it might save you money in the long run. If you need your air conditioning sooner rather than later, don't hesitate. Get in touch with a professional today. Other Central Air Conditioning Facts Need more information on air conditioning systems before you invest? While a cooling professional has all the know-how about these systems, here are some facts you should know going into the installation project. BTUs and Air Conditioning Units What is a British Thermal Unit? British Thermal Units or BTUs are defined as the amount of energy needed to cool or heat up one pound of water by a Fahrenheit. It's used to measure heating and air conditioning units in BTU/hour. Homeowners can determine what size air conditioner they need by following these steps: Figure out the square footage of the room. For a square room, multiple length by width. For a triangular room, it's length by width and divide by 2. There's a chart you can reference in stores that will tell you what size machine you will need. If you want a system for a whole house, it's a bit more complicated and will require professional assistance. The rough estimates are as follows: Area to be Cooled (sq. ft.) Capacity (BTUs per hour)700 - 1,000 18,0001,000 - 1,200 21,0001,200 - 1,400 23,0001,400 - 1,500 24,0001,500 - 2,000 30,0002,000 - 2,500 34,000What is Single-Stage vs. Two-Stage Cooling? There are two kinds of air conditioning systems to choose from -- single-stage and two-stage. Your climate will determine which stage is best for your home. Single-stage air conditioners turn on at full capacity when your home's indoor temperature rises past the set level on your thermostat. It then turns off completely until your house rises past that temperature again and repeats the process. This is good for climates that don't fluctuate much in temperature. In hot, humid climates with pulsing solar rays, the air conditioner will turn on often to compensate for the heat outside. This will lead to a lot of loud noises and an increase in your utility bill. Two-stage air conditioners function at two-thirds or complete capacity, depending on the home's internal temperature. When your house rises above the preset temperature, it will turn on at two-thirds capacity and work its way to full capacity. Then, it will come down from full capacity to two-thirds capacity and shut off. This saves power and cools your home at the same time. It also reduces noise and emits cleaner air, which makes it the more efficient option for most homeowners. Tax Breaks The government offers tax credits to incentivize homeowners to purchase energy-efficient home products. Energy-efficient air conditioning units must meet standards set by the Consortium for Energy Efficiency (CEE). To qualify for a tax credit from the federal government, you must save the manufacturer's certificate from your central air conditioning system. The IRS won't require the certificate at the time you file your federal tax forms, but they recommend keeping it with your records in case you are audited. It proves that you purchased a qualifying product. Tax credits are offered for: Split-system air conditioners ($300) -- must have 16 SEER or 13 EERPackaged air conditioners ($300) -- must have 14 SEER or 12 EERDetermining Air Conditioning Unit Quality When installing your air conditioning unit, ask the following questions to ensure its quality and optimum performance for years to come: Is it sized correctly? The equipment must be the right size to provide the best air conditioner performance for your home. That's why professionals measure your home and do load calculations. Is the duct system right for the air conditioning unit? Ducts that are damaged, leaking or missing some spots will affect the performance of your air conditioner. Your air conditioning contractor will repair and install more ducts, if needed, so everything works at its highest caliber. How is the airflow? Airflow must be just right; otherwise, you could see an increase in your bill or hot spots in rooms of your home. A contractor can measure the volume and adjust ducts or vents for optimal airflow. What about the refrigerant? Refrigerant is what cools the air flowing through your home while its liquid is consumed into the HVAC system. If there isn't enough, it could result in more energy consumed and more moisture in the air. The HVAC professional will check the charge of the refrigerant and adjust it if needed. Central Air Conditioning Warranties Any newly installed air conditioning unit will come with a manufacturer's warranty. The warranty's length will vary depending on the manufacturer. Warranties generally last from five to 15 years; it's safe to expect an average length of 10 years. The manufacturer's warranty covers the equipment and parts in the machine. There is also the contractor's warranty, which covers the labor for A/C unit repairs and additional work such as encasing the air conditioner in protective metal, wiring it to the home and so on. Products with indoor air quality (IAQ) modifiers have a separate warranty that's less than that of a central A/C unit, so keep that in mind when investing in such products. You may also invest in an extended warranty, which can cover: Cost of replacement parts Additional years for repair costs by a third party (i.e., no out of pocket expenses)Coverage by the manufacturer Extended warranties are expensive and generally cost more than maintenance. There are also strict limitations on the warranty that will likely require paying for repairs upfront and following up repeatedly for the reimbursement. You may also end up paying for a system you have replaced in less than 10 years if you move out of the home or upgrade. Return to Top
[ "When the hot summer months approach and you find yourself standing in front of the fan to keep cool, you dream of having air conditioning to cool down your whole house.", "While air conditioning installation isn't always complicated, it's usually best to work with an air conditioning contractor who will help to ensure it's done correctly.", "Here is more information on air conditioner installation and finding the right model for your home: On This Page: Air Conditioner Cost Factors Common Air Conditioner Brands and Costs A/C Unit Installation Cost Factors How Much Does Air Conditioning Cost?", "Most homeowners report spending between $3,734 and $7,163 to have air conditioning installed.", "This price is more typical of a central A/C unit installation rather than a window central air conditioner addition which typically averages about $300.", "Your total cost for the job will depend on the type of system you choose.", "The size of your home will determine the type of air conditioning system you will need.", "There are several types of systems, including: Window units: installed in windows as a singular A/C system unit Split systems: either as mini-split (ductless) or central systems that are installed as inside and outside units Central system: uses duct system that's usually combined with the heating system to cool a whole house Portable units: comes as a split, hose or evaporative system for ease of movement around the house A window air conditioning unit will generally suffice to keep a smaller home cool on warm spring and summer days.", "The cost to install a window air conditioner averages between $150 and $300, depending on the size you need.", "Installing a window air conditioning unit can bring added comfort for a reasonable price, but it will be less powerful than a central air conditioning system.", "If you have a bigger home with multiple rooms, you will probably need to have a central air conditioner installed.", "Homeowners can pay between $500 and $4,000 for central air conditioning.", "The final cost will depend on the unit, additional installation items such as ductwork and the professional's installation rates.", "Here are some additional factors that will determine the kind of system you will need, as well as its price.", "Measuring Home Size in BTUs The first major factor in determining what kind of air conditioning system you'll need is the size of your home.", "Air conditioning units are measured in tons or the amount of heat they can remove from a home in one hour in British thermal units (BTUs)-- more information on this measurement below.", "The larger your house, the more cooling power you'll need.", "However, bigger isn't better in every scenario.", "If the system is too large it will cycle on and off all the time, wasting energy and emitting a loud, disruptive sound.", "On the other hand, if the system is too small, it will run constantly and cool your house inefficiently.", "New Air Conditioning Unit Load Calculation An air conditioning contractor will do a load calculation to determine the proper central air conditioning unit for your home.", "This calculation takes into account the climate, size, shape and orientation of your home, as well as its square footage.", "A professional will also look at the insulation, windows, walls, floors and other materials that compose your home.", "He will then examine any leaks, seals and existing ducts or vents.", "The general rule is that every 500 or 600 square feet requires one ton of cooling.", "However, this calculation varies from place to place and contractor to contractor.", "Load calculating is often referred to as the Manual J methodology.", "Cooling professionals use a variety of computations to analyze your home air conditioner characteristics, determining how much air it will lose.", "Factoring in environmental considerations like geography and solar rays, professionals can decide which system will best cool your home.", "There are two types of Manual J load calculations: Whole House: Provides the air conditioning load calculations for a whole house with an existing duct system.", "Room by Room: Used for calculating the air conditioning loads in every room of a house, which contributes to determining individual duct sizes and layout of a duct system What are EER and SEER Ratings?", "The best cooling unit for your home will be the most energy efficient and the least expensive to run.", "Home air conditioner professionals help determine this factor in their load calculations, but the next step is looking at the energy efficiency ratio (EER) and seasonal energy efficiency ratio (SEER) ratings of cooling units.", "Here's what you need to know about these two units of efficiency.", "EER Ratings An EER certifies the cooling efficiency of HVAC units.", "It's calculated by the rate of the cooling in British thermal units (BTUs) per hour and divided by the rate of energy input in watts at a specific temperature.", "The calculation goes as BTUH/WATT at dry bulb (db) versus wet bulb (wb) temperatures.", "The optimal rating for a cooling unit is about 80db/67wb inside and 95db/75wb outside.", "SEER Ratings An air conditioning system's SEER is especially important if you live in a climate that changes temperature dramatically.", "The SEER is determined by the cooling output during the winter divided by its electric input during the winter.", "The higher the SEER rating, the more efficient it will be.", "Cooling units specifically must have a minimum SEER of 13 as of January 2006, according to U. S. standards, so if you live in a home with a system installed before then, consider having it replaced.", "SEER 13 units increase home efficiency by 30 percent.", "Want to get a quote for installing a central A/C system today?", "Click here.", "Return to Top Common AC Unit Brands and Average Costs Once you've determined the size of the unit you need, it's time to look at different brands.", "Various manufacturers produce heating and cooling units, and there are pros and cons to each.", "Central air units also vary in cost, depending on bells and whistles.", "So, consult with a professional about what you need and ask about any additional features that may benefit your home.", "Here are some of the cooling unit manufacturers and their average costs (in alphabetical order): Aire-Flo -- $1,700Amana -- $2,600American Standard -- $3,200Armstrong -- $2,000Bryant -- $2,200Carrier -- $3,200Coleman -- $1,700Comfortmaker -- $1,700Frigidaire -- $2,900Gibson -- $2,300Goodman -- $2,100Heil -- $2,600Lennox -- $3,400Payne -- $1,400Rheem -- $2,500Ruud -- $2,400Tempstar -- $1,800Trane -- $3,300Whirlpool -- $1,900York -- $2,800Return to Top Air Conditioning Installation Cost Factors There are a few factors in addition to load calculation, energy efficiency ratings and brand manufacturers that homeowners should consider before they invest in an air conditioning system: Installing the Air Conditioning Unit It's important to have made an informed decision about an air conditioning system before initiating an installation, as this will determine a large percentage of your cost.", "If you decide to have a split or central system installed, you will need to hire an air conditioning professional to install the system.", "You cannot do this installation as a DIY project because it involves handling refrigerant, which cools the air.", "Professionals must be licensed by the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) before they can handle this substance because it's a harmful chemical.", "Installing an air conditioning system is an involved process.", "To that end, it requires the help of many professionals whose rates will drive up the cost.", "You will need at least: Air conditioning contractor: he or she performs an assessment to determine what kind of system you need and installs it Assistant (s): additional team that helps with the wiring, ductwork and metal bracket mounting You will also be charged for the materials involved in the installation, including the air conditioning unit and chemicals.", "Check with your contractor to see whether you might cut costs by buying the air conditioning system yourself or using existing heating system ductwork in your home.", "Additional Questions and Considerations Do you already have a central heating system?", "Many central air conditioning systems use the furnace blower to distribute cool air through the home.", "If you do not have a central heating system installed, it is cost-effective to install a heating and air conditioning (HVAC) system at the same time.", "If you already have central heat, you can use the existing fans and duct system for the central air system.", "Do you need ductwork?", "Although most new homes have ducts and vents already in place, many older homes have old convection heating systems or baseboard heaters without ductwork.", "In such cases, you will need to install ducts and vents to provide the air conditioning with a flow system.", "This would be the time to explore upgrading the existing heating system as well, as it will be much cheaper to do together.", "How's the insulation in your home?", "If your home is well built and well insulated, your heating and cooling systems will work more efficiently and save you money.", "If you have poor insulation, you will spend considerably more on utility bills.", "Explore the costs of new insulation or upgrading your old insulation as it might save you money in the long run.", "If you need your air conditioning sooner rather than later, don't hesitate.", "Get in touch with a professional today.", "Other Central Air Conditioning Facts Need more information on air conditioning systems before you invest?", "While a cooling professional has all the know-how about these systems, here are some facts you should know going into the installation project.", "BTUs and Air Conditioning Units What is a British Thermal Unit?", "British Thermal Units or BTUs are defined as the amount of energy needed to cool or heat up one pound of water by a Fahrenheit.", "It's used to measure heating and air conditioning units in BTU/hour.", "Homeowners can determine what size air conditioner they need by following these steps: Figure out the square footage of the room.", "For a square room, multiple length by width.", "For a triangular room, it's length by width and divide by 2.", "There's a chart you can reference in stores that will tell you what size machine you will need.", "If you want a system for a whole house, it's a bit more complicated and will require professional assistance.", "The rough estimates are as follows: Area to be Cooled (sq.", "ft.) Capacity (BTUs per hour)700 - 1,000 18,0001,000 - 1,200 21,0001,200 - 1,400 23,0001,400 - 1,500 24,0001,500 - 2,000 30,0002,000 - 2,500 34,000What is Single-Stage vs. Two-Stage Cooling?", "There are two kinds of air conditioning systems to choose from -- single-stage and two-stage.", "Your climate will determine which stage is best for your home.", "Single-stage air conditioners turn on at full capacity when your home's indoor temperature rises past the set level on your thermostat.", "It then turns off completely until your house rises past that temperature again and repeats the process.", "This is good for climates that don't fluctuate much in temperature.", "In hot, humid climates with pulsing solar rays, the air conditioner will turn on often to compensate for the heat outside.", "This will lead to a lot of loud noises and an increase in your utility bill.", "Two-stage air conditioners function at two-thirds or complete capacity, depending on the home's internal temperature.", "When your house rises above the preset temperature, it will turn on at two-thirds capacity and work its way to full capacity.", "Then, it will come down from full capacity to two-thirds capacity and shut off.", "This saves power and cools your home at the same time.", "It also reduces noise and emits cleaner air, which makes it the more efficient option for most homeowners.", "Tax Breaks The government offers tax credits to incentivize homeowners to purchase energy-efficient home products.", "Energy-efficient air conditioning units must meet standards set by the Consortium for Energy Efficiency (CEE).", "To qualify for a tax credit from the federal government, you must save the manufacturer's certificate from your central air conditioning system.", "The IRS won't require the certificate at the time you file your federal tax forms, but they recommend keeping it with your records in case you are audited.", "It proves that you purchased a qualifying product.", "Tax credits are offered for: Split-system air conditioners ($300) -- must have 16 SEER or 13 EERPackaged air conditioners ($300) -- must have 14 SEER or 12 EERDetermining Air Conditioning Unit Quality When installing your air conditioning unit, ask the following questions to ensure its quality and optimum performance for years to come: Is it sized correctly?", "The equipment must be the right size to provide the best air conditioner performance for your home.", "That's why professionals measure your home and do load calculations.", "Is the duct system right for the air conditioning unit?", "Ducts that are damaged, leaking or missing some spots will affect the performance of your air conditioner.", "Your air conditioning contractor will repair and install more ducts, if needed, so everything works at its highest caliber.", "How is the airflow?", "Airflow must be just right; otherwise, you could see an increase in your bill or hot spots in rooms of your home.", "A contractor can measure the volume and adjust ducts or vents for optimal airflow.", "What about the refrigerant?", "Refrigerant is what cools the air flowing through your home while its liquid is consumed into the HVAC system.", "If there isn't enough, it could result in more energy consumed and more moisture in the air.", "The HVAC professional will check the charge of the refrigerant and adjust it if needed.", "Central Air Conditioning Warranties Any newly installed air conditioning unit will come with a manufacturer's warranty.", "The warranty's length will vary depending on the manufacturer.", "Warranties generally last from five to 15 years; it's safe to expect an average length of 10 years.", "The manufacturer's warranty covers the equipment and parts in the machine.", "There is also the contractor's warranty, which covers the labor for A/C unit repairs and additional work such as encasing the air conditioner in protective metal, wiring it to the home and so on.", "Products with indoor air quality (IAQ) modifiers have a separate warranty that's less than that of a central A/C unit, so keep that in mind when investing in such products.", "You may also invest in an extended warranty, which can cover: Cost of replacement parts Additional years for repair costs by a third party (i.e., no out of pocket expenses)Coverage by the manufacturer Extended warranties are expensive and generally cost more than maintenance.", "There are also strict limitations on the warranty that will likely require paying for repairs upfront and following up repeatedly for the reimbursement.", "You may also end up paying for a system you have replaced in less than 10 years if you move out of the home or upgrade.", "Return to Top" ]
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http://www.registerednursern.com/registered-nurse-rn-salary-pay-wages-and-income-of-registered-nurses/
Registered Nurse Salary | RN Salary, Pay, Wages, and Income in Registered Nursing
Registered Nurse Salary | RN Salary, Pay, Wages, and Income in Registered Nursing RN Salary: How Much Money Does a Registered Nurse Make? RN Salary -How much does a registered nurse (RN) make in income per year? Do registered nurses make good money? What is the hourly wage for nurses? These are questions that nursing students and aspiring nurses often ask. Nursing salary comparisons can also be an important tool to help nursing facilities determine an estimated starting salary for employees. RNs earn a competitive salary, however, the income of a registered nurse depends on several factors including: Location, type of specialization, industry, advanced certifications or degrees, & years of experience. Registered Nurse Average Salary: Mean Salaries for RNs According to the Bureau of Labor Statistics lastest data (as of 2015), the average salary of a registered nurse in the United States is $71,000. The average hourly wage of a registered nurse is $34.14 . Keep in mind that these are only averages, and that a registered nurse may make more or less than these amounts based on location, experience, and other factors. In addition, the starting salaries for an RN may be much less than the average salary. Here’s a video overview of salary data for registered nurses: RN Salary | Registered Nurse Salary | Shocking RN Pay & Income Statistics Your browser does not currently recognize any of the video formats available. Click here to visit our frequently asked questions about HTML5 video.0:00 / 5:57Starting Salaries for Registered Nurses: How Much Will a New RN Grad Earn? The starting salary of a Registered Nurse can range from around $28,000-$50,000 per year, depending on location and job industry. The starting hourly wage of an RN can range from $16.50-26.00 per hour. This salary will increase over time as nurses gain experience, certifications, and specialize in a specific area. Registered nurses can also advance their career to managment postions, in addition to regular annual raises offered by many employers. Keep in mind that these figures can vary depending on the location. RNs in Tennessee, for example, may start at an hourly rate of $18-23, while an RN at a busy New York hospital may start at $26 or more. Certifications and experience also factor into the salary or wages. A new RN with a degree only and no experience will usually not make as much as an RN with years of experience and many certifications and an impressive portfolio. Here is a graph representing the average RN hourly wage since 2009: What Are the Highest Paying Jobs for Registered Nurses (by Industry)? According to the Bureau of Labor Statistics, the industries with the highest average salary for Registered Nursing included the following (as of 2014): Wholesale Electronic Markets and Agents and Brokers–$40.48 (hourly wage); $84,200 (salary)Insurance and Employee Benefit Funds– $39.44 (hourly wage) ; $82,030 (salary)Federal Executive Branch (OES Designation)–$38.71 (hourly wage): $80,510 (salary)Management of Companies and Enterprises–$36.58 (hourly wage); $76,090 (salary)Oil and Gas Extraction–$36.34 (hourly wage); $75,590 (salary)Registered Nurse Average Salaries and Wages by State: Registered nurse average salaries and hourly wages can vary from state to state. Some states may offer a significantly higher salary compared to other states, however, keep in mind these states may also have a higher cost of living. The Bureau of Labor Statistics report the following states as the states with the highest average RN salaries (updated as of 2015): State RN Average Hourly Wage RN Average Salary RN Median Wage Puerto Rico$16.51 $34,350 $15.45Virgin Islands$22.91 $47,650 $23.47Guam$25.70 $53,450 $25.15Iowa$26.46 $55,040 $25.92South Dakota$26.49 $55,100 $25.68Arkansas$27.34 $56,870 $26.76Alabama$27.35 $56,890 $26.70Mississippi$27.39 $56,980 $26.74Kansas$27.60 $57,410 $27.08Tennessee$27.67 $57,560 $27.33West Virginia$27.89 $58,010 $27.26Kentucky$28.26 $58,770 $27.87North Dakota$28.31 $58,890 $27.83Indiana$28.32 $58,910 $27.83Nebraska$28.35 $58,970 $27.87Oklahoma$28.39 $59,040 $28.10Missouri$28.44 $59,150 $27.77North Carolina$29.07 $60,460 $28.34Utah$29.33 $61,000 $28.69South Carolina$29.38 $61,110 $28.53Idaho$29.46 $61,280 $29.31Wyoming$29.84 $62,080 $29.22Louisiana$30.03 $62,450 $28.74Montana$30.12 $62,650 $29.19Ohio$30.19 $62,800 $29.46Georgia$30.38 $63,190 $30.36Florida$30.75 $63,960 $29.87Maine$30.92 $64,310 $30.21Virginia$31.41 $65,340 $30.60Vermont$31.65 $65,840 $30.18New Mexico$31.74 $66,030 $31.11Wisconsin$31.94 $66,440 $31.32New Hampshire$32.30 $67,190 $31.46Pennsylvania$32.47 $67,550 $31.58Michigan$32.54 $67,690 $31.65Illinois$33.54 $69,760 $32.28Texas$33.60 $69,890 $32.98Colorado$33.65 $69,990 $32.95Delaware$34.33 $71,410 $34.16Arizona$34.51 $71,790 $34.38Minnesota$34.77 $72,310 $34.68Maryland$35.19 $73,200 $34.66Rhode Island$36.74 $76,410 $36.68Connecticut$37.18 $77,330 $36.76Washington$37.56 $78,130 $37.03New York$37.96 $78,950 $37.49District of Columbia$38.25 $79,560 $38.28New Jersey$38.38 $79,840 $38.09Nevada$39.16 $81,460 $39.12Oregon$40.29 $83,800 $40.96Alaska$42.55 $88,510 $42.37Massachusetts$42.62 $88,650 $40.36Hawaii$43.33 $90,130 $44.37California$48.68 $101,260 $48.27References: Bureau of Labor Statistics, U. S. Department of Labor, Occupational Outlook Handbook, 2014-15 Edition, Registered Nurses, on the Internet at bls.gov. Please Share: More
[ "Registered Nurse Salary | RN Salary, Pay, Wages, and Income in Registered Nursing RN Salary: How Much Money Does a Registered Nurse Make?", "RN Salary -How much does a registered nurse (RN) make in income per year?", "Do registered nurses make good money?", "What is the hourly wage for nurses?", "These are questions that nursing students and aspiring nurses often ask.", "Nursing salary comparisons can also be an important tool to help nursing facilities determine an estimated starting salary for employees.", "RNs earn a competitive salary, however, the income of a registered nurse depends on several factors including: Location, type of specialization, industry, advanced certifications or degrees, & years of experience.", "Registered Nurse Average Salary: Mean Salaries for RNs According to the Bureau of Labor Statistics lastest data (as of 2015), the average salary of a registered nurse in the United States is $71,000.", "The average hourly wage of a registered nurse is $34.14 .", "Keep in mind that these are only averages, and that a registered nurse may make more or less than these amounts based on location, experience, and other factors.", "In addition, the starting salaries for an RN may be much less than the average salary.", "Here’s a video overview of salary data for registered nurses: RN Salary | Registered Nurse Salary | Shocking RN Pay & Income Statistics Your browser does not currently recognize any of the video formats available.", "Click here to visit our frequently asked questions about HTML5 video.0:00 / 5:57Starting Salaries for Registered Nurses: How Much Will a New RN Grad Earn?", "The starting salary of a Registered Nurse can range from around $28,000-$50,000 per year, depending on location and job industry.", "The starting hourly wage of an RN can range from $16.50-26.00 per hour.", "This salary will increase over time as nurses gain experience, certifications, and specialize in a specific area.", "Registered nurses can also advance their career to managment postions, in addition to regular annual raises offered by many employers.", "Keep in mind that these figures can vary depending on the location.", "RNs in Tennessee, for example, may start at an hourly rate of $18-23, while an RN at a busy New York hospital may start at $26 or more.", "Certifications and experience also factor into the salary or wages.", "A new RN with a degree only and no experience will usually not make as much as an RN with years of experience and many certifications and an impressive portfolio.", "Here is a graph representing the average RN hourly wage since 2009: What Are the Highest Paying Jobs for Registered Nurses (by Industry)?", "According to the Bureau of Labor Statistics, the industries with the highest average salary for Registered Nursing included the following (as of 2014): Wholesale Electronic Markets and Agents and Brokers–$40.48 (hourly wage); $84,200 (salary)Insurance and Employee Benefit Funds– $39.44 (hourly wage) ; $82,030 (salary)Federal Executive Branch (OES Designation)–$38.71 (hourly wage): $80,510 (salary)Management of Companies and Enterprises–$36.58 (hourly wage); $76,090 (salary)Oil and Gas Extraction–$36.34 (hourly wage); $75,590 (salary)Registered Nurse Average Salaries and Wages by State: Registered nurse average salaries and hourly wages can vary from state to state.", "Some states may offer a significantly higher salary compared to other states, however, keep in mind these states may also have a higher cost of living.", "The Bureau of Labor Statistics report the following states as the states with the highest average RN salaries (updated as of 2015): State RN Average Hourly Wage RN Average Salary RN Median Wage Puerto Rico$16.51 $34,350 $15.45Virgin Islands$22.91 $47,650 $23.47Guam$25.70 $53,450 $25.15Iowa$26.46 $55,040 $25.92South Dakota$26.49 $55,100 $25.68Arkansas$27.34 $56,870 $26.76Alabama$27.35 $56,890 $26.70Mississippi$27.39 $56,980 $26.74Kansas$27.60 $57,410 $27.08Tennessee$27.67 $57,560 $27.33West Virginia$27.89 $58,010 $27.26Kentucky$28.26 $58,770 $27.87North Dakota$28.31 $58,890 $27.83Indiana$28.32 $58,910 $27.83Nebraska$28.35 $58,970 $27.87Oklahoma$28.39 $59,040 $28.10Missouri$28.44 $59,150 $27.77North Carolina$29.07 $60,460 $28.34Utah$29.33 $61,000 $28.69South Carolina$29.38 $61,110 $28.53Idaho$29.46 $61,280 $29.31Wyoming$29.84 $62,080 $29.22Louisiana$30.03 $62,450 $28.74Montana$30.12 $62,650 $29.19Ohio$30.19 $62,800 $29.46Georgia$30.38 $63,190 $30.36Florida$30.75 $63,960 $29.87Maine$30.92 $64,310 $30.21Virginia$31.41 $65,340 $30.60Vermont$31.65 $65,840 $30.18New Mexico$31.74 $66,030 $31.11Wisconsin$31.94 $66,440 $31.32New Hampshire$32.30 $67,190 $31.46Pennsylvania$32.47 $67,550 $31.58Michigan$32.54 $67,690 $31.65Illinois$33.54 $69,760 $32.28Texas$33.60 $69,890 $32.98Colorado$33.65 $69,990 $32.95Delaware$34.33 $71,410 $34.16Arizona$34.51 $71,790 $34.38Minnesota$34.77 $72,310 $34.68Maryland$35.19 $73,200 $34.66Rhode Island$36.74 $76,410 $36.68Connecticut$37.18 $77,330 $36.76Washington$37.56 $78,130 $37.03New York$37.96 $78,950 $37.49District of Columbia$38.25 $79,560 $38.28New Jersey$38.38 $79,840 $38.09Nevada$39.16 $81,460 $39.12Oregon$40.29 $83,800 $40.96Alaska$42.55 $88,510 $42.37Massachusetts$42.62 $88,650 $40.36Hawaii$43.33 $90,130 $44.37California$48.68 $101,260 $48.27References: Bureau of Labor Statistics, U. S. Department of Labor, Occupational Outlook Handbook, 2014-15 Edition, Registered Nurses, on the Internet at bls.gov.", "Please Share: More" ]
D12636
http://www.bhg.com/recipes/how-to/cooking-basics/how-to-bake-pork-chops/
How to Bake Pork Chops
BHG.com Recipes How to Cook Cooking Basics How to Bake Pork Chops The best way to bake pork chops for the most delicious results takes 3 quick steps: season, sear, bake (the sear is the secret). Learn how to bake pork chops with our step-by-step pointers for a quick weeknight dinner. Of course we included plenty of baked pork chop recipes to put your skillet to work. By Sheena Chihak1 did it Pin Facebook Twitter Google Plus Email Print Baked Pork Chops Bone-in and boneless pork chops are great cooked many ways: broiled, grilled, skillet-cooked, roasted, and yes—baked. Baked pork chops can be stuffed, breaded, served with toppers or sauces—the options are endless. Here's how to make basic baked pork chops you can top, dip, marinate, or season as desired.continue reading below Trim Pork Chops Keep dinner lean and free of unpleasant fatty bites by trimming any visible fat from pork chops before cooking. Simply use a knife to cut off excess white fat around the edges of the chops. Dry the Pork Chops For the best sear and to help seasonings adhere to pork chops, pat the pork chops with paper towels. Season Pork Chops It seems like most recipes are improved by the addition of a little salt and pepper. Baked pork chops are no exception. Add a sprinkling of salt and pepper (and, if desired, fresh herbs or other spices) to the pork chops. Sear Pork Chops Before Baking Now here's the real key for how to bake pork chops: a quick skillet sear. In an extra-large skillet heat 1 tablespoon oil over medium-high heat. Add 2 bone-in chops or up to 4 boneless pork chops. Cook about 6 minutes or until the surfaces are perfectly browned. Flip the chops as needed for an even sear. Bake Pork Chops If using an oven-safe skillet, place it directly in the oven. If your skillet is not oven-going, transfer the seared pork chops to a 15x10x1-inch baking sheet. Bake pork chops at 350°F for 14 to 17 minutes or until an instant-read thermometer registers 145°F. Cover and let baked pork chops stand 3 minutes. Oven-Baked Pork Chops Recipe Here's the detailed recipe for our oven-baked pork chops:4 bone-in pork loin chops, cut 1-1/4 inches thick (about 3 pounds total), or 4 boneless pork loin chops, cut 1-1/4 inches thick (about 2-1/2 pounds total)1/4 teaspoon salt1/4 teaspoon black pepper1 tablespoon olive oil1. Preheat oven to 350°F. Trim fat from chops. Pat chops dry with paper towels. Sprinkle chops with salt and pepper.2. In an extra-large skillet heat oil over medium-high heat. Add 2 bone-in chops or all of the boneless chops. Cook about 6 minutes or until browned, turning to brown evenly. Transfer chops to a 15x10x1-inch baking pan. Repeat with remaining chops if necessary.3. Bake chops for 14 to 17 minutes or until an instant-read thermometer inserted in chops registers 145°F. Cover and let stand for 3 minutes. How to Pick a Pork Chop Rib Chops Pork chops come from the loin section (upper back) of the hog. Here are some of the most common cuts you will find in the supermarket butcher department: Loin chop (bone-in): also called porterhouse pork chop, this chop looks like a T-bone beef steak Top loin chop (boneless): also called New York pork chop or center-cut chop Sirloin chop (usually bone-in)Rib chop (bone-in): also known as ribeye pork chop How to Test Pork Chops for Doneness The thickness of a pork chop will determine its final cooking time, regardless of whether it's boneless or bone-in. Chops typically range in thickness from 3/4 inch to 1-1/2 inches. The USDA updated its doneness guidelines in 2011, noting that pork cooked to 145°F (followed by a 3-minute rest time) is just as safe as pork cooked to 160°F. At this doneness, the pork is pinker than many people are used to, but the meat is juicier and more flavorful. If you'd rather, you can always cook your pork chop to the previous standard of 160°F. To check the temperature, insert an instant-read thermometer into the thickest part of the chop (making sure to avoid bone if using bone-in pork chops). Baked Pork Chop Recipes Here are two tasty pork chop recipes: Oven-Fried Pork Chops In this recipe, pork loin chops are breaded and baked for scrumptious fried flavor without the added fat and calories. Dip pork chops in a mixture of milk and egg, then coat with corn bread stuffing mix. Bake at 425°F for 20 minutes or until the chops reach an internal temperature of 145°F. Allow chops to stand for 3 minutes at room temperature before serving. Get the Oven-Fried Pork Chops Recipe Pesto-Stuffed Pork Chops To make stuffed pork chops, cut a small pocket into the side of a pork loin chop to create a space for stuffing. Spoon a mixture of feta cheese, pesto, and pine nuts into each pocket. If necessary, secure the edges of each pocket with wooden toothpicks to keep the filling in place. Rub the pork chops with a flavorful mixture of black pepper, oregano, crushed red pepper, and thyme. Bake at 375°F for 35 minutes or until they reach an internal temperature of 145°F. Allow chops to stand for 3 minutes at room temperature before serving. Get our Pesto-Stuffed Pork Chops recipe More Pork Chop Recipes Boneless pork chops are our secret to dinner in minutes. We've got boneless pork chop recipes and more pork chop recipes that cook fast—perfect for the weeknight rush. Our Favorite Pork Chop Recipes Pork Chops with Maple Apples Pork Chops in Salsa Verde Brown Sugar Pork Chops with Onions Peppered Pork with Chive Sauce Lemon-Sage Pork Chops on a Stick Pin Facebook Twitter Google Plus Email Print
[ "BHG.com Recipes How to Cook Cooking Basics How to Bake Pork Chops The best way to bake pork chops for the most delicious results takes 3 quick steps: season, sear, bake (the sear is the secret).", "Learn how to bake pork chops with our step-by-step pointers for a quick weeknight dinner.", "Of course we included plenty of baked pork chop recipes to put your skillet to work.", "By Sheena Chihak1 did it Pin Facebook Twitter Google Plus Email Print Baked Pork Chops Bone-in and boneless pork chops are great cooked many ways: broiled, grilled, skillet-cooked, roasted, and yes—baked.", "Baked pork chops can be stuffed, breaded, served with toppers or sauces—the options are endless.", "Here's how to make basic baked pork chops you can top, dip, marinate, or season as desired.continue reading below Trim Pork Chops Keep dinner lean and free of unpleasant fatty bites by trimming any visible fat from pork chops before cooking.", "Simply use a knife to cut off excess white fat around the edges of the chops.", "Dry the Pork Chops For the best sear and to help seasonings adhere to pork chops, pat the pork chops with paper towels.", "Season Pork Chops It seems like most recipes are improved by the addition of a little salt and pepper.", "Baked pork chops are no exception.", "Add a sprinkling of salt and pepper (and, if desired, fresh herbs or other spices) to the pork chops.", "Sear Pork Chops Before Baking Now here's the real key for how to bake pork chops: a quick skillet sear.", "In an extra-large skillet heat 1 tablespoon oil over medium-high heat.", "Add 2 bone-in chops or up to 4 boneless pork chops.", "Cook about 6 minutes or until the surfaces are perfectly browned.", "Flip the chops as needed for an even sear.", "Bake Pork Chops If using an oven-safe skillet, place it directly in the oven.", "If your skillet is not oven-going, transfer the seared pork chops to a 15x10x1-inch baking sheet.", "Bake pork chops at 350°F for 14 to 17 minutes or until an instant-read thermometer registers 145°F.", "Cover and let baked pork chops stand 3 minutes.", "Oven-Baked Pork Chops Recipe Here's the detailed recipe for our oven-baked pork chops:4 bone-in pork loin chops, cut 1-1/4 inches thick (about 3 pounds total), or 4 boneless pork loin chops, cut 1-1/4 inches thick (about 2-1/2 pounds total)1/4 teaspoon salt1/4 teaspoon black pepper1 tablespoon olive oil1.", "Preheat oven to 350°F.", "Trim fat from chops.", "Pat chops dry with paper towels.", "Sprinkle chops with salt and pepper.2.", "In an extra-large skillet heat oil over medium-high heat.", "Add 2 bone-in chops or all of the boneless chops.", "Cook about 6 minutes or until browned, turning to brown evenly.", "Transfer chops to a 15x10x1-inch baking pan.", "Repeat with remaining chops if necessary.3.", "Bake chops for 14 to 17 minutes or until an instant-read thermometer inserted in chops registers 145°F.", "Cover and let stand for 3 minutes.", "How to Pick a Pork Chop Rib Chops Pork chops come from the loin section (upper back) of the hog.", "Here are some of the most common cuts you will find in the supermarket butcher department: Loin chop (bone-in): also called porterhouse pork chop, this chop looks like a T-bone beef steak Top loin chop (boneless): also called New York pork chop or center-cut chop Sirloin chop (usually bone-in)Rib chop (bone-in): also known as ribeye pork chop How to Test Pork Chops for Doneness The thickness of a pork chop will determine its final cooking time, regardless of whether it's boneless or bone-in.", "Chops typically range in thickness from 3/4 inch to 1-1/2 inches.", "The USDA updated its doneness guidelines in 2011, noting that pork cooked to 145°F (followed by a 3-minute rest time) is just as safe as pork cooked to 160°F.", "At this doneness, the pork is pinker than many people are used to, but the meat is juicier and more flavorful.", "If you'd rather, you can always cook your pork chop to the previous standard of 160°F.", "To check the temperature, insert an instant-read thermometer into the thickest part of the chop (making sure to avoid bone if using bone-in pork chops).", "Baked Pork Chop Recipes Here are two tasty pork chop recipes: Oven-Fried Pork Chops In this recipe, pork loin chops are breaded and baked for scrumptious fried flavor without the added fat and calories.", "Dip pork chops in a mixture of milk and egg, then coat with corn bread stuffing mix.", "Bake at 425°F for 20 minutes or until the chops reach an internal temperature of 145°F.", "Allow chops to stand for 3 minutes at room temperature before serving.", "Get the Oven-Fried Pork Chops Recipe Pesto-Stuffed Pork Chops To make stuffed pork chops, cut a small pocket into the side of a pork loin chop to create a space for stuffing.", "Spoon a mixture of feta cheese, pesto, and pine nuts into each pocket.", "If necessary, secure the edges of each pocket with wooden toothpicks to keep the filling in place.", "Rub the pork chops with a flavorful mixture of black pepper, oregano, crushed red pepper, and thyme.", "Bake at 375°F for 35 minutes or until they reach an internal temperature of 145°F.", "Allow chops to stand for 3 minutes at room temperature before serving.", "Get our Pesto-Stuffed Pork Chops recipe More Pork Chop Recipes Boneless pork chops are our secret to dinner in minutes.", "We've got boneless pork chop recipes and more pork chop recipes that cook fast—perfect for the weeknight rush.", "Our Favorite Pork Chop Recipes Pork Chops with Maple Apples Pork Chops in Salsa Verde Brown Sugar Pork Chops with Onions Peppered Pork with Chive Sauce Lemon-Sage Pork Chops on a Stick Pin Facebook Twitter Google Plus Email Print" ]
D11655
http://www.mayoclinic.org/healthy-lifestyle/nutrition-and-healthy-eating/in-depth/water/art-20044256
Water: How much should you drink every day?
"Water: How much should you drink every day? Water is essential to good health, yet needs vary by individual. These guidelines can help ensure you drink enough fluids. By Mayo Clinic Staff How much water should you drink each day? It's a simple question with no easy answer. Studies have produced varying recommendations over the years. But your individual water needs depend on many factors, including your health, how active you are and where you live. No single formula fits everyone. But knowing more about your body's need for fluids will help you estimate how much water to drink each day. Health benefits of water Water is your body's principal chemical component and makes up about 60 percent of your body weight. Your body depends on water to survive. Every cell, tissue and organ in your body needs water to work properly. For example, water: Gets rid of wastes through urination, perspiration and bowel movements Keeps your temperature normal Lubricates and cushions joints Protects sensitive tissues Lack of water can lead to dehydration — a condition that occurs when you don't have enough water in your body to carry out normal functions. Even mild dehydration can drain your energy and make you tired. How much water do you need? Every day you lose water through your breath, perspiration, urine and bowel movements. For your body to function properly, you must replenish its water supply by consuming beverages and foods that contain water. So how much fluid does the average, healthy adult living in a temperate climate need? The National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine determined that an adequate daily fluid intake is: About 15.5 cups (3.7 liters) of fluids for men About 11.5 cups (2.7 liters) of fluids a day for women These recommendations cover fluids from water, other beverages and food. About 20 percent of daily fluid intake usually comes from food and the rest from drinks. What about the advice to drink 8 glasses a day? You've probably heard the advice, ""Drink eight 8-ounce glasses of water a day."" That's easy to remember, and it's a reasonable goal. Most healthy people can stay hydrated by drinking water and other fluids whenever they feel thirsty. For some people, fewer than eight glasses a day might be enough. But other people might need more. Factors that influence water needs You might need to modify your total fluid intake based on several factors: Exercise. If you do any activity that makes you sweat, you need to drink extra water to cover the fluid loss. It's important to drink water before, during and after a workout. If exercise is intense and lasts more than an hour, a sports drink can replace minerals in your blood (electrolytes) lost through sweat. Environment. Hot or humid weather can make you sweat and requires additional fluid intake. Dehydration also can occur at high altitudes. Overall health. Your body loses fluids when you have a fever, vomiting or diarrhea. Drink more water or follow a doctor's recommendation to drink oral rehydration solutions. Other conditions that might require increased fluid intake include bladder infections and urinary tract stones. Pregnancy or breast-feeding. Women who are pregnant or breast-feeding need additional fluids to stay hydrated. The Office on Women's Health recommends that pregnant women drink about 10 cups (2.4 liters) of fluids daily and women who breast-feed consume about 13 cups (3.1 liters) of fluids a day. Beyond the tap: Other sources of water You don't need to rely only on what you drink to meet your fluid needs. What you eat also provides a significant portion. For example, many fruits and vegetables, such as watermelon and spinach, are almost 100 percent water by weight. In addition, beverages such as milk, juice and herbal teas are composed mostly of water. Even caffeinated drinks — such as coffee and soda — can contribute to your daily water intake. But water is your best bet because it's calorie-free, inexpensive and readily available. Sports drinks should be used only when you're exercising intensely for more than an hour. These drinks help replace electrolytes lost through perspiration and sugar needed for energy during longer bouts of exercise. Energy drinks are different from sports drinks. Energy drinks generally aren't formulated to replace electrolytes. Energy drinks also usually contain large amounts of caffeine or other stimulants, sugar, and other additives. Staying safely hydrated Your fluid intake is probably adequate if: You rarely feel thirsty Your urine is colorless or light yellow A doctor or registered dietitian can help you determine the amount of water that's right for you every day. To prevent dehydration and make sure your body has the fluids it needs, make water your beverage of choice. It's also a good idea to: Drink a glass of water or other calorie-free or low-calorie beverage with each meal and between each meal. Drink water before, during and after exercise. Drink water if you're feeling hungry. Thirst is often confused with hunger. Although uncommon, it's possible to drink too much water. When your kidneys can't excrete the excess water, the sodium content of your blood is diluted (hyponatremia) — which can be life-threatening. Athletes — especially if they participate in long or intense workouts or endurance events — are at higher risk of hyponatremia. In general, though, drinking too much water is rare in healthy adults who eat an average American diet. Share Tweet Sept. 06, 2017References See more In-depth Products and Services Book: The Mayo Clinic Diet The Mayo Clinic Diet Online Book: Mayo Clinic on Digestive Health Book: The Mayo Clinic Kids’ Cookbook See also MIND diet may cut Alzheimer's risk Healthy-eating habits Reduce sugar in your diet Acai berries Add flax to your diet Added sugar Alcohol use Show More "
[ "\"Water: How much should you drink every day?", "Water is essential to good health, yet needs vary by individual.", "These guidelines can help ensure you drink enough fluids.", "By Mayo Clinic Staff How much water should you drink each day?", "It's a simple question with no easy answer.", "Studies have produced varying recommendations over the years.", "But your individual water needs depend on many factors, including your health, how active you are and where you live.", "No single formula fits everyone.", "But knowing more about your body's need for fluids will help you estimate how much water to drink each day.", "Health benefits of water Water is your body's principal chemical component and makes up about 60 percent of your body weight.", "Your body depends on water to survive.", "Every cell, tissue and organ in your body needs water to work properly.", "For example, water: Gets rid of wastes through urination, perspiration and bowel movements Keeps your temperature normal Lubricates and cushions joints Protects sensitive tissues Lack of water can lead to dehydration — a condition that occurs when you don't have enough water in your body to carry out normal functions.", "Even mild dehydration can drain your energy and make you tired.", "How much water do you need?", "Every day you lose water through your breath, perspiration, urine and bowel movements.", "For your body to function properly, you must replenish its water supply by consuming beverages and foods that contain water.", "So how much fluid does the average, healthy adult living in a temperate climate need?", "The National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine determined that an adequate daily fluid intake is: About 15.5 cups (3.7 liters) of fluids for men About 11.5 cups (2.7 liters) of fluids a day for women These recommendations cover fluids from water, other beverages and food.", "About 20 percent of daily fluid intake usually comes from food and the rest from drinks.", "What about the advice to drink 8 glasses a day?", "You've probably heard the advice, \"\"Drink eight 8-ounce glasses of water a day.\"\"", "That's easy to remember, and it's a reasonable goal.", "Most healthy people can stay hydrated by drinking water and other fluids whenever they feel thirsty.", "For some people, fewer than eight glasses a day might be enough.", "But other people might need more.", "Factors that influence water needs You might need to modify your total fluid intake based on several factors: Exercise.", "If you do any activity that makes you sweat, you need to drink extra water to cover the fluid loss.", "It's important to drink water before, during and after a workout.", "If exercise is intense and lasts more than an hour, a sports drink can replace minerals in your blood (electrolytes) lost through sweat.", "Environment.", "Hot or humid weather can make you sweat and requires additional fluid intake.", "Dehydration also can occur at high altitudes.", "Overall health.", "Your body loses fluids when you have a fever, vomiting or diarrhea.", "Drink more water or follow a doctor's recommendation to drink oral rehydration solutions.", "Other conditions that might require increased fluid intake include bladder infections and urinary tract stones.", "Pregnancy or breast-feeding.", "Women who are pregnant or breast-feeding need additional fluids to stay hydrated.", "The Office on Women's Health recommends that pregnant women drink about 10 cups (2.4 liters) of fluids daily and women who breast-feed consume about 13 cups (3.1 liters) of fluids a day.", "Beyond the tap: Other sources of water You don't need to rely only on what you drink to meet your fluid needs.", "What you eat also provides a significant portion.", "For example, many fruits and vegetables, such as watermelon and spinach, are almost 100 percent water by weight.", "In addition, beverages such as milk, juice and herbal teas are composed mostly of water.", "Even caffeinated drinks — such as coffee and soda — can contribute to your daily water intake.", "But water is your best bet because it's calorie-free, inexpensive and readily available.", "Sports drinks should be used only when you're exercising intensely for more than an hour.", "These drinks help replace electrolytes lost through perspiration and sugar needed for energy during longer bouts of exercise.", "Energy drinks are different from sports drinks.", "Energy drinks generally aren't formulated to replace electrolytes.", "Energy drinks also usually contain large amounts of caffeine or other stimulants, sugar, and other additives.", "Staying safely hydrated Your fluid intake is probably adequate if: You rarely feel thirsty Your urine is colorless or light yellow A doctor or registered dietitian can help you determine the amount of water that's right for you every day.", "To prevent dehydration and make sure your body has the fluids it needs, make water your beverage of choice.", "It's also a good idea to: Drink a glass of water or other calorie-free or low-calorie beverage with each meal and between each meal.", "Drink water before, during and after exercise.", "Drink water if you're feeling hungry.", "Thirst is often confused with hunger.", "Although uncommon, it's possible to drink too much water.", "When your kidneys can't excrete the excess water, the sodium content of your blood is diluted (hyponatremia) — which can be life-threatening.", "Athletes — especially if they participate in long or intense workouts or endurance events — are at higher risk of hyponatremia.", "In general, though, drinking too much water is rare in healthy adults who eat an average American diet.", "Share Tweet Sept. 06, 2017References See more In-depth Products and Services Book: The Mayo Clinic Diet The Mayo Clinic Diet Online Book: Mayo Clinic on Digestive Health Book: The Mayo Clinic Kids’ Cookbook See also MIND diet may cut Alzheimer's risk Healthy-eating habits Reduce sugar in your diet Acai berries Add flax to your diet Added sugar Alcohol use Show More \"" ]
D84076
http://healthiack.com/health/what-is-normal-blood-sugar-level
What is Normal Blood Sugar Level
What is Normal Blood Sugar Level1553SHARESThe blood sugar concentration or blood glucose level is the amount of glucose (sugar) present in the blood of a human or an animal. The body naturally tightly regulates blood glucose levels (with the help of insulin that is secreted by pancreas) as a part of metabolic homeostasis. If blood sugar levels are either increased or decreased by a greater margin than expected this might indicate a medical condition. Diabetic patients must monitor their blood sugar levels as body’s inability to properly utilize and / or produce insulin can pose a serious threat to their health. Blood sugar monitoring; image source: pexels.com See Article References Navigation: Definition: What is blood sugar? What is diabetes? Diagnosis: Diabetes symptoms Levels and indication Normal blood sugar levels Low blood sugar levels High blood sugar levels Managing: How to lower blood sugar level? Children blood sugar levels Blood sugar levels chart Checking for BS: How to check blood sugar? Treatment: How to lower blood sugar level? Can diabetes be cured? Accessories Diabetic Socks Diabetic Shoes What is blood sugar? What does it mean when someone refers to blood sugar level in your body? Blood sugar level (or blood sugar concentration) is the amount of glucose (a source of energy) present in your blood at any given time. A normal blood glucose level for a healthy person is somewhere between 72 mg/d L (3.8 to 4 mmol/L) and 108 mg/d L (5.8 to 6 mmol/L). It, of course, depends on every individual alone. Blood sugar levels might fluctuate due to other reasons (such as exercise, stress and infection). Typically blood sugar level in humans is around 72 mg/d L (or 4 mmol/L). After a meal the blood sugar level may increase temporarily up to 140 mg/d L (7.8 mmol/L). This is normal. A blood sugar level between 72 mg/d L (4 mmol/L) and 108 mg/d L (6 mmol/L) is considered normal for a healthy adult. Note: mg/d L and mmol/L are units of measure. mg/d L is mostly used in USA whereas mmol/L is mostly used in EU and other parts of the world. For easier conversion try our mg/d L mmol/L conversion tool. What is normal blood sugar level? Adults A normal blood sugar level is between 72 mg/d L and 108 mg/d L (4 to 6 mmol/L) for a healthy person. The concentration of glucose in the blood of a healthy person in the morning on an empty stomach is between 68 mg/d L and 108 mg/d L (3.8 and 6.0 mmol/L). Two hours after consuming foods or drinks rich in carbohydrates, the values are usually between 120 and 140 mg/d L (6.7 and 7.8 mmol/L). Children For children up to 6 years of age desired blood sugar level before eating is between 100 mg/d L (5.5 mmol/L) and 180 mg/d L (10 mmol/L). Before sleep values should be between 110 mg/d L (6.1 mmol/L) and 200 mg/d L (11.1 mmol/L). For children between the age of 6 and 12, before eating, blood sugar levels should be between 90 mg/d L (5 mmol/L) and 180 mg/d L (10 mmol/L). Before sleep values should be between 100 mg/d L (5.5 mmol/L) and 180 mg/d L (10 mmol/L). Children aged 13 to 19 should expect similar readings than those of adults. Blood sugar levels chart Blood sugar levels rise and drop during the day. This is normal. However, dramatic fluctuations in your blood glucose levels may indicate problems. Dramatic changes of blood sugar levels have significant physical symptoms and will increase your risk of diabetes-related complications. Click on the image below to view a larger blood sugar levels chart. Blood sugar levels chart displays possible levels of blood glucose. Values are expressed in mmol/L and mg/d L. This blood sugar levels chart is not 100% accurate due to different thresholds set in different countries around the world. Consult your personal doctor for more information. Click above image to view blood sugar levels chart; Image source: healthiack.com Download your blood sugar levels log and keep track of your own blood sugar levels – write down all of your measured values. Blood sugar levels chart for non-diabetics (goal blood sugar levels)Glucose mg/d L or mmol/L Valueless than 110 mg/d L or 6 mmol/L on an empty stomach normal valuebetween 110 mg/d L or 6.1 mmol/L and 125 mg/d L or 6.9 mmol/L on an empty stomach limit valuemore than 125 mg/d L or 7.0 mmol/L on an empty stomach possible diabetesmore than 198 mg/d L or 11.0 mmol/L anytime possible diabetes Blood sugar levels chart for diabetics (goal blood sugar levels)Glucose mg/d L or mmol/L Value Before breakfast (fasting) 70 – 130 mg/d L or 3.9 – 7.2 mmol/LBefore lunch, supper and snack 70 – 130 mg/d L or 3.9 – 7.2 mmol/LTwo hours after meals less than 180 mg/d L or less than 10mmol/LBedtime 90 – 150 mg/d L or 5 – 8.3 mmol/LA1C (also called glycosylated hemoglobin A1c, Hb A1c or glycohemoglobin A1c) less than 7%Please note that you should perform several consecutive blood glucose tests and not rely on one single measurement. The next chart displays all possible blood sugar (glucose) levels along with a short explanation of what the indicators are. Blood sugar chart and indicators Blood Sugar Levels Indication Less than 70 mg/d L (3.9 mmol/L) Low fasting blood sugar70 to 108 mg/d L (3.9 to 6 mmol/L) Normal fasting blood sugar for adults110 to 125 mg/d L (6.1 to 6.9 mmol/L) Impaired fasting glucose (pre-diabetes)126 mg/d L (7.0 mmol/L) and above in more than one test result Diabetesabout 70 to 140 mg/d L (3.9 to 7.8 mmol/L) Normal postprandial blood sugarabout 142 to 199 mg/d L (7.9 to 10.9 mmol/L) Borderline postprandial blood sugar. May indicate pre-diabetes. Less than 70 mg/d L (3.9 mmol/L) Hypoglycemia (Initial Stage)50 mg/d L (2.8 mmol/L) Hypoglycemia (Fasting)less than 50 mg/d L (2.8 mmol/L) Insulin Shock145 – 200 mg/d L (8 – 11 mmol/L) Post meal Value suggesting early diabetes More than 200 mg/d L (11 mmol/L) Post meal Value suggesting established diabetes Normal values for blood sugar are (values are in mmol/L, mg/d L and Hb A1c) in the table below. Blood sugar levels / non-fasting Blood sugar levels Hb A1c mg/d L mmol/Llow less than 4 less than 65 less than 3.6normal optimal 4 65 3.6normal optimal 4.1 69 3.8normal optimal 4.2 72 4normal optimal 4.3 76 4.2normal optimal 4.4 80 4.4normal optimal 4.5 83 4.6normal optimal 4.6 87 4.8normal optimal 4.7 90 5normal optimal 4.8 94 5.2normal optimal 4.9 97 5.4good marginal 5 101 5.6good marginal 5.1 105 5.8good marginal 5.2 108 6good marginal 5.3 112 6.2good marginal 5.4 115 6.4good marginal 5.5 119 6.6good marginal 5.6 122 6.8good marginal 5.7 126 7good marginal 5.8 130 7.2good marginal 5.9 133 7.4at risk 6 137 7.6at risk 6.1 140 7.8at risk 6.2 144 8at risk 6.3 147 8.2at risk 6.4 151 8.4at risk 6.5 155 8.6at risk 6.6 158 8.8at risk 6.7 162 9at risk 6.8 165 9.2at risk 6.9 169 9.4dangerously high 7 172 9.6dangerously high 7.1 176 9.8dangerously high 7.2 180 10dangerously high 7.3 183 10.2dangerously high 7.4 187 10.4dangerously high 7.5 190 10.6dangerously high 7.6 194 10.8dangerously high 7.7 198 11dangerously high 7.8 201 11.2dangerously high 7.9 205 11.4possible complications 8 208 11.6possible complications 8.1 212 11.8possible complications 8.2 215 12possible complications 8.3 219 12.2possible complications 8.4 223 12.4possible complications 8.5 226 12.6possible complications 8.6 230 12.8possible complications 8.7 233 13possible complications 8.8 237 13.2possible complications 8.9 240 13.4mortal danger 9 244 13.6mortal danger 9+ 261+ 13.6+Low blood sugar levels, normal blood sugar levels and high blood sugar levels chart. What is considered low blood sugar level? When your blood sugar level drops below 70 mg/d L (3,9 mmol/L) this means you have a low level of blood sugar. The usual symptoms of low blood sugar levels are:hunger,sweating,restlessness,faltering speech,confusion,tremor,difficulty in concentration,drowsiness,headache,visual disturbances…Symptoms may vary – different people might experience different symptoms. In some cases symptoms can even remain unrecognized (unconscious hypoglycemia). What is considered high blood sugar level? Chronically high blood sugar (diabetes) is caused by a number of abnormalities in the body, one of them being the affected vascular walls of small and large arteries (diabetic micro-and macro-angiopathy) in a process called atherosclerosis. We can say that a blood sugar level is high if we measure glucose level and get the following values – more than 110 mg/d L (6.1 mmol/L) on an empty stomach or at any time more than 200 mg/d L (11.1 mmol/L). If measured blood sugar level is high you should consult your personal doctor! High values of blood sugar may indicate diabetes; image source: theguardian.com High blood sugar levels affect the arteries throughout the body, especially the organs which have the richest blood circulation: heart, brain, kidney, senses, nerves and other organs. If the high blood sugar is associated with disturbances in lipid metabolism (blood fat), the abnormalities are more intense. Diabetes is among the risk factors for major non-communicable diseases: cardiovascular (coronary) disease, cerebral vascular disease and peripheral vascular diseases. Diabetes symptoms Typical symptoms of high blood sugar levels (diabetes) are thirst, frequent urination and unexpected weight loss. Sometimes a patient may also experience the following:impaired vision,itching skin,fatigue,increased appetite,skin infections,feeling of dizziness,heavy dehydration. Type 1 diabetes symptoms are severe and last for a short time before the disease is diagnosed. Type 2 diabetes symptoms appear slowly and are usually unrecognizable or nearly absent. Use this tool to see if you are in danger of or are developing diabetes: LINK Use this tool to convert blood sugar values. How to check blood sugar There are basically two main tests which are conducted to determine whether someone has diabetes. Impaired fasting glycemia test When being tested for diabetes by a impaired fasting glycemia test, blood sugar levels will normally be taken after around eight hours of fasting. Impaired glucose tolerance test An impaired glucose tolerance test involves taking a concentrated amount of glucose and then measuring blood sugar levels after two hours. In a healthy person, a normal blood glucose level is between 72 mg/d L (4 mmol/L) and 108 mg/d L (6 mmol/L). Read on how to check blood sugar values. For checking your blood sugar level, you will need: Medical alcohol to clean the skin where you will prick your finger, a sterile tool to prick your finger, some test strips and a glucose meter to read the test strip. Expected blood sugar level values: Glucose mg/d L or mmol/L level Valueless than 110 mg/d L or 6 mmol/L on an empty stomach normal valuebetween 110 mg/d L or 6.1 mmol/L and 125 mg/d L or 6.9 mmol/L on an empty stomach limit valuemore than 125 mg/d L or 7.0 mmol/L on an empty stomach possible diabetesmore than 198 mg/d L or 11.0 mmol/L anytime possible diabetes Can diabetes be cured? At this time there is no known official case of cured diabetes, however with proper action (diet and exercise), type 2 diabetes can be suppressed, but never reverted. There is no known case of diabetes type 1 recovery. Gestational diabetes (high blood sugar levels that manifest during pregnancy) will revert after pregnancy, but might develop into Diabetes Type 2 later in life. Why diabetes type 1 cannot be reversed The fact is that with Diabetes type 1 body’s cells that produce insulin are destroyed. These cells cannot be regrown or replaced. You need to use insulin injections to control your blood sugar levels. With type 2 diabetes your body does not use insulin properly (also known as insulin resistance). Over the time a patient’s condition worsens as body cannot make enough insulin to keep blood glucose at normal levels. With exercise and proper diet you can control your diabetes and live a normal life. Read more about diet for people with diabetes and blood type diet. Refer to this article for more information on how brown fat tissue may help control your disease or even revert it! No hoax – scientifically proven! Brown fat protects against diabetes and obesity in humans How to keep diabetes under control? In addition to modifying your diet, walk for 10 minutes after each meal to help improve insulin sensitivity and glucose uptake into your cells. Eat quality food and monitor your carbohydrates. Get a referral to a certified diabetes educator who will modify their recommendations based on your body, not what the guidelines say. If your blood sugar is still high with the recommended amount of carbs per meal, decrease the carbs further. Avoid low fat foods. Fat and protein will help your body absorb carbs more slowly and prevent spikes and troughs in your blood sugar. Since diabetic diet is restrictive, you should change your view from focusing on the things you can’t eat to focusing on all of the delicious things you can eat. All food groups are still on the table. You may have to modify recipes but there are so many awesome alternatives to almost any food available on the internet. It is recommended to severely decrease your daily carbohydrates intake. However Low carb diets can still be rich and delicious. Diabetics are recommended to avoid certain types of fruit, however, in moderation, all kinds of fruits can still be consumed. They key is to eat them in moderation. For example, half a banana is already one serving of carbohydrates. Apples and oranges should be no larger than a tennis ball. Be careful with dried fruits because they are concentrated. List of foods that raise blood sugar levels High Glycemic index foods Certain foods will make your blood sugar go up quite rapidly. These foods are known as s high-glycemic foods. See more on glycemic index. Avoid eating foods that are high on the glycemic index (bananas, pineapple, watermelon and dried fruits, carrots, white potatoes and beets, and corn – this means high fructose corn syrup, so virtually all packaged foods). Eat fresh fruit with skins at the beginning of your meal (not as dessert). At least one meal a day, preferably dinner, avoid grains (potatoes, rice, wheat (bread)) and avoid sugar, especially artificial sugars. It is recommended to have several meals per day. Having multiple meals per day will help diabetics in maintaining optimal glucose blood levels. Since every meal will affect blood glucose levels it is best to break diet down into lighter meals, which in turn means easier regulation of blood glucose. In diabetes, the pancreas either does not produce enough insulin or it produces enough but it is unable to utilize it efficiently. There are, of course, other factors that influence blood glucose rise and fall that should be taken into account (such as exercise, stress and infection), meaning that a rise in blood glucose it not always due to ingestion of food. How to lower blood sugar level? A patient with diabetes is at a 5 times greater risk of developing cardiovascular disease than patient without diabetes. One third of all cardiovascular diseases also affect people with diabetes. Three quarters of diabetics die from cardiovascular disease. Women with diabetes have a 4 times greater risk of death from cardiovascular disease. People suffering from diabetes usually have high cholesterol levels as well. Disturbances in the metabolism of blood sugar levels are mainly the consequence of heredity (diabetes in the family), age (over 40), poor diet, excessive body weight (obesity) and physical inactivity. Disturbances in the metabolism of blood sugar were present in 20% of adult Europeans during 2002-2005 a study showed. RECOMMENDATIONS to decrease elevated blood sugar: Blood sugar level is determined in the fasting state. In a healthy person, a normal blood glucose level is less than 108 mg/d L or 6 mmol/L on an empty stomach. By measuring values of blood sugar, we can say that there are 3 options:normal blood sugar level (the blood glucose level is normal on an empty stomach),disruption of glycemia (blood glucose in the blood on an empty stomach is increased to a maximum value between 110 and 124 mg/d L (6.1 and 6.9 mmol/L),diabetes (elevated blood sugar levels to 126 mg/d L / 7.0 mmol/L or more). People with high blood sugar levels can lower their blood sugar levels by maintaining normal body weight, eating healthy and by physical activity. This way you might prevent or delay disease and enhance your health and physical performance. What can you do to lower the chance of developing diabetes:lose weight – be fit,sleep more, be rested. Read this article on what to do if you cannot sleep.have a healthy diet (read how should a diabetic diet look like) with as many vegetables and fruits, a lot of fiber, consume less calories, less fat, less alcoholic beverages and no simple sugars,workout at least 30 minutes per day. Useful resource: blood sugar levels chart: References: American Diabetes Association (ADA) – http://www.diabetes.org/ Academy of Nutrition and Dietetics – http://www.eatright.org/ Children with Diabetes – http://www.childrenwithdiabetes.com/ National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute – http://www.nhlbi.nih.gov/ International Diabetes Federation – http://www.idf.org/ CDC on Diabetes – http://www.cdc.gov/diabetes/ American Association of Diabetes Educators – http://www.diabeteseducator.org/Keywords: blood sugar levels, blood sugar levels chart, non diabetic blood sugar chart, high and low blood sugar levels, normal blood sugar level, ideal blood sugar level, a blood sugar levels chart Revision: Dec 5 2017, updated information SHARE Facebook Twitter
[ "What is Normal Blood Sugar Level1553SHARESThe blood sugar concentration or blood glucose level is the amount of glucose (sugar) present in the blood of a human or an animal.", "The body naturally tightly regulates blood glucose levels (with the help of insulin that is secreted by pancreas) as a part of metabolic homeostasis.", "If blood sugar levels are either increased or decreased by a greater margin than expected this might indicate a medical condition.", "Diabetic patients must monitor their blood sugar levels as body’s inability to properly utilize and / or produce insulin can pose a serious threat to their health.", "Blood sugar monitoring; image source: pexels.com See Article References Navigation: Definition: What is blood sugar?", "What is diabetes?", "Diagnosis: Diabetes symptoms Levels and indication Normal blood sugar levels Low blood sugar levels High blood sugar levels Managing: How to lower blood sugar level?", "Children blood sugar levels Blood sugar levels chart Checking for BS: How to check blood sugar?", "Treatment: How to lower blood sugar level?", "Can diabetes be cured?", "Accessories Diabetic Socks Diabetic Shoes What is blood sugar?", "What does it mean when someone refers to blood sugar level in your body?", "Blood sugar level (or blood sugar concentration) is the amount of glucose (a source of energy) present in your blood at any given time.", "A normal blood glucose level for a healthy person is somewhere between 72 mg/d L (3.8 to 4 mmol/L) and 108 mg/d L (5.8 to 6 mmol/L).", "It, of course, depends on every individual alone.", "Blood sugar levels might fluctuate due to other reasons (such as exercise, stress and infection).", "Typically blood sugar level in humans is around 72 mg/d L (or 4 mmol/L).", "After a meal the blood sugar level may increase temporarily up to 140 mg/d L (7.8 mmol/L).", "This is normal.", "A blood sugar level between 72 mg/d L (4 mmol/L) and 108 mg/d L (6 mmol/L) is considered normal for a healthy adult.", "Note: mg/d L and mmol/L are units of measure.", "mg/d L is mostly used in USA whereas mmol/L is mostly used in EU and other parts of the world.", "For easier conversion try our mg/d L mmol/L conversion tool.", "What is normal blood sugar level?", "Adults A normal blood sugar level is between 72 mg/d L and 108 mg/d L (4 to 6 mmol/L) for a healthy person.", "The concentration of glucose in the blood of a healthy person in the morning on an empty stomach is between 68 mg/d L and 108 mg/d L (3.8 and 6.0 mmol/L).", "Two hours after consuming foods or drinks rich in carbohydrates, the values are usually between 120 and 140 mg/d L (6.7 and 7.8 mmol/L).", "Children For children up to 6 years of age desired blood sugar level before eating is between 100 mg/d L (5.5 mmol/L) and 180 mg/d L (10 mmol/L).", "Before sleep values should be between 110 mg/d L (6.1 mmol/L) and 200 mg/d L (11.1 mmol/L).", "For children between the age of 6 and 12, before eating, blood sugar levels should be between 90 mg/d L (5 mmol/L) and 180 mg/d L (10 mmol/L).", "Before sleep values should be between 100 mg/d L (5.5 mmol/L) and 180 mg/d L (10 mmol/L).", "Children aged 13 to 19 should expect similar readings than those of adults.", "Blood sugar levels chart Blood sugar levels rise and drop during the day.", "This is normal.", "However, dramatic fluctuations in your blood glucose levels may indicate problems.", "Dramatic changes of blood sugar levels have significant physical symptoms and will increase your risk of diabetes-related complications.", "Click on the image below to view a larger blood sugar levels chart.", "Blood sugar levels chart displays possible levels of blood glucose.", "Values are expressed in mmol/L and mg/d L. This blood sugar levels chart is not 100% accurate due to different thresholds set in different countries around the world.", "Consult your personal doctor for more information.", "Click above image to view blood sugar levels chart; Image source: healthiack.com Download your blood sugar levels log and keep track of your own blood sugar levels – write down all of your measured values.", "Blood sugar levels chart for non-diabetics (goal blood sugar levels)Glucose mg/d L or mmol/L Valueless than 110 mg/d L or 6 mmol/L on an empty stomach normal valuebetween 110 mg/d L or 6.1 mmol/L and 125 mg/d L or 6.9 mmol/L on an empty stomach limit valuemore than 125 mg/d L or 7.0 mmol/L on an empty stomach possible diabetesmore than 198 mg/d L or 11.0 mmol/L anytime possible diabetes Blood sugar levels chart for diabetics (goal blood sugar levels)Glucose mg/d L or mmol/L Value Before breakfast (fasting) 70 – 130 mg/d L or 3.9 – 7.2 mmol/LBefore lunch, supper and snack 70 – 130 mg/d L or 3.9 – 7.2 mmol/LTwo hours after meals less than 180 mg/d L or less than 10mmol/LBedtime 90 – 150 mg/d L or 5 – 8.3 mmol/LA1C (also called glycosylated hemoglobin A1c, Hb A1c or glycohemoglobin A1c) less than 7%Please note that you should perform several consecutive blood glucose tests and not rely on one single measurement.", "The next chart displays all possible blood sugar (glucose) levels along with a short explanation of what the indicators are.", "Blood sugar chart and indicators Blood Sugar Levels Indication Less than 70 mg/d L (3.9 mmol/L) Low fasting blood sugar70 to 108 mg/d L (3.9 to 6 mmol/L) Normal fasting blood sugar for adults110 to 125 mg/d L (6.1 to 6.9 mmol/L) Impaired fasting glucose (pre-diabetes)126 mg/d L (7.0 mmol/L) and above in more than one test result Diabetesabout 70 to 140 mg/d L (3.9 to 7.8 mmol/L) Normal postprandial blood sugarabout 142 to 199 mg/d L (7.9 to 10.9 mmol/L) Borderline postprandial blood sugar.", "May indicate pre-diabetes.", "Less than 70 mg/d L (3.9 mmol/L) Hypoglycemia (Initial Stage)50 mg/d L (2.8 mmol/L) Hypoglycemia (Fasting)less than 50 mg/d L (2.8 mmol/L) Insulin Shock145 – 200 mg/d L (8 – 11 mmol/L) Post meal Value suggesting early diabetes More than 200 mg/d L (11 mmol/L) Post meal Value suggesting established diabetes Normal values for blood sugar are (values are in mmol/L, mg/d L and Hb A1c) in the table below.", "Blood sugar levels / non-fasting Blood sugar levels Hb A1c mg/d L mmol/Llow less than 4 less than 65 less than 3.6normal optimal 4 65 3.6normal optimal 4.1 69 3.8normal optimal 4.2 72 4normal optimal 4.3 76 4.2normal optimal 4.4 80 4.4normal optimal 4.5 83 4.6normal optimal 4.6 87 4.8normal optimal 4.7 90 5normal optimal 4.8 94 5.2normal optimal 4.9 97 5.4good marginal 5 101 5.6good marginal 5.1 105 5.8good marginal 5.2 108 6good marginal 5.3 112 6.2good marginal 5.4 115 6.4good marginal 5.5 119 6.6good marginal 5.6 122 6.8good marginal 5.7 126 7good marginal 5.8 130 7.2good marginal 5.9 133 7.4at risk 6 137 7.6at risk 6.1 140 7.8at risk 6.2 144 8at risk 6.3 147 8.2at risk 6.4 151 8.4at risk 6.5 155 8.6at risk 6.6 158 8.8at risk 6.7 162 9at risk 6.8 165 9.2at risk 6.9 169 9.4dangerously high 7 172 9.6dangerously high 7.1 176 9.8dangerously high 7.2 180 10dangerously high 7.3 183 10.2dangerously high 7.4 187 10.4dangerously high 7.5 190 10.6dangerously high 7.6 194 10.8dangerously high 7.7 198 11dangerously high 7.8 201 11.2dangerously high 7.9 205 11.4possible complications 8 208 11.6possible complications 8.1 212 11.8possible complications 8.2 215 12possible complications 8.3 219 12.2possible complications 8.4 223 12.4possible complications 8.5 226 12.6possible complications 8.6 230 12.8possible complications 8.7 233 13possible complications 8.8 237 13.2possible complications 8.9 240 13.4mortal danger 9 244 13.6mortal danger 9+ 261+ 13.6+Low blood sugar levels, normal blood sugar levels and high blood sugar levels chart.", "What is considered low blood sugar level?", "When your blood sugar level drops below 70 mg/d L (3,9 mmol/L) this means you have a low level of blood sugar.", "The usual symptoms of low blood sugar levels are:hunger,sweating,restlessness,faltering speech,confusion,tremor,difficulty in concentration,drowsiness,headache,visual disturbances…Symptoms may vary – different people might experience different symptoms.", "In some cases symptoms can even remain unrecognized (unconscious hypoglycemia).", "What is considered high blood sugar level?", "Chronically high blood sugar (diabetes) is caused by a number of abnormalities in the body, one of them being the affected vascular walls of small and large arteries (diabetic micro-and macro-angiopathy) in a process called atherosclerosis.", "We can say that a blood sugar level is high if we measure glucose level and get the following values – more than 110 mg/d L (6.1 mmol/L) on an empty stomach or at any time more than 200 mg/d L (11.1 mmol/L).", "If measured blood sugar level is high you should consult your personal doctor!", "High values of blood sugar may indicate diabetes; image source: theguardian.com High blood sugar levels affect the arteries throughout the body, especially the organs which have the richest blood circulation: heart, brain, kidney, senses, nerves and other organs.", "If the high blood sugar is associated with disturbances in lipid metabolism (blood fat), the abnormalities are more intense.", "Diabetes is among the risk factors for major non-communicable diseases: cardiovascular (coronary) disease, cerebral vascular disease and peripheral vascular diseases.", "Diabetes symptoms Typical symptoms of high blood sugar levels (diabetes) are thirst, frequent urination and unexpected weight loss.", "Sometimes a patient may also experience the following:impaired vision,itching skin,fatigue,increased appetite,skin infections,feeling of dizziness,heavy dehydration.", "Type 1 diabetes symptoms are severe and last for a short time before the disease is diagnosed.", "Type 2 diabetes symptoms appear slowly and are usually unrecognizable or nearly absent.", "Use this tool to see if you are in danger of or are developing diabetes: LINK Use this tool to convert blood sugar values.", "How to check blood sugar There are basically two main tests which are conducted to determine whether someone has diabetes.", "Impaired fasting glycemia test When being tested for diabetes by a impaired fasting glycemia test, blood sugar levels will normally be taken after around eight hours of fasting.", "Impaired glucose tolerance test An impaired glucose tolerance test involves taking a concentrated amount of glucose and then measuring blood sugar levels after two hours.", "In a healthy person, a normal blood glucose level is between 72 mg/d L (4 mmol/L) and 108 mg/d L (6 mmol/L).", "Read on how to check blood sugar values.", "For checking your blood sugar level, you will need: Medical alcohol to clean the skin where you will prick your finger, a sterile tool to prick your finger, some test strips and a glucose meter to read the test strip.", "Expected blood sugar level values: Glucose mg/d L or mmol/L level Valueless than 110 mg/d L or 6 mmol/L on an empty stomach normal valuebetween 110 mg/d L or 6.1 mmol/L and 125 mg/d L or 6.9 mmol/L on an empty stomach limit valuemore than 125 mg/d L or 7.0 mmol/L on an empty stomach possible diabetesmore than 198 mg/d L or 11.0 mmol/L anytime possible diabetes Can diabetes be cured?", "At this time there is no known official case of cured diabetes, however with proper action (diet and exercise), type 2 diabetes can be suppressed, but never reverted.", "There is no known case of diabetes type 1 recovery.", "Gestational diabetes (high blood sugar levels that manifest during pregnancy) will revert after pregnancy, but might develop into Diabetes Type 2 later in life.", "Why diabetes type 1 cannot be reversed The fact is that with Diabetes type 1 body’s cells that produce insulin are destroyed.", "These cells cannot be regrown or replaced.", "You need to use insulin injections to control your blood sugar levels.", "With type 2 diabetes your body does not use insulin properly (also known as insulin resistance).", "Over the time a patient’s condition worsens as body cannot make enough insulin to keep blood glucose at normal levels.", "With exercise and proper diet you can control your diabetes and live a normal life.", "Read more about diet for people with diabetes and blood type diet.", "Refer to this article for more information on how brown fat tissue may help control your disease or even revert it!", "No hoax – scientifically proven!", "Brown fat protects against diabetes and obesity in humans How to keep diabetes under control?", "In addition to modifying your diet, walk for 10 minutes after each meal to help improve insulin sensitivity and glucose uptake into your cells.", "Eat quality food and monitor your carbohydrates.", "Get a referral to a certified diabetes educator who will modify their recommendations based on your body, not what the guidelines say.", "If your blood sugar is still high with the recommended amount of carbs per meal, decrease the carbs further.", "Avoid low fat foods.", "Fat and protein will help your body absorb carbs more slowly and prevent spikes and troughs in your blood sugar.", "Since diabetic diet is restrictive, you should change your view from focusing on the things you can’t eat to focusing on all of the delicious things you can eat.", "All food groups are still on the table.", "You may have to modify recipes but there are so many awesome alternatives to almost any food available on the internet.", "It is recommended to severely decrease your daily carbohydrates intake.", "However Low carb diets can still be rich and delicious.", "Diabetics are recommended to avoid certain types of fruit, however, in moderation, all kinds of fruits can still be consumed.", "They key is to eat them in moderation.", "For example, half a banana is already one serving of carbohydrates.", "Apples and oranges should be no larger than a tennis ball.", "Be careful with dried fruits because they are concentrated.", "List of foods that raise blood sugar levels High Glycemic index foods Certain foods will make your blood sugar go up quite rapidly.", "These foods are known as s high-glycemic foods.", "See more on glycemic index.", "Avoid eating foods that are high on the glycemic index (bananas, pineapple, watermelon and dried fruits, carrots, white potatoes and beets, and corn – this means high fructose corn syrup, so virtually all packaged foods).", "Eat fresh fruit with skins at the beginning of your meal (not as dessert).", "At least one meal a day, preferably dinner, avoid grains (potatoes, rice, wheat (bread)) and avoid sugar, especially artificial sugars.", "It is recommended to have several meals per day.", "Having multiple meals per day will help diabetics in maintaining optimal glucose blood levels.", "Since every meal will affect blood glucose levels it is best to break diet down into lighter meals, which in turn means easier regulation of blood glucose.", "In diabetes, the pancreas either does not produce enough insulin or it produces enough but it is unable to utilize it efficiently.", "There are, of course, other factors that influence blood glucose rise and fall that should be taken into account (such as exercise, stress and infection), meaning that a rise in blood glucose it not always due to ingestion of food.", "How to lower blood sugar level?", "A patient with diabetes is at a 5 times greater risk of developing cardiovascular disease than patient without diabetes.", "One third of all cardiovascular diseases also affect people with diabetes.", "Three quarters of diabetics die from cardiovascular disease.", "Women with diabetes have a 4 times greater risk of death from cardiovascular disease.", "People suffering from diabetes usually have high cholesterol levels as well.", "Disturbances in the metabolism of blood sugar levels are mainly the consequence of heredity (diabetes in the family), age (over 40), poor diet, excessive body weight (obesity) and physical inactivity.", "Disturbances in the metabolism of blood sugar were present in 20% of adult Europeans during 2002-2005 a study showed.", "RECOMMENDATIONS to decrease elevated blood sugar: Blood sugar level is determined in the fasting state.", "In a healthy person, a normal blood glucose level is less than 108 mg/d L or 6 mmol/L on an empty stomach.", "By measuring values of blood sugar, we can say that there are 3 options:normal blood sugar level (the blood glucose level is normal on an empty stomach),disruption of glycemia (blood glucose in the blood on an empty stomach is increased to a maximum value between 110 and 124 mg/d L (6.1 and 6.9 mmol/L),diabetes (elevated blood sugar levels to 126 mg/d L / 7.0 mmol/L or more).", "People with high blood sugar levels can lower their blood sugar levels by maintaining normal body weight, eating healthy and by physical activity.", "This way you might prevent or delay disease and enhance your health and physical performance.", "What can you do to lower the chance of developing diabetes:lose weight – be fit,sleep more, be rested.", "Read this article on what to do if you cannot sleep.have a healthy diet (read how should a diabetic diet look like) with as many vegetables and fruits, a lot of fiber, consume less calories, less fat, less alcoholic beverages and no simple sugars,workout at least 30 minutes per day.", "Useful resource: blood sugar levels chart: References: American Diabetes Association (ADA) – http://www.diabetes.org/ Academy of Nutrition and Dietetics – http://www.eatright.org/ Children with Diabetes – http://www.childrenwithdiabetes.com/ National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute – http://www.nhlbi.nih.gov/ International Diabetes Federation – http://www.idf.org/ CDC on Diabetes – http://www.cdc.gov/diabetes/ American Association of Diabetes Educators – http://www.diabeteseducator.org/Keywords: blood sugar levels, blood sugar levels chart, non diabetic blood sugar chart, high and low blood sugar levels, normal blood sugar level, ideal blood sugar level, a blood sugar levels chart Revision: Dec 5 2017, updated information SHARE Facebook Twitter" ]
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blood_sugar
Blood sugar level
"From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia (Redirected from Blood sugar)navigation search This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (March 2012) ( Learn how and when to remove this template message)The fluctuation of blood sugar (red) and the sugar-lowering hormone insulin (blue) in humans during the course of a day with three meals. One of the effects of a sugar -rich vs a starch -rich meal is highlighted. [1]The blood sugar level, blood sugar concentration, or blood glucose level is the amount of glucose present in the blood of humans and other animals. Glucose is a simple sugar and approximately 4 grams of glucose are present in the blood of a 70-kilogram (150 lb) human at all times. [2] The body tightly regulates blood glucose levels as a part of metabolic homeostasis. [2] Glucose is stored in skeletal muscle and liver cells in the form of glycogen; [2] in fasted individuals, blood glucose is maintained at a constant level at the expense of glycogen stores in the liver and skeletal muscle. [2]In humans, glucose is the primary source of energy, and is critical for normal function, in a number of tissues, [2] particularly the human brain which consumes approximately 60% of blood glucose in fasted, sedentary individuals. [2] Glucose can be transported from the intestines or liver to other tissues in the body via the bloodstream. [2] Cellular glucose uptake is primarily regulated by insulin, a hormone produced in the pancreas. [2]Glucose levels are usually lowest in the morning, before the first meal of the day, and rise after meals for an hour or two by a few millimoles. Blood sugar levels outside the normal range may be an indicator of a medical condition. A persistently high level is referred to as hyperglycemia; low levels are referred to as hypoglycemia. Diabetes mellitus is characterized by persistent hyperglycemia from any of several causes, and is the most prominent disease related to failure of blood sugar regulation. There are different methods of testing and measuring blood sugar levels. The intake of alcohol causes an initial surge in blood sugar, and later tends to cause levels to fall. Also, certain drugs can increase or decrease glucose levels. [3]Contents [ hide ]1 Units2 Normal values in humans3 Animals4 Regulation5 Abnormality in blood sugar levels5.1 High blood sugar5.2 Low blood sugar6 Glucose measurement6.1 Sample source6.2 Sample type6.3 Measurement techniques6.4 Clinical correlation7 Etymology and use of term8 See also9 References10 Further reading11 External links Units [ edit]The international standard way of measuring blood glucose levels is in terms of a molar concentration, measured in mmol /L (millimoles per litre; or millimolar, abbreviated m M). In the United States, Germany and other countries mass concentration is measured in mg/d L (milligrams per decilitre). [4]Since the molecular weight of glucose C 6 H 12 O 6 is 180, the difference between the two units is a factor of 18, so that 1 mmol/L of glucose is equivalent to 18 mg/d L. [5]Normal values in humans [ edit]Normal value ranges may vary slightly among different laboratories. Many factors affect a person's blood sugar level. The body's homeostatic mechanism of blood sugar regulation (known as glucose homeostasis ), when operating normally, restores the blood sugar level to a narrow range of about 4.4 to 6.1 mmol /L (79 to 110 mg/d L) (as measured by a fasting blood glucose test ). [6]The normal blood glucose level (tested while fasting) for non-diabetics, should be between 3.9 and 5.5 mmol/L (70 to 100 mg/d L). The mean normal blood glucose level in humans is about 5.5 mmol/L (100 mg/d L); [5] however, this level fluctuates throughout the day. Blood sugar levels for those without diabetes and who are not fasting should be below 6.9 mmol/L (125 mg/d L). [7] The blood glucose target range for diabetics, according to the American Diabetes Association, should be 5.0–7.2 mmol/l (90–130 mg/d L) before meals, and less than 10 mmol/L (180 mg/d L) after meals (as measured by a blood glucose monitor). [8]Despite widely variable intervals between meals or the occasional consumption of meals with a substantial carbohydrate load, human blood glucose levels tend to remain within the normal range. However, shortly after eating, the blood glucose level may rise, in non-diabetics, temporarily up to 7.8 mmol/L (140 mg/d L) or slightly more. For people with diabetes maintaining 'tight diabetes control', the American Diabetes Association recommends a post-meal glucose level of less than 10 mmol/L (180 mg/d L) and a fasting plasma glucose of 3.9 to 7.2 mmol/L (70–130 mg/d L). [9]The actual amount of glucose in the blood and body fluids is very small. In a healthy adult male of 75 kg with a blood volume of 5 liters, a blood glucose level of 5.5 mmol/L (100 mg/d L) amounts to 5g, equivalent to about a teaspoonful of sugar. [10] Part of the reason why this amount is so small is that, to maintain an influx of glucose into cells, enzymes modify glucose by adding phosphate or other groups to it. Animals [ edit]In general, ranges of blood sugar in common domestic ruminants are lower than in many monogastric mammals. [11] However this generalization does not extend to wild ruminants or camelids. For serum glucose in mg/d L, reference ranges of 42 to 75 for cows, 44 to 81 for sheep, and 48 to 76 for goats, but 61 to 124 for cats; 62 to 108 for dogs, 62 to 114 for horses, 66 to 116 for pigs, 75 to 155 for rabbits, and 90 to 140 for llamas have been reported. [12] A 90 percent reference interval for serum glucose of 26 to 181 mg/d L has been reported for captured mountain goats (Oreamnos americanus), where no effects of the pursuit and capture on measured levels were evident. [13] For beluga whales, the 25–75 percent range for serum glucose has been estimated to be 94 to 115 mg/d L. [14] For the white rhinoceros, one study has indicated that the 95 percent range is 28 to 140 mg/d L. [15] For harp seals, a serum glucose range of 4.9 to 12.1 mmol/L [i.e. 88 to 218 mg/d L] has been reported; for hooded seals, a range of 7.5 to 15.7 mmol/L [i.e. about 135 to 283 mg/d L] has been reported. [16]Regulation [ edit]This section does not cite any sources. Please help improve this section by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (November 2016) ( Learn how and when to remove this template message)Main article: Blood sugar regulation The body's homeostatic mechanism keeps blood glucose levels within a narrow range. It is composed of several interacting systems, of which hormone regulation is the most important. There are two types of mutually antagonistic metabolic hormones affecting blood glucose levels:catabolic hormones (such as glucagon, cortisol and catecholamines) which increase blood glucose; [17]and one anabolic hormone ( insulin ), which decreases blood glucose. These hormones are secreted from pancreatic islets which are bundles of endocrine tissues. There are four types of pancreatic islets, alpha (A) cells, beta (B) cells, Delta (D) cells and F cells. Glucagon is secreted from alpha cells, while insulin is secreted by beta cells. Together they regulate the blood-glucose levels through negative feedback, a process where the end product of one reaction stimulates the beginning of another reaction. In blood-glucose levels, insulin lowers the concentration of glucose in the blood. The lower blood-glucose level (a product of the insulin secretion) triggers glucagon to be secreted, and repeats the cycle. [18]In order for blood glucose to be kept stable, modifications to insulin, glucagon, epinephrine and cortisol are made. Each of these hormones has a different responsibility to keep blood glucose regulated; when blood sugar is too high, insulin tells muscles to take up excess glucose for storage. Glucagon responds to too low of a blood glucose level; it informs the tissue to produce more glucose. Epinephrine prepares the muscles and respiratory system for activity in the case of a ""fight and flight"" response. Lastly, cortisol supplies the body with fuel in times of heavy stress. [19]Abnormality in blood sugar levels [ edit]High blood sugar [ edit]Main article: hyperglycemia If blood sugar levels remain too high the body suppresses appetite over the short term. Long-term hyperglycemia causes many long-term health problems including heart disease, cancer [20], eye, kidney, and nerve damage. [21]Blood sugar levels above 300 can cause fatal reactions. Ketones will be very high (a magnitude higher than when eating a very low carbohydrate diet) initiating ketoacidosis. Mayo clinic recommends emergency room treatment above 300 mg/d L blood glucose. The most common cause of hyperglycemia is diabetes. When diabetes is the cause, physicians typically recommend an anti-diabetic medication as treatment. From the perspective the majority of patients, treatment with an old, well-understood diabetes drug such as metformin will be the safest, most effective, least expensive, most comfortable route to managing the condition. [22] Diet changes and exercise implementation may also be part of a treatment plan for diabetes. Fasting blood glucose levels may be higher than the post meal blood glucose in many of the healthy subjects. Such individuals may be said to have physiological insulin resistance and may develop diabetes mellitus as long term complication. In clinical and laboratory practices, many of the time a healthy normal subject will present a fasting blood glucose value higher than the post meal blood glucose value. This creates confusion since there is a common perception that in blood, postprandial (PP) glucose level should be higher than fasting (F) glucose level. The repeated investigation subsequently yields somewhat similar type of result. [23]Low blood sugar [ edit]Main article: hypoglycemia If blood sugar levels drop too low, a potentially fatal condition called hypoglycemia develops. Symptoms may include lethargy, impaired mental functioning; irritability; shaking, twitching, weakness in arm and leg muscles; pale complexion; sweating; loss of consciousness. Mechanisms that restore satisfactory blood glucose levels after extreme hypoglycemia (below 40 mg/d L) must be quick and effective to prevent extremely serious consequences of insufficient glucose: confusion or unsteadiness and, in the extreme (below 15 mg/d L) loss of consciousness and seizures. Without discounting the potentially quite serious conditions and risks due to or oftentimes accompanying hyperglycemia, especially in the long-term (diabetes or pre-diabetes, obesity or overweight, hyperlipidemia, hypertension, etc. ), it is still generally more dangerous to have too little glucose – especially if levels are very low – in the blood than too much, at least temporarily, because glucose is so important for metabolism and nutrition and the proper functioning of the body's organs. This is especially the case for those organs that are metabolically active or that require a constant, regulated supply of blood sugar (the liver and brain are examples). In healthy individuals, blood glucose-regulating mechanisms are generally quite effective, and symptomatic hypoglycemia is generally found only in diabetics using insulin or other pharmacological treatment, and in starvation or severe malnutrition or malabsorption (of various causes), and conditions such as anorexia [ dubious – discuss]. Hypoglycemic episodes can vary greatly between persons and from time to time, both in severity and swiftness of onset. For severe cases, prompt medical assistance is essential, as damage to brain and other tissues and even death will result from sufficiently low blood-glucose levels. Glucose measurement [ edit]Further information: Blood glucose monitoring and Glucose meter Sample source [ edit]Glucose testing in a fasting individual, show comparable levels of glucose in arterial, venous, and capillary blood. But following meals, capillary and arterial blood glucose levels can be significantly higher than venous levels. Although these differences vary widely, one study found that following the consumption of 50 grams of glucose, ""the mean capillary blood glucose concentration is higher than the mean venous blood glucose concentration by 35%."" [24] [25] [26]Sample type [ edit]This section does not cite any sources. Please help improve this section by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (December 2016) ( Learn how and when to remove this template message)Glucose is measured in whole blood, plasma or serum. Historically, blood glucose values were given in terms of whole blood, but most laboratories now measure and report plasma or serum glucose levels. Because red blood cells (erythrocytes) have a higher concentration of protein (e.g., hemoglobin) than serum, serum has a higher water content and consequently more dissolved glucose than does whole blood. To convert from whole-blood glucose, multiplication by 1.14 [27] has been shown to generally give the serum/plasma level. Collection of blood in clot tubes for serum chemistry analysis permits the metabolism of glucose in the sample by blood cells until separated by centrifugation. [27] Red blood cells, for instance, do not require insulin to intake glucose from the blood. Higher than normal amounts of white or red blood cell counts can lead to excessive glycolysis in the sample, with substantial reduction of glucose level if the sample is not processed quickly. Ambient temperature at which the blood sample is kept prior to centrifuging and separation of plasma/serum also affects glucose levels. At refrigerator temperatures, glucose remains relatively stable for several hours in a blood sample. Loss of glucose can be prevented by using Fluoride tubes (i.e., gray-top) since fluoride inhibits glycolysis. However, these should only be used when blood will be transported from one hospital laboratory to another for glucose measurement. Red-top serum separator tubes also preserve glucose in samples after being centrifuged isolating the serum from cells. To prevent contamination of the sample with intravenous fluids, particular care should be given to drawing blood samples from the arm opposite the one in which an intravenous line is inserted. Alternatively, blood can be drawn from the same arm with an IV line after the IV has been turned off for at least 5 minutes, and the arm has been elevated to drain infused fluids away from the vein. Inattention can lead to large errors, since as little as 10% contamination with a 5% glucose solution (D5W) will elevate glucose in a sample by 500 mg/d L or more. Remember that the actual concentration of glucose in blood is very low, even in the hyperglycemic. Measurement techniques [ edit]This section needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (December 2016) ( Learn how and when to remove this template message)Two major methods have been used to measure glucose. The first, still in use in some places, is a chemical method exploiting the nonspecific reducing property of glucose in a reaction with an indicator substance that changes color when reduced. Since other blood compounds also have reducing properties (e.g., urea, which can be abnormally high in uremic patients), this technique can produce erroneous readings in some situations (5–15 mg/d L has been reported). The more recent technique, using enzymes specific to glucose, is less susceptible to this kind of error. The two most common employed enzymes are glucose oxidase and hexokinase. [28] Average blood glucose concentrations can also be measured. This method measures the level of glycated hemoglobin, which is representative of the average blood glucose levels over the last, approximately, 120 days. [28]In either case, the chemical system is commonly contained on a test strip which is inserted into a meter, and then has a blood sample applied. Test-strip shapes and their exact chemical composition vary between meter systems and cannot be interchanged. Formerly, some test strips were read (after timing and wiping away the blood sample) by visual comparison against a color chart printed on the vial label. Strips of this type are still used for urine glucose readings, but for blood glucose levels they are obsolete. Their error rates were, in any case, much higher. Errors when using test strips were often caused by the age of the strip or exposure to high temperatures or humidity. [29] More precise blood glucose measurements are performed in a medical laboratory, using hexokinase, glucose oxidase, or glucose dehydrogenase enzymes. Urine glucose readings, however taken, are much less useful. In properly functioning kidneys, glucose does not appear in urine until the renal threshold for glucose has been exceeded. This is substantially above any normal glucose level, and is evidence of an existing severe hyperglycemic condition. However, as urine is stored in the bladder, any glucose in it might have been produced at any time since the last time the bladder was emptied. Since metabolic conditions change rapidly, as a result of any of several factors, this is delayed news and gives no warning of a developing condition. Blood glucose monitoring is far preferable, both clinically and for home monitoring by patients. Healthy urine glucose levels were first standardized and published in 1965 [30] by Hans Renschler. I. CHEMICAL METHODSA. Oxidation-reduction reaction1. Alkaline copper reduction Folin-Wu method Blue end-product Benedict's method Modification of Folin–Wu method for qualitative urine glucose Nelson–Somogyi method Blue end-product Neocuproine method * Yellow-orange color neocuproine [31]Shaeffer–Hartmann–Somogyi Uses the principle of iodine reaction with cuprous byproduct. Excess I 2 is then titrated with thiosulfate.2. Alkaline Ferricyanide Reduction Hagedorn–Jensen Colorless end product; other reducing substances interfere with reaction B. Condensation Ortho-toluidine method Uses aromatic amines and hot acetic acid Forms Glycosylamine and Schiff's base which is emerald green in color This is the most specific method, but the reagent used is toxic Anthrone (phenols) method Forms hydroxymethyl furfural in hot acetic acid II. ENZYMATIC METHODSA. Glucose oxidase Saifer–Gerstenfeld method Inhibited by reducing substances like BUA, bilirubin, glutathione, ascorbic acid Trinder methoduses 4-aminophenazone oxidatively coupled with phenol Subject to less interference by increases serum levels of creatinine, uric acid or hemoglobin Inhibited by catalase Kodak Ektachem A dry chemistry method Uses spectrophotometry to measure the intensity of color through a lower transparent film Glucometer Home monitoring blood glucose assay method Uses a strip impregnated with a glucose oxidase reagent B. Hexokinase NADP as cofactor NADPH (reduced product) is measured in 340 nm More specific than glucose oxidase method due to G-6PO 4, which inhibits interfering substances except when sample is hemolyzed Clinical correlation [ edit]The fasting blood glucose level, which is measured after a fast of 8 hours, is the most commonly used indication of overall glucose homeostasis, largely because disturbing events such as food intake are avoided. Conditions affecting glucose levels are shown in the table below. Abnormalities in these test results are due to problems in the multiple control mechanism of glucose regulation. The metabolic response to a carbohydrate challenge is conveniently assessed by a postprandial glucose level drawn 2 hours after a meal or a glucose load. In addition, the glucose tolerance test, consisting of several timed measurements after a standardized amount of oral glucose intake, is used to aid in the diagnosis of diabetes. Error rates for blood glucose measurements systems vary, depending on laboratories, and on the methods used. Colorimetry techniques can be biased by color changes in test strips (from airborne or finger borne contamination, perhaps) or interference (e.g., tinting contaminants) with light source or the light sensor. Electrical techniques are less susceptible to these errors, though not to others. In home use, the most important issue is not accuracy, but trend. Thus if a meter / test strip system is consistently wrong by 10%, there will be little consequence, as long as changes (e.g., due to exercise or medication adjustments) are properly tracked. In the US, home use blood test meters must be approved by the federal Food and Drug Administration before they can be sold. Finally, there are several influences on blood glucose level aside from food intake. Infection, for instance, tends to change blood glucose levels, as does stress either physical or psychological. Exercise, especially if prolonged or long after the most recent meal, will have an effect as well. In the typical person, maintenance of blood glucose at near constant levels will nevertheless be quite effective. [ clarification needed]Causes of abnormal glucose levels Persistent hyperglycemia Transient hyperglycemia Persistent hypoglycemia Transient hypoglycemia Reference range, FBG: 70–110 mg/d LDiabetes mellitus Pheochromocytoma Insulinoma Acute alcohol ingestion Adrenal cortical hyperactivity Cushing's syndrome Severe liver disease Adrenal cortical insufficiency Addison's disease Drugs: salicylates, antituberculosis agents Hyperthyroidism Acute stress reaction Hypopituitarism Severe liver disease Acromegaly Shock Galactosemia Several glycogen storage diseases Obesity Convulsions Ectopic insulin production from tumors Hereditary fructose intolerance Etymology and use of term [ edit]This section has no medical references for verification or relies exclusively on non-medical sources. Please review the contents of the section and add the appropriate references if you can. Unsourced or poorly sourced material may be removed. (June 2016) ( Learn how and when to remove this template message)In a physiological context, the term is a misnomer because it refers to glucose, yet other sugars besides glucose are always present. Food contains several different types (e.g., fructose (largely from fruits/ table sugar / industrial sweeteners ), galactose (milk and dairy products), as well as several food additives such as sorbitol, xylose, maltose, etc.). But because these other sugars are largely inert with regard to the metabolic control system (i.e., that controlled by insulin secretion), since glucose is the dominant controlling signal for metabolic regulation, the term has gained currency, and is used by medical staff and lay folk alike. The table above reflects some of the more technical and closely defined terms used in the medical field. See also [ edit]Blood glucose monitoring Saccharide recognition by boronic acids References [ edit]^ Daly, Mark E; Vale, C; Walker, M; Littlefield, A; Alberti, KG; Mathers, JC (1998). ""Acute effects on insulin sensitivity and diurnal metabolic profiles of a high-sucrose compared with a high starch diet"" (PDF). Am J Clin Nutr. American Society for Clinical Nutrition. 67 (6): 1186–96. doi: 10.1093/ajcn/67.6.1186. PMID 9625092. Retrieved 19 February 2011.^ a b c d e f g h Wasserman DH (January 2009). ""Four grams of glucose"". American Journal of Physiology. Endocrinology and Metabolism. 296 (1): E11–21. doi: 10.1152/ajpendo.90563.2008. PMC 2636990. PMID 18840763.^ Walker, Rosemary and Rodgers, Jill (2006) Type 2 Diabetes – Your Questions Answered. Dorling Kindersley. ISBN 1-74033-550-3.^ Diabetes FAQs – Blood Glucose Measurement Units – Abbott Diabetes Care^ a b What are mg/dl and mmol/l? How to convert? Glucose? Cholesterol? Advameg, Inc.^ ""Screening for Type 2 Diabetes"". Clinical Diabetes. 18 (2). 2000.^ Glucose test – blood. NIH – National Institutes of Health.^ Davidson, Nancy Klobassa and Moreland, Peggy (26 July 2011) Living with diabetes blog. mayoclinic.com.^ American Diabetes Association (2006). ""January 2006 Diabetes Care"". Diabetes Care. 29 (Supplement 1): S4–42. PMID 16373931. Standards of Medical Care – Table 6 and Table 7, Correlation between A1C level and Mean Plasma Glucose Levels on Multiple Testing over 2–3 months^ USDA National Nutrient Database for Standard Reference, Release 22 (2009)^ Eiler, H. (2004). ""Endocrine glands"". In Reese, W. O. Dukes' Physiology of Domestic Animals (12th ed.). Ithaca, NY: Comstock. pp. 621–69. ISBN 0801442389.^ Kahn, C. M., ed. (2005). Merck Veterinary Manual (9th ed.). Whitehouse Station: Merck & Co. ISBN 0911910506.^ Rice, C. G.; Hall, B. (2007). ""Hematologic and biochemical reference intervals for mountain goats ( Oreamnos americanus ): effects of capture conditions"". Northwest Science. 81 (3): 206. doi: 10.3955/0029-344X-81.3.206.^ Cornell, LH; Duffield, DS; Joseph, BE; Stark, B (1988). ""Hematology and serum chemistry values in the beluga ( Delphinapterus leucas )"". Journal of wildlife diseases. 24 (2): 220–24. doi: 10.7589/0090-3558-24.2.220. PMID 3373628.^ Seal, U. S.; Barton, R.; Mather, L.; Gray, C. W. (1976). ""Baseline Laboratory Data for the White Rhinoceros ( Ceratotherium simum simum )"" (PDF). The Journal of Zoo Animal Medicine. 7 (1): 11–17. JSTOR 20094341.^ Boily, F; Beaudoin, S; Measures, LN (2006). ""Hematology and serum chemistry of harp ( Phoca groenlandica) and hooded seals ( Cystophora cristata) during the breeding season, in the Gulf of St. Lawrence, Canada"". Journal of wildlife diseases. 42 (1): 115–32. doi: 10.7589/0090-3558-42.1.115. PMID 16699154.^ Lehninger, Albert; Nelson, David; Cox, Michael (2017). Lehininger Principles of Biochemistry. New York: W. H. Freedom. p. 934. ISBN 9781319117689.^ Tortora, Gerard (December 2016). Principles Anatomy and Physiology (15 ed.). New York: John Wiley & Sons, Inc. pp. Chapter 18. ISBN 9781119343738.^ Lehninger, Albert; Nelson, David; Cox, Michael (2017). Lehninger Principles of Biochemistry (7th ed.). New York: W. H. Freeman. p. 930. ISBN 9781319117689.^ ""Excess sugar linked to cancer"". Science Daily.^ ""Diabetic ketoacidosis - Symptoms and causes"". Mayo Clinic. Retrieved 2018-01-30.^ Consumer Reports Health Best Buy Drugs. ""The Oral Diabetes Drugs: Treating Type 2 Diabetes"" (PDF). Best Buy Drugs. Consumer Reports: 2. Retrieved 18 September 2012.^ Warade, Jayesh Prabhakar (2014). ""Fasting blood glucose level higher than post-meal in healthy subjects: a study of 738 subjects"" (PDF). World Journal of Pharmaceutical Research. 3 (4). Archived from the original (PDF) on 2 April 2015.^ Yang, Chiaohsin (2012). ""A Comparison between Venous and Finger-Prick Blood Sampling on Values of Blood Glucose"" (PDF). International Proceedings of Chemical, Biological and Environmental Engineering. 39: 236.^ Somogyi, Michael (1948). ""Studies of Arteriovenous Differences in Blood Sugar"" (PDF). J. Biol. Chem. 174 (1): 189–200. PMID 18914074.^ Roe, Jeffrey. "" Glucose Concentration Difference Between Arterial, Capillary, and Venous Blood . ""^ a b Cox, David L. Nelson, Michael M. (2013). Lehninger principles of biochemistry (6th ed.). New York: W. H. Freeman. p. 950. ISBN 9781429234146.^ a b Cox, Michael M.; Lehninger, Albert L.; Nelson, David L. (2017). Lehninger Principles of Biochemistry. New York: W. H. Freeman. pp. 248–49. ISBN 9781319117689.^ Ginsberg, Barry H. (1 July 2009). ""Factors Affecting Blood Glucose Monitoring: Sources of Errors in Measurement"". Journal of Diabetes Science and Technology. 3: 903–13. doi: 10.1177/193229680900300438. Retrieved 21 October 2017.^ Renschler, HE; Weicker, H; Von Baeyer, H (1965). ""The upper limit of glucose concentration in the urine of healthy subjects"". Deutsche Medizinische Wochenschrift. 90 (53): 2349–53. PMID 5851934.^ Neocuproine MSDS. hazard.com Further reading [ edit]Henry, John Bernard (2001). Clinical diagnosis and Management by Laboratory Methods (20th ed.). Philadelphia: Saunders. ISBN 0721688640. Levine R (1986). ""Monosaccharides in Health and Disease"". Annu. Rev. Nutr. 6: 211–24. doi: 10.1146/annurev.nu.06.070186.001235. Röder PV, Wu B, Liu Y, Han W (2016). ""Pancreatic Regulation of Glucose Homeostasis"". Exp. Mol. Med. 48 (3, March): e219–. doi: 10.1038/emm.2016.6. PMC 4892884. PMID 26964835. External links [ edit]Glucose (blood, serum, plasma): analyte monograph – The Association for Clinical Biochemistry and Laboratory Medicine [ show]v t e Human homeostasis [ show]v t e Common for blood tests ( CPT 82000–84999)Categories: Human homeostasis Blood tests Diabetes "
[ "\"From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia (Redirected from Blood sugar)navigation search This article needs additional citations for verification.", "Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources.", "Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.", "(March 2012) ( Learn how and when to remove this template message)The fluctuation of blood sugar (red) and the sugar-lowering hormone insulin (blue) in humans during the course of a day with three meals.", "One of the effects of a sugar -rich vs a starch -rich meal is highlighted.", "[1]The blood sugar level, blood sugar concentration, or blood glucose level is the amount of glucose present in the blood of humans and other animals.", "Glucose is a simple sugar and approximately 4 grams of glucose are present in the blood of a 70-kilogram (150 lb) human at all times.", "[2] The body tightly regulates blood glucose levels as a part of metabolic homeostasis.", "[2] Glucose is stored in skeletal muscle and liver cells in the form of glycogen; [2] in fasted individuals, blood glucose is maintained at a constant level at the expense of glycogen stores in the liver and skeletal muscle.", "[2]In humans, glucose is the primary source of energy, and is critical for normal function, in a number of tissues, [2] particularly the human brain which consumes approximately 60% of blood glucose in fasted, sedentary individuals.", "[2] Glucose can be transported from the intestines or liver to other tissues in the body via the bloodstream.", "[2] Cellular glucose uptake is primarily regulated by insulin, a hormone produced in the pancreas.", "[2]Glucose levels are usually lowest in the morning, before the first meal of the day, and rise after meals for an hour or two by a few millimoles.", "Blood sugar levels outside the normal range may be an indicator of a medical condition.", "A persistently high level is referred to as hyperglycemia; low levels are referred to as hypoglycemia.", "Diabetes mellitus is characterized by persistent hyperglycemia from any of several causes, and is the most prominent disease related to failure of blood sugar regulation.", "There are different methods of testing and measuring blood sugar levels.", "The intake of alcohol causes an initial surge in blood sugar, and later tends to cause levels to fall.", "Also, certain drugs can increase or decrease glucose levels.", "[3]Contents [ hide ]1 Units2 Normal values in humans3 Animals4 Regulation5 Abnormality in blood sugar levels5.1 High blood sugar5.2 Low blood sugar6 Glucose measurement6.1 Sample source6.2 Sample type6.3 Measurement techniques6.4 Clinical correlation7 Etymology and use of term8 See also9 References10 Further reading11 External links Units [ edit]The international standard way of measuring blood glucose levels is in terms of a molar concentration, measured in mmol /L (millimoles per litre; or millimolar, abbreviated m M).", "In the United States, Germany and other countries mass concentration is measured in mg/d L (milligrams per decilitre).", "[4]Since the molecular weight of glucose C 6 H 12 O 6 is 180, the difference between the two units is a factor of 18, so that 1 mmol/L of glucose is equivalent to 18 mg/d L. [5]Normal values in humans [ edit]Normal value ranges may vary slightly among different laboratories.", "Many factors affect a person's blood sugar level.", "The body's homeostatic mechanism of blood sugar regulation (known as glucose homeostasis ), when operating normally, restores the blood sugar level to a narrow range of about 4.4 to 6.1 mmol /L (79 to 110 mg/d L) (as measured by a fasting blood glucose test ).", "[6]The normal blood glucose level (tested while fasting) for non-diabetics, should be between 3.9 and 5.5 mmol/L (70 to 100 mg/d L).", "The mean normal blood glucose level in humans is about 5.5 mmol/L (100 mg/d L); [5] however, this level fluctuates throughout the day.", "Blood sugar levels for those without diabetes and who are not fasting should be below 6.9 mmol/L (125 mg/d L).", "[7] The blood glucose target range for diabetics, according to the American Diabetes Association, should be 5.0–7.2 mmol/l (90–130 mg/d L) before meals, and less than 10 mmol/L (180 mg/d L) after meals (as measured by a blood glucose monitor).", "[8]Despite widely variable intervals between meals or the occasional consumption of meals with a substantial carbohydrate load, human blood glucose levels tend to remain within the normal range.", "However, shortly after eating, the blood glucose level may rise, in non-diabetics, temporarily up to 7.8 mmol/L (140 mg/d L) or slightly more.", "For people with diabetes maintaining 'tight diabetes control', the American Diabetes Association recommends a post-meal glucose level of less than 10 mmol/L (180 mg/d L) and a fasting plasma glucose of 3.9 to 7.2 mmol/L (70–130 mg/d L).", "[9]The actual amount of glucose in the blood and body fluids is very small.", "In a healthy adult male of 75 kg with a blood volume of 5 liters, a blood glucose level of 5.5 mmol/L (100 mg/d L) amounts to 5g, equivalent to about a teaspoonful of sugar.", "[10] Part of the reason why this amount is so small is that, to maintain an influx of glucose into cells, enzymes modify glucose by adding phosphate or other groups to it.", "Animals [ edit]In general, ranges of blood sugar in common domestic ruminants are lower than in many monogastric mammals.", "[11] However this generalization does not extend to wild ruminants or camelids.", "For serum glucose in mg/d L, reference ranges of 42 to 75 for cows, 44 to 81 for sheep, and 48 to 76 for goats, but 61 to 124 for cats; 62 to 108 for dogs, 62 to 114 for horses, 66 to 116 for pigs, 75 to 155 for rabbits, and 90 to 140 for llamas have been reported.", "[12] A 90 percent reference interval for serum glucose of 26 to 181 mg/d L has been reported for captured mountain goats (Oreamnos americanus), where no effects of the pursuit and capture on measured levels were evident.", "[13] For beluga whales, the 25–75 percent range for serum glucose has been estimated to be 94 to 115 mg/d L. [14] For the white rhinoceros, one study has indicated that the 95 percent range is 28 to 140 mg/d L. [15] For harp seals, a serum glucose range of 4.9 to 12.1 mmol/L [i.e.", "88 to 218 mg/d L] has been reported; for hooded seals, a range of 7.5 to 15.7 mmol/L [i.e.", "about 135 to 283 mg/d L] has been reported.", "[16]Regulation [ edit]This section does not cite any sources.", "Please help improve this section by adding citations to reliable sources.", "Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.", "(November 2016) ( Learn how and when to remove this template message)Main article: Blood sugar regulation The body's homeostatic mechanism keeps blood glucose levels within a narrow range.", "It is composed of several interacting systems, of which hormone regulation is the most important.", "There are two types of mutually antagonistic metabolic hormones affecting blood glucose levels:catabolic hormones (such as glucagon, cortisol and catecholamines) which increase blood glucose; [17]and one anabolic hormone ( insulin ), which decreases blood glucose.", "These hormones are secreted from pancreatic islets which are bundles of endocrine tissues.", "There are four types of pancreatic islets, alpha (A) cells, beta (B) cells, Delta (D) cells and F cells.", "Glucagon is secreted from alpha cells, while insulin is secreted by beta cells.", "Together they regulate the blood-glucose levels through negative feedback, a process where the end product of one reaction stimulates the beginning of another reaction.", "In blood-glucose levels, insulin lowers the concentration of glucose in the blood.", "The lower blood-glucose level (a product of the insulin secretion) triggers glucagon to be secreted, and repeats the cycle.", "[18]In order for blood glucose to be kept stable, modifications to insulin, glucagon, epinephrine and cortisol are made.", "Each of these hormones has a different responsibility to keep blood glucose regulated; when blood sugar is too high, insulin tells muscles to take up excess glucose for storage.", "Glucagon responds to too low of a blood glucose level; it informs the tissue to produce more glucose.", "Epinephrine prepares the muscles and respiratory system for activity in the case of a \"\"fight and flight\"\" response.", "Lastly, cortisol supplies the body with fuel in times of heavy stress.", "[19]Abnormality in blood sugar levels [ edit]High blood sugar [ edit]Main article: hyperglycemia If blood sugar levels remain too high the body suppresses appetite over the short term.", "Long-term hyperglycemia causes many long-term health problems including heart disease, cancer [20], eye, kidney, and nerve damage.", "[21]Blood sugar levels above 300 can cause fatal reactions.", "Ketones will be very high (a magnitude higher than when eating a very low carbohydrate diet) initiating ketoacidosis.", "Mayo clinic recommends emergency room treatment above 300 mg/d L blood glucose.", "The most common cause of hyperglycemia is diabetes.", "When diabetes is the cause, physicians typically recommend an anti-diabetic medication as treatment.", "From the perspective the majority of patients, treatment with an old, well-understood diabetes drug such as metformin will be the safest, most effective, least expensive, most comfortable route to managing the condition.", "[22] Diet changes and exercise implementation may also be part of a treatment plan for diabetes.", "Fasting blood glucose levels may be higher than the post meal blood glucose in many of the healthy subjects.", "Such individuals may be said to have physiological insulin resistance and may develop diabetes mellitus as long term complication.", "In clinical and laboratory practices, many of the time a healthy normal subject will present a fasting blood glucose value higher than the post meal blood glucose value.", "This creates confusion since there is a common perception that in blood, postprandial (PP) glucose level should be higher than fasting (F) glucose level.", "The repeated investigation subsequently yields somewhat similar type of result.", "[23]Low blood sugar [ edit]Main article: hypoglycemia If blood sugar levels drop too low, a potentially fatal condition called hypoglycemia develops.", "Symptoms may include lethargy, impaired mental functioning; irritability; shaking, twitching, weakness in arm and leg muscles; pale complexion; sweating; loss of consciousness.", "Mechanisms that restore satisfactory blood glucose levels after extreme hypoglycemia (below 40 mg/d L) must be quick and effective to prevent extremely serious consequences of insufficient glucose: confusion or unsteadiness and, in the extreme (below 15 mg/d L) loss of consciousness and seizures.", "Without discounting the potentially quite serious conditions and risks due to or oftentimes accompanying hyperglycemia, especially in the long-term (diabetes or pre-diabetes, obesity or overweight, hyperlipidemia, hypertension, etc.", "), it is still generally more dangerous to have too little glucose – especially if levels are very low – in the blood than too much, at least temporarily, because glucose is so important for metabolism and nutrition and the proper functioning of the body's organs.", "This is especially the case for those organs that are metabolically active or that require a constant, regulated supply of blood sugar (the liver and brain are examples).", "In healthy individuals, blood glucose-regulating mechanisms are generally quite effective, and symptomatic hypoglycemia is generally found only in diabetics using insulin or other pharmacological treatment, and in starvation or severe malnutrition or malabsorption (of various causes), and conditions such as anorexia [ dubious – discuss].", "Hypoglycemic episodes can vary greatly between persons and from time to time, both in severity and swiftness of onset.", "For severe cases, prompt medical assistance is essential, as damage to brain and other tissues and even death will result from sufficiently low blood-glucose levels.", "Glucose measurement [ edit]Further information: Blood glucose monitoring and Glucose meter Sample source [ edit]Glucose testing in a fasting individual, show comparable levels of glucose in arterial, venous, and capillary blood.", "But following meals, capillary and arterial blood glucose levels can be significantly higher than venous levels.", "Although these differences vary widely, one study found that following the consumption of 50 grams of glucose, \"\"the mean capillary blood glucose concentration is higher than the mean venous blood glucose concentration by 35%.\"\"", "[24] [25] [26]Sample type [ edit]This section does not cite any sources.", "Please help improve this section by adding citations to reliable sources.", "Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.", "(December 2016) ( Learn how and when to remove this template message)Glucose is measured in whole blood, plasma or serum.", "Historically, blood glucose values were given in terms of whole blood, but most laboratories now measure and report plasma or serum glucose levels.", "Because red blood cells (erythrocytes) have a higher concentration of protein (e.g., hemoglobin) than serum, serum has a higher water content and consequently more dissolved glucose than does whole blood.", "To convert from whole-blood glucose, multiplication by 1.14 [27] has been shown to generally give the serum/plasma level.", "Collection of blood in clot tubes for serum chemistry analysis permits the metabolism of glucose in the sample by blood cells until separated by centrifugation.", "[27] Red blood cells, for instance, do not require insulin to intake glucose from the blood.", "Higher than normal amounts of white or red blood cell counts can lead to excessive glycolysis in the sample, with substantial reduction of glucose level if the sample is not processed quickly.", "Ambient temperature at which the blood sample is kept prior to centrifuging and separation of plasma/serum also affects glucose levels.", "At refrigerator temperatures, glucose remains relatively stable for several hours in a blood sample.", "Loss of glucose can be prevented by using Fluoride tubes (i.e., gray-top) since fluoride inhibits glycolysis.", "However, these should only be used when blood will be transported from one hospital laboratory to another for glucose measurement.", "Red-top serum separator tubes also preserve glucose in samples after being centrifuged isolating the serum from cells.", "To prevent contamination of the sample with intravenous fluids, particular care should be given to drawing blood samples from the arm opposite the one in which an intravenous line is inserted.", "Alternatively, blood can be drawn from the same arm with an IV line after the IV has been turned off for at least 5 minutes, and the arm has been elevated to drain infused fluids away from the vein.", "Inattention can lead to large errors, since as little as 10% contamination with a 5% glucose solution (D5W) will elevate glucose in a sample by 500 mg/d L or more.", "Remember that the actual concentration of glucose in blood is very low, even in the hyperglycemic.", "Measurement techniques [ edit]This section needs additional citations for verification.", "Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources.", "Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.", "(December 2016) ( Learn how and when to remove this template message)Two major methods have been used to measure glucose.", "The first, still in use in some places, is a chemical method exploiting the nonspecific reducing property of glucose in a reaction with an indicator substance that changes color when reduced.", "Since other blood compounds also have reducing properties (e.g., urea, which can be abnormally high in uremic patients), this technique can produce erroneous readings in some situations (5–15 mg/d L has been reported).", "The more recent technique, using enzymes specific to glucose, is less susceptible to this kind of error.", "The two most common employed enzymes are glucose oxidase and hexokinase.", "[28] Average blood glucose concentrations can also be measured.", "This method measures the level of glycated hemoglobin, which is representative of the average blood glucose levels over the last, approximately, 120 days.", "[28]In either case, the chemical system is commonly contained on a test strip which is inserted into a meter, and then has a blood sample applied.", "Test-strip shapes and their exact chemical composition vary between meter systems and cannot be interchanged.", "Formerly, some test strips were read (after timing and wiping away the blood sample) by visual comparison against a color chart printed on the vial label.", "Strips of this type are still used for urine glucose readings, but for blood glucose levels they are obsolete.", "Their error rates were, in any case, much higher.", "Errors when using test strips were often caused by the age of the strip or exposure to high temperatures or humidity.", "[29] More precise blood glucose measurements are performed in a medical laboratory, using hexokinase, glucose oxidase, or glucose dehydrogenase enzymes.", "Urine glucose readings, however taken, are much less useful.", "In properly functioning kidneys, glucose does not appear in urine until the renal threshold for glucose has been exceeded.", "This is substantially above any normal glucose level, and is evidence of an existing severe hyperglycemic condition.", "However, as urine is stored in the bladder, any glucose in it might have been produced at any time since the last time the bladder was emptied.", "Since metabolic conditions change rapidly, as a result of any of several factors, this is delayed news and gives no warning of a developing condition.", "Blood glucose monitoring is far preferable, both clinically and for home monitoring by patients.", "Healthy urine glucose levels were first standardized and published in 1965 [30] by Hans Renschler.", "I.", "CHEMICAL METHODSA.", "Oxidation-reduction reaction1.", "Alkaline copper reduction Folin-Wu method Blue end-product Benedict's method Modification of Folin–Wu method for qualitative urine glucose Nelson–Somogyi method Blue end-product Neocuproine method * Yellow-orange color neocuproine [31]Shaeffer–Hartmann–Somogyi Uses the principle of iodine reaction with cuprous byproduct.", "Excess I 2 is then titrated with thiosulfate.2.", "Alkaline Ferricyanide Reduction Hagedorn–Jensen Colorless end product; other reducing substances interfere with reaction B. Condensation Ortho-toluidine method Uses aromatic amines and hot acetic acid Forms Glycosylamine and Schiff's base which is emerald green in color This is the most specific method, but the reagent used is toxic Anthrone (phenols) method Forms hydroxymethyl furfural in hot acetic acid II.", "ENZYMATIC METHODSA.", "Glucose oxidase Saifer–Gerstenfeld method Inhibited by reducing substances like BUA, bilirubin, glutathione, ascorbic acid Trinder methoduses 4-aminophenazone oxidatively coupled with phenol Subject to less interference by increases serum levels of creatinine, uric acid or hemoglobin Inhibited by catalase Kodak Ektachem A dry chemistry method Uses spectrophotometry to measure the intensity of color through a lower transparent film Glucometer Home monitoring blood glucose assay method Uses a strip impregnated with a glucose oxidase reagent B. Hexokinase NADP as cofactor NADPH (reduced product) is measured in 340 nm More specific than glucose oxidase method due to G-6PO 4, which inhibits interfering substances except when sample is hemolyzed Clinical correlation [ edit]The fasting blood glucose level, which is measured after a fast of 8 hours, is the most commonly used indication of overall glucose homeostasis, largely because disturbing events such as food intake are avoided.", "Conditions affecting glucose levels are shown in the table below.", "Abnormalities in these test results are due to problems in the multiple control mechanism of glucose regulation.", "The metabolic response to a carbohydrate challenge is conveniently assessed by a postprandial glucose level drawn 2 hours after a meal or a glucose load.", "In addition, the glucose tolerance test, consisting of several timed measurements after a standardized amount of oral glucose intake, is used to aid in the diagnosis of diabetes.", "Error rates for blood glucose measurements systems vary, depending on laboratories, and on the methods used.", "Colorimetry techniques can be biased by color changes in test strips (from airborne or finger borne contamination, perhaps) or interference (e.g., tinting contaminants) with light source or the light sensor.", "Electrical techniques are less susceptible to these errors, though not to others.", "In home use, the most important issue is not accuracy, but trend.", "Thus if a meter / test strip system is consistently wrong by 10%, there will be little consequence, as long as changes (e.g., due to exercise or medication adjustments) are properly tracked.", "In the US, home use blood test meters must be approved by the federal Food and Drug Administration before they can be sold.", "Finally, there are several influences on blood glucose level aside from food intake.", "Infection, for instance, tends to change blood glucose levels, as does stress either physical or psychological.", "Exercise, especially if prolonged or long after the most recent meal, will have an effect as well.", "In the typical person, maintenance of blood glucose at near constant levels will nevertheless be quite effective.", "[ clarification needed]Causes of abnormal glucose levels Persistent hyperglycemia Transient hyperglycemia Persistent hypoglycemia Transient hypoglycemia Reference range, FBG: 70–110 mg/d LDiabetes mellitus Pheochromocytoma Insulinoma Acute alcohol ingestion Adrenal cortical hyperactivity Cushing's syndrome Severe liver disease Adrenal cortical insufficiency Addison's disease Drugs: salicylates, antituberculosis agents Hyperthyroidism Acute stress reaction Hypopituitarism Severe liver disease Acromegaly Shock Galactosemia Several glycogen storage diseases Obesity Convulsions Ectopic insulin production from tumors Hereditary fructose intolerance Etymology and use of term [ edit]This section has no medical references for verification or relies exclusively on non-medical sources.", "Please review the contents of the section and add the appropriate references if you can.", "Unsourced or poorly sourced material may be removed.", "(June 2016) ( Learn how and when to remove this template message)In a physiological context, the term is a misnomer because it refers to glucose, yet other sugars besides glucose are always present.", "Food contains several different types (e.g., fructose (largely from fruits/ table sugar / industrial sweeteners ), galactose (milk and dairy products), as well as several food additives such as sorbitol, xylose, maltose, etc.).", "But because these other sugars are largely inert with regard to the metabolic control system (i.e., that controlled by insulin secretion), since glucose is the dominant controlling signal for metabolic regulation, the term has gained currency, and is used by medical staff and lay folk alike.", "The table above reflects some of the more technical and closely defined terms used in the medical field.", "See also [ edit]Blood glucose monitoring Saccharide recognition by boronic acids References [ edit]^ Daly, Mark E; Vale, C; Walker, M; Littlefield, A; Alberti, KG; Mathers, JC (1998).", "\"\"Acute effects on insulin sensitivity and diurnal metabolic profiles of a high-sucrose compared with a high starch diet\"\" (PDF).", "Am J Clin Nutr.", "American Society for Clinical Nutrition.", "67 (6): 1186–96.", "doi: 10.1093/ajcn/67.6.1186.", "PMID 9625092.", "Retrieved 19 February 2011.^ a b c d e f g h Wasserman DH (January 2009).", "\"\"Four grams of glucose\"\".", "American Journal of Physiology.", "Endocrinology and Metabolism.", "296 (1): E11–21.", "doi: 10.1152/ajpendo.90563.2008.", "PMC 2636990.", "PMID 18840763.^ Walker, Rosemary and Rodgers, Jill (2006) Type 2 Diabetes – Your Questions Answered.", "Dorling Kindersley.", "ISBN 1-74033-550-3.^ Diabetes FAQs – Blood Glucose Measurement Units – Abbott Diabetes Care^ a b What are mg/dl and mmol/l?", "How to convert?", "Glucose?", "Cholesterol?", "Advameg, Inc.^ \"\"Screening for Type 2 Diabetes\"\".", "Clinical Diabetes.", "18 (2).", "2000.^ Glucose test – blood.", "NIH – National Institutes of Health.^ Davidson, Nancy Klobassa and Moreland, Peggy (26 July 2011) Living with diabetes blog.", "mayoclinic.com.^ American Diabetes Association (2006).", "\"\"January 2006 Diabetes Care\"\".", "Diabetes Care.", "29 (Supplement 1): S4–42.", "PMID 16373931.", "Standards of Medical Care – Table 6 and Table 7, Correlation between A1C level and Mean Plasma Glucose Levels on Multiple Testing over 2–3 months^ USDA National Nutrient Database for Standard Reference, Release 22 (2009)^ Eiler, H. (2004).", "\"\"Endocrine glands\"\".", "In Reese, W. O. Dukes' Physiology of Domestic Animals (12th ed.).", "Ithaca, NY: Comstock.", "pp.", "621–69.", "ISBN 0801442389.^ Kahn, C. M., ed.", "(2005).", "Merck Veterinary Manual (9th ed.).", "Whitehouse Station: Merck & Co. ISBN 0911910506.^ Rice, C. G.; Hall, B.", "(2007).", "\"\"Hematologic and biochemical reference intervals for mountain goats ( Oreamnos americanus ): effects of capture conditions\"\".", "Northwest Science.", "81 (3): 206. doi: 10.3955/0029-344X-81.3.206.^ Cornell, LH; Duffield, DS; Joseph, BE; Stark, B (1988).", "\"\"Hematology and serum chemistry values in the beluga ( Delphinapterus leucas )\"\".", "Journal of wildlife diseases.", "24 (2): 220–24.", "doi: 10.7589/0090-3558-24.2.220.", "PMID 3373628.^ Seal, U. S.; Barton, R.; Mather, L.; Gray, C. W. (1976).", "\"\"Baseline Laboratory Data for the White Rhinoceros ( Ceratotherium simum simum )\"\" (PDF).", "The Journal of Zoo Animal Medicine.", "7 (1): 11–17.", "JSTOR 20094341.^ Boily, F; Beaudoin, S; Measures, LN (2006).", "\"\"Hematology and serum chemistry of harp ( Phoca groenlandica) and hooded seals ( Cystophora cristata) during the breeding season, in the Gulf of St. Lawrence, Canada\"\".", "Journal of wildlife diseases.", "42 (1): 115–32.", "doi: 10.7589/0090-3558-42.1.115.", "PMID 16699154.^ Lehninger, Albert; Nelson, David; Cox, Michael (2017).", "Lehininger Principles of Biochemistry.", "New York: W. H. Freedom.", "p. 934.", "ISBN 9781319117689.^ Tortora, Gerard (December 2016).", "Principles Anatomy and Physiology (15 ed.).", "New York: John Wiley & Sons, Inc. pp.", "Chapter 18.", "ISBN 9781119343738.^ Lehninger, Albert; Nelson, David; Cox, Michael (2017).", "Lehninger Principles of Biochemistry (7th ed.).", "New York: W. H. Freeman.", "p. 930.", "ISBN 9781319117689.^ \"\"Excess sugar linked to cancer\"\".", "Science Daily.^ \"\"Diabetic ketoacidosis - Symptoms and causes\"\".", "Mayo Clinic.", "Retrieved 2018-01-30.^ Consumer Reports Health Best Buy Drugs.", "\"\"The Oral Diabetes Drugs: Treating Type 2 Diabetes\"\" (PDF).", "Best Buy Drugs.", "Consumer Reports: 2.", "Retrieved 18 September 2012.^ Warade, Jayesh Prabhakar (2014).", "\"\"Fasting blood glucose level higher than post-meal in healthy subjects: a study of 738 subjects\"\" (PDF).", "World Journal of Pharmaceutical Research.", "3 (4).", "Archived from the original (PDF) on 2 April 2015.^ Yang, Chiaohsin (2012).", "\"\"A Comparison between Venous and Finger-Prick Blood Sampling on Values of Blood Glucose\"\" (PDF).", "International Proceedings of Chemical, Biological and Environmental Engineering.", "39: 236.^ Somogyi, Michael (1948).", "\"\"Studies of Arteriovenous Differences in Blood Sugar\"\" (PDF).", "J. Biol.", "Chem.", "174 (1): 189–200.", "PMID 18914074.^ Roe, Jeffrey. \"\"", "Glucose Concentration Difference Between Arterial, Capillary, and Venous Blood .", "\"\"^ a b Cox, David L. Nelson, Michael M. (2013).", "Lehninger principles of biochemistry (6th ed.).", "New York: W. H. Freeman.", "p. 950.", "ISBN 9781429234146.^ a b Cox, Michael M.; Lehninger, Albert L.; Nelson, David L. (2017).", "Lehninger Principles of Biochemistry.", "New York: W. H. Freeman.", "pp.", "248–49.", "ISBN 9781319117689.^ Ginsberg, Barry H. (1 July 2009).", "\"\"Factors Affecting Blood Glucose Monitoring: Sources of Errors in Measurement\"\".", "Journal of Diabetes Science and Technology.", "3: 903–13.", "doi: 10.1177/193229680900300438.", "Retrieved 21 October 2017.^ Renschler, HE; Weicker, H; Von Baeyer, H (1965).", "\"\"The upper limit of glucose concentration in the urine of healthy subjects\"\".", "Deutsche Medizinische Wochenschrift.", "90 (53): 2349–53.", "PMID 5851934.^ Neocuproine MSDS.", "hazard.com Further reading [ edit]Henry, John Bernard (2001).", "Clinical diagnosis and Management by Laboratory Methods (20th ed.).", "Philadelphia: Saunders.", "ISBN 0721688640.", "Levine R (1986).", "\"\"Monosaccharides in Health and Disease\"\".", "Annu.", "Rev.", "Nutr.", "6: 211–24.", "doi: 10.1146/annurev.nu.06.070186.001235.", "Röder PV, Wu B, Liu Y, Han W (2016).", "\"\"Pancreatic Regulation of Glucose Homeostasis\"\".", "Exp.", "Mol.", "Med.", "48 (3, March): e219–.", "doi: 10.1038/emm.2016.6.", "PMC 4892884.", "PMID 26964835.", "External links [ edit]Glucose (blood, serum, plasma): analyte monograph – The Association for Clinical Biochemistry and Laboratory Medicine [ show]v t e Human homeostasis [ show]v t e Common for blood tests ( CPT 82000–84999)Categories: Human homeostasis Blood tests Diabetes \"" ]
D2948
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cellular_respiration
Cellular respiration
"From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedianavigation search This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (September 2014) ( Learn how and when to remove this template message)Typical eukaryotic cell Cellular respiration is a set of metabolic reactions and processes that take place in the cells of organisms to convert biochemical energy from nutrients into adenosine triphosphate (ATP), and then release waste products. [1] The reactions involved in respiration are catabolic reactions, which break large molecules into smaller ones, releasing energy in the process, as weak so-called ""high-energy"" bonds are replaced by stronger bonds in the products. Respiration is one of the key ways a cell releases chemical energy to fuel cellular activity. Cellular respiration is considered an exothermic redox reaction which releases heat. The overall reaction occurs in a series of biochemical steps, most of which are redox reactions themselves. Although cellular respiration is technically a combustion reaction, it clearly does not resemble one when it occurs in a living cell because of the slow release of energy from the series of reactions. Nutrients that are commonly used by animal and plant cells in respiration include sugar, amino acids and fatty acids, and the most common oxidizing agent ( electron acceptor) is molecular oxygen (O 2 ). The chemical energy stored in ATP (its third phosphate group is weakly bonded to the rest of the molecule and is cheaply broken allowing stronger bonds to form, thereby transferring energy for use by the cell) can then be used to drive processes requiring energy, including biosynthesis, locomotion or transportation of molecules across cell membranes. Contents [ hide ]1 Aerobic respiration1.1 Aerobic respiration summed up1.2 Glycolysis1.3 Oxidative decarboxylation of pyruvate1.4 Citric acid cycle1.5 Oxidative phosphorylation2 Efficiency of ATP production3 Fermentation4 Anaerobic respiration5 See also6 References7 External links Aerobic respiration Aerobic respiration ( red arrows) is the main means by which both fungi and animals utilize chemical energy in the form of organic compounds that were previously created through photosynthesis ( green arrow ). Aerobic respiration requires oxygen (O 2) in order to create ATP. Although carbohydrates, fats, and proteins are consumed as reactants, it is the preferred method of pyruvate breakdown in glycolysis and requires that pyruvate enter the mitochondria in order to be fully oxidized by the Krebs cycle. The products of this process are carbon dioxide and water, but the energy transferred is used to break bonds in ADP as the third phosphate group is added to form ATP ( adenosine triphosphate ), by substrate-level phosphorylation, NADH and FADH 2Simplified reaction: C 6 H 12 O 6 (s) + 6 O 2 (g) → 6 CO 2 (g) + 6 H 2 O (l) + heatΔG = −2880 k J per mol of C 6 H 12 O 6The negative ΔG indicates that the reaction can occur spontaneously. The potential of NADH and FADH 2 is converted to more ATP through an electron transport chain with oxygen as the ""terminal electron acceptor"". Most of the ATP produced by aerobic cellular respiration is made by oxidative phosphorylation. This works by the energy released in the consumption of pyruvate being used to create a chemiosmotic potential by pumping protons across a membrane. This potential is then used to drive ATP synthase and produce ATP from ADP and a phosphate group. Biology textbooks often state that 38 ATP molecules can be made per oxidised glucose molecule during cellular respiration (2 from glycolysis, 2 from the Krebs cycle, and about 34 from the electron transport system). [2] However, this maximum yield is never quite reached because of losses due to leaky membranes as well as the cost of moving pyruvate and ADP into the mitochondrial matrix, and current estimates range around 29 to 30 ATP per glucose. [2]Aerobic metabolism is up to 15 times more efficient than anaerobic metabolism (which yields 2 molecules ATP per 1 molecule glucose). However some anaerobic organisms, such as methanogens are able to continue with anaerobic respiration, yielding more ATP by using other inorganic molecules (not oxygen) as final electron acceptors in the electron transport chain. They share the initial pathway of glycolysis but aerobic metabolism continues with the Krebs cycle and oxidative phosphorylation. The post-glycolytic reactions take place in the mitochondria in eukaryotic cells, and in the cytoplasm in prokaryotic cells. Aerobic respiration summed up1. Glycolysis:--- 2 ATPs + Glucose → 2 Pyruvic Acid + 4 Hydrogen + 4 ATPs2. Formation of Acetyl Co A:--- 2 Pyruvic Acid + 2 Co A → 2 Acetyl Co A + 2 Carbon Dioxide + 2 Hydrogen3. Krebs Cycle:--- 2 Acetyl Co A + 3 O2 → 6 Hydrogen + 4 Carbon Dioxide + 2 ATPs4. Electron Transport System:--- 12 Hydrogen + 3 O2 → 6 Water + 32 ATPs Overall Reaction:--- Glucose + 6 O2 → 6 Carbon Dioxide + 6 Water + 36 ATPs Glycolysis Out of the cytoplasm it goes into the Krebs cycle with the acetyl Co A. It then mixes with CO 2 and makes 2 ATP, NADH, and FADH. From there the NADH and FADH go into the NADH reductase, which produces the enzyme. The NADH pulls the enzyme's electrons to send through the electron transport chain. The electron transport chain pulls H + ions through the chain. From the electron transport chain, the released hydrogen ions make ADP for an end result of 32 ATP. O 2 attracts itself to the left over electron to make water. Lastly, ATP leaves through the ATP channel and out of the mitochondria. Main article: Glycolysis Glycolysis is a metabolic pathway that takes place in the cytosol of cells in all living organisms. This pathway can function with or without the presence of oxygen. In humans, aerobic conditions produce pyruvate and anaerobic conditions produce lactate. In aerobic conditions, the process converts one molecule of glucose into two molecules of pyruvate (pyruvic acid), generating energy in the form of two net molecules of ATP. Four molecules of ATP per glucose are actually produced, however, two are consumed as part of the preparatory phase. The initial phosphorylation of glucose is required to increase the reactivity (decrease its stability) in order for the molecule to be cleaved into two pyruvate molecules by the enzyme aldolase. During the pay-off phase of glycolysis, four phosphate groups are transferred to ADP by substrate-level phosphorylation to make four ATP, and two NADH are produced when the pyruvate are oxidized. The overall reaction can be expressed this way: Glucose + 2 NAD + + 2 P + 2 ADP → 2 pyruvate + 2 NADH + 2 ATP + 2 H + + 2 H 2 O + heat Starting with glucose, 1 ATP is used to donate a phosphate to glucose to produce glucose 6-phosphate. Glycogen can be converted into glucose 6-phosphate as well with the help of glycogen phosphorylase. During energy metabolism, glucose 6-phosphate becomes fructose 6-phosphate. An additional ATP is used to phosphorylate fructose 6-phosphate into fructose 1,6-disphosphate by the help of phosphofructokinase. Fructose 1,6-diphosphate then splits into two phosphorylated molecules with three carbon chains which later degrades into pyruvate. Glycolysis can be literally translated as ""sugar splitting"". [3]Oxidative decarboxylation of pyruvate Main article: Pyruvate decarboxylation Pyruvate is oxidized to acetyl-Co A and CO 2 by the pyruvate dehydrogenase complex (PDC). The PDC contains multiple copies of three enzymes and is located in the mitochondria of eukaryotic cells and in the cytosol of prokaryotes. In the conversion of pyruvate to acetyl-Co A, one molecule of NADH and one molecule of CO 2 is formed. Citric acid cycle Main article: Citric acid cycle This is also called the Krebs cycle or the tricarboxylic acid cycle. When oxygen is present, acetyl-Co A is produced from the pyruvate molecules created from glycolysis. Once acetyl-Co A is formed, aerobic or anaerobic respiration can occur. [4] When oxygen is present, the mitochondria will undergo aerobic respiration which leads to the Krebs cycle. However, if oxygen is not present, fermentation of the pyruvate molecule will occur. In the presence of oxygen, when acetyl-Co A is produced, the molecule then enters the citric acid cycle (Krebs cycle) inside the mitochondrial matrix, and is oxidized to CO 2 while at the same time reducing NAD to NADH. NADH can be used by the electron transport chain to create further ATP as part of oxidative phosphorylation. To fully oxidize the equivalent of one glucose molecule, two acetyl-Co A must be metabolized by the Krebs cycle. Two waste products, H 2 O and CO 2, are created during this cycle. The citric acid cycle is an 8-step process involving 18 different enzymes and co-enzymes. [4] During the cycle, acetyl-Co A (2 carbons) + oxaloacetate (4 carbons) yields citrate (6 carbons), which is rearranged to a more reactive form called isocitrate (6 carbons). Isocitrate is modified to become α-ketoglutarate (5 carbons), succinyl-Co A, succinate, fumarate, malate, and, finally, oxaloacetate. The net gain of high-energy compounds from one cycle is 3 NADH, 1 FADH 2, and 1 GTP; the GTP may subsequently be used to produce ATP. Thus, the total yield from 1 glucose molecule (2 pyruvate molecules) is 6 NADH, 2 FADH 2, and 2 ATP. Oxidative phosphorylation Main articles: Oxidative phosphorylation, Electron transport chain, Electrochemical gradient, and ATP synthase In eukaryotes, oxidative phosphorylation occurs in the mitochondrial cristae. It comprises the electron transport chain that establishes a proton gradient (chemiosmotic potential) across the boundary of inner membrane by oxidizing the NADH produced from the Krebs cycle. ATP is synthesized by the ATP synthase enzyme when the chemiosmotic gradient is used to drive the phosphorylation of ADP. The electrons are finally transferred to exogenous oxygen and, with the addition of two protons, water is formed. Efficiency of ATP production The table below describes the reactions involved when one glucose molecule is fully oxidized into carbon dioxide. It is assumed that all the reduced coenzymes are oxidized by the electron transport chain and used for oxidative phosphorylation. Step coenzyme yield ATP yield Source of ATPGlycolysis preparatory phase −2 Phosphorylation of glucose and fructose 6-phosphate uses two ATP from the cytoplasm. Glycolysis pay-off phase 4 Substrate-level phosphorylation2 NADH 3 or 5 Oxidative phosphorylation : Each NADH produces net 1.5 ATP (instead of usual 2.5) due to NADH transport over the mitochondrial membrane Oxidative decarboxylation of pyruvate 2 NADH 5 Oxidative phosphorylation Krebs cycle 2 Substrate-level phosphorylation6 NADH 15 Oxidative phosphorylation2 FADH 23 Oxidative phosphorylation Total yield30 or 32 ATP From the complete oxidation of one glucose molecule to carbon dioxide and oxidation of all the reduced coenzymes. Although there is a theoretical yield of 38 ATP molecules per glucose during cellular respiration, such conditions are generally not realized because of losses such as the cost of moving pyruvate (from glycolysis), phosphate, and ADP (substrates for ATP synthesis) into the mitochondria. All are actively transported using carriers that utilize the stored energy in the proton electrochemical gradient. Pyruvate is taken up by a specific, low Km transporter to bring it into the mitochondrial matrix for oxidation by the pyruvate dehydrogenase complex. The phosphate carrier (Pi C) mediates the electroneutral exchange ( antiport) of phosphate (H 2 PO 4 −; P) for OH − or symport of phosphate and protons (H +) across the inner membrane, and the driving force for moving phosphate ions into the mitochondria is the proton motive force. The ATP-ADP translocase (also called adenine nucleotide translocase, ANT) is an antiporter and exchanges ADP and ATP across the inner membrane. The driving force is due to the ATP (−4) having a more negative charge than the ADP (−3), and thus it dissipates some of the electrical component of the proton electrochemical gradient. The outcome of these transport processes using the proton electrochemical gradient is that more than 3 H + are needed to make 1 ATP. Obviously this reduces the theoretical efficiency of the whole process and the likely maximum is closer to 28–30 ATP molecules. [2] In practice the efficiency may be even lower because the inner membrane of the mitochondria is slightly leaky to protons. [5] Other factors may also dissipate the proton gradient creating an apparently leaky mitochondria. An uncoupling protein known as thermogenin is expressed in some cell types and is a channel that can transport protons. When this protein is active in the inner membrane it short circuits the coupling between the electron transport chain and ATP synthesis. The potential energy from the proton gradient is not used to make ATP but generates heat. This is particularly important in brown fat thermogenesis of newborn and hibernating mammals. Stoichiometry of aerobic respiration and most known fermentation types in eucaryotic cell. [6] Numbers in circles indicate counts of carbon atoms in molecules, C6 is glucose C 6 H 12 O 6, C1 carbon dioxide CO 2. Mitochondrial outer membrane is omitted. According to some of newer sources the ATP yield during aerobic respiration is not 36–38, but only about 30–32 ATP molecules / 1 molecule of glucose [6], because: ATP : NADH+H + and ATP : FADH 2 ratios during the oxidative phosphorylation appear to be not 3 and 2, but 2.5 and 1.5 respectively. Unlike in the substrate-level phosphorylation, the stoichiometry here is difficult to establish. ATP synthase produces 1 ATP / 3 H +. However the exchange of matrix ATP for cytosolic ADP and Pi (antiport with OH − or symport with H +) mediated by ATP–ADP translocase and phosphate carrier consumes 1 H + / 1 ATP as a result of regeneration of the transmembrane potential changed during this transfer, so the net ratio is 1 ATP : 4 H +. The mitochondrial electron transport chain proton pump transfers across the inner membrane 10 H + / 1 NADH+H + (4 + 2 + 4) or 6 H + / 1 FADH 2 (2 + 4). So the final stoichiometry is1 NADH+H + : 10 H + : 10/4 ATP = 1 NADH+H + : 2.5 ATP1 FADH 2 : 6 H + : 6/4 ATP = 1 FADH 2 : 1.5 ATPATP : NADH+H + coming from glycolysis ratio during the oxidative phosphorylation is1.5, as for FADH 2, if hydrogen atoms (2H + +2e −) are transferred from cytosolic NADH+H + to mitochondrial FAD by the glycerol phosphate shuttle located in the inner mitochondrial membrane.2.5 in case of malate-aspartate shuttle transferring hydrogen atoms from cytosolic NADH+H + to mitochondrial NAD +So finally we have, per molecule of glucose Substrate-level phosphorylation: 2 ATP from glycolysis + 2 ATP (directly GTP) from Krebs cycle Oxidative phosphorylation2 NADH+H + from glycolysis: 2 × 1.5 ATP (if glycerol phosphate shuttle transfers hydrogen atoms) or 2 × 2.5 ATP (malate-aspartate shuttle)2 NADH+H + from the oxidative decarboxylation of pyruvate and 6 from Krebs cycle: 8 × 2.5 ATP2 FADH 2 from the Krebs cycle: 2 × 1.5 ATPAltogether this gives 4 + 3 (or 5) + 20 + 3 = 30 (or 32) ATP per molecule of glucose The total ATP yield in ethanol or lactic acid fermentation is only 2 molecules coming from glycolysis, because pyruvate is not transferred to the mitochondrion and finally oxidized to the carbon dioxide (CO 2 ), but reduced to ethanol or lactic acid in the cytoplasm. [6]Fermentation Main article: Fermentation Without oxygen, pyruvate ( pyruvic acid) is not metabolized by cellular respiration but undergoes a process of fermentation. The pyruvate is not transported into the mitochondrion, but remains in the cytoplasm, where it is converted to waste products that may be removed from the cell. This serves the purpose of oxidizing the electron carriers so that they can perform glycolysis again and removing the excess pyruvate. Fermentation oxidizes NADH to NAD+ so it can be re-used in glycolysis. In the absence of oxygen, fermentation prevents the buildup of NADH in the cytoplasm and provides NAD+ for glycolysis. This waste product varies depending on the organism. In skeletal muscles, the waste product is lactic acid. This type of fermentation is called lactic acid fermentation. In strenuous exercise, when energy demands exceed energy supply, the respiratory chain cannot process all of the hydrogen atoms joined by NADH. During anaerobic glycolysis, NAD+ regenerates when pairs of hydrogen combine with pyruvate to form lactate. Lactate formation is catalyzed by lactate dehydrogenase in a reversible reaction. Lactate can also be used as an indirect precursor for liver glycogen. During recovery, when oxygen becomes available, NAD+ attaches to hydrogen from lactate to form ATP. In yeast, the waste products are ethanol and carbon dioxide. This type of fermentation is known as alcoholic or ethanol fermentation. The ATP generated in this process is made by substrate-level phosphorylation, which does not require oxygen. Fermentation is less efficient at using the energy from glucose: only 2 ATP are produced per glucose, compared to the 38 ATP per glucose nominally produced by aerobic respiration. This is because the waste products of fermentation still contain chemical potential energy that can be released by oxidation. Ethanol, for example, can be burned in an internal combustion engine like gasoline. Glycolytic ATP, however, is created more quickly. For prokaryotes to continue a rapid growth rate when they are shifted from an aerobic environment to an anaerobic environment, they must increase the rate of the glycolytic reactions. For multicellular organisms, during short bursts of strenuous activity, muscle cells use fermentation to supplement the ATP production from the slower aerobic respiration, so fermentation may be used by a cell even before the oxygen levels are depleted, as is the case in sports that do not require athletes to pace themselves, such as sprinting. Anaerobic respiration Main article: Anaerobic respiration Cellular respiration is the process by which biological fuels are oxidised in the presence of an inorganic electron acceptor (such as oxygen) to produce large amounts of energy, to drive the bulk production of ATP. Anaerobic respiration is used by some microorganisms in which neither oxygen (aerobic respiration) nor pyruvate derivatives (fermentation) is the final electron acceptor. Rather, an inorganic acceptor such as sulfate or nitrate is used. Such organisms are typically found in unusual places such as underwater caves or near hydrothermal vents at the bottom of the ocean. See also Maintenance respiration: maintenance as a functional component of cellular respiration Pasteur point Respirometry: research tool to explore cellular respiration Tetrazolium chloride: cellular respiration indicator Complex 1: NADH:ubiquinone oxidoreductes References^ Bailey, Regina. ""Cellular Respiration"". Archived from the original on 2012-05-05.^ a b c Rich, P. R. (2003). ""The molecular machinery of Keilin's respiratory chain"". Biochemical Society Transactions. 31 (Pt 6): 1095–1105. doi: 10.1042/BST0311095. PMID 14641005.^ Reece1 Urry2 Cain3 Wasserman4 Minorsky5 Jackson6, Jane1 Lisa2 Michael3 Steven4 Peter5 Robert6 (2010). Campbell Biology Ninth Edition. Pearson Education, Inc. p. 168.^ a b ""Cellular Respiration"" (PDF). Archived (PDF) from the original on 2017-05-10.^ Porter, R.; Brand, M. (1 September 1995). ""Mitochondrial proton conductance and H+/O ratio are independent of electron transport rate in isolated hepatocytes"". The Biochemical Journal (Free full text). 310 (Pt 2): 379–382. doi: 10.1042/bj3100379. ISSN 0264-6021. PMC 1135905. PMID 7654171.^ a b c Stryer, Lubert (1995). Biochemistry (fourth ed.). New York – Basingstoke: W. H. Freeman and Company. ISBN 978-0716720096. External links A detailed description of respiration vs. fermentation Kimball's online resource for cellular respiration Cellular Respiration and Fermentation at Clermont College Library resources about Cellular respiration Resources in your library [ show]v t e Metabolism, catabolism, anabolism [ show]v t e Metabolism map Metabolism portal Categories: Cellular respiration Metabolism Plant physiology "
[ "\"From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedianavigation search This article needs additional citations for verification.", "Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources.", "Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.", "(September 2014) ( Learn how and when to remove this template message)Typical eukaryotic cell Cellular respiration is a set of metabolic reactions and processes that take place in the cells of organisms to convert biochemical energy from nutrients into adenosine triphosphate (ATP), and then release waste products.", "[1] The reactions involved in respiration are catabolic reactions, which break large molecules into smaller ones, releasing energy in the process, as weak so-called \"\"high-energy\"\" bonds are replaced by stronger bonds in the products.", "Respiration is one of the key ways a cell releases chemical energy to fuel cellular activity.", "Cellular respiration is considered an exothermic redox reaction which releases heat.", "The overall reaction occurs in a series of biochemical steps, most of which are redox reactions themselves.", "Although cellular respiration is technically a combustion reaction, it clearly does not resemble one when it occurs in a living cell because of the slow release of energy from the series of reactions.", "Nutrients that are commonly used by animal and plant cells in respiration include sugar, amino acids and fatty acids, and the most common oxidizing agent ( electron acceptor) is molecular oxygen (O 2 ).", "The chemical energy stored in ATP (its third phosphate group is weakly bonded to the rest of the molecule and is cheaply broken allowing stronger bonds to form, thereby transferring energy for use by the cell) can then be used to drive processes requiring energy, including biosynthesis, locomotion or transportation of molecules across cell membranes.", "Contents [ hide ]1 Aerobic respiration1.1 Aerobic respiration summed up1.2 Glycolysis1.3 Oxidative decarboxylation of pyruvate1.4 Citric acid cycle1.5 Oxidative phosphorylation2 Efficiency of ATP production3 Fermentation4 Anaerobic respiration5 See also6 References7 External links Aerobic respiration Aerobic respiration ( red arrows) is the main means by which both fungi and animals utilize chemical energy in the form of organic compounds that were previously created through photosynthesis ( green arrow ).", "Aerobic respiration requires oxygen (O 2) in order to create ATP.", "Although carbohydrates, fats, and proteins are consumed as reactants, it is the preferred method of pyruvate breakdown in glycolysis and requires that pyruvate enter the mitochondria in order to be fully oxidized by the Krebs cycle.", "The products of this process are carbon dioxide and water, but the energy transferred is used to break bonds in ADP as the third phosphate group is added to form ATP ( adenosine triphosphate ), by substrate-level phosphorylation, NADH and FADH 2Simplified reaction: C 6 H 12 O 6 (s) + 6 O 2 (g) → 6 CO 2 (g) + 6 H 2 O (l) + heatΔG = −2880 k J per mol of C 6 H 12 O 6The negative ΔG indicates that the reaction can occur spontaneously.", "The potential of NADH and FADH 2 is converted to more ATP through an electron transport chain with oxygen as the \"\"terminal electron acceptor\"\".", "Most of the ATP produced by aerobic cellular respiration is made by oxidative phosphorylation.", "This works by the energy released in the consumption of pyruvate being used to create a chemiosmotic potential by pumping protons across a membrane.", "This potential is then used to drive ATP synthase and produce ATP from ADP and a phosphate group.", "Biology textbooks often state that 38 ATP molecules can be made per oxidised glucose molecule during cellular respiration (2 from glycolysis, 2 from the Krebs cycle, and about 34 from the electron transport system).", "[2] However, this maximum yield is never quite reached because of losses due to leaky membranes as well as the cost of moving pyruvate and ADP into the mitochondrial matrix, and current estimates range around 29 to 30 ATP per glucose.", "[2]Aerobic metabolism is up to 15 times more efficient than anaerobic metabolism (which yields 2 molecules ATP per 1 molecule glucose).", "However some anaerobic organisms, such as methanogens are able to continue with anaerobic respiration, yielding more ATP by using other inorganic molecules (not oxygen) as final electron acceptors in the electron transport chain.", "They share the initial pathway of glycolysis but aerobic metabolism continues with the Krebs cycle and oxidative phosphorylation.", "The post-glycolytic reactions take place in the mitochondria in eukaryotic cells, and in the cytoplasm in prokaryotic cells.", "Aerobic respiration summed up1.", "Glycolysis:--- 2 ATPs + Glucose → 2 Pyruvic Acid + 4 Hydrogen + 4 ATPs2.", "Formation of Acetyl Co A:--- 2 Pyruvic Acid + 2 Co A → 2 Acetyl Co A + 2 Carbon Dioxide + 2 Hydrogen3.", "Krebs Cycle:--- 2 Acetyl Co A + 3 O2 → 6 Hydrogen + 4 Carbon Dioxide + 2 ATPs4.", "Electron Transport System:--- 12 Hydrogen + 3 O2 → 6 Water + 32 ATPs Overall Reaction:--- Glucose + 6 O2 → 6 Carbon Dioxide + 6 Water + 36 ATPs Glycolysis Out of the cytoplasm it goes into the Krebs cycle with the acetyl Co A.", "It then mixes with CO 2 and makes 2 ATP, NADH, and FADH.", "From there the NADH and FADH go into the NADH reductase, which produces the enzyme.", "The NADH pulls the enzyme's electrons to send through the electron transport chain.", "The electron transport chain pulls H + ions through the chain.", "From the electron transport chain, the released hydrogen ions make ADP for an end result of 32 ATP.", "O 2 attracts itself to the left over electron to make water.", "Lastly, ATP leaves through the ATP channel and out of the mitochondria.", "Main article: Glycolysis Glycolysis is a metabolic pathway that takes place in the cytosol of cells in all living organisms.", "This pathway can function with or without the presence of oxygen.", "In humans, aerobic conditions produce pyruvate and anaerobic conditions produce lactate.", "In aerobic conditions, the process converts one molecule of glucose into two molecules of pyruvate (pyruvic acid), generating energy in the form of two net molecules of ATP.", "Four molecules of ATP per glucose are actually produced, however, two are consumed as part of the preparatory phase.", "The initial phosphorylation of glucose is required to increase the reactivity (decrease its stability) in order for the molecule to be cleaved into two pyruvate molecules by the enzyme aldolase.", "During the pay-off phase of glycolysis, four phosphate groups are transferred to ADP by substrate-level phosphorylation to make four ATP, and two NADH are produced when the pyruvate are oxidized.", "The overall reaction can be expressed this way: Glucose + 2 NAD + + 2 P + 2 ADP → 2 pyruvate + 2 NADH + 2 ATP + 2 H + + 2 H 2 O + heat Starting with glucose, 1 ATP is used to donate a phosphate to glucose to produce glucose 6-phosphate.", "Glycogen can be converted into glucose 6-phosphate as well with the help of glycogen phosphorylase.", "During energy metabolism, glucose 6-phosphate becomes fructose 6-phosphate.", "An additional ATP is used to phosphorylate fructose 6-phosphate into fructose 1,6-disphosphate by the help of phosphofructokinase.", "Fructose 1,6-diphosphate then splits into two phosphorylated molecules with three carbon chains which later degrades into pyruvate.", "Glycolysis can be literally translated as \"\"sugar splitting\"\".", "[3]Oxidative decarboxylation of pyruvate Main article: Pyruvate decarboxylation Pyruvate is oxidized to acetyl-Co A and CO 2 by the pyruvate dehydrogenase complex (PDC).", "The PDC contains multiple copies of three enzymes and is located in the mitochondria of eukaryotic cells and in the cytosol of prokaryotes.", "In the conversion of pyruvate to acetyl-Co A, one molecule of NADH and one molecule of CO 2 is formed.", "Citric acid cycle Main article: Citric acid cycle This is also called the Krebs cycle or the tricarboxylic acid cycle.", "When oxygen is present, acetyl-Co A is produced from the pyruvate molecules created from glycolysis.", "Once acetyl-Co A is formed, aerobic or anaerobic respiration can occur.", "[4] When oxygen is present, the mitochondria will undergo aerobic respiration which leads to the Krebs cycle.", "However, if oxygen is not present, fermentation of the pyruvate molecule will occur.", "In the presence of oxygen, when acetyl-Co A is produced, the molecule then enters the citric acid cycle (Krebs cycle) inside the mitochondrial matrix, and is oxidized to CO 2 while at the same time reducing NAD to NADH.", "NADH can be used by the electron transport chain to create further ATP as part of oxidative phosphorylation.", "To fully oxidize the equivalent of one glucose molecule, two acetyl-Co A must be metabolized by the Krebs cycle.", "Two waste products, H 2 O and CO 2, are created during this cycle.", "The citric acid cycle is an 8-step process involving 18 different enzymes and co-enzymes.", "[4] During the cycle, acetyl-Co A (2 carbons) + oxaloacetate (4 carbons) yields citrate (6 carbons), which is rearranged to a more reactive form called isocitrate (6 carbons).", "Isocitrate is modified to become α-ketoglutarate (5 carbons), succinyl-Co A, succinate, fumarate, malate, and, finally, oxaloacetate.", "The net gain of high-energy compounds from one cycle is 3 NADH, 1 FADH 2, and 1 GTP; the GTP may subsequently be used to produce ATP.", "Thus, the total yield from 1 glucose molecule (2 pyruvate molecules) is 6 NADH, 2 FADH 2, and 2 ATP.", "Oxidative phosphorylation Main articles: Oxidative phosphorylation, Electron transport chain, Electrochemical gradient, and ATP synthase In eukaryotes, oxidative phosphorylation occurs in the mitochondrial cristae.", "It comprises the electron transport chain that establishes a proton gradient (chemiosmotic potential) across the boundary of inner membrane by oxidizing the NADH produced from the Krebs cycle.", "ATP is synthesized by the ATP synthase enzyme when the chemiosmotic gradient is used to drive the phosphorylation of ADP.", "The electrons are finally transferred to exogenous oxygen and, with the addition of two protons, water is formed.", "Efficiency of ATP production The table below describes the reactions involved when one glucose molecule is fully oxidized into carbon dioxide.", "It is assumed that all the reduced coenzymes are oxidized by the electron transport chain and used for oxidative phosphorylation.", "Step coenzyme yield ATP yield Source of ATPGlycolysis preparatory phase −2 Phosphorylation of glucose and fructose 6-phosphate uses two ATP from the cytoplasm.", "Glycolysis pay-off phase 4 Substrate-level phosphorylation2 NADH 3 or 5 Oxidative phosphorylation : Each NADH produces net 1.5 ATP (instead of usual 2.5) due to NADH transport over the mitochondrial membrane Oxidative decarboxylation of pyruvate 2 NADH 5 Oxidative phosphorylation Krebs cycle 2 Substrate-level phosphorylation6 NADH 15 Oxidative phosphorylation2 FADH 23 Oxidative phosphorylation Total yield30 or 32 ATP From the complete oxidation of one glucose molecule to carbon dioxide and oxidation of all the reduced coenzymes.", "Although there is a theoretical yield of 38 ATP molecules per glucose during cellular respiration, such conditions are generally not realized because of losses such as the cost of moving pyruvate (from glycolysis), phosphate, and ADP (substrates for ATP synthesis) into the mitochondria.", "All are actively transported using carriers that utilize the stored energy in the proton electrochemical gradient.", "Pyruvate is taken up by a specific, low Km transporter to bring it into the mitochondrial matrix for oxidation by the pyruvate dehydrogenase complex.", "The phosphate carrier (Pi C) mediates the electroneutral exchange ( antiport) of phosphate (H 2 PO 4 −; P) for OH − or symport of phosphate and protons (H +) across the inner membrane, and the driving force for moving phosphate ions into the mitochondria is the proton motive force.", "The ATP-ADP translocase (also called adenine nucleotide translocase, ANT) is an antiporter and exchanges ADP and ATP across the inner membrane.", "The driving force is due to the ATP (−4) having a more negative charge than the ADP (−3), and thus it dissipates some of the electrical component of the proton electrochemical gradient.", "The outcome of these transport processes using the proton electrochemical gradient is that more than 3 H + are needed to make 1 ATP.", "Obviously this reduces the theoretical efficiency of the whole process and the likely maximum is closer to 28–30 ATP molecules.", "[2] In practice the efficiency may be even lower because the inner membrane of the mitochondria is slightly leaky to protons.", "[5] Other factors may also dissipate the proton gradient creating an apparently leaky mitochondria.", "An uncoupling protein known as thermogenin is expressed in some cell types and is a channel that can transport protons.", "When this protein is active in the inner membrane it short circuits the coupling between the electron transport chain and ATP synthesis.", "The potential energy from the proton gradient is not used to make ATP but generates heat.", "This is particularly important in brown fat thermogenesis of newborn and hibernating mammals.", "Stoichiometry of aerobic respiration and most known fermentation types in eucaryotic cell.", "[6] Numbers in circles indicate counts of carbon atoms in molecules, C6 is glucose C 6 H 12 O 6, C1 carbon dioxide CO 2.", "Mitochondrial outer membrane is omitted.", "According to some of newer sources the ATP yield during aerobic respiration is not 36–38, but only about 30–32 ATP molecules / 1 molecule of glucose [6], because: ATP : NADH+H + and ATP : FADH 2 ratios during the oxidative phosphorylation appear to be not 3 and 2, but 2.5 and 1.5 respectively.", "Unlike in the substrate-level phosphorylation, the stoichiometry here is difficult to establish.", "ATP synthase produces 1 ATP / 3 H +.", "However the exchange of matrix ATP for cytosolic ADP and Pi (antiport with OH − or symport with H +) mediated by ATP–ADP translocase and phosphate carrier consumes 1 H + / 1 ATP as a result of regeneration of the transmembrane potential changed during this transfer, so the net ratio is 1 ATP : 4 H +.", "The mitochondrial electron transport chain proton pump transfers across the inner membrane 10 H + / 1 NADH+H + (4 + 2 + 4) or 6 H + / 1 FADH 2 (2 + 4).", "So the final stoichiometry is1 NADH+H + : 10 H + : 10/4 ATP = 1 NADH+H + : 2.5 ATP1 FADH 2 : 6 H + : 6/4 ATP = 1 FADH 2 : 1.5 ATPATP : NADH+H + coming from glycolysis ratio during the oxidative phosphorylation is1.5, as for FADH 2, if hydrogen atoms (2H + +2e −) are transferred from cytosolic NADH+H + to mitochondrial FAD by the glycerol phosphate shuttle located in the inner mitochondrial membrane.2.5 in case of malate-aspartate shuttle transferring hydrogen atoms from cytosolic NADH+H + to mitochondrial NAD +So finally we have, per molecule of glucose Substrate-level phosphorylation: 2 ATP from glycolysis + 2 ATP (directly GTP) from Krebs cycle Oxidative phosphorylation2 NADH+H + from glycolysis: 2 × 1.5 ATP (if glycerol phosphate shuttle transfers hydrogen atoms) or 2 × 2.5 ATP (malate-aspartate shuttle)2 NADH+H + from the oxidative decarboxylation of pyruvate and 6 from Krebs cycle: 8 × 2.5 ATP2 FADH 2 from the Krebs cycle: 2 × 1.5 ATPAltogether this gives 4 + 3 (or 5) + 20 + 3 = 30 (or 32) ATP per molecule of glucose The total ATP yield in ethanol or lactic acid fermentation is only 2 molecules coming from glycolysis, because pyruvate is not transferred to the mitochondrion and finally oxidized to the carbon dioxide (CO 2 ), but reduced to ethanol or lactic acid in the cytoplasm.", "[6]Fermentation Main article: Fermentation Without oxygen, pyruvate ( pyruvic acid) is not metabolized by cellular respiration but undergoes a process of fermentation.", "The pyruvate is not transported into the mitochondrion, but remains in the cytoplasm, where it is converted to waste products that may be removed from the cell.", "This serves the purpose of oxidizing the electron carriers so that they can perform glycolysis again and removing the excess pyruvate.", "Fermentation oxidizes NADH to NAD+ so it can be re-used in glycolysis.", "In the absence of oxygen, fermentation prevents the buildup of NADH in the cytoplasm and provides NAD+ for glycolysis.", "This waste product varies depending on the organism.", "In skeletal muscles, the waste product is lactic acid.", "This type of fermentation is called lactic acid fermentation.", "In strenuous exercise, when energy demands exceed energy supply, the respiratory chain cannot process all of the hydrogen atoms joined by NADH.", "During anaerobic glycolysis, NAD+ regenerates when pairs of hydrogen combine with pyruvate to form lactate.", "Lactate formation is catalyzed by lactate dehydrogenase in a reversible reaction.", "Lactate can also be used as an indirect precursor for liver glycogen.", "During recovery, when oxygen becomes available, NAD+ attaches to hydrogen from lactate to form ATP.", "In yeast, the waste products are ethanol and carbon dioxide.", "This type of fermentation is known as alcoholic or ethanol fermentation.", "The ATP generated in this process is made by substrate-level phosphorylation, which does not require oxygen.", "Fermentation is less efficient at using the energy from glucose: only 2 ATP are produced per glucose, compared to the 38 ATP per glucose nominally produced by aerobic respiration.", "This is because the waste products of fermentation still contain chemical potential energy that can be released by oxidation.", "Ethanol, for example, can be burned in an internal combustion engine like gasoline.", "Glycolytic ATP, however, is created more quickly.", "For prokaryotes to continue a rapid growth rate when they are shifted from an aerobic environment to an anaerobic environment, they must increase the rate of the glycolytic reactions.", "For multicellular organisms, during short bursts of strenuous activity, muscle cells use fermentation to supplement the ATP production from the slower aerobic respiration, so fermentation may be used by a cell even before the oxygen levels are depleted, as is the case in sports that do not require athletes to pace themselves, such as sprinting.", "Anaerobic respiration Main article: Anaerobic respiration Cellular respiration is the process by which biological fuels are oxidised in the presence of an inorganic electron acceptor (such as oxygen) to produce large amounts of energy, to drive the bulk production of ATP.", "Anaerobic respiration is used by some microorganisms in which neither oxygen (aerobic respiration) nor pyruvate derivatives (fermentation) is the final electron acceptor.", "Rather, an inorganic acceptor such as sulfate or nitrate is used.", "Such organisms are typically found in unusual places such as underwater caves or near hydrothermal vents at the bottom of the ocean.", "See also Maintenance respiration: maintenance as a functional component of cellular respiration Pasteur point Respirometry: research tool to explore cellular respiration Tetrazolium chloride: cellular respiration indicator Complex 1: NADH:ubiquinone oxidoreductes References^ Bailey, Regina.", "\"\"Cellular Respiration\"\".", "Archived from the original on 2012-05-05.^ a b c Rich, P. R. (2003).", "\"\"The molecular machinery of Keilin's respiratory chain\"\".", "Biochemical Society Transactions.", "31 (Pt 6): 1095–1105.", "doi: 10.1042/BST0311095.", "PMID 14641005.^ Reece1 Urry2 Cain3 Wasserman4 Minorsky5 Jackson6, Jane1 Lisa2 Michael3 Steven4 Peter5 Robert6 (2010).", "Campbell Biology Ninth Edition.", "Pearson Education, Inc. p. 168.^ a b \"\"Cellular Respiration\"\" (PDF).", "Archived (PDF) from the original on 2017-05-10.^ Porter, R.; Brand, M. (1 September 1995).", "\"\"Mitochondrial proton conductance and H+/O ratio are independent of electron transport rate in isolated hepatocytes\"\".", "The Biochemical Journal (Free full text).", "310 (Pt 2): 379–382.", "doi: 10.1042/bj3100379.", "ISSN 0264-6021.", "PMC 1135905.", "PMID 7654171.^ a b c Stryer, Lubert (1995).", "Biochemistry (fourth ed.).", "New York – Basingstoke: W. H. Freeman and Company.", "ISBN 978-0716720096.", "External links A detailed description of respiration vs. fermentation Kimball's online resource for cellular respiration Cellular Respiration and Fermentation at Clermont College Library resources about Cellular respiration Resources in your library [ show]v t e Metabolism, catabolism, anabolism [ show]v t e Metabolism map Metabolism portal Categories: Cellular respiration Metabolism Plant physiology \"" ]
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_eclipse_of_August_21,_2017
Solar eclipse of August 21, 2017
"From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedianavigation search Solar eclipse of August 21, 2017The eclipse from outside Crowheart, Wyoming. This image used exposure bracketing to show both the Sun's corona and the surface features of the Moon itself. Map Type of eclipse Nature Total Gamma 0.4367Magnitude 1.0306Maximum eclipse Duration 160 sec (2 m 40 s)Coordinates 37°N 87.7°WMax. width of band 115 km (71 mi)Times ( UTC) (P1) Partial begin 15:46:48 (U1) Total begin 16:48:32Greatest eclipse 18:26:40 (U4) Total end 20:01:35 (P4) Partial end 21:04:19References Saros 145 (22 of 77)Catalog # (SE5000) 9546The solar eclipse of August 21, 2017, dubbed "" The Great American Eclipse "" by the media, [1] was a total solar eclipse visible within a band that spanned the entire contiguous United States, passing from the Pacific to the Atlantic coasts. As a partial solar eclipse, it was visible on land from Nunavut in northern Canada to as far south as northern South America. In northwestern Europe and Africa, it was partially visible in the late evening. In Asia, it was visible only at the eastern extremity, the Chukchi Peninsula. Video of the eclipse second contact in Simpsonville, South Carolina. Crowd reaction is heard on audio. Prior to this event, no solar eclipse had been visible across the entire contiguous United States since June 8, 1918; not since the February 1979 eclipse had a total eclipse been visible from anywhere in the mainland United States. [2] The path of totality touched 14 states, and the rest of the U. S. had a partial eclipse. [2] The area of the path of totality was about 16 percent of the area of the United States, [3] with most of this area over the ocean, not land. The event's shadow began to cover land on the Oregon coast as a partial eclipse at 4:05 p.m. UTC (9:05 a.m. PDT ), with the total eclipse beginning there at 5:16 p.m. UTC (10:16 a.m. PDT); the total eclipse's land coverage ended along the South Carolina coast at about 6:44 p.m. UTC (2:44 p.m. EDT ). [2] Visibility as a partial eclipse in Honolulu, Hawaii began with sunrise at 4:20 p.m. UTC (6:20 a.m. HST) and ended by 5:25 p.m. UTC (7:25 a.m. HST). [4]This total solar eclipse marked the first such event in the smartphone and social media era in America. Information, personal communication, and photography were widely available as never before, capturing popular attention and enhancing the social experience. Marriage proposals took place coinciding with the eclipse, and at least one wedding was also planned and took place to coincide with the eclipse. [5] [6] Logistical problems were expected with the influx of visitors, especially for smaller communities. [7] The sale of counterfeit eclipse glasses was also anticipated to be a hazard for eye injuries. [8]Future total solar eclipses will cross the United States in April 2024 (12 states) and August 2045 (10 states), and annular solar eclipses —wherein the Moon appears smaller than the Sun—will occur in October 2023 (9 states) and June 2048 (9 states). Contents [ hide ]1 Visibility2 Other celestial bodies3 Other eclipses over the United States4 Total eclipse viewing events4.1 Oregon4.2 Idaho4.3 Wyoming4.4 Nebraska4.5 Kansas4.6 Missouri4.7 Illinois4.8 Kentucky4.9 Tennessee4.10 North Carolina4.11 Georgia4.12 South Carolina5 Viewing from outside the United States5.1 Canada5.2 Mexico, Central America, Caribbean islands, South America5.3 Russia5.4 Europe5.5 West Africa6 Media and scientific coverage7 Counterfeit eclipse glasses8 Eye damage9 Camera equipment damage10 Planning11 Post-eclipse traffic problems12 Impact on solar power13 Commemorative stamp14 Videos15 Gallery15.1 Totality15.2 Transition15.3 Partial15.4 Images produced by natural pinholes15.5 Views outside of the US16 Related eclipses16.1 Solar eclipses 2015–201816.2 Saros series 14516.3 Metonic series17 See also18 References19 Further reading20 External links Visibility [ edit]Time-lapse footage of Falls Park on the Reedy in Greenville, South Carolina during the eclipse Video of shadow bands on the ground as seen in Simpsonville, South Carolina. The total eclipse had a magnitude of 1.0306 and was visible within a narrow corridor 70 miles (110 km) wide, crossing fourteen of the contiguous United States: Oregon, Idaho, Montana, Wyoming, Nebraska, Kansas, Iowa, Missouri, Illinois, Kentucky, Tennessee, Georgia, North Carolina, and South Carolina. [9] [10] It was first seen from land in the U. S. shortly after 10:15 a.m. PDT (17:15 UTC) at Oregon's Pacific coast, and then it progressed eastward through Salem, Oregon; Idaho Falls, Idaho; Casper, Wyoming; Lincoln, Nebraska; Kansas City, Missouri; St. Louis, Missouri; Hopkinsville, Kentucky; and Nashville, Tennessee; before reaching Columbia, South Carolina about 2:41 p.m.; [11] and finally Charleston, South Carolina. A partial eclipse was seen for a greater time period, beginning shortly after 9:00 a.m. PDT along the Pacific Coast of Oregon. Weather forecasts predicted clear skies in Western U. S. and some Eastern states, but clouds in the Midwest and East Coast. [12]Animation of the eclipse shadow. The dot in the center represents the path of totality. View of the lunar shadow tracking across Earth from the Deep Space Climate Observatory (DSCOVR) satellite The longest ground duration of totality was 2 minutes 41.6 seconds at about 37°35′0″N 89°7′0″W in Giant City State Park, just south of Carbondale, Illinois, and the greatest extent (width) was at 36°58′0″N 87°40′18″W near the village of Cerulean, Kentucky, located in between Hopkinsville and Princeton. [13] This was the first total solar eclipse visible from the Southeastern United States since the solar eclipse of March 7, 1970. Two NASA WB-57F flew above the clouds, prolonging the observation time spent in the umbra. [14] A partial solar eclipse was seen from the much broader path of the Moon 's penumbra, including all of North America, particularly areas just south of the totality pass, where the eclipse lasted about 3–5 hours, northern South America, Western Europe, and some of Africa and north-east Asia. At one location in Wyoming, a small group of astronomers used telescopic lenses to photograph the sun as it was in partial eclipse, while the ISS was also seen to briefly transit the sun. [15] Similar images were captured by NASA from a location in Washington. (See Gallery - partial eclipse section). Other celestial bodies [ edit]During totality stars and 4 planets were visible, including Regulus close to the Sun. Mars was 8 degrees to the right, and Venus 34 degrees right. Mercury was 10 degrees left, and Jupiter 51 degrees left. Solar eclipse and star-system Regulus (upper left) viewed from Cullowhee, NC. During the eclipse for a long span of its path of totality, several bright stars and four planets were visible. The star-system Regulus was visible slightly to the west of the Sun. Mars was 8 degrees to the right, and Venus 34 degrees right. Mercury was 10 degrees left, and Jupiter 51 degrees left. [16]Other eclipses over the United States [ edit]This was the first total solar eclipse visible from the United States since that of July 11, 1991 [17] —which was seen only from part of Hawaii [18] —and the first visible from the contiguous United States since 1979. [19] An eclipse of comparable length (up to 3 minutes, 8 seconds, with the longest eclipse being 6 minutes and 54 seconds) occurred over the contiguous United States on March 7, 1970 along the southern portions of the Eastern Seaboard, from Florida to Virginia. [20]The path of totality of the solar eclipse of February 26, 1979 crossed only the states of Washington, Oregon, Idaho, Montana, and North Dakota. Many enthusiasts traveled to the Pacific Northwest to view the eclipse, since it would be the last chance to view such an eclipse in the contiguous United States for almost four decades. [21] [22]The path of totality across the United States The August 2017 eclipse was the first with a path of totality crossing the Pacific and Atlantic coasts of the U. S. since 1918. Also, its path of totality made landfall exclusively within the United States, making it the first such eclipse since the country's declaration of independence in 1776. Prior to this, the path of totality of the eclipse of June 13, 1257, was the last to make landfall exclusively on lands currently part of the United States. [23]The path of the 2017 eclipse crosses with the path of the upcoming total solar eclipse of April 8, 2024, with the intersection of the two paths being in southern Illinois in Makanda Township at Cedar Lake, just south of Carbondale. An area of about 9,000 square miles, including the cities of Makanda, Carbondale, Cape Girardeau, Missouri, and Paducah, Kentucky, will thus experience two total solar eclipses within a span of less than seven years. [ citation needed] The cities of Benton, Carbondale, Chester, Harrisburg, Marion, and Metropolis in Illinois; Cape Girardeau, Farmington, and Perryville in Missouri, as well as Paducah, Kentucky, will also be in the path of the 2024 eclipse, thereby earning the distinction of witnessing two total solar eclipses in seven years. The solar eclipse of August 12, 2045 will have a very similar path of totality over the U. S. to the 2017 eclipse: about 400 km (250 mi) to the southwest, also crossing the Pacific and Atlantic coasts of the country; however, totality will be more than twice as long. [24]Total eclipse viewing events [ edit]Oregon [ edit]Viewing the eclipse at Oregon State University Campers on a field near Madras, Oregon, three days before the eclipse Totality over Timothy Lake, Oregon Diamond ring effect and some prominences at the end of totality in Oregon Corvallis – The Corvallis campus of Oregon State University hosted ""OSU150 Space Grant Festival: A Total Eclipse Experience"", a weekend-long celebration of the eclipse. A watch party was also hosted on campus the day of the eclipse. [25]Huntington – Historic Farewell Bend State Recreation Area hosted the RASC: Yukon Centre (Yukon Astronomical Society) and the RASC: Okanagan Centre. Solar viewing and presentations on the eclipse were given along with a dark-sky presentation. [26]Keizer – The Salem-Keizer Volcanoes, a Class A baseball team, played a morning game against the visiting Hillsboro Hops that featured the first ever ""eclipse delay"" in baseball history. [27]Madras – The city sponsored a four-day Solarfest at two locations. [28]Prineville – Symbiosis Gathering hosted a seven-day eclipse festival which included rave -style music dubbed ""Oregon Eclipse"". [29] [30] [31]Rickreall – The Polk County Fairgrounds organized a series of events and an eclipse gathering. [32]Salem – The Oregon Museum of Science and Industry hosted an event at the Oregon State Fairgrounds. [33]Idaho [ edit]Total eclipse from Weiser, Idaho Arco – High altitude balloon launches by the USC Astronautical Engineering department and NASA. [34]Craters of the Moon – The National Monument and Preserve hosted NASA presentations, evening star parties hosted by the Idaho Falls Astronomical Society, and presentations by the New Mexico Chapter of the Charlie Bates Solar Astronomy Project. [34]Idaho Falls – Free entertainment and educational seminars and an eclipse-watching event at the Museum of Idaho (an official NASA viewing site) and elsewhere, and a free eclipse-watching event at Melaleuca Field. [35] [36]Rexburg – Brigham Young University Idaho offered a series of eclipse-related educational events. [37]Weiser – The city sponsored a five-day festival prior to the eclipse. [38]Wyoming [ edit]People watching and photographing the eclipse in Yellowstone National Park Casper – The Astronomical League, an alliance of amateur astronomy clubs, held its annual Astrocon conference, [39] and there were other public events, called Wyoming Eclipse Festival 2017. [40]Fort Laramie – Fort Laramie held an eclipse viewing event, which included a Special ""Great American Eclipse"" Program. [41]Nebraska [ edit]A crowd observes the eclipse in Ravenna, Nebraska Alliance – Entertainment and educational seminars were offered. [42] ABC News reported live from Carhenge during totality. [43]Auburn – Nemaha County Hospital hosted an eclipse viewing event, including sharing safety tips from Lifetime Vision Center. [44]Beatrice – Homestead National Monument of America – Events were held with representatives from NASA on Saturday, Sunday and the day of the eclipse. [45] [46]Grand Island – Stuhr Museum hosted an eclipse viewing event, including the launch of a NASA eclipse observing balloon. [47]Lincoln – At Haymarket Park, the Lincoln Saltdogs, an independent baseball team in the American Association, defeated the Gary South Shore Rail Cats 8-5 in a special eclipse game, with 6,956 in attendance. The game was paused for 26 minutes in the middle of the third inning to observe the eclipse. The Saltdogs players wore special eclipse-themed uniforms that were auctioned off after the game. [48] [46]Kansas [ edit]Atchison – Benedictine College hosted thousands in its football stadium. There were students from schools from Kansas, Missouri, Nebraska, and Oklahoma attending, plus numerous other guests who heard from, amongst others, astronomers from the Vatican Observatory. [49]Missouri [ edit]Columbia – The Cosmo Park and the Gans Creek Park were open for the eclipse. [50] There was a watch party on campus for the students of the University of Missouri, [51] and the MU Health Care system released eye safety information. [52]Kansas City – A 5-mile (8 km) bicycle ride from downtown KCMO (where totality only lasted about 30 seconds) to Macken Park in North Kansas City (where totality lasted 1 minute 13 seconds) was organized by KC Pedal Party Club, a local Meetup group. [53]Lathrop – The city celebrated its 150th anniversary with an eclipse festival. [54]Parkville – Total Eclipseofthe Park – August 20 educational program featuring NASA Glenn Research Center Hall of Famer Lynn Bondurant, '61, and August 21 watch party organized by Park University. [55]Potosi – Hora Eclipse, an Israeli folkdance camp coordinated with the eclipse, was held at YMCA Trout Lodge and Camp Lakewood, near the Mark Twain National Forest. More information at the event's website, especially its post-mortem page. St. Clair – An event organized by the St. Clair City Chamber of Commerce. [56]St. Joseph – An event organized by Front Page Science was held at Rosecrans Memorial Airport. [57]St. Louis – David Tipper hosted his Tipper & Friends 4321 electronic music event at Astral Valley Art Park featuring 5 days of music, art, and eclipse viewing. [58]Illinois [ edit]Carbondale – Southern Illinois University sponsored many eclipse related educational events, including the two day Crossroads Astronomy, Science and Technology Expo, and viewing at Saluki Stadium. [59] Amtrak ran a special train, the Eclipse Express, from Chicago to Carbondale. [60] NASA EDGE was there broadcasting live from Southern Illinois University Carbondale with a four-hour and thirty-minute show (11:45 a.m. – 4:15 p.m. EDT). [61]Carterville – A three-day rock festival called Moonstock was headlined by Ozzy Osbourne, who performed during the eclipse. [62]Goreville – View the eclipse with the University of Illinois Astronomy Department. [63]Kentucky [ edit]An eclipse photographer in Madisonville, Kentucky Bowling Green – Western Kentucky University hosted thousands of K-12 students in its football stadium. [64] At Bowling Green Ballpark, the Bowling Green Hot Rods, a Class A baseball team, played an eclipse game against the visiting West Michigan Whitecaps. [65]Hopkinsville – A four-day eclipse festival was held at Jefferson Davis State Historic Site. [66]Tennessee [ edit]Totality from Tennessee Technological University in Cookeville, Tennessee NASA TV 's live coverage was being watched by 4.4 million people at 1:40 EDT, accounting for 87% of all traffic to U. S. federal government websites Athens – The City of Athens hosted ""Total Eclipse of the Park"" at Athens Regional Park, including entertainment, food, and vendors. [67]Clarksville – Austin Peay State University presented several educational events, including an appearance by astronaut Rhea Seddon. [68]Cookeville – Tennessee Technological University hosted a solar eclipse viewing party at Tucker Stadium. [6] Cookeville hosted special events from Saturday to Monday. Mc Minnville – celebrated the eclipse by hosting BLACKOUT 2017, an eclipse viewing event held in the city square. In addition to the viewing, a selection of food trucks and musical acts which features The Pink Floyd Appreciation Society band who performed Pink Floyd's The Dark Side of the Moon in its entirety prior to the totality event. [69]Memphis – At Auto Zone Park, the Memphis Redbirds, a Class AAA baseball team, played an eclipse game against the visiting New Orleans Baby Cakes. [65]Nashville – offered many special events, including the Music City Eclipse Science & Technology Festival at the Adventure Science Center. [70] The Italian Lights Festival hosted the largest Eclipse Viewing Party in Nashville, a free NASA-Certified Eclipse Event held at the Bicentennial Mall. [71] Two astrophysicists from NASA's Jet Propulsion Laboratory emceed the countdown. [72]North Carolina [ edit]Bryson City – Planetarium shows were offered, as well as rides on the Great Smoky Mountains Railroad to an eclipse location. [73]Cullowhee – The eclipse was visible in totality, and classes were cancelled for several hours during the first day of classes at Western Carolina University. [74]Rosman – Pisgah Astronomical Research Institute (PARI) hosted a viewing event. The event at PARI has garnered international attention and the visitors included amateur astronomers. Georgia [ edit]Athens – Viewing at Sanford Stadium at the University of Georgia. [75]Blairsville – Get off the Grid Festival [76] on three days preceding the eclipse. Elbert County – Approximately 400 people gathered at the Georgia Guidestones. [77]South Carolina [ edit]Anderson - Viewing at the Green Pond Landing on Lake Hartwell with food trucks, astronomer, and music. Unfortunately clouds blocked the sun at the time of totality. Charleston - The College of Charleston hosted NASA's ""eclipse headquarters"" broadcast as part of an afternoon eclipse viewing celebration on the green behind the campus library. [78]Clemson – Viewing at Clemson University. [79]Columbia – The South Carolina State Museum hosted four days of educational events, including an appearance by Apollo 16 astronaut Charles Duke. [80] At Spirit Communications Park, the Columbia Fireflies, a Class A baseball team, played an eclipse game against the visiting Rome Braves. [65]Greenville – Viewing at Furman University. Events include streaming coverage from NASA, educational activities, and live music. [81] At Fluor Field, the Greenville Drive, a Class A baseball team, played an eclipse game against the visiting West Virginia Power. [65]Sumter – Viewing at Dillon Park. Eclipse viewing glasses given away for free. [82]Viewing from outside the United States [ edit]Boundaries of the sunset partial eclipse in Western Europe Canada [ edit]A partial eclipse was visible across the width of Canada, ranging from 89 percent in Victoria, British Columbia to 11 percent in Resolute, Nunavut. [83] In Ottawa, viewing parties were held at the Canada Aviation and Space Museum. [84] In Toronto, viewing parties were held at the CNE and the Ontario Science Centre [85]Mexico, Central America, Caribbean islands, South America [ edit]A partial eclipse was visible from Central America, Mexico, the Caribbean islands, and ships and aircraft in and above the adjacent oceans, [86] as well as the northern countries of South America such as Colombia, Venezuela, and several others. [ citation needed]Russia [ edit]A partial eclipse was visible only in the Chukchi Peninsula. [87] In Anadyr, the maximum obscuration was 27.82%. [88]Europe [ edit]In northwestern Europe, a partial eclipse was visible in the evening or at sunset. Only those in Iceland, Ireland, Northern Ireland, Scotland and the Portuguese Azores archipelago saw the eclipse from beginning to end; in the rest of the UK, Norway, the Netherlands, Belgium, France, Spain, and Portugal, sunset occurred before the end of the eclipse. In Germany, the beginning of the eclipse was visible just at sunset only in the extreme northwest of the country. In all regions east of the orange line on the map, the eclipse was not visible. [89]West Africa [ edit]In some locations in West Africa and western North Africa, a partial eclipse was seen just before and during sunset. [ citation needed]Media and scientific coverage [ edit]The Moon's umbra, as seen from the International Space Station A large number of media outlets broadcast coverage of the eclipse, including television and internet outlets. NASA announced plans to offer streaming coverage through its NASA TV and NASA Edge outlets, using cameras stationed on the ground along the path of totality, along with cameras on high-altitude balloons, jets, and coverage from the International Space Station; NASA stated that ""never before will a celestial event be viewed by so many and explored from so many vantage points—from space, from the air, and from the ground."" [90] ABC, CBS, and NBC announced that they would respectively broadcast live television specials to cover the eclipse with correspondents stationed across the path of totality, along with CNN, Fox News Channel, Science, and The Weather Channel. The PBS series Nova presented streaming coverage on Facebook hosted by Miles O'Brien, and aired a special episode chronicling the event—""Eclipse Over America""—later in the day (which marked the fastest production turnaround time in Nova history). [91] [92]Other institutions and services also announced plans to stream their perspectives of the eclipse, including the Exploratorium in San Francisco, the Elephant Sanctuary of Hohenwald, Tennessee, the Slooh robotic telescope app, and The Virtual Telescope Project. The Eclipse Ballooning Project, a consortium of schools and colleges that sent 50 high-altitude balloons into the sky during the eclipse to conduct experiments, provided streams of footage and GPS tracking of its launches. [90] [93] Contact with one balloon with $13,000 of scientific equipment, launched under the aegis of the LGF Museum of Natural History near Vale, Oregon, was lost at 20,000 feet (6,100 m). Given that the balloon was believed to have burst at 100,000 feet (30,000 m), it could have parachuted down anywhere from eastern Oregon to Caldwell, Idaho (most likely) to Sun Valley, Idaho; a $1,000 reward is offered for its recovery. [94]The National Solar Observatory organized Citizen CATE volunteers to man 60 identical telescopes and instrumentation packages along the totality path to study changes in the corona over the duration of the eclipse. In orbit, the satellites Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter, the International Space Station, the Solar Dynamics Observatory, the Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer, Solar and Heliospheric Observatory, and Hinode gathered data from the eclipse. [95]A viewing party was held at the White House, during which President Donald Trump appeared on the Truman Balcony with First Lady Melania Trump. With the sun partially eclipsed, President Trump looked briefly in the general direction of the sun before using solar viewing glasses. [96]The rapper Joey Badass boasted of watching the solar eclipse without viewing glasses, considering that ""our ancestors ain't have no fancy eyewear [and] they ain't all go blind"". Unlike the US president, he did not wear viewing glasses during the entire eclipse. Later, he complained of vision problems and had to cancel his Cleveland, Chicago & Toronto shows on the Everybody Tour, due to ""unforeseen circumstances"". [97]The eclipse generated reports of abnormal behavior in animal and plant life. Some chickens came out from beneath their coops and began grooming, usually an evening activity. Horses displayed increased whinnying, running, and jumping after the event. Cicadas were reported to grow louder before going silent during totality. Various birds were also observed flying in unusually large formations. Flowers such as the Hibiscus closed their petals which typically happens at night, before opening again after the solar event. [98]Pornhub provided an unusual sociological and statistical report: its traffic dropped precipitously along the path of totality, so much so that its researchers were themselves surprised. [99]NASA reported over 90 million page views of the eclipse on its websites, making it the agency's biggest online event ever, beating the previous web traffic record about seven times over. [100]Counterfeit eclipse glasses [ edit]See also: Solar viewer In the months leading up to the eclipse, many counterfeit glasses were put up for sale. Effective eclipse glasses must not only block most visible light, but most UV and infrared light as well. For visible light, the user should only be able to see the Sun, sunglint reflected off shiny metal, halogen bulbs, the filament in unfrosted incandescent bulbs, and similarly intense sources. Determining whether the glasses effectively block enough UV and infrared light requires the use of spectrophotometer, which is a rather expensive piece of lab equipment. [8] [101]The eye's retina lacks pain receptors, and thus damage can occur without one's awareness. [102] [103]The American Astronomical Society (AAS) said products meeting the ISO 12312-2 standard avoid risk to one's eyes, and issued a list of reputable vendors of eclipse glasses. The organization warned against products claiming ISO certification or even citing the same number, but not tested by an accredited laboratory. Another problem was counterfeits of reputable vendors' products, some even claiming the company's name such as with American Paper Optics which published information detailing the differences between its glasses and counterfeits. [104] [102]Andrew Lund, the owner of a company which produces eclipse glasses, noted that not all counterfeit glasses were necessarily unsafe. He stated to Quartz that the counterfeits he tested blocked the majority of harmful light spectrum, concluding that ""the IP is getting ripped off, but the good news is there are no long-term harmful effects."" [101] As one example, the Springdale Library in metropolitan Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, accidentally passed out dozens of pairs of counterfeit eclipse glasses, but as of August 23 had not received any reports of eye damage. [105]On July 27, 2017, Amazon required all eclipse viewing products sold on its website have a submission of origin and safety information, and proof of an accredited ISO certification. In mid-August 2017, Amazon recalled and pulled listings for eclipse viewing glasses that ""may not comply with industry standards"", and gave refunds to customers who had purchased them. [106] [8]Eye damage [ edit]Short-term damage includes solar keratitis, which is similar to sunburn of the cornea. Symptoms usually occur within twenty-four hours and include eye pain and light sensitivity. [107] Long-term or permanent damage includes solar retinopathy, which occurs when the sun burns a hole in the retina, usually at the fovea (the focus of the retina). Symptoms can occur as long as several weeks after the incident, and can include loss of central vision and/or other vision, as well as eye pain and light sensitivity, afterimages, and changes in color vision. [108] Depending on the severity of damage, vision problems can last for several months or be permanent. [107]Camera equipment damage [ edit]Lensrentals, a camera rental company based in Tennessee, reported that many of its customers returned cameras and lenses with extensive damage. The most common problem reported was damage to the camera's sensor. This most often happens when shooting in live view mode, where the sensor is continuously exposed to the eclipse image and becomes damaged by the sun's light. Another problem was the heat and brightness of the eclipse destroying the lens iris, which mechanically regulates the amount of light that enters the camera. Another problem reported was one of a cinema camera’s neutral-density filter being damaged by the heat and light of the eclipse. The cost of all of this damage likely amounted to thousands of dollars. [109]Planning [ edit]A message board on U. S. Route 64 in North Carolina, alerting drivers of the eclipse Officials inside and near the path of totality planned – sometimes for years – for the sudden influx of people. [110] Smaller towns struggled to arrange viewing sites and logistics for what could have been a tourism boom or a disaster. [111]In the American West, illegal camping was a major concern, including near cities like Jackson Hole, Wyoming. [7] Idaho's Office of Emergency Management said Idaho was a prime viewing state, and advised jurisdictions to prepare for service load increases; nearly every hotel and motel room, campground, and in some cases backyards for nearly 100 miles (160 km) north and south of the path of totality had been reserved several months, if not years, in advance. [112] The state anticipated up to 500,000 visitors to join its 1.6 million residents. [113]Oregon deployed six National Guard aircraft and 150 soldiers because the influx of visitors coincided with the state's fire season. [114] Hospital staffing, and supplies of blood and anti–snake bite antidote, were augmented along the totality line. [115]Also in Oregon, there were reports of hoteliers canceling existing reservations made at the regular market rate and increasing their rate, sometimes threefold or more, for guests staying to view the eclipse. [116] The Oregon Department of Justice (DOJ) investigated various complaints and reached settlements with affected customers of at least 10 hotels in the state. [117] These settlements included refunds to the customers and fines paid to the DOJ. [118]Post-eclipse traffic problems [ edit]Although traffic to areas within the path of totality was somewhat spread out over the days prior to the eclipse, [119] there were widespread traffic problems across the United States after the event ended. Michael Zeiler, an eclipse cartographer, had estimated that between 1.85 million and 7.4 million people would travel to the path of the eclipse. [120]In Oregon, an estimated one million people were expected to arrive that the Oregon National Guard was called in to help manage traffic in Madras along US 26 and US 97. [121] Madras Municipal Airport received more than 400 mostly personal planes that queued for hours while waiting to leave after the eclipse. [122]Officials in Idaho, where the totality path crossed the center of the state, began planning for the eclipse a year in advance. The state Transportation Department suspended construction projects along Interstate 15, which traverses Eastern Idaho, from August 18–22 in order to have all lanes open; [123] their counterparts in neighboring Utah, where many were expected to travel the 220 miles (350 km) north via the highway from the Salt Lake City metropolitan area, did the same. On the morning of the eclipse, many drivers left before dawn, creating traffic volume along I-15 normally not seen until morning rush hour; northbound traffic on the interstate in Box Elder County north of Salt Lake City slowed to 10–15 miles per hour (16–24 km/h). [124] The Idaho State Police (ISP) stationed a patrol car along I-15 every 15 miles (24 km) between Shelley and the Utah border. [125]Traffic backed up on I-15/ US 26 south of Idaho Falls After the eclipse, traffic more than doubled along I-15 southbound, with extensive traffic jams continuing for eight hours as viewers who had traveled north into the totality path from Utah returned there and to points south. The ISP tweeted a picture of bumper-to-bumper traffic stalled on the interstate just south of Idaho Falls. Motorists reported to local news outlets that it was taking them two hours to travel the 47 miles (76 km) from that city to Pocatello to the south, a journey that normally takes 45 minutes. [124] Others reported that it took three hours to travel from Idaho Falls to the closer city of Blackfoot, 30 miles (48 km) farther north of Pocatello. [126]In the rest of the state the impact was less severe. Traffic nearly doubled on US 93, and was up 55 percent on US 20. [127]For some northbound travelers on I-15, the Montana Department of Transportation had failed to make similar plans to those in Idaho, scheduling a road construction project to begin on August 21 that narrowed a section of the highway to a single northbound lane, near the exit to Clark Canyon Dam south of Dillon. Though that stretch of highway generally has a traffic count of less than 1,000 vehicles per day, on the day of the eclipse there were over a thousand vehicles per hour at peak times. As a result, traffic backed up as far as Lima, creating a delay of at least an hour for travelers heading northward. Further, as construction had not yet begun, drivers observed cones set up but no workers present on the road. While the state traditionally halts construction projects during high traffic periods, a state official admitted ""we ... probably made a bad mistake here in this regard."" [119]Traffic waiting to get on Interstate 25 at Glendo, Wyoming, after the eclipse In Wyoming, estimates were that the population of the state, officially 585,000, may have doubled or even tripled, with traffic counts on show of August 21ing 536,000 more cars than the five-year average for the third Monday in August; a 68 percent increase. One official offered an estimate of ""two people in every car"" to arrive at a one-million-visitor figure, and others noted that one million was a conservative estimate based on a one-day traffic count of limited portions of major highways. There were additional arrivals by aircraft, plus travelers who arrived early or stayed for additional days. [128] Two days before the eclipse, traffic increased 18 percent over a five-year average, with an additional 131,000 vehicles on the road. [129] Sunday saw an additional 217,000-vehicle increase. [128]Following the eclipse, more than 500,000 vehicles traveled Wyoming roads, creating large traffic jams, particularly on southbound and eastbound highways. [130] Drivers reported that it took up to 10 hours to travel 160 miles (260 km) into northern Colorado. [128] There was one traffic fatality, [131] and another fatality related to an off-highway ATV accident, but in general there were far fewer incidents and traffic citations than authorities had anticipated. [132]In Tennessee, the Knoxville News Sentinel described the traffic problems created by the eclipse as the worst ever seen in that part of the state. One backup along Interstate 75 reached 34 miles (55 km) in length, between Niota and the Interstate 40 interchange at Farragut. A spokesman for the state's Department of Transportation allowed that the traffic jams were the worst he had seen in six and a half years on the job, noting that accidents had aggravated the already heavy traffic flows, attributed the I-75 congestion to Knoxville -area residents heading for the totality path at Sweetwater and returning during what was the city's normal afternoon rush hour. [133]Before the eclipse, state officials had described their traffic expectations as equivalent to that generated by the Bonnaroo Music Festival, the twice-a-season NASCAR Monster Energy Cup races at Bristol or the formerly-held Boomsday fireworks festival. ""Maybe they should have considered a tsunami of traffic combining all three of those heavily attended events"", the News Sentinel commented. The Tennessee Highway Patrol made sure that "" [e]very trooper not on sick leave or military leave or pre-approved leave [wa]s working"" the day of the eclipse; the state DOT made sure its full complement of emergency-aid HELP trucks were available as well. Alert signs on the highways also warned motorists not to pull over onto the shoulders to watch the eclipse as it could increase the risk of dangerous accidents and block the path of emergency vehicles. [133]In North Carolina, the Department of Transportation added cameras, message boards and safety patrols in the counties where the total eclipse would take place, as well as stopping road work. The department warned that due to ""unprecedented"" traffic ordinary activities requiring driving might prove difficult, and advised people to act as if there were snow. [134]In Kentucky, particularly around the Hopkinsville area, which was dubbed ""Eclipseville, USA"", [135] post-eclipse traffic caused extensive delays. The en masse departure of tourists via Interstate 69 as well as the Western Kentucky Parkway resulted in commute times double or even triple of normal. [136] [137] The Hopkinsville-to-Lexington commute under normal circumstances lasts three and a half hours. Impact on solar power [ edit]An eclipse causes a reduction of solar power generation where the Moon shadow covers any solar panel, as do clouds. The North American Electric Reliability Corporation predicted minor impacts, [138] and attempted to measure the impact of the 2017 eclipse. [139] In California, solar power was projected to decrease by 4–6,000 megawatts [140] at 70 MW/minute, and then ramp up by 90 MW/minute as the shadow passes. CAISO 's typical ramp rate is 29 megawatts per minute. [141] Around 4 GW mainly in North Carolina and Georgia were expected to be 90 percent obscured. [140]After the 2017 eclipse, grid operators in California reported having lost 3,000–3,500 megawatts of utility-scale solar power, which was made up for by hydropower and gas reliably and as expected, [142] [143] mimicking the usual duck curve. Energy demand management was also used to mitigate the solar drop. [144]NV Energy prepared for the solar eclipse months in advance and collaborated with 17 western states. When the eclipse began covering California with partial darkness, which reduced its usual amount of solar-generated electricity, NV Energy sent power there. Likewise, when Nevada received less sunlight, other west coast states supplied electricity to it. During the solar eclipse, the state of Nevada lost about 450 megawatts of electricity, the amount used by about a quarter million typical residences. [145]The 2015 eclipse caused manageable solar power decreases in Europe; [146] in Germany, solar power dropped from 14 GW to 7 GW, of a 38 GW solar power capacity. [147]Commemorative stamp [ edit]Main article: 2017 Total Solar Eclipse stamp On June 20, 2017, the USPS released the first application of thermochromic ink to postage stamps in its Total Eclipse of the Sun Forever stamp to commemorate the eclipse. [148] [149] When pressed with a finger, body heat turns the dark image into an image of the full moon. The stamp was released prior to August 21, so uses an image from the eclipse of March 29, 2006 seen in Jalu, Libya. [149]Videos [ edit]Animation showing shadow movement of event from space. Illustration showing umbra (black oval), penumbra (concentric shaded ovals), and path of totality (red). Illustration featuring several visualizations of the event. Short time-lapse showing umbra as it moves across the clouds. Video of the moment totality occurred in Newberry, South Carolina Gallery [ edit]Totality [ edit] (Images where the sun is completely eclipsed by the moon)Sequence starting at 9:06am, totality at 10:19am, and ending at 10:21am PDT, as seen from Corvallis, Oregon Totality and prominences as seen from Glenrock, Wyoming Totality as seen from Columbia, Missouri Totality as seen from Sweetwater, Tennessee Totality as seen from Saint Paul, Clarendon County, South Carolina Totality as seen from Newberry, South Carolina Transition [ edit] (Images showing Baily's beads or a Diamond ring, which occur just as totality begins or ends)Beginning of Diamond ring as seen from Glenrock, Wyoming Diamond ring as seen from Jay Em, Wyoming Baily's beads before totality from far western Nebraska Diamond ring as seen from Corvallis, Oregon Diamond ring as seen from Saint Paul, South Carolina Diamond ring as seen from Newberry, South Carolina Diamond ring (with large flare) as seen from Cullowhee, NCPartial [ edit] (Images where the sun is partially eclipsed by the moon)Seattle, Washington North Cascades National Park, Washington. The ISS is visible as it transits the sun during the eclipse (4 frame composite image). San Francisco, California Mira Mesa in San Diego, California Far western Nebraska White House, Tennessee Maine at 2:41 p.m. EDT before maximum 68% coverage at 2:45 p.m. Brooklyn, New York Ellicott City, Maryland shortly before maximum eclipse (~80%)Virginia Beach, Virginia Simpsonville, South Carolina Newberry, South Carolina Images produced by natural pinholes [ edit] (Images of the eclipse created by natural pinholes formed by tree leaves)North Cascade mountains (British Columbia and Washington). East Wenatchee, Washington Moon, Pennsylvania Views outside of the US [ edit]Tuxtla Gutiérrez ( Chiapas ), Mexico at 12:36 GMT-6. Chihuahua, Mexico at 11:40 a.m. Sunset from Zarautz, Basque Country, Spain Sunset, viewed from Coimbra, Portugal Related eclipses [ edit]Astronomers Without Borders began collecting eclipse glasses for redistribution to Latin America for the total solar eclipse occurring on July 2, 2019 and to Asia for the annular eclipse on December 26, 2019. [150]A partial lunar eclipse took place on August 7, 2017, in the same eclipse season. It was visible over Africa, Asia, Australia, and eastern Europe. Solar eclipses 2015–2018 [ edit]Each member in a semester series of solar eclipses repeats approximately every 177 days and 4 hours (a semester) at alternating nodes of the Moon's orbit. [ show]Solar eclipse series sets from 2015–18Saros series 145 [ edit]This solar eclipse is a part of Saros cycle 145, repeating every 18 years, 11 days, 8 hours, containing 77 events. The series started with a partial solar eclipse on January 4, 1639, and reached a first annular eclipse on June 6, 1891. It was a hybrid event on June 17, 1909, and total eclipses from June 29, 1927, through September 9, 2648. The series ends at member 77 as a partial eclipse on April 17, 3009. The longest eclipse will occur on June 25, 2522, with a maximum duration of totality of 7 minutes, 12 seconds. [151] [ show] Series members 16–26 occur between 1901 and 2100Metonic series [ edit]The metonic series repeats eclipses every 19 years (6939.69 days), lasting about 5 cycles. Eclipses occur in nearly the same calendar date. In addition, the octon subseries repeats 1/5 of that or every 3.8 years (1387.94 days). [ show] 21 eclipse events, progressing from north to south between June 10, 1964, and August 21, 2036See also [ edit]List of solar eclipses visible from the United States Notable total solar eclipses crossing the United States from 1900 to 2050: Solar eclipse of June 8, 1918Solar eclipse of April 8, 2024Solar eclipse of August 12, 2045Notable annular solar eclipses crossing the United States from 1900 to 2050: Solar eclipse of May 10, 1994Solar eclipse of October 14, 2023Solar eclipse of June 11, 2048References [ edit]^ See, e.g., Steed, Edward (September 4, 2017), ""The Great American Eclipse of 2017"", The New Yorker, retrieved October 29, 2017; Massimino, Mike (narrator) (August 22, 2017), The Great American Eclipse, Science Channel, retrieved October 29, 2017; Redd, Nola Taylor (September 29, 2017), ""What the 2017 Solar Eclipse Taught Us About Boosting Public Interest in Science"", space.com, Purch Group, retrieved October 29, 2017; Zhang, Michael (September 22, 2017), ""A Near-IR Photo of the Moon's Shadow During the Great American Eclipse"", Peta Pixel, retrieved October 29, 2017; Lakind, Sean (September 12, 2017), ""The Great American Eclipse And Its Effect On Retail Traffic"", Forbes, retrieved October 29, 2017.^ a b c Chan, Melissa (July 25, 2017). 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""Highway patrol releases new details about Colorado motorcyclist killed in Eclipse traffic"". Casper Star-Tribune Online. Retrieved August 24, 2017.^ Sanderson, Shane. ""Eclipse keeps highway patrol busy, but local authorities respond to fewer incidents than expected"". Casper Star-Tribune Online. Retrieved August 24, 2017.^ a b Jacobs, Don (August 21, 2017). ""Worst traffic snarls ever seen in East Tennessee"". Knoxville News Sentinel. Retrieved August 26, 2017.^ ""Western NC ready for eclipse, but roads clogged"". Winston-Salem Journal. Associated Press. August 21, 2017. Retrieved August 21, 2017.^ Williams, Chris (July 22, 2017). ""Welcome to 'Eclipseville,' Hopkinsville, Ky, USA"". WHAS. Retrieved October 17, 2017.^ Stunson, Mike (August 22, 2017). ""The rare eclipse was memorable. The ride home was something they want to forget"". Lexington Herald-Leader. Retrieved October 17, 2017. Once we left Hopkinsville ... It took us 10 hours to go 210 miles, and we didn't return to our home in Lexington until just after midnight.^ Helmer, Katrina (August 21, 2017). ""As solar eclipse ends, traffic stalls heading out of Hopkinsville"". WDRB. Retrieved October 17, 2017. As of 10 p.m., drivers were still on the roads trying to get back to Louisville more than seven hours after leaving Hopkinsville.^ ""A Wide-Area Perspective on the August 21, 2017 Total Solar Eclipse"" (PDF). North American Electric Reliability Corporation. April 2017. p. 20. Retrieved May 1, 2017. The analysis performed in this study showed no reliability impacts to bulk power system (BPS) operations.^ ""2016 Long-Term Reliability Assessment"" (PDF). North American Electric Reliability Corporation. December 2016. p. 70. Retrieved April 18, 2017. causes substantial effects to wide-scale solar generation within a very short amount of time. The output generated by PV/solar systems will be either diminished or drastically reduced within the window of this event. Sudden widespread diminishing of solar irradiance may heavily affect areas with large amounts of utility scale PV energy installations or behind-the-meter DERs.^ a b ""Solar eclipse on August 21 will affect photovoltaic generators across the country – Today in Energy"". U. S. Energy Information Administration (EIA). August 7, 2017. Retrieved August 13, 2017.^ Pyper, Julia (May 11, 2017). ""This Summer's Eclipse Will Put California's Solar-Powered Grid to the Test"". Greentech Media. Retrieved May 14, 2017.^ Grandoni, Dino (August 21, 2017). ""California is the state that most depends on the sun for energy. It survived the eclipse without losing any"". The Washington Post. Retrieved August 23, 2017.^ Baker, David R. (August 21, 2017). ""California power grid survives solar eclipse unscathed"". SFGate. Retrieved August 23, 2017.^ Pyper, Julia (August 21, 2017). ""Looking Beyond the Eclipse: How the Historic Event Tested Customer Engagement on the Electric Grid"". Retrieved August 23, 2017. Today’s eclipse is a test run for the electricity community. So we have exactly the same challenge on a regular basis within the grid because of solar.^ Mendoza, Jullie Anne (August 21, 2017). ""NV Energy all set for solar eclipse in Nevada, despite loss of power"". Centrio News. Henderson, Nevada: Centrio Media Network. Retrieved August 22, 2017.^ ""European power grids keep lights on through solar eclipse"". Reuters. March 20, 2015.^ ""German power net survives solar eclipse"". dw.com. Deutsche Welle. March 20, 2015. Retrieved May 14, 2017.^ ""Total Eclipse of the Sun to be commemorated on a Forever Stamp"". United States Postal Service. April 27, 2017. Retrieved July 10, 2017.^ a b ""Total Eclipse of the Sun"". United States Postal Service (store). Retrieved June 27, 2017.^ Cooper, Gael (August 22, 2017). ""Wait! Dig those eclipse glasses out of the garbage Here comes the sun. Astronomers Without Borders will be collecting the protective eyewear for use in future eclipses worldwide"". Retrieved August 27, 2017.^ Espenak, Fred (September 26, 2009). ""Statistics for Solar Eclipses of Saros 145"". NASA. Archived from the original on September 30, 2009. Further reading [ edit]Bakich, Michael E. (2016). Your Guide to the 2017 Total Solar Eclipse. The Patrick Moore Practical Astronomy Series. New York, NY: Springer. ISBN 978-3-319-27630-4. External links [ edit]Find more about Solar eclipse of August 21, 2017 at Wikipedia's sister projects Media from Wikimedia Commons Data from Wikidata August 21, 2017 eclipse – NASAColor map – NASAEclipse 2017: One Nation Under The Sun (NPR) A synopsis of people's reactions as the eclipse moved across the U. S., (published August 27, 2017). Eclipse Across America (Celestron) A synopsis of people's reactions as the eclipse moved across the U. S., (published September 26, 2017). Photos and videos Space.com Gallery of photos from Casper, Wyoming [ show]v t e Solar eclipses Categories:2017 in science 2017 in space 21st-century solar eclipses August 2017 events August 2017 events in the United States Total solar eclipses "
[ "\"From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedianavigation search Solar eclipse of August 21, 2017The eclipse from outside Crowheart, Wyoming.", "This image used exposure bracketing to show both the Sun's corona and the surface features of the Moon itself.", "Map Type of eclipse Nature Total Gamma 0.4367Magnitude 1.0306Maximum eclipse Duration 160 sec (2 m 40 s)Coordinates 37°N 87.7°WMax.", "width of band 115 km (71 mi)Times ( UTC) (P1) Partial begin 15:46:48 (U1) Total begin 16:48:32Greatest eclipse 18:26:40 (U4) Total end 20:01:35 (P4) Partial end 21:04:19References Saros 145 (22 of 77)Catalog # (SE5000) 9546The solar eclipse of August 21, 2017, dubbed \"\" The Great American Eclipse \"\" by the media, [1] was a total solar eclipse visible within a band that spanned the entire contiguous United States, passing from the Pacific to the Atlantic coasts.", "As a partial solar eclipse, it was visible on land from Nunavut in northern Canada to as far south as northern South America.", "In northwestern Europe and Africa, it was partially visible in the late evening.", "In Asia, it was visible only at the eastern extremity, the Chukchi Peninsula.", "Video of the eclipse second contact in Simpsonville, South Carolina.", "Crowd reaction is heard on audio.", "Prior to this event, no solar eclipse had been visible across the entire contiguous United States since June 8, 1918; not since the February 1979 eclipse had a total eclipse been visible from anywhere in the mainland United States.", "[2] The path of totality touched 14 states, and the rest of the U. S. had a partial eclipse.", "[2] The area of the path of totality was about 16 percent of the area of the United States, [3] with most of this area over the ocean, not land.", "The event's shadow began to cover land on the Oregon coast as a partial eclipse at 4:05 p.m. UTC (9:05 a.m. PDT ), with the total eclipse beginning there at 5:16 p.m. UTC (10:16 a.m. PDT); the total eclipse's land coverage ended along the South Carolina coast at about 6:44 p.m. UTC (2:44 p.m. EDT ).", "[2] Visibility as a partial eclipse in Honolulu, Hawaii began with sunrise at 4:20 p.m. UTC (6:20 a.m. HST) and ended by 5:25 p.m. UTC (7:25 a.m. HST).", "[4]This total solar eclipse marked the first such event in the smartphone and social media era in America.", "Information, personal communication, and photography were widely available as never before, capturing popular attention and enhancing the social experience.", "Marriage proposals took place coinciding with the eclipse, and at least one wedding was also planned and took place to coincide with the eclipse.", "[5] [6] Logistical problems were expected with the influx of visitors, especially for smaller communities.", "[7] The sale of counterfeit eclipse glasses was also anticipated to be a hazard for eye injuries.", "[8]Future total solar eclipses will cross the United States in April 2024 (12 states) and August 2045 (10 states), and annular solar eclipses —wherein the Moon appears smaller than the Sun—will occur in October 2023 (9 states) and June 2048 (9 states).", "Contents [ hide ]1 Visibility2 Other celestial bodies3 Other eclipses over the United States4 Total eclipse viewing events4.1 Oregon4.2 Idaho4.3 Wyoming4.4 Nebraska4.5 Kansas4.6 Missouri4.7 Illinois4.8 Kentucky4.9 Tennessee4.10 North Carolina4.11 Georgia4.12 South Carolina5 Viewing from outside the United States5.1 Canada5.2 Mexico, Central America, Caribbean islands, South America5.3 Russia5.4 Europe5.5 West Africa6 Media and scientific coverage7 Counterfeit eclipse glasses8 Eye damage9 Camera equipment damage10 Planning11 Post-eclipse traffic problems12 Impact on solar power13 Commemorative stamp14 Videos15 Gallery15.1 Totality15.2 Transition15.3 Partial15.4 Images produced by natural pinholes15.5 Views outside of the US16 Related eclipses16.1 Solar eclipses 2015–201816.2 Saros series 14516.3 Metonic series17 See also18 References19 Further reading20 External links Visibility [ edit]Time-lapse footage of Falls Park on the Reedy in Greenville, South Carolina during the eclipse Video of shadow bands on the ground as seen in Simpsonville, South Carolina.", "The total eclipse had a magnitude of 1.0306 and was visible within a narrow corridor 70 miles (110 km) wide, crossing fourteen of the contiguous United States: Oregon, Idaho, Montana, Wyoming, Nebraska, Kansas, Iowa, Missouri, Illinois, Kentucky, Tennessee, Georgia, North Carolina, and South Carolina.", "[9] [10] It was first seen from land in the U. S. shortly after 10:15 a.m. PDT (17:15 UTC) at Oregon's Pacific coast, and then it progressed eastward through Salem, Oregon; Idaho Falls, Idaho; Casper, Wyoming; Lincoln, Nebraska; Kansas City, Missouri; St. Louis, Missouri; Hopkinsville, Kentucky; and Nashville, Tennessee; before reaching Columbia, South Carolina about 2:41 p.m.; [11] and finally Charleston, South Carolina.", "A partial eclipse was seen for a greater time period, beginning shortly after 9:00 a.m. PDT along the Pacific Coast of Oregon.", "Weather forecasts predicted clear skies in Western U. S. and some Eastern states, but clouds in the Midwest and East Coast.", "[12]Animation of the eclipse shadow.", "The dot in the center represents the path of totality.", "View of the lunar shadow tracking across Earth from the Deep Space Climate Observatory (DSCOVR) satellite The longest ground duration of totality was 2 minutes 41.6 seconds at about 37°35′0″N 89°7′0″W in Giant City State Park, just south of Carbondale, Illinois, and the greatest extent (width) was at 36°58′0″N 87°40′18″W near the village of Cerulean, Kentucky, located in between Hopkinsville and Princeton.", "[13] This was the first total solar eclipse visible from the Southeastern United States since the solar eclipse of March 7, 1970.", "Two NASA WB-57F flew above the clouds, prolonging the observation time spent in the umbra.", "[14] A partial solar eclipse was seen from the much broader path of the Moon 's penumbra, including all of North America, particularly areas just south of the totality pass, where the eclipse lasted about 3–5 hours, northern South America, Western Europe, and some of Africa and north-east Asia.", "At one location in Wyoming, a small group of astronomers used telescopic lenses to photograph the sun as it was in partial eclipse, while the ISS was also seen to briefly transit the sun.", "[15] Similar images were captured by NASA from a location in Washington.", "(See Gallery - partial eclipse section).", "Other celestial bodies [ edit]During totality stars and 4 planets were visible, including Regulus close to the Sun.", "Mars was 8 degrees to the right, and Venus 34 degrees right.", "Mercury was 10 degrees left, and Jupiter 51 degrees left.", "Solar eclipse and star-system Regulus (upper left) viewed from Cullowhee, NC.", "During the eclipse for a long span of its path of totality, several bright stars and four planets were visible.", "The star-system Regulus was visible slightly to the west of the Sun.", "Mars was 8 degrees to the right, and Venus 34 degrees right.", "Mercury was 10 degrees left, and Jupiter 51 degrees left.", "[16]Other eclipses over the United States [ edit]This was the first total solar eclipse visible from the United States since that of July 11, 1991 [17] —which was seen only from part of Hawaii [18] —and the first visible from the contiguous United States since 1979.", "[19] An eclipse of comparable length (up to 3 minutes, 8 seconds, with the longest eclipse being 6 minutes and 54 seconds) occurred over the contiguous United States on March 7, 1970 along the southern portions of the Eastern Seaboard, from Florida to Virginia.", "[20]The path of totality of the solar eclipse of February 26, 1979 crossed only the states of Washington, Oregon, Idaho, Montana, and North Dakota.", "Many enthusiasts traveled to the Pacific Northwest to view the eclipse, since it would be the last chance to view such an eclipse in the contiguous United States for almost four decades.", "[21] [22]The path of totality across the United States The August 2017 eclipse was the first with a path of totality crossing the Pacific and Atlantic coasts of the U. S. since 1918.", "Also, its path of totality made landfall exclusively within the United States, making it the first such eclipse since the country's declaration of independence in 1776.", "Prior to this, the path of totality of the eclipse of June 13, 1257, was the last to make landfall exclusively on lands currently part of the United States.", "[23]The path of the 2017 eclipse crosses with the path of the upcoming total solar eclipse of April 8, 2024, with the intersection of the two paths being in southern Illinois in Makanda Township at Cedar Lake, just south of Carbondale.", "An area of about 9,000 square miles, including the cities of Makanda, Carbondale, Cape Girardeau, Missouri, and Paducah, Kentucky, will thus experience two total solar eclipses within a span of less than seven years.", "[ citation needed] The cities of Benton, Carbondale, Chester, Harrisburg, Marion, and Metropolis in Illinois; Cape Girardeau, Farmington, and Perryville in Missouri, as well as Paducah, Kentucky, will also be in the path of the 2024 eclipse, thereby earning the distinction of witnessing two total solar eclipses in seven years.", "The solar eclipse of August 12, 2045 will have a very similar path of totality over the U. S. to the 2017 eclipse: about 400 km (250 mi) to the southwest, also crossing the Pacific and Atlantic coasts of the country; however, totality will be more than twice as long.", "[24]Total eclipse viewing events [ edit]Oregon [ edit]Viewing the eclipse at Oregon State University Campers on a field near Madras, Oregon, three days before the eclipse Totality over Timothy Lake, Oregon Diamond ring effect and some prominences at the end of totality in Oregon Corvallis – The Corvallis campus of Oregon State University hosted \"\"OSU150 Space Grant Festival: A Total Eclipse Experience\"\", a weekend-long celebration of the eclipse.", "A watch party was also hosted on campus the day of the eclipse.", "[25]Huntington – Historic Farewell Bend State Recreation Area hosted the RASC: Yukon Centre (Yukon Astronomical Society) and the RASC: Okanagan Centre.", "Solar viewing and presentations on the eclipse were given along with a dark-sky presentation.", "[26]Keizer – The Salem-Keizer Volcanoes, a Class A baseball team, played a morning game against the visiting Hillsboro Hops that featured the first ever \"\"eclipse delay\"\" in baseball history.", "[27]Madras – The city sponsored a four-day Solarfest at two locations.", "[28]Prineville – Symbiosis Gathering hosted a seven-day eclipse festival which included rave -style music dubbed \"\"Oregon Eclipse\"\".", "[29] [30] [31]Rickreall – The Polk County Fairgrounds organized a series of events and an eclipse gathering.", "[32]Salem – The Oregon Museum of Science and Industry hosted an event at the Oregon State Fairgrounds.", "[33]Idaho [ edit]Total eclipse from Weiser, Idaho Arco – High altitude balloon launches by the USC Astronautical Engineering department and NASA.", "[34]Craters of the Moon – The National Monument and Preserve hosted NASA presentations, evening star parties hosted by the Idaho Falls Astronomical Society, and presentations by the New Mexico Chapter of the Charlie Bates Solar Astronomy Project.", "[34]Idaho Falls – Free entertainment and educational seminars and an eclipse-watching event at the Museum of Idaho (an official NASA viewing site) and elsewhere, and a free eclipse-watching event at Melaleuca Field.", "[35] [36]Rexburg – Brigham Young University Idaho offered a series of eclipse-related educational events.", "[37]Weiser – The city sponsored a five-day festival prior to the eclipse.", "[38]Wyoming [ edit]People watching and photographing the eclipse in Yellowstone National Park Casper – The Astronomical League, an alliance of amateur astronomy clubs, held its annual Astrocon conference, [39] and there were other public events, called Wyoming Eclipse Festival 2017.", "[40]Fort Laramie – Fort Laramie held an eclipse viewing event, which included a Special \"\"Great American Eclipse\"\" Program.", "[41]Nebraska [ edit]A crowd observes the eclipse in Ravenna, Nebraska Alliance – Entertainment and educational seminars were offered.", "[42] ABC News reported live from Carhenge during totality.", "[43]Auburn – Nemaha County Hospital hosted an eclipse viewing event, including sharing safety tips from Lifetime Vision Center.", "[44]Beatrice – Homestead National Monument of America – Events were held with representatives from NASA on Saturday, Sunday and the day of the eclipse.", "[45] [46]Grand Island – Stuhr Museum hosted an eclipse viewing event, including the launch of a NASA eclipse observing balloon.", "[47]Lincoln – At Haymarket Park, the Lincoln Saltdogs, an independent baseball team in the American Association, defeated the Gary South Shore Rail Cats 8-5 in a special eclipse game, with 6,956 in attendance.", "The game was paused for 26 minutes in the middle of the third inning to observe the eclipse.", "The Saltdogs players wore special eclipse-themed uniforms that were auctioned off after the game.", "[48] [46]Kansas [ edit]Atchison – Benedictine College hosted thousands in its football stadium.", "There were students from schools from Kansas, Missouri, Nebraska, and Oklahoma attending, plus numerous other guests who heard from, amongst others, astronomers from the Vatican Observatory.", "[49]Missouri [ edit]Columbia – The Cosmo Park and the Gans Creek Park were open for the eclipse.", "[50] There was a watch party on campus for the students of the University of Missouri, [51] and the MU Health Care system released eye safety information.", "[52]Kansas City – A 5-mile (8 km) bicycle ride from downtown KCMO (where totality only lasted about 30 seconds) to Macken Park in North Kansas City (where totality lasted 1 minute 13 seconds) was organized by KC Pedal Party Club, a local Meetup group.", "[53]Lathrop – The city celebrated its 150th anniversary with an eclipse festival.", "[54]Parkville – Total Eclipseofthe Park – August 20 educational program featuring NASA Glenn Research Center Hall of Famer Lynn Bondurant, '61, and August 21 watch party organized by Park University.", "[55]Potosi – Hora Eclipse, an Israeli folkdance camp coordinated with the eclipse, was held at YMCA Trout Lodge and Camp Lakewood, near the Mark Twain National Forest.", "More information at the event's website, especially its post-mortem page.", "St. Clair – An event organized by the St. Clair City Chamber of Commerce.", "[56]St. Joseph – An event organized by Front Page Science was held at Rosecrans Memorial Airport.", "[57]St. Louis – David Tipper hosted his Tipper & Friends 4321 electronic music event at Astral Valley Art Park featuring 5 days of music, art, and eclipse viewing.", "[58]Illinois [ edit]Carbondale – Southern Illinois University sponsored many eclipse related educational events, including the two day Crossroads Astronomy, Science and Technology Expo, and viewing at Saluki Stadium.", "[59] Amtrak ran a special train, the Eclipse Express, from Chicago to Carbondale.", "[60] NASA EDGE was there broadcasting live from Southern Illinois University Carbondale with a four-hour and thirty-minute show (11:45 a.m. – 4:15 p.m. EDT).", "[61]Carterville – A three-day rock festival called Moonstock was headlined by Ozzy Osbourne, who performed during the eclipse.", "[62]Goreville – View the eclipse with the University of Illinois Astronomy Department.", "[63]Kentucky [ edit]An eclipse photographer in Madisonville, Kentucky Bowling Green – Western Kentucky University hosted thousands of K-12 students in its football stadium.", "[64] At Bowling Green Ballpark, the Bowling Green Hot Rods, a Class A baseball team, played an eclipse game against the visiting West Michigan Whitecaps.", "[65]Hopkinsville – A four-day eclipse festival was held at Jefferson Davis State Historic Site.", "[66]Tennessee [ edit]Totality from Tennessee Technological University in Cookeville, Tennessee NASA TV 's live coverage was being watched by 4.4 million people at 1:40 EDT, accounting for 87% of all traffic to U. S. federal government websites Athens – The City of Athens hosted \"\"Total Eclipse of the Park\"\" at Athens Regional Park, including entertainment, food, and vendors.", "[67]Clarksville – Austin Peay State University presented several educational events, including an appearance by astronaut Rhea Seddon.", "[68]Cookeville – Tennessee Technological University hosted a solar eclipse viewing party at Tucker Stadium.", "[6] Cookeville hosted special events from Saturday to Monday.", "Mc Minnville – celebrated the eclipse by hosting BLACKOUT 2017, an eclipse viewing event held in the city square.", "In addition to the viewing, a selection of food trucks and musical acts which features The Pink Floyd Appreciation Society band who performed Pink Floyd's The Dark Side of the Moon in its entirety prior to the totality event.", "[69]Memphis – At Auto Zone Park, the Memphis Redbirds, a Class AAA baseball team, played an eclipse game against the visiting New Orleans Baby Cakes.", "[65]Nashville – offered many special events, including the Music City Eclipse Science & Technology Festival at the Adventure Science Center.", "[70] The Italian Lights Festival hosted the largest Eclipse Viewing Party in Nashville, a free NASA-Certified Eclipse Event held at the Bicentennial Mall.", "[71] Two astrophysicists from NASA's Jet Propulsion Laboratory emceed the countdown.", "[72]North Carolina [ edit]Bryson City – Planetarium shows were offered, as well as rides on the Great Smoky Mountains Railroad to an eclipse location.", "[73]Cullowhee – The eclipse was visible in totality, and classes were cancelled for several hours during the first day of classes at Western Carolina University.", "[74]Rosman – Pisgah Astronomical Research Institute (PARI) hosted a viewing event.", "The event at PARI has garnered international attention and the visitors included amateur astronomers.", "Georgia [ edit]Athens – Viewing at Sanford Stadium at the University of Georgia.", "[75]Blairsville – Get off the Grid Festival [76] on three days preceding the eclipse.", "Elbert County – Approximately 400 people gathered at the Georgia Guidestones.", "[77]South Carolina [ edit]Anderson - Viewing at the Green Pond Landing on Lake Hartwell with food trucks, astronomer, and music.", "Unfortunately clouds blocked the sun at the time of totality.", "Charleston - The College of Charleston hosted NASA's \"\"eclipse headquarters\"\" broadcast as part of an afternoon eclipse viewing celebration on the green behind the campus library.", "[78]Clemson – Viewing at Clemson University.", "[79]Columbia – The South Carolina State Museum hosted four days of educational events, including an appearance by Apollo 16 astronaut Charles Duke.", "[80] At Spirit Communications Park, the Columbia Fireflies, a Class A baseball team, played an eclipse game against the visiting Rome Braves.", "[65]Greenville – Viewing at Furman University.", "Events include streaming coverage from NASA, educational activities, and live music.", "[81] At Fluor Field, the Greenville Drive, a Class A baseball team, played an eclipse game against the visiting West Virginia Power.", "[65]Sumter – Viewing at Dillon Park.", "Eclipse viewing glasses given away for free.", "[82]Viewing from outside the United States [ edit]Boundaries of the sunset partial eclipse in Western Europe Canada [ edit]A partial eclipse was visible across the width of Canada, ranging from 89 percent in Victoria, British Columbia to 11 percent in Resolute, Nunavut.", "[83] In Ottawa, viewing parties were held at the Canada Aviation and Space Museum.", "[84] In Toronto, viewing parties were held at the CNE and the Ontario Science Centre [85]Mexico, Central America, Caribbean islands, South America [ edit]A partial eclipse was visible from Central America, Mexico, the Caribbean islands, and ships and aircraft in and above the adjacent oceans, [86] as well as the northern countries of South America such as Colombia, Venezuela, and several others.", "[ citation needed]Russia [ edit]A partial eclipse was visible only in the Chukchi Peninsula.", "[87] In Anadyr, the maximum obscuration was 27.82%.", "[88]Europe [ edit]In northwestern Europe, a partial eclipse was visible in the evening or at sunset.", "Only those in Iceland, Ireland, Northern Ireland, Scotland and the Portuguese Azores archipelago saw the eclipse from beginning to end; in the rest of the UK, Norway, the Netherlands, Belgium, France, Spain, and Portugal, sunset occurred before the end of the eclipse.", "In Germany, the beginning of the eclipse was visible just at sunset only in the extreme northwest of the country.", "In all regions east of the orange line on the map, the eclipse was not visible.", "[89]West Africa [ edit]In some locations in West Africa and western North Africa, a partial eclipse was seen just before and during sunset.", "[ citation needed]Media and scientific coverage [ edit]The Moon's umbra, as seen from the International Space Station A large number of media outlets broadcast coverage of the eclipse, including television and internet outlets.", "NASA announced plans to offer streaming coverage through its NASA TV and NASA Edge outlets, using cameras stationed on the ground along the path of totality, along with cameras on high-altitude balloons, jets, and coverage from the International Space Station; NASA stated that \"\"never before will a celestial event be viewed by so many and explored from so many vantage points—from space, from the air, and from the ground.\"\"", "[90] ABC, CBS, and NBC announced that they would respectively broadcast live television specials to cover the eclipse with correspondents stationed across the path of totality, along with CNN, Fox News Channel, Science, and The Weather Channel.", "The PBS series Nova presented streaming coverage on Facebook hosted by Miles O'Brien, and aired a special episode chronicling the event—\"\"Eclipse Over America\"\"—later in the day (which marked the fastest production turnaround time in Nova history).", "[91] [92]Other institutions and services also announced plans to stream their perspectives of the eclipse, including the Exploratorium in San Francisco, the Elephant Sanctuary of Hohenwald, Tennessee, the Slooh robotic telescope app, and The Virtual Telescope Project.", "The Eclipse Ballooning Project, a consortium of schools and colleges that sent 50 high-altitude balloons into the sky during the eclipse to conduct experiments, provided streams of footage and GPS tracking of its launches.", "[90] [93] Contact with one balloon with $13,000 of scientific equipment, launched under the aegis of the LGF Museum of Natural History near Vale, Oregon, was lost at 20,000 feet (6,100 m).", "Given that the balloon was believed to have burst at 100,000 feet (30,000 m), it could have parachuted down anywhere from eastern Oregon to Caldwell, Idaho (most likely) to Sun Valley, Idaho; a $1,000 reward is offered for its recovery.", "[94]The National Solar Observatory organized Citizen CATE volunteers to man 60 identical telescopes and instrumentation packages along the totality path to study changes in the corona over the duration of the eclipse.", "In orbit, the satellites Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter, the International Space Station, the Solar Dynamics Observatory, the Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer, Solar and Heliospheric Observatory, and Hinode gathered data from the eclipse.", "[95]A viewing party was held at the White House, during which President Donald Trump appeared on the Truman Balcony with First Lady Melania Trump.", "With the sun partially eclipsed, President Trump looked briefly in the general direction of the sun before using solar viewing glasses.", "[96]The rapper Joey Badass boasted of watching the solar eclipse without viewing glasses, considering that \"\"our ancestors ain't have no fancy eyewear [and] they ain't all go blind\"\".", "Unlike the US president, he did not wear viewing glasses during the entire eclipse.", "Later, he complained of vision problems and had to cancel his Cleveland, Chicago & Toronto shows on the Everybody Tour, due to \"\"unforeseen circumstances\"\".", "[97]The eclipse generated reports of abnormal behavior in animal and plant life.", "Some chickens came out from beneath their coops and began grooming, usually an evening activity.", "Horses displayed increased whinnying, running, and jumping after the event.", "Cicadas were reported to grow louder before going silent during totality.", "Various birds were also observed flying in unusually large formations.", "Flowers such as the Hibiscus closed their petals which typically happens at night, before opening again after the solar event.", "[98]Pornhub provided an unusual sociological and statistical report: its traffic dropped precipitously along the path of totality, so much so that its researchers were themselves surprised.", "[99]NASA reported over 90 million page views of the eclipse on its websites, making it the agency's biggest online event ever, beating the previous web traffic record about seven times over.", "[100]Counterfeit eclipse glasses [ edit]See also: Solar viewer In the months leading up to the eclipse, many counterfeit glasses were put up for sale.", "Effective eclipse glasses must not only block most visible light, but most UV and infrared light as well.", "For visible light, the user should only be able to see the Sun, sunglint reflected off shiny metal, halogen bulbs, the filament in unfrosted incandescent bulbs, and similarly intense sources.", "Determining whether the glasses effectively block enough UV and infrared light requires the use of spectrophotometer, which is a rather expensive piece of lab equipment.", "[8] [101]The eye's retina lacks pain receptors, and thus damage can occur without one's awareness.", "[102] [103]The American Astronomical Society (AAS) said products meeting the ISO 12312-2 standard avoid risk to one's eyes, and issued a list of reputable vendors of eclipse glasses.", "The organization warned against products claiming ISO certification or even citing the same number, but not tested by an accredited laboratory.", "Another problem was counterfeits of reputable vendors' products, some even claiming the company's name such as with American Paper Optics which published information detailing the differences between its glasses and counterfeits.", "[104] [102]Andrew Lund, the owner of a company which produces eclipse glasses, noted that not all counterfeit glasses were necessarily unsafe.", "He stated to Quartz that the counterfeits he tested blocked the majority of harmful light spectrum, concluding that \"\"the IP is getting ripped off, but the good news is there are no long-term harmful effects.\"\"", "[101] As one example, the Springdale Library in metropolitan Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, accidentally passed out dozens of pairs of counterfeit eclipse glasses, but as of August 23 had not received any reports of eye damage.", "[105]On July 27, 2017, Amazon required all eclipse viewing products sold on its website have a submission of origin and safety information, and proof of an accredited ISO certification.", "In mid-August 2017, Amazon recalled and pulled listings for eclipse viewing glasses that \"\"may not comply with industry standards\"\", and gave refunds to customers who had purchased them.", "[106] [8]Eye damage [ edit]Short-term damage includes solar keratitis, which is similar to sunburn of the cornea.", "Symptoms usually occur within twenty-four hours and include eye pain and light sensitivity.", "[107] Long-term or permanent damage includes solar retinopathy, which occurs when the sun burns a hole in the retina, usually at the fovea (the focus of the retina).", "Symptoms can occur as long as several weeks after the incident, and can include loss of central vision and/or other vision, as well as eye pain and light sensitivity, afterimages, and changes in color vision.", "[108] Depending on the severity of damage, vision problems can last for several months or be permanent.", "[107]Camera equipment damage [ edit]Lensrentals, a camera rental company based in Tennessee, reported that many of its customers returned cameras and lenses with extensive damage.", "The most common problem reported was damage to the camera's sensor.", "This most often happens when shooting in live view mode, where the sensor is continuously exposed to the eclipse image and becomes damaged by the sun's light.", "Another problem was the heat and brightness of the eclipse destroying the lens iris, which mechanically regulates the amount of light that enters the camera.", "Another problem reported was one of a cinema camera’s neutral-density filter being damaged by the heat and light of the eclipse.", "The cost of all of this damage likely amounted to thousands of dollars.", "[109]Planning [ edit]A message board on U. S. Route 64 in North Carolina, alerting drivers of the eclipse Officials inside and near the path of totality planned – sometimes for years – for the sudden influx of people.", "[110] Smaller towns struggled to arrange viewing sites and logistics for what could have been a tourism boom or a disaster.", "[111]In the American West, illegal camping was a major concern, including near cities like Jackson Hole, Wyoming.", "[7] Idaho's Office of Emergency Management said Idaho was a prime viewing state, and advised jurisdictions to prepare for service load increases; nearly every hotel and motel room, campground, and in some cases backyards for nearly 100 miles (160 km) north and south of the path of totality had been reserved several months, if not years, in advance.", "[112] The state anticipated up to 500,000 visitors to join its 1.6 million residents.", "[113]Oregon deployed six National Guard aircraft and 150 soldiers because the influx of visitors coincided with the state's fire season.", "[114] Hospital staffing, and supplies of blood and anti–snake bite antidote, were augmented along the totality line.", "[115]Also in Oregon, there were reports of hoteliers canceling existing reservations made at the regular market rate and increasing their rate, sometimes threefold or more, for guests staying to view the eclipse.", "[116] The Oregon Department of Justice (DOJ) investigated various complaints and reached settlements with affected customers of at least 10 hotels in the state.", "[117] These settlements included refunds to the customers and fines paid to the DOJ.", "[118]Post-eclipse traffic problems [ edit]Although traffic to areas within the path of totality was somewhat spread out over the days prior to the eclipse, [119] there were widespread traffic problems across the United States after the event ended.", "Michael Zeiler, an eclipse cartographer, had estimated that between 1.85 million and 7.4 million people would travel to the path of the eclipse.", "[120]In Oregon, an estimated one million people were expected to arrive that the Oregon National Guard was called in to help manage traffic in Madras along US 26 and US 97.", "[121] Madras Municipal Airport received more than 400 mostly personal planes that queued for hours while waiting to leave after the eclipse.", "[122]Officials in Idaho, where the totality path crossed the center of the state, began planning for the eclipse a year in advance.", "The state Transportation Department suspended construction projects along Interstate 15, which traverses Eastern Idaho, from August 18–22 in order to have all lanes open; [123] their counterparts in neighboring Utah, where many were expected to travel the 220 miles (350 km) north via the highway from the Salt Lake City metropolitan area, did the same.", "On the morning of the eclipse, many drivers left before dawn, creating traffic volume along I-15 normally not seen until morning rush hour; northbound traffic on the interstate in Box Elder County north of Salt Lake City slowed to 10–15 miles per hour (16–24 km/h).", "[124] The Idaho State Police (ISP) stationed a patrol car along I-15 every 15 miles (24 km) between Shelley and the Utah border.", "[125]Traffic backed up on I-15/ US 26 south of Idaho Falls After the eclipse, traffic more than doubled along I-15 southbound, with extensive traffic jams continuing for eight hours as viewers who had traveled north into the totality path from Utah returned there and to points south.", "The ISP tweeted a picture of bumper-to-bumper traffic stalled on the interstate just south of Idaho Falls.", "Motorists reported to local news outlets that it was taking them two hours to travel the 47 miles (76 km) from that city to Pocatello to the south, a journey that normally takes 45 minutes.", "[124] Others reported that it took three hours to travel from Idaho Falls to the closer city of Blackfoot, 30 miles (48 km) farther north of Pocatello.", "[126]In the rest of the state the impact was less severe.", "Traffic nearly doubled on US 93, and was up 55 percent on US 20.", "[127]For some northbound travelers on I-15, the Montana Department of Transportation had failed to make similar plans to those in Idaho, scheduling a road construction project to begin on August 21 that narrowed a section of the highway to a single northbound lane, near the exit to Clark Canyon Dam south of Dillon.", "Though that stretch of highway generally has a traffic count of less than 1,000 vehicles per day, on the day of the eclipse there were over a thousand vehicles per hour at peak times.", "As a result, traffic backed up as far as Lima, creating a delay of at least an hour for travelers heading northward.", "Further, as construction had not yet begun, drivers observed cones set up but no workers present on the road.", "While the state traditionally halts construction projects during high traffic periods, a state official admitted \"\"we ... probably made a bad mistake here in this regard.\"\"", "[119]Traffic waiting to get on Interstate 25 at Glendo, Wyoming, after the eclipse In Wyoming, estimates were that the population of the state, officially 585,000, may have doubled or even tripled, with traffic counts on show of August 21ing 536,000 more cars than the five-year average for the third Monday in August; a 68 percent increase.", "One official offered an estimate of \"\"two people in every car\"\" to arrive at a one-million-visitor figure, and others noted that one million was a conservative estimate based on a one-day traffic count of limited portions of major highways.", "There were additional arrivals by aircraft, plus travelers who arrived early or stayed for additional days.", "[128] Two days before the eclipse, traffic increased 18 percent over a five-year average, with an additional 131,000 vehicles on the road.", "[129] Sunday saw an additional 217,000-vehicle increase.", "[128]Following the eclipse, more than 500,000 vehicles traveled Wyoming roads, creating large traffic jams, particularly on southbound and eastbound highways.", "[130] Drivers reported that it took up to 10 hours to travel 160 miles (260 km) into northern Colorado.", "[128] There was one traffic fatality, [131] and another fatality related to an off-highway ATV accident, but in general there were far fewer incidents and traffic citations than authorities had anticipated.", "[132]In Tennessee, the Knoxville News Sentinel described the traffic problems created by the eclipse as the worst ever seen in that part of the state.", "One backup along Interstate 75 reached 34 miles (55 km) in length, between Niota and the Interstate 40 interchange at Farragut.", "A spokesman for the state's Department of Transportation allowed that the traffic jams were the worst he had seen in six and a half years on the job, noting that accidents had aggravated the already heavy traffic flows, attributed the I-75 congestion to Knoxville -area residents heading for the totality path at Sweetwater and returning during what was the city's normal afternoon rush hour.", "[133]Before the eclipse, state officials had described their traffic expectations as equivalent to that generated by the Bonnaroo Music Festival, the twice-a-season NASCAR Monster Energy Cup races at Bristol or the formerly-held Boomsday fireworks festival.", "\"\"Maybe they should have considered a tsunami of traffic combining all three of those heavily attended events\"\", the News Sentinel commented.", "The Tennessee Highway Patrol made sure that \"\" [e]very trooper not on sick leave or military leave or pre-approved leave [wa]s working\"\" the day of the eclipse; the state DOT made sure its full complement of emergency-aid HELP trucks were available as well.", "Alert signs on the highways also warned motorists not to pull over onto the shoulders to watch the eclipse as it could increase the risk of dangerous accidents and block the path of emergency vehicles.", "[133]In North Carolina, the Department of Transportation added cameras, message boards and safety patrols in the counties where the total eclipse would take place, as well as stopping road work.", "The department warned that due to \"\"unprecedented\"\" traffic ordinary activities requiring driving might prove difficult, and advised people to act as if there were snow.", "[134]In Kentucky, particularly around the Hopkinsville area, which was dubbed \"\"Eclipseville, USA\"\", [135] post-eclipse traffic caused extensive delays.", "The en masse departure of tourists via Interstate 69 as well as the Western Kentucky Parkway resulted in commute times double or even triple of normal.", "[136] [137] The Hopkinsville-to-Lexington commute under normal circumstances lasts three and a half hours.", "Impact on solar power [ edit]An eclipse causes a reduction of solar power generation where the Moon shadow covers any solar panel, as do clouds.", "The North American Electric Reliability Corporation predicted minor impacts, [138] and attempted to measure the impact of the 2017 eclipse.", "[139] In California, solar power was projected to decrease by 4–6,000 megawatts [140] at 70 MW/minute, and then ramp up by 90 MW/minute as the shadow passes.", "CAISO 's typical ramp rate is 29 megawatts per minute.", "[141] Around 4 GW mainly in North Carolina and Georgia were expected to be 90 percent obscured.", "[140]After the 2017 eclipse, grid operators in California reported having lost 3,000–3,500 megawatts of utility-scale solar power, which was made up for by hydropower and gas reliably and as expected, [142] [143] mimicking the usual duck curve.", "Energy demand management was also used to mitigate the solar drop.", "[144]NV Energy prepared for the solar eclipse months in advance and collaborated with 17 western states.", "When the eclipse began covering California with partial darkness, which reduced its usual amount of solar-generated electricity, NV Energy sent power there.", "Likewise, when Nevada received less sunlight, other west coast states supplied electricity to it.", "During the solar eclipse, the state of Nevada lost about 450 megawatts of electricity, the amount used by about a quarter million typical residences.", "[145]The 2015 eclipse caused manageable solar power decreases in Europe; [146] in Germany, solar power dropped from 14 GW to 7 GW, of a 38 GW solar power capacity.", "[147]Commemorative stamp [ edit]Main article: 2017 Total Solar Eclipse stamp On June 20, 2017, the USPS released the first application of thermochromic ink to postage stamps in its Total Eclipse of the Sun Forever stamp to commemorate the eclipse.", "[148] [149] When pressed with a finger, body heat turns the dark image into an image of the full moon.", "The stamp was released prior to August 21, so uses an image from the eclipse of March 29, 2006 seen in Jalu, Libya.", "[149]Videos [ edit]Animation showing shadow movement of event from space.", "Illustration showing umbra (black oval), penumbra (concentric shaded ovals), and path of totality (red).", "Illustration featuring several visualizations of the event.", "Short time-lapse showing umbra as it moves across the clouds.", "Video of the moment totality occurred in Newberry, South Carolina Gallery [ edit]Totality [ edit] (Images where the sun is completely eclipsed by the moon)Sequence starting at 9:06am, totality at 10:19am, and ending at 10:21am PDT, as seen from Corvallis, Oregon Totality and prominences as seen from Glenrock, Wyoming Totality as seen from Columbia, Missouri Totality as seen from Sweetwater, Tennessee Totality as seen from Saint Paul, Clarendon County, South Carolina Totality as seen from Newberry, South Carolina Transition [ edit] (Images showing Baily's beads or a Diamond ring, which occur just as totality begins or ends)Beginning of Diamond ring as seen from Glenrock, Wyoming Diamond ring as seen from Jay Em, Wyoming Baily's beads before totality from far western Nebraska Diamond ring as seen from Corvallis, Oregon Diamond ring as seen from Saint Paul, South Carolina Diamond ring as seen from Newberry, South Carolina Diamond ring (with large flare) as seen from Cullowhee, NCPartial [ edit] (Images where the sun is partially eclipsed by the moon)Seattle, Washington North Cascades National Park, Washington.", "The ISS is visible as it transits the sun during the eclipse (4 frame composite image).", "San Francisco, California Mira Mesa in San Diego, California Far western Nebraska White House, Tennessee Maine at 2:41 p.m. EDT before maximum 68% coverage at 2:45 p.m. Brooklyn, New York Ellicott City, Maryland shortly before maximum eclipse (~80%)Virginia Beach, Virginia Simpsonville, South Carolina Newberry, South Carolina Images produced by natural pinholes [ edit] (Images of the eclipse created by natural pinholes formed by tree leaves)North Cascade mountains (British Columbia and Washington).", "East Wenatchee, Washington Moon, Pennsylvania Views outside of the US [ edit]Tuxtla Gutiérrez ( Chiapas ), Mexico at 12:36 GMT-6.", "Chihuahua, Mexico at 11:40 a.m. Sunset from Zarautz, Basque Country, Spain Sunset, viewed from Coimbra, Portugal Related eclipses [ edit]Astronomers Without Borders began collecting eclipse glasses for redistribution to Latin America for the total solar eclipse occurring on July 2, 2019 and to Asia for the annular eclipse on December 26, 2019.", "[150]A partial lunar eclipse took place on August 7, 2017, in the same eclipse season.", "It was visible over Africa, Asia, Australia, and eastern Europe.", "Solar eclipses 2015–2018 [ edit]Each member in a semester series of solar eclipses repeats approximately every 177 days and 4 hours (a semester) at alternating nodes of the Moon's orbit.", "[ show]Solar eclipse series sets from 2015–18Saros series 145 [ edit]This solar eclipse is a part of Saros cycle 145, repeating every 18 years, 11 days, 8 hours, containing 77 events.", "The series started with a partial solar eclipse on January 4, 1639, and reached a first annular eclipse on June 6, 1891.", "It was a hybrid event on June 17, 1909, and total eclipses from June 29, 1927, through September 9, 2648.", "The series ends at member 77 as a partial eclipse on April 17, 3009.", "The longest eclipse will occur on June 25, 2522, with a maximum duration of totality of 7 minutes, 12 seconds.", "[151] [ show] Series members 16–26 occur between 1901 and 2100Metonic series [ edit]The metonic series repeats eclipses every 19 years (6939.69 days), lasting about 5 cycles.", "Eclipses occur in nearly the same calendar date.", "In addition, the octon subseries repeats 1/5 of that or every 3.8 years (1387.94 days).", "[ show] 21 eclipse events, progressing from north to south between June 10, 1964, and August 21, 2036See also [ edit]List of solar eclipses visible from the United States Notable total solar eclipses crossing the United States from 1900 to 2050: Solar eclipse of June 8, 1918Solar eclipse of April 8, 2024Solar eclipse of August 12, 2045Notable annular solar eclipses crossing the United States from 1900 to 2050: Solar eclipse of May 10, 1994Solar eclipse of October 14, 2023Solar eclipse of June 11, 2048References [ edit]^ See, e.g., Steed, Edward (September 4, 2017), \"\"The Great American Eclipse of 2017\"\", The New Yorker, retrieved October 29, 2017; Massimino, Mike (narrator) (August 22, 2017), The Great American Eclipse, Science Channel, retrieved October 29, 2017; Redd, Nola Taylor (September 29, 2017), \"\"What the 2017 Solar Eclipse Taught Us About Boosting Public Interest in Science\"\", space.com, Purch Group, retrieved October 29, 2017; Zhang, Michael (September 22, 2017), \"\"A Near-IR Photo of the Moon's Shadow During the Great American Eclipse\"\", Peta Pixel, retrieved October 29, 2017; Lakind, Sean (September 12, 2017), \"\"The Great American Eclipse And Its Effect On Retail Traffic\"\", Forbes, retrieved October 29, 2017.^ a b c Chan, Melissa (July 25, 2017).", "\"\"The 2017 Total Solar Eclipse: 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Retrieved April 2, 2017.^ \"\"Total Eclipse of the Park\"\".", "athenschamber.org.", "Athens Area Chamber of Commerce.", "Retrieved August 24, 2017.^ \"\"Eclipse: Events\"\".", "Austin Peay State University.", "Retrieved April 3, 2017.^ \"\"Blackout 2017\"\".", "mainstreetmcminnville.org.", "Main Street Mc Minville.", "Retrieved August 18, 2017.^ \"\"Eclipse-Themed Programs & Events\"\".", "Music City Solar Eclipse.", "Retrieved April 2, 2017.^ \"\"Nashville's Italian Lights festival is official NASA location for solar eclipse\"\".", "Music City Eclipse at Italian Lights Festival.", "WKRN News2.", "Retrieved July 22, 2017.^ \"\"Solar Eclipse 2017 Viewing Event, Free Music City Eclipse Party\"\".", "Music City Eclipse at Italian Lights Festival.", "Retrieved July 20, 2017.^ \"\"The 2017 Total Solar Eclipse Will Pass Through the Great Smoky Mountains of North Carolina\"\".", "Bryson City North Carolina.", "Retrieved April 2, 2017.^ Reinhart, Vince (August 21, 2017).", "\"\"Eclipse - Cullowhee North Carolina\"\" – via Flickr.^ \"\"Eclipse leaves thousands breathless at UGA's Sanford Stadium\"\".", "WXIA.", "August 21, 2017.", "Retrieved August 21, 2017.^ \"\"Get Off the Grid Fest\"\".", "Get Off the Grid Fest.", "Retrieved August 22, 2017.^ Eclipse awes those gathered at Georgia Guidestones, by Wayne Ford (Athens Banner-Herald, August 21, 2017)^ \"\"NASA to Broadcast Eclipse from .", "Cof C\"\".", "The College Today.", "Retrieved August 23, 2017.^ Melvin, Jim (August 21, 2017).", "\"\"Watch Live: When, where and how to watch the total solar eclipse at Clemson University\"\".", "Clemson University.", "Retrieved August 21, 2017.^ \"\"Solar Eclipse 2017 at the South Carolina State Museum\"\".", "South Carolina State Museum.", "Retrieved August 22, 2017.^ \"\"Eclipse at Furman\"\".", "Furman University.", "Retrieved May 5, 2017.^ \"\"Total Eclipse Watch Party\"\".", "sumtersc.gov.", "City of Sumter.", "Archived from the original on August 23, 2017.^ Mortillaro, Nicole (July 2, 2017).", "\"\"When day turns into night: Canadians, Americans prepare for total solar eclipse\"\".", "CBC News.", "Retrieved July 2, 2017.^ \"\"Eclipse viewing party at Canada Aviation and Space Museum | CTV News\"\".", "ctvnews.com.", "Retrieved August 20, 2017.^ \"\"Where to watch the eclipse in the Toronto area | Toronto Star\"\".", "thestar.com.", "Retrieved August 26, 2017.^ \"\"Bonnie Tyler Will Sing 'Total Eclipse of the Heart' During the Actual Total Solar Eclipse\"\".", "Space.com.", "Retrieved August 21, 2017.^ \"\"Total Eclipse of the Sun\"\" (PDF).^ \"\"Local Circumstances of the partial eclipse in Anadyr\"\".^ Littmann, Espenak, Willcox: Totality: Eclipses of the Sun.", "pp 253ff^ a b Rubin, Molly (August 15, 2017).", "\"\"How to watch the Great American Eclipse, no matter where you are in the world\"\".", "Quartz.", "Retrieved August 18, 2017.^ Katz, A. J.", "(August 17, 2017).", "\"\"Here Are The TV Network Plans For Covering the Total Solar Eclipse\"\".", "TVNewser.", "Adweek.", "Retrieved August 18, 2017.^ Nyren, Erin (August 18, 2017).", "\"\"Solar Eclipse Coverage: TV Goes Totally Looney for Lunar Moment\"\".", "Variety.", "Retrieved August 18, 2017.^ Potenza, Alessandra (August 15, 2017).", "\"\"Why NASA is sending bacteria into the sky on balloons during the eclipse\"\".", "The Verge.", "Retrieved August 18, 2017.^ MOELLER, KATY (August 24, 2017).", "\"\"Eclipse observation balloon went missing.", "Did it land in Treasure Valley?\"\".", "The Idaho Statesman.", "Retrieved August 24, 2017.^ \"\"The Eclipse 2017 Umbra Viewed from Space\"\".", "NASA.", "August 21, 2017.", "Retrieved August 24, 2017.^ Wong, Herman.", "\"\"Trump celebrates solar eclipse by looking up without special viewing glasses\"\".", "The Washington Post.", "Retrieved August 23, 2017.^ \"\" ' Am I crazy for watching the eclipse with no glasses?'", "Rapper Joey Bada$$ is forced to pull out of his live tour after staring directly at the sun\"\".", "Daily Mail Online.", "August 24, 2017.", "Retrieved August 25, 2017.^ \"\"The Solar Eclipse Had a Spooky Effect on Nature\"\".", "Live Science.", "Retrieved August 26, 2017.^ Gaudette, Emily (2017-08-23).", "\"\"Pornhub Was Shocked by How Total Solar Eclipse Affected Their Viewers: The great cosmic ballet briefly distracted people from porn\"\".", "Inverse Culture.", "Retrieved 2018-04-11.^ \"\"The solar eclipse was viewed over 90 million times on NASA website\"\".", "The Economic Times.", "August 26, 2017.", "Retrieved August 26, 2017.^ a b Wolfson, Elijah (July 27, 2017).", "\"\"Solar-eclipse fever means counterfeit glasses are flooding Amazon's market\"\".", "Quartz.", "Retrieved August 19, 2017.^ a b \"\"How to Tell If Your Eclipse Glasses or Handheld Solar Viewers Are Safe\"\".", "Solar Eclipse Across America – August 21, 2017.", "American Astronomical Society.", "February 23, 2017.", "Retrieved August 20, 2017.", "Includes photos of genuine and fake eclipse glasses.^ Pittman, Travis (August 18, 2017).", "\"\"Here's How Fast Your Retina Could Burn Looking at Eclipse Unprotected\"\".", "Denver, Colorado: 9 News.^ \"\"Eclipse Glasses Safety\"\".", "Eclipse Glasses.com.", "Retrieved August 20, 2017.^ Czebiniak, Madasyn (August 23, 2017).", "\"\"Springdale library 'sickened' by discovery of counterfeit eclipse glasses\"\".", "Trib Live.", "metro Pittsburgh.", "Retrieved September 2, 2017.^ Elliott, Matt (August 19, 2017).", "\"\"How to tell if your solar eclipse glasses are safe or fake\"\".", "CNET.", "Retrieved August 19, 2017.^ a b \"\"Signs of Potential Eye Damage After Watching Solar Eclipse, According to an Eye Care Expert\"\".", "NBC Chicago.", "August 21, 2017.", "Retrieved August 24, 2017.", "Questions and answers with Linda Chous, a doctor and \"\"chief eye care officer for United Healthcare\"\".^ Price, Mark (August 21, 2017).", "\"\"What are the symptoms of eye damage from viewing a solar eclipse?\"\".", "The Idaho Statesman.", "Retrieved August 24, 2017.^ \"\"Rental Camera Gear Destroyed by the Solar Eclipse of 2017\"\".", "Lens Rentals Blog.", "September 1, 2017.", "Retrieved November 12, 2017.^ Mariano, Nick (June 17, 2016).", "\"\"Local tourism, businesses make plans for solar eclipse in 2017\"\".", "The Southern Illinosian.", "Retrieved July 29, 2017.^ Serven, Ruth (July 13, 2017).", "\"\"Total solar eclipse offers small towns a tourism boom—if they can get ready\"\".", "The Kansas City Star.", "Retrieved July 29, 2017.^ Richy, Brad (July 29, 2017).", "\"\"Letter to Eclipse Communities\"\" (PDF).", "Idaho Office of Emergency Management.^ Moeller, Katy (August 17, 2017).", "\"\"Oregon eclipse traffic is already backing up.", "Idaho has an app for that\"\".", "The Idaho Statesman.", "Retrieved August 17, 2017.^ \"\"Oregon governor authorizes National Guard for solar eclipse\"\".", "KBTX-TV.", "Associated Press.", "July 27, 2017.", "Retrieved July 29, 2017.^ Lynne, Terry (August 10, 2017).", "\"\"Eclipse 2017: Hospitals stock up on blood, rattlesnake bite antidote\"\".", "The Oregonian.", "Retrieved August 10, 2017.^ Hale, Jamie (April 3, 2017).", "\"\"Oregon hotels unapologetic, silent about widespread eclipse cancellations\"\".", "Oregon Live.com.", "Retrieved September 8, 2017.^ Guevarra, Ericka (July 28, 2017).", "\"\"Customers Get Payments From Oregon Hotels That Canceled, Raised Prices For Eclipse\"\".", "Oregon Public Broadcasting.", "Retrieved September 8, 2017.^ Bach, Jonathan (July 31, 2017).", "\"\"Grand Hotel to pay customers for eclipse reservation problems\"\".", "Statesman Journal.", "Retrieved September 8, 2017.^ a b Erickson, David (August 23, 2017).", "\"\"Eclipse: Construction causes huge I-15 traffic jam; Montana official apologizes\"\".", "Missoulian.", "Retrieved August 24, 2017.^ Rao, Joe (August 19, 2017).", "\"\"Get Ready for Major Traffic Jams During the 2017 Solar Eclipse\"\".", "Space.com.", "Retrieved August 21, 2017.^ Mitchell, Russ (August 20, 2017).", "\"\"Solar eclipse gridlock: It was so busy in Madras, Ore., they called in the National Guard\"\".", "Los Angeles Times.", "ISSN 0458-3035.", "Retrieved August 21, 2017.^ Harbager, Molly (August 21, 2017).", "\"\"Eclipse jams traffic on runways, not just roads, with hundreds of planes in Madras waiting\"\".", "The Oregonian.", "Retrieved August 22, 2017.^ \"\"I-15 projects to shut down for eclipse\"\".", "KIFI-TV.", "August 17, 2017.", "Retrieved August 24, 2017.^ a b Mims, Bob (August 21, 2017).", "\"\"Traffic into Utah jammed as eclipse fans head home on Interstate 15\"\".", "Salt Lake Tribune.", "Retrieved August 24, 2017.^ Carr, Ada; Breslin, Sean (August 21, 2017).", "\"\"Solar Eclipse Traffic: Interstates Busy as Final Travelers Hit the Road\"\".", "The Weather Channel.", "Retrieved August 21, 2017.^ Sunderland, Nate (August 21, 2017).", "\"\"Bumper-to-bumper traffic on I-15 as eclipse viewers leave Idaho\"\".", "KSL-TV.", "Retrieved August 24, 2017.^ \"\"Solar Eclipse Traffic Counts\"\".", "Idaho Transportation Department.", "August 18, 2017.", "Retrieved August 21, 2017.^ a b c Peterson, Christine (August 23, 2017).", "\"\"More than a million people may have visited Wyoming for eclipse; one person came by sea plane\"\".", "Casper Star-Tribune Online.", "Retrieved August 24, 2017.^ \"\"Traffic increases 18 percent over a five-year average on Saturday as Aug. 21 eclipse nears\"\".", "Wyoming Department of Transportation.", "Retrieved August 21, 2017.^ Rainey, Libby (August 22, 2017).", "\"\"Wyoming solar eclipse traffic jam was one for the record books\"\".", "The Denver Post.", "Retrieved August 24, 2017.^ Sanderson, Shane (August 23, 2017).", "\"\"Highway patrol releases new details about Colorado motorcyclist killed in Eclipse traffic\"\".", "Casper Star-Tribune Online.", "Retrieved August 24, 2017.^ Sanderson, Shane.", "\"\"Eclipse keeps highway patrol busy, but local authorities respond to fewer incidents than expected\"\".", "Casper Star-Tribune Online.", "Retrieved August 24, 2017.^ a b Jacobs, Don (August 21, 2017).", "\"\"Worst traffic snarls ever seen in East Tennessee\"\".", "Knoxville News Sentinel.", "Retrieved August 26, 2017.^ \"\"Western NC ready for eclipse, but roads clogged\"\".", "Winston-Salem Journal.", "Associated Press.", "August 21, 2017.", "Retrieved August 21, 2017.^ Williams, Chris (July 22, 2017).", "\"\"Welcome to 'Eclipseville,' Hopkinsville, Ky, USA\"\".", "WHAS.", "Retrieved October 17, 2017.^ Stunson, Mike (August 22, 2017).", "\"\"The rare eclipse was memorable.", "The ride home was something they want to forget\"\".", "Lexington Herald-Leader.", "Retrieved October 17, 2017.", "Once we left Hopkinsville ...", "It took us 10 hours to go 210 miles, and we didn't return to our home in Lexington until just after midnight.^ Helmer, Katrina (August 21, 2017).", "\"\"As solar eclipse ends, traffic stalls heading out of Hopkinsville\"\".", "WDRB.", "Retrieved October 17, 2017.", "As of 10 p.m., drivers were still on the roads trying to get back to Louisville more than seven hours after leaving Hopkinsville.^ \"\"A Wide-Area Perspective on the August 21, 2017 Total Solar Eclipse\"\" (PDF).", "North American Electric Reliability Corporation.", "April 2017. p. 20.", "Retrieved May 1, 2017.", "The analysis performed in this study showed no reliability impacts to bulk power system (BPS) operations.^ \"\"2016 Long-Term Reliability Assessment\"\" (PDF).", "North American Electric Reliability Corporation.", "December 2016. p. 70.", "Retrieved April 18, 2017. causes substantial effects to wide-scale solar generation within a very short amount of time.", "The output generated by PV/solar systems will be either diminished or drastically reduced within the window of this event.", "Sudden widespread diminishing of solar irradiance may heavily affect areas with large amounts of utility scale PV energy installations or behind-the-meter DERs.^ a b \"\"Solar eclipse on August 21 will affect photovoltaic generators across the country – Today in Energy\"\".", "U. S. Energy Information Administration (EIA).", "August 7, 2017.", "Retrieved August 13, 2017.^ Pyper, Julia (May 11, 2017).", "\"\"This Summer's Eclipse Will Put California's Solar-Powered Grid to the Test\"\".", "Greentech Media.", "Retrieved May 14, 2017.^ Grandoni, Dino (August 21, 2017).", "\"\"California is the state that most depends on the sun for energy.", "It survived the eclipse without losing any\"\".", "The Washington Post.", "Retrieved August 23, 2017.^ Baker, David R. (August 21, 2017).", "\"\"California power grid survives solar eclipse unscathed\"\".", "SFGate.", "Retrieved August 23, 2017.^ Pyper, Julia (August 21, 2017).", "\"\"Looking Beyond the Eclipse: How the Historic Event Tested Customer Engagement on the Electric Grid\"\".", "Retrieved August 23, 2017.", "Today’s eclipse is a test run for the electricity community.", "So we have exactly the same challenge on a regular basis within the grid because of solar.^ Mendoza, Jullie Anne (August 21, 2017).", "\"\"NV Energy all set for solar eclipse in Nevada, despite loss of power\"\".", "Centrio News.", "Henderson, Nevada: Centrio Media Network.", "Retrieved August 22, 2017.^ \"\"European power grids keep lights on through solar eclipse\"\".", "Reuters.", "March 20, 2015.^ \"\"German power net survives solar eclipse\"\".", "dw.com.", "Deutsche Welle.", "March 20, 2015.", "Retrieved May 14, 2017.^ \"\"Total Eclipse of the Sun to be commemorated on a Forever Stamp\"\".", "United States Postal Service.", "April 27, 2017.", "Retrieved July 10, 2017.^ a b \"\"Total Eclipse of the Sun\"\".", "United States Postal Service (store).", "Retrieved June 27, 2017.^ Cooper, Gael (August 22, 2017).", "\"\"Wait!", "Dig those eclipse glasses out of the garbage Here comes the sun.", "Astronomers Without Borders will be collecting the protective eyewear for use in future eclipses worldwide\"\".", "Retrieved August 27, 2017.^ Espenak, Fred (September 26, 2009).", "\"\"Statistics for Solar Eclipses of Saros 145\"\".", "NASA.", "Archived from the original on September 30, 2009.", "Further reading [ edit]Bakich, Michael E. (2016).", "Your Guide to the 2017 Total Solar Eclipse.", "The Patrick Moore Practical Astronomy Series.", "New York, NY: Springer.", "ISBN 978-3-319-27630-4.", "External links [ edit]Find more about Solar eclipse of August 21, 2017 at Wikipedia's sister projects Media from Wikimedia Commons Data from Wikidata August 21, 2017 eclipse – NASAColor map – NASAEclipse 2017: One Nation Under The Sun (NPR) A synopsis of people's reactions as the eclipse moved across the U. S., (published August 27, 2017).", "Eclipse Across America (Celestron) A synopsis of people's reactions as the eclipse moved across the U. S., (published September 26, 2017).", "Photos and videos Space.com Gallery of photos from Casper, Wyoming [ show]v t e Solar eclipses Categories:2017 in science 2017 in space 21st-century solar eclipses August 2017 events August 2017 events in the United States Total solar eclipses \"" ]
D277141
http://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/high-blood-cholesterol/in-depth/cholesterol/ART-20045192
Cholesterol: Top foods to improve your numbers
"Cholesterol: Top foods to improve your numbers Diet can play an important role in lowering your cholesterol. Here are the top foods to lower your cholesterol and protect your heart. By Mayo Clinic Staff Can a bowl of oatmeal help lower your cholesterol? How about a handful of walnuts or an avocado? A few simple tweaks to your diet — like these, along with exercise and other heart-healthy habits — might help you lower your cholesterol. Oatmeal, oat bran and high-fiber foods Oatmeal contains soluble fiber, which reduces your low-density lipoprotein (LDL), the ""bad"" cholesterol. Soluble fiber is also found in such foods as kidney beans, apples, pears, barley and prunes. Soluble fiber can reduce the absorption of cholesterol into your bloodstream. Five to 10 grams or more of soluble fiber a day decreases your total and LDL cholesterol. Eating 1 1/2 cups of cooked oatmeal provides 6 grams of fiber. If you add fruit, such as bananas, you'll add about 4 more grams of fiber. To mix it up a little, try steel-cut oatmeal or cold cereal made with oatmeal or oat bran. Fish and omega-3 fatty acids Eating fatty fish can be heart healthy because of its high levels of omega-3 fatty acids, which can reduce your blood pressure and risk of developing blood clots. In people who have already had heart attacks, fish oil — or omega-3 fatty acids — may reduce the risk of sudden death. Although omega-3 fatty acids don't affect LDL levels, because of their other heart benefits, the American Heart Association recommends eating at least two servings of fish a week. The highest levels of omega-3 fatty acids are in: Mackerel Lake trout Herring Sardines Albacore tuna Salmon Halibut You should bake or grill the fish to avoid adding unhealthy fats. If you don't like fish, you can also get small amounts of omega-3 fatty acids from foods such as ground flaxseed or canola oil. You can take an omega-3 or fish oil supplement to get some of the benefits, but you won't get other nutrients in fish, such as selenium. If you decide to take a supplement, talk to your doctor about how much you should take. Walnuts, almonds and other nuts Walnuts, almonds and other tree nuts can improve blood cholesterol. Rich in mono- and polyunsaturated fatty acids, walnuts also help keep blood vessels healthy. Eating about a handful (1.5 ounces, or 42.5 grams) a day of most nuts, such as almonds, hazelnuts, peanuts, pecans, some pine nuts, pistachio nuts and walnuts, may reduce your risk of heart disease. Make sure the nuts you eat aren't salted or coated with sugar. All nuts are high in calories, so a handful will do. To avoid eating too many nuts and gaining weight, replace foods high in saturated fat with nuts. For example, instead of using cheese, meat or croutons in your salad, add a handful of walnuts or almonds. Avocados Avocados are a potent source of nutrients as well as monounsaturated fatty acids (MUFAs). According to a recent study, adding an avocado a day to a heart-healthy diet can help improve LDL levels in people who are overweight or obese. People tend to be most familiar with avocados in guacamole, which usually is eaten with high-fat corn chips. Try adding avocado slices to salads and sandwiches or eating them as a side dish. Also try guacamole with raw cut vegetables, such as cucumber slices. Replacing saturated fats, such as those found in meats, with MUFAs are part of what makes the Mediterranean diet heart healthy. Olive oil Another good source of MUFAs is olive oil. Try using about 2 tablespoons (23 grams) of olive oil a day in place of other fats in your diet to get its heart-healthy benefits. To add olive oil to your diet, you can saute vegetables in it, add it to a marinade or mix it with vinegar as a salad dressing. You can also use olive oil as a substitute for butter when basting meat or as a dip for bread. Both avocados and olive oil are high in calories, so don't eat more than the recommended amount. Foods with added plant sterols or stanols Foods are available that have been fortified with sterols or stanols — substances found in plants that help block the absorption of cholesterol. Some margarines, orange juice and yogurt drinks come with added plant sterols and can help reduce LDL cholesterol by 5 to 15 percent. The amount of daily plant sterols needed for results is at least 2 grams — which equals about two 8-ounce (237-milliliter) servings of plant sterol-fortified orange juice a day. It's not clear whether food with plant sterols or stanols reduce your risk of heart attack or stroke, although experts assume that foods that reduce cholesterol do reduce the risk. Plant sterols or stanols don't appear to affect levels of triglycerides or of high-density lipoprotein (HDL), the ""good"" cholesterol. Whey protein Whey protein, which is one of two proteins in dairy products — the other is casein — may account for many of the health benefits attributed to dairy. Studies have shown that whey protein given as a supplement lowers both LDL and total cholesterol. You can find whey protein powders in health food stores and some grocery stores. Follow the package directions for how to use them. Other changes to your diet For any of these foods to provide their benefit, you need to make other changes to your diet and lifestyle. Although some fats are healthy, you need to limit the saturated and trans fats you eat. Saturated fats, like those in meat, butter, cheese and other full-fat dairy products, and some oils, raise your total cholesterol. Trans fats, often used in margarines and store-bought cookies, crackers and cakes, are particularly bad for your cholesterol levels. Trans fats raise LDL cholesterol, and lower high-density lipoprotein (HDL), the ""good"" cholesterol. Food labels report the content of trans fats, but, unfortunately, only in foods that contain at least one gram per serving. That means you could be getting some trans fats in a number of foods, which could add up to enough trans fats in a day to be unhealthy and increase cholesterol. If a food label lists ""partially hydrogenated oil,"" it has trans fat, and it's best to avoid it. In addition to changing your diet, making other heart-healthy lifestyle changes is key to improving your cholesterol. Exercising, quitting smoking and maintaining a healthy weight will help keep your cholesterol at a healthy level. Share Tweet June 12, 2015References See more In-depth Products and Services Book: The Mayo Clinic Diet Book: The Mayo Clinic A to Z Health Guide Book: Mayo Clinic Healthy Heart for Life!See also After a flood, are food and medicines safe to use? Arcus senilis: A sign of high cholesterol? Birth control pill FAQCholesterol Absorbing Machine Cholesterol Numbers Lowering Cholesterol Cholesterol concerns? Get moving Show More "
[ "\"Cholesterol: Top foods to improve your numbers Diet can play an important role in lowering your cholesterol.", "Here are the top foods to lower your cholesterol and protect your heart.", "By Mayo Clinic Staff Can a bowl of oatmeal help lower your cholesterol?", "How about a handful of walnuts or an avocado?", "A few simple tweaks to your diet — like these, along with exercise and other heart-healthy habits — might help you lower your cholesterol.", "Oatmeal, oat bran and high-fiber foods Oatmeal contains soluble fiber, which reduces your low-density lipoprotein (LDL), the \"\"bad\"\" cholesterol.", "Soluble fiber is also found in such foods as kidney beans, apples, pears, barley and prunes.", "Soluble fiber can reduce the absorption of cholesterol into your bloodstream.", "Five to 10 grams or more of soluble fiber a day decreases your total and LDL cholesterol.", "Eating 1 1/2 cups of cooked oatmeal provides 6 grams of fiber.", "If you add fruit, such as bananas, you'll add about 4 more grams of fiber.", "To mix it up a little, try steel-cut oatmeal or cold cereal made with oatmeal or oat bran.", "Fish and omega-3 fatty acids Eating fatty fish can be heart healthy because of its high levels of omega-3 fatty acids, which can reduce your blood pressure and risk of developing blood clots.", "In people who have already had heart attacks, fish oil — or omega-3 fatty acids — may reduce the risk of sudden death.", "Although omega-3 fatty acids don't affect LDL levels, because of their other heart benefits, the American Heart Association recommends eating at least two servings of fish a week.", "The highest levels of omega-3 fatty acids are in: Mackerel Lake trout Herring Sardines Albacore tuna Salmon Halibut You should bake or grill the fish to avoid adding unhealthy fats.", "If you don't like fish, you can also get small amounts of omega-3 fatty acids from foods such as ground flaxseed or canola oil.", "You can take an omega-3 or fish oil supplement to get some of the benefits, but you won't get other nutrients in fish, such as selenium.", "If you decide to take a supplement, talk to your doctor about how much you should take.", "Walnuts, almonds and other nuts Walnuts, almonds and other tree nuts can improve blood cholesterol.", "Rich in mono- and polyunsaturated fatty acids, walnuts also help keep blood vessels healthy.", "Eating about a handful (1.5 ounces, or 42.5 grams) a day of most nuts, such as almonds, hazelnuts, peanuts, pecans, some pine nuts, pistachio nuts and walnuts, may reduce your risk of heart disease.", "Make sure the nuts you eat aren't salted or coated with sugar.", "All nuts are high in calories, so a handful will do.", "To avoid eating too many nuts and gaining weight, replace foods high in saturated fat with nuts.", "For example, instead of using cheese, meat or croutons in your salad, add a handful of walnuts or almonds.", "Avocados Avocados are a potent source of nutrients as well as monounsaturated fatty acids (MUFAs).", "According to a recent study, adding an avocado a day to a heart-healthy diet can help improve LDL levels in people who are overweight or obese.", "People tend to be most familiar with avocados in guacamole, which usually is eaten with high-fat corn chips.", "Try adding avocado slices to salads and sandwiches or eating them as a side dish.", "Also try guacamole with raw cut vegetables, such as cucumber slices.", "Replacing saturated fats, such as those found in meats, with MUFAs are part of what makes the Mediterranean diet heart healthy.", "Olive oil Another good source of MUFAs is olive oil.", "Try using about 2 tablespoons (23 grams) of olive oil a day in place of other fats in your diet to get its heart-healthy benefits.", "To add olive oil to your diet, you can saute vegetables in it, add it to a marinade or mix it with vinegar as a salad dressing.", "You can also use olive oil as a substitute for butter when basting meat or as a dip for bread.", "Both avocados and olive oil are high in calories, so don't eat more than the recommended amount.", "Foods with added plant sterols or stanols Foods are available that have been fortified with sterols or stanols — substances found in plants that help block the absorption of cholesterol.", "Some margarines, orange juice and yogurt drinks come with added plant sterols and can help reduce LDL cholesterol by 5 to 15 percent.", "The amount of daily plant sterols needed for results is at least 2 grams — which equals about two 8-ounce (237-milliliter) servings of plant sterol-fortified orange juice a day.", "It's not clear whether food with plant sterols or stanols reduce your risk of heart attack or stroke, although experts assume that foods that reduce cholesterol do reduce the risk.", "Plant sterols or stanols don't appear to affect levels of triglycerides or of high-density lipoprotein (HDL), the \"\"good\"\" cholesterol.", "Whey protein Whey protein, which is one of two proteins in dairy products — the other is casein — may account for many of the health benefits attributed to dairy.", "Studies have shown that whey protein given as a supplement lowers both LDL and total cholesterol.", "You can find whey protein powders in health food stores and some grocery stores.", "Follow the package directions for how to use them.", "Other changes to your diet For any of these foods to provide their benefit, you need to make other changes to your diet and lifestyle.", "Although some fats are healthy, you need to limit the saturated and trans fats you eat.", "Saturated fats, like those in meat, butter, cheese and other full-fat dairy products, and some oils, raise your total cholesterol.", "Trans fats, often used in margarines and store-bought cookies, crackers and cakes, are particularly bad for your cholesterol levels.", "Trans fats raise LDL cholesterol, and lower high-density lipoprotein (HDL), the \"\"good\"\" cholesterol.", "Food labels report the content of trans fats, but, unfortunately, only in foods that contain at least one gram per serving.", "That means you could be getting some trans fats in a number of foods, which could add up to enough trans fats in a day to be unhealthy and increase cholesterol.", "If a food label lists \"\"partially hydrogenated oil,\"\" it has trans fat, and it's best to avoid it.", "In addition to changing your diet, making other heart-healthy lifestyle changes is key to improving your cholesterol.", "Exercising, quitting smoking and maintaining a healthy weight will help keep your cholesterol at a healthy level.", "Share Tweet June 12, 2015References See more In-depth Products and Services Book: The Mayo Clinic Diet Book: The Mayo Clinic A to Z Health Guide Book: Mayo Clinic Healthy Heart for Life!See also After a flood, are food and medicines safe to use?", "Arcus senilis: A sign of high cholesterol?", "Birth control pill FAQCholesterol Absorbing Machine Cholesterol Numbers Lowering Cholesterol Cholesterol concerns?", "Get moving Show More \"" ]
D1888
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Photosynthesis
Photosynthesis
"From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedianavigation search Schematic of photosynthesis in plants. The carbohydrates produced are stored in or used by the plant. Overall equation for the type of photosynthesis that occurs in plants Composite image showing the global distribution of photosynthesis, including both oceanic phytoplankton and terrestrial vegetation. Dark red and blue-green indicate regions of high photosynthetic activity in the ocean and on land, respectively. Photosynthesis is a process used by plants and other organisms to convert light energy into chemical energy that can later be released to fuel the organisms' activities ( energy transformation ). This chemical energy is stored in carbohydrate molecules, such as sugars, which are synthesized from carbon dioxide and water – hence the name photosynthesis, from the Greek φῶς, phōs, ""light"", and σύνθεσις, synthesis, ""putting together"". [1] [2] [3] In most cases, oxygen is also released as a waste product. Most plants, most algae, and cyanobacteria perform photosynthesis; such organisms are called photoautotrophs. Photosynthesis is largely responsible for producing and maintaining the oxygen content of the Earth's atmosphere, and supplies all of the organic compounds and most of the energy necessary for life on Earth. [4]Although photosynthesis is performed differently by different species, the process always begins when energy from light is absorbed by proteins called reaction centres that contain green chlorophyll pigments. In plants, these proteins are held inside organelles called chloroplasts, which are most abundant in leaf cells, while in bacteria they are embedded in the plasma membrane. In these light-dependent reactions, some energy is used to strip electrons from suitable substances, such as water, producing oxygen gas. The hydrogen freed by the splitting of water is used in the creation of two further compounds that serve as short-term stores of energy, enabling its transfer to drive other reactions: these compounds are reduced nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate (NADPH) and adenosine triphosphate (ATP), the ""energy currency"" of cells. In plants, algae and cyanobacteria, long-term energy storage in the form of sugars is produced by a subsequent sequence of light-independent reactions called the Calvin cycle; some bacteria use different mechanisms, such as the reverse Krebs cycle, to achieve the same end. In the Calvin cycle, atmospheric carbon dioxide is incorporated into already existing organic carbon compounds, such as ribulose bisphosphate (Ru BP). [5] Using the ATP and NADPH produced by the light-dependent reactions, the resulting compounds are then reduced and removed to form further carbohydrates, such as glucose. The first photosynthetic organisms probably evolved early in the evolutionary history of life and most likely used reducing agents such as hydrogen or hydrogen sulfide, rather than water, as sources of electrons. [6] Cyanobacteria appeared later; the excess oxygen they produced contributed directly to the oxygenation of the Earth, [7] which rendered the evolution of complex life possible. Today, the average rate of energy capture by photosynthesis globally is approximately 130 terawatts, [8] [9] [10] which is about three times the current power consumption of human civilization. [11] Photosynthetic organisms also convert around 100–115 thousand million metric tonnes of carbon into biomass per year. [12] [13]Contents [ hide ]1 Overview2 Photosynthetic membranes and organelles3 Light-dependent reactions3.1 Z scheme3.2 Water photolysis4 Light-independent reactions4.1 Calvin cycle4.2 Carbon concentrating mechanisms4.2.1 On land4.2.2 In water5 Order and kinetics6 Efficiency7 Evolution7.1 Symbiosis and the origin of chloroplasts7.2 Cyanobacteria and the evolution of photosynthesis8 Discovery8.1 Development of the concept8.2 C3 : C4 photosynthesis research9 Factors9.1 Light intensity (irradiance), wavelength and temperature9.2 Carbon dioxide levels and photorespiration10 See also11 References12 Further reading12.1 Books12.2 Papers13 External links Overview Photosynthesis changes sunlight into chemical energy, splits water to liberate O 2, and fixes CO 2 into sugar. Photosynthetic organisms are photoautotrophs, which means that they are able to synthesize food directly from carbon dioxide and water using energy from light. However, not all organisms that use light as a source of energy carry out photosynthesis; photoheterotrophs use organic compounds, rather than carbon dioxide, as a source of carbon. [4] In plants, algae, and cyanobacteria, photosynthesis releases oxygen. This is called oxygenic photosynthesis and is by far the most common type of photosynthesis used by living organisms. Although there are some differences between oxygenic photosynthesis in plants, algae, and cyanobacteria, the overall process is quite similar in these organisms. There are also many varieties of anoxygenic photosynthesis, used mostly by certain types of bacteria, which consume carbon dioxide but do not release oxygen. Carbon dioxide is converted into sugars in a process called carbon fixation; photosynthesis captures energy from sunlight to convert carbon dioxide into carbohydrate. Carbon fixation is an endothermic redox reaction. In general outline, photosynthesis is the opposite of cellular respiration; in the latter, glucose and other compounds are oxidized to produce carbon dioxide and water, and to release chemical energy (an exothermic reaction) to drive the organism's metabolism. The two processes, reduction of carbon dioxide to carbohydrate and then later oxidation of the carbohydrate, are distinct: photosynthesis and cellular respiration take place through a different sequence of chemical reactions and in different cellular compartments. The general equation for photosynthesis as first proposed by Cornelius van Niel is therefore: [14]CO 2 + 2H 2 A + photons → [ CH 2O ] + 2A + H 2 Ocarbon dioxide + electron donor + light energy → carbohydrate + oxidized electron donor + water Since water is used as the electron donor in oxygenic photosynthesis, the equation for this process is: CO 2 + 2H 2 O + photons → [CH 2 O] + O 2 + H 2 Ocarbon dioxide + water + light energy → carbohydrate + oxygen + water This equation emphasizes that water is both a reactant in the light-dependent reaction and a product of the light-independent reaction, but canceling n water molecules from each side gives the net equation: CO 2 + H 2 O + photons → [CH 2 O] + O 2carbon dioxide + water + light energy → carbohydrate + oxygen Other processes substitute other compounds (such as arsenite) for water in the electron-supply role; for example some microbes use sunlight to oxidize arsenite to arsenate: [15] The equation for this reaction is: CO 2 + (As O 3−3) + photons → (As O 3−4) + CO [16]carbon dioxide + arsenite + light energy → arsenate + carbon monoxide (used to build other compounds in subsequent reactions)Photosynthesis occurs in two stages. In the first stage, light-dependent reactions or light reactions capture the energy of light and use it to make the energy-storage molecules ATP and NADPH. During the second stage, the light-independent reactions use these products to capture and reduce carbon dioxide. Most organisms that utilize oxygenic photosynthesis use visible light for the light-dependent reactions, although at least three use shortwave infrared or, more specifically, far-red radiation. [17]Some organisms employ even more radical variants of photosynthesis. Some archea use a simpler method that employs a pigment similar to those used for vision in animals. The bacteriorhodopsin changes its configuration in response to sunlight, acting as a proton pump. This produces a proton gradient more directly, which is then converted to chemical energy. The process does not involve carbon dioxide fixation and does not release oxygen, and seems to have evolved separately from the more common types of photosynthesis. [18] [19]Photosynthetic membranes and organelles Chloroplast ultrastructure: 1. outer membrane 2. intermembrane space 3. inner membrane (1+2+3: envelope) 4. stroma (aqueous fluid) 5. thylakoid lumen (inside of thylakoid) 6. thylakoid membrane 7. granum (stack of thylakoids) 8. thylakoid (lamella) 9. starch 10. ribosome 11. plastidial DNA 12. plastoglobule (drop of lipids)Main articles: Chloroplast and Thylakoid In photosynthetic bacteria, the proteins that gather light for photosynthesis are embedded in cell membranes. In its simplest form, this involves the membrane surrounding the cell itself. [20] However, the membrane may be tightly folded into cylindrical sheets called thylakoids, [21] or bunched up into round vesicles called intracytoplasmic membranes. [22] These structures can fill most of the interior of a cell, giving the membrane a very large surface area and therefore increasing the amount of light that the bacteria can absorb. [21]In plants and algae, photosynthesis takes place in organelles called chloroplasts. A typical plant cell contains about 10 to 100 chloroplasts. The chloroplast is enclosed by a membrane. This membrane is composed of a phospholipid inner membrane, a phospholipid outer membrane, and an intermembrane space. Enclosed by the membrane is an aqueous fluid called the stroma. Embedded within the stroma are stacks of thylakoids (grana), which are the site of photosynthesis. The thylakoids appear as flattened disks. The thylakoid itself is enclosed by the thylakoid membrane, and within the enclosed volume is a lumen or thylakoid space. Embedded in the thylakoid membrane are integral and peripheral membrane protein complexes of the photosynthetic system. Plants absorb light primarily using the pigment chlorophyll. The green part of the light spectrum is not absorbed but is reflected which is the reason that most plants have a green color. Besides chlorophyll, plants also use pigments such as carotenes and xanthophylls. [23] Algae also use chlorophyll, but various other pigments are present, such as phycocyanin, carotenes, and xanthophylls in green algae, phycoerythrin in red algae (rhodophytes) and fucoxanthin in brown algae and diatoms resulting in a wide variety of colors. These pigments are embedded in plants and algae in complexes called antenna proteins. In such proteins, the pigments are arranged to work together. Such a combination of proteins is also called a light-harvesting complex. Although all cells in the green parts of a plant have chloroplasts, the majority of those are found in specially adapted structures called leaves. Certain species adapted to conditions of strong sunlight and aridity, such as many Euphorbia and cactus species, have their main photosynthetic organs in their stems. The cells in the interior tissues of a leaf, called the mesophyll, can contain between 450,000 and 800,000 chloroplasts for every square millimeter of leaf. The surface of the leaf is coated with a water-resistant waxy cuticle that protects the leaf from excessive evaporation of water and decreases the absorption of ultraviolet or blue light to reduce heating. The transparent epidermis layer allows light to pass through to the palisade mesophyll cells where most of the photosynthesis takes place. Light-dependent reactions Light-dependent reactions of photosynthesis at the thylakoid membrane Main article: Light-dependent reactions In the light-dependent reactions, one molecule of the pigment chlorophyll absorbs one photon and loses one electron. This electron is passed to a modified form of chlorophyll called pheophytin, which passes the electron to a quinone molecule, starting the flow of electrons down an electron transport chain that leads to the ultimate reduction of NADP to NADPH. In addition, this creates a proton gradient (energy gradient) across the chloroplast membrane, which is used by ATP synthase in the synthesis of ATP. The chlorophyll molecule ultimately regains the electron it lost when a water molecule is split in a process called photolysis, which releases a dioxygen (O 2) molecule as a waste product. The overall equation for the light-dependent reactions under the conditions of non-cyclic electron flow in green plants is: [24]2 H 2 O + 2 NADP + + 3 ADP + 3 P + light → 2 NADPH + 2 H + + 3 ATP + O 2Not all wavelengths of light can support photosynthesis. The photosynthetic action spectrum depends on the type of accessory pigments present. For example, in green plants, the action spectrum resembles the absorption spectrum for chlorophylls and carotenoids with absorption peaks in violet-blue and red light. In red algae, the action spectrum is blue-green light, which allows these algae to use the blue end of the spectrum to grow in the deeper waters that filter out the longer wavelengths (red light) used by above ground green plants. The non-absorbed part of the light spectrum is what gives photosynthetic organisms their color (e.g., green plants, red algae, purple bacteria) and is the least effective for photosynthesis in the respective organisms. Z scheme The ""Z scheme""In plants, light-dependent reactions occur in the thylakoid membranes of the chloroplasts where they drive the synthesis of ATP and NADPH. The light-dependent reactions are of two forms: cyclic and non-cyclic. In the non-cyclic reaction, the photons are captured in the light-harvesting antenna complexes of photosystem II by chlorophyll and other accessory pigments (see diagram at right). The absorption of a photon by the antenna complex frees an electron by a process called photoinduced charge separation. The antenna system is at the core of the chlorophyll molecule of the photosystem II reaction center. That freed electron is transferred to the primary electron-acceptor molecule, pheophytin. As the electrons are shuttled through an electron transport chain (the so-called Z-scheme shown in the diagram), it initially functions to generate a chemiosmotic potential by pumping proton cations (H +) across the membrane and into the thylakoid space. An ATP synthase enzyme uses that chemiosmotic potential to make ATP during photophosphorylation, whereas NADPH is a product of the terminal redox reaction in the Z-scheme. The electron enters a chlorophyll molecule in Photosystem I. There it is further excited by the light absorbed by that photosystem. The electron is then passed along a chain of electron acceptors to which it transfers some of its energy. The energy delivered to the electron acceptors is used to move hydrogen ions across the thylakoid membrane into the lumen. The electron is eventually used to reduce the co-enzyme NADP with a H + to NADPH (which has functions in the light-independent reaction); at that point, the path of that electron ends. The cyclic reaction is similar to that of the non-cyclic, but differs in that it generates only ATP, and no reduced NADP (NADPH) is created. The cyclic reaction takes place only at photosystem I. Once the electron is displaced from the photosystem, the electron is passed down the electron acceptor molecules and returns to photosystem I, from where it was emitted, hence the name cyclic reaction. Water photolysis Main articles: Photodissociation and Oxygen evolution The NADPH is the main reducing agent produced by chloroplasts, which then goes on to provide a source of energetic electrons in other cellular reactions. Its production leaves chlorophyll in photosystem I with a deficit of electrons (chlorophyll has been oxidized), which must be balanced by some other reducing agent that will supply the missing electron. The excited electrons lost from chlorophyll from photosystem I are supplied from the electron transport chain by plastocyanin. However, since photosystem II is the first step of the Z-scheme, an external source of electrons is required to reduce its oxidized chlorophyll a molecules. The source of electrons in green-plant and cyanobacterial photosynthesis is water. Two water molecules are oxidized by four successive charge-separation reactions by photosystem II to yield a molecule of diatomic oxygen and four hydrogen ions; the electrons yielded are transferred to a redox-active tyrosine residue that then reduces the oxidized chlorophyll a (called P680) that serves as the primary light-driven electron donor in the photosystem II reaction center. That photo receptor is in effect reset and is then able to repeat the absorption of another photon and the release of another photo-dissociated electron. The oxidation of water is catalyzed in photosystem II by a redox-active structure that contains four manganese ions and a calcium ion; this oxygen-evolving complex binds two water molecules and contains the four oxidizing equivalents that are used to drive the water-oxidizing reaction (Dolai's S-state diagrams). [25] Photosystem II is the only known biological enzyme that carries out this oxidation of water. The hydrogen ions released contribute to the transmembrane chemiosmotic potential that leads to ATP synthesis. Oxygen is a waste product of light-dependent reactions, but the majority of organisms on Earth use oxygen for cellular respiration, including photosynthetic organisms. [26] [27]Light-independent reactions Calvin cycle Main articles: Calvin cycle, Carbon fixation, and Light-independent reactions In the light-independent (or ""dark"") reactions, the enzyme Ru Bis CO captures CO 2 from the atmosphere and, in a process called the Calvin-Benson cycle, it uses the newly formed NADPH and releases three-carbon sugars, which are later combined to form sucrose and starch. The overall equation for the light-independent reactions in green plants is [24]: 1283 CO 2 + 9 ATP + 6 NADPH + 6 H + → C 3 H 6 O 3 -phosphate + 9 ADP + 8 P + 6 NADP + + 3 H 2 OOverview of the Calvin cycle and carbon fixation Carbon fixation produces the intermediate three-carbon sugar product, which is then converted to the final carbohydrate products. The simple carbon sugars produced by photosynthesis are then used in the forming of other organic compounds, such as the building material cellulose, the precursors for lipid and amino acid biosynthesis, or as a fuel in cellular respiration. The latter occurs not only in plants but also in animals when the energy from plants is passed through a food chain. The fixation or reduction of carbon dioxide is a process in which carbon dioxide combines with a five-carbon sugar, ribulose 1,5-bisphosphate, to yield two molecules of a three-carbon compound, glycerate 3-phosphate, also known as 3-phosphoglycerate. Glycerate 3-phosphate, in the presence of ATP and NADPH produced during the light-dependent stages, is reduced to glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate. This product is also referred to as 3-phosphoglyceraldehyde ( PGAL) or, more generically, as triose phosphate. Most (5 out of 6 molecules) of the glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate produced is used to regenerate ribulose 1,5-bisphosphate so the process can continue. The triose phosphates not thus ""recycled"" often condense to form hexose phosphates, which ultimately yield sucrose, starch and cellulose. The sugars produced during carbon metabolism yield carbon skeletons that can be used for other metabolic reactions like the production of amino acids and lipids. Carbon concentrating mechanisms On land Overview of C4 carbon fixation In hot and dry conditions, plants close their stomata to prevent water loss. Under these conditions, CO 2 will decrease and oxygen gas, produced by the light reactions of photosynthesis, will increase, causing an increase of photorespiration by the oxygenase activity of ribulose-1,5-bisphosphate carboxylase/oxygenase and decrease in carbon fixation. Some plants have evolved mechanisms to increase the CO 2 concentration in the leaves under these conditions. [28]Main article: C4 carbon fixation Plants that use the C 4 carbon fixation process chemically fix carbon dioxide in the cells of the mesophyll by adding it to the three-carbon molecule phosphoenolpyruvate (PEP), a reaction catalyzed by an enzyme called PEP carboxylase, creating the four-carbon organic acid oxaloacetic acid. Oxaloacetic acid or malate synthesized by this process is then translocated to specialized bundle sheath cells where the enzyme Ru Bis CO and other Calvin cycle enzymes are located, and where CO 2 released by decarboxylation of the four-carbon acids is then fixed by Ru Bis CO activity to the three-carbon 3-phosphoglyceric acids. The physical separation of Ru Bis CO from the oxygen-generating light reactions reduces photorespiration and increases CO 2 fixation and, thus, the photosynthetic capacity of the leaf. [29] C 4 plants can produce more sugar than C 3 plants in conditions of high light and temperature. Many important crop plants are C 4 plants, including maize, sorghum, sugarcane, and millet. Plants that do not use PEP-carboxylase in carbon fixation are called C 3plants because the primary carboxylation reaction, catalyzed by Ru Bis CO, produces the three-carbon 3-phosphoglyceric acids directly in the Calvin-Benson cycle. Over 90% of plants use C 3 carbon fixation, compared to 3% that use C 4 carbon fixation; [30] however, the evolution of C 4 in over 60 plant lineages makes it a striking example of convergent evolution. [28]Main article: CAM photosynthesis Xerophytes, such as cacti and most succulents, also use PEP carboxylase to capture carbon dioxide in a process called Crassulacean acid metabolism (CAM). In contrast to C 4 metabolism, which spatially separates the CO 2 fixation to PEP from the Calvin cycle, CAM temporally separates these two processes. CAM plants have a different leaf anatomy from C 3 plants, and fix the CO 2 at night, when their stomata are open. CAM plants store the CO 2 mostly in the form of malic acid via carboxylation of phosphoenolpyruvate to oxaloacetate, which is then reduced to malate. Decarboxylation of malate during the day releases CO 2 inside the leaves, thus allowing carbon fixation to 3-phosphoglycerate by Ru Bis CO. Sixteen thousand species of plants use CAM. [31]In water Cyanobacteria possess carboxysomes, which increase the concentration of CO 2 around Ru Bis CO to increase the rate of photosynthesis. An enzyme, carbonic anhydrase, located within the carboxysome releases CO 2 from the dissolved hydrocarbonate ions (HCO −3 ). Before the CO 2 diffuses out it is quickly sponged up by Ru Bis CO, which is concentrated within the carboxysomes. HCO −3 ions are made from CO 2 outside the cell by another carbonic anhydrase and are actively pumped into the cell by a membrane protein. They cannot cross the membrane as they are charged, and within the cytosol they turn back into CO 2 very slowly without the help of carbonic anhydrase. This causes the HCO −3 ions to accumulate within the cell from where they diffuse into the carboxysomes. [32] Pyrenoids in algae and hornworts also act to concentrate CO 2 around rubisco. [33]Order and kinetics The overall process of photosynthesis takes place in four stages: [13]Stage Description Time scale1 Energy transfer in antenna chlorophyll (thylakoid membranes) femtosecond to picosecond2 Transfer of electrons in photochemical reactions (thylakoid membranes) picosecond to nanosecond3 Electron transport chain and ATP synthesis (thylakoid membranes) microsecond to millisecond4 Carbon fixation and export of stable products millisecond to second Efficiency Main article: Photosynthetic efficiency Plants usually convert light into chemical energy with a photosynthetic efficiency of 3–6%. [34] Absorbed light that is unconverted is dissipated primarily as heat, with a small fraction (1–2%) [35] re-emitted as chlorophyll fluorescence at longer (redder) wavelengths. This fact allows measurement of the light reaction of photosynthesis by using chlorophyll fluorometers. [36]Actual plants' photosynthetic efficiency varies with the frequency of the light being converted, light intensity, temperature and proportion of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere, and can vary from 0.1% to 8%. [37] By comparison, solar panels convert light into electric energy at an efficiency of approximately 6–20% for mass-produced panels, and above 40% in laboratory devices. The efficiency of both light and dark reactions can be measured but the relationship between the two can be complex. [38] For example, the ATP and NADPH energy molecules, created by the light reaction, can be used for carbon fixation or for photorespiration in C 3 plants. [38] Electrons may also flow to other electron sinks. [39] [40] [41] For this reason, it is not uncommon for authors to differentiate between work done under non-photorespiratory conditions and under photorespiratory conditions. [42] [43] [44]Chlorophyll fluorescence of photosystem II can measure the light reaction, and Infrared gas analyzers can measure the dark reaction. [45] It is also possible to investigate both at the same time using an integrated chlorophyll fluorometer and gas exchange system, or by using two separate systems together. [46] Infrared gas analyzers and some moisture sensors are sensitive enough to measure the photosynthetic assimilation of CO 2, and of ΔH 2 O using reliable methods [47] CO 2 is commonly measured in μmols/m 2 /s −1, parts per million or volume per million and H 2 0 is commonly measured in mmol/m 2 /s −1 or in mbars. [47] By measuring CO 2 assimilation, ΔH 2 O, leaf temperature, barometric pressure, leaf area, and photosynthetically active radiation or PAR, it becomes possible to estimate, “A” or carbon assimilation, “E” or transpiration, “gs” or stomatal conductance, and Ci or intracellular CO 2. [47] However, it is more common to used chlorophyll fluorescence for plant stress measurement, where appropriate, because the most commonly used measuring parameters FV/FM and Y (II) or F/FM’ can be made in a few seconds, allowing the measurement of larger plant populations. [44]Gas exchange systems that offer control of CO 2 levels, above and below ambient, allow the common practice of measurement of A/Ci curves, at different CO 2 levels, to characterize a plant’s photosynthetic response. [47]Integrated chlorophyll fluorometer – gas exchange systems allow a more precise measure of photosynthetic response and mechanisms. [45] [46] While standard gas exchange photosynthesis systems can measure Ci, or substomatal CO 2 levels, the addition of integrated chlorophyll fluorescence measurements allows a more precise measurement of C C to replace Ci. [46] [48] The estimation of CO 2 at the site of carboxylation in the chloroplast, or C C, becomes possible with the measurement of mesophyll conductance or g m using an integrated system. [45] [46] [49]Photosynthesis measurement systems are not designed to directly measure the amount of light absorbed by the leaf. But analysis of chlorophyll-fluorescence, P700- and P515-absorbance and gas exchange measurements reveal detailed information about e.g. the photosystems, quantum efficiency and the CO 2 assimilation rates. With some instruments even wavelength-dependency of the photosynthetic efficiency can be analyzed. [50]A phenomenon known as quantum walk increases the efficiency of the energy transport of light significantly. In the photosynthetic cell of an algae, bacterium, or plant, there are light-sensitive molecules called chromophores arranged in an antenna-shaped structure named a photocomplex. When a photon is absorbed by a chromophore, it is converted into a quasiparticle referred to as an exciton, which jumps from chromophore to chromophore towards the reaction center of the photocomplex, a collection of molecules that traps its energy in a chemical form that makes it accessible for the cell's metabolism. The exciton's wave properties enable it to cover a wider area and try out several possible paths simultaneously, allowing it to instantaneously ""choose"" the most efficient route, where it will have the highest probability of arriving at its destination in the minimum possible time. Because that quantum walking takes place at temperatures far higher than quantum phenomena usually occur, it is only possible over very short distances, due to obstacles in the form of destructive interference that come into play. These obstacles cause the particle to lose its wave properties for an instant before it regains them once again after it is freed from its locked position through a classic ""hop"". The movement of the electron towards the photo center is therefore covered in a series of conventional hops and quantum walks. [51] [52] [53]Evolution Life timelineview • discuss • edit-4500 —–-4000 —–-3500 —–-3000 —–-2500 —–-2000 —–-1500 —–-1000 —–-500 —–0 —water Single-celled lifephotosynthesis Eukaryotes Multicellular life Land life Dinosaurs Mammals Flowers← Earliest Earth ( −4540)← Earliest water← Earliest life← LHB meteorites← Earliest oxygen← Atmospheric oxygen← Oxygen crisis← Earliest sexual reproduction← Ediacara biota← Cambrian explosion← Earliest humans P h a n e r o z o i c P r o t e r o z o i c A r c h e a n H a d e a n Pongola Huronian Cryogenian Andean Karoo Quaternaryice ages Axis scale: million years Also see: Human timeline and Nature timeline Main article: Evolution of photosynthesis Early photosynthetic systems, such as those in green and purple sulfur and green and purple nonsulfur bacteria, are thought to have been anoxygenic, and used various other molecules as electron donors rather than water. Green and purple sulfur bacteria are thought to have used hydrogen and sulfur as electron donors. Green nonsulfur bacteria used various amino and other organic acids as an electron donor. Purple nonsulfur bacteria used a variety of nonspecific organic molecules. The use of these molecules is consistent with the geological evidence that Earth's early atmosphere was highly reducing at that time. [54]Fossils of what are thought to be filamentous photosynthetic organisms have been dated at 3.4 billion years old. [55] [56] More recent studies, reported in March 2018, also suggest that photosynthesis may have begun about 3.4 billion years ago. [57] [58]The main source of oxygen in the Earth's atmosphere derives from oxygenic photosynthesis, and its first appearance is sometimes referred to as the oxygen catastrophe. Geological evidence suggests that oxygenic photosynthesis, such as that in cyanobacteria, became important during the Paleoproterozoic era around 2 billion years ago. Modern photosynthesis in plants and most photosynthetic prokaryotes is oxygenic. Oxygenic photosynthesis uses water as an electron donor, which is oxidized to molecular oxygen ( O 2) in the photosynthetic reaction center. Symbiosis and the origin of chloroplasts Plant cells with visible chloroplasts (from a moss, Plagiomnium affine)Several groups of animals have formed symbiotic relationships with photosynthetic algae. These are most common in corals, sponges and sea anemones. It is presumed that this is due to the particularly simple body plans and large surface areas of these animals compared to their volumes. [59] In addition, a few marine mollusks Elysia viridis and Elysia chlorotica also maintain a symbiotic relationship with chloroplasts they capture from the algae in their diet and then store in their bodies. This allows the mollusks to survive solely by photosynthesis for several months at a time. [60] [61] Some of the genes from the plant cell nucleus have even been transferred to the slugs, so that the chloroplasts can be supplied with proteins that they need to survive. [62]An even closer form of symbiosis may explain the origin of chloroplasts. Chloroplasts have many similarities with photosynthetic bacteria, including a circular chromosome, prokaryotic-type ribosome, and similar proteins in the photosynthetic reaction center. [63] [64] The endosymbiotic theory suggests that photosynthetic bacteria were acquired (by endocytosis) by early eukaryotic cells to form the first plant cells. Therefore, chloroplasts may be photosynthetic bacteria that adapted to life inside plant cells. Like mitochondria, chloroplasts possess their own DNA, separate from the nuclear DNA of their plant host cells and the genes in this chloroplast DNA resemble those found in cyanobacteria. [65] DNA in chloroplasts codes for redox proteins such as those found in the photosynthetic reaction centers. The Co RR Hypothesis proposes that this Co -location is required for R edox R egulation. [ clarification needed]Cyanobacteria and the evolution of photosynthesis The biochemical capacity to use water as the source for electrons in photosynthesis evolved once, in a common ancestor of extant cyanobacteria. The geological record indicates that this transforming event took place early in Earth's history, at least 2450–2320 million years ago (Ma), and, it is speculated, much earlier. [66] [67] Because the Earth's atmosphere contained almost no oxygen during the estimated development of photosynthesis, it is believed that the first photosynthetic cyanobacteria did not generate oxygen. [68] Available evidence from geobiological studies of Archean (>2500 Ma) sedimentary rocks indicates that life existed 3500 Ma, but the question of when oxygenic photosynthesis evolved is still unanswered. A clear paleontological window on cyanobacterial evolution opened about 2000 Ma, revealing an already-diverse biota of blue-green algae. Cyanobacteria remained the principal primary producers of oxygen throughout the Proterozoic Eon (2500–543 Ma), in part because the redox structure of the oceans favored photoautotrophs capable of nitrogen fixation. [ citation needed] Green algae joined blue-green algae as the major primary producers of oxygen on continental shelves near the end of the Proterozoic, but it was only with the Mesozoic (251–65 Ma) radiations of dinoflagellates, coccolithophorids, and diatoms did the primary production of oxygen in marine shelf waters take modern form. Cyanobacteria remain critical to marine ecosystems as primary producers of oxygen in oceanic gyres, as agents of biological nitrogen fixation, and, in modified form, as the plastids of marine algae. [69]Discovery Although some of the steps in photosynthesis are still not completely understood, the overall photosynthetic equation has been known since the 19th century. Jan van Helmont began the research of the process in the mid-17th century when he carefully measured the mass of the soil used by a plant and the mass of the plant as it grew. After noticing that the soil mass changed very little, he hypothesized that the mass of the growing plant must come from the water, the only substance he added to the potted plant. His hypothesis was partially accurate — much of the gained mass also comes from carbon dioxide as well as water. However, this was a signaling point to the idea that the bulk of a plant's biomass comes from the inputs of photosynthesis, not the soil itself. Joseph Priestley, a chemist and minister, discovered that, when he isolated a volume of air under an inverted jar, and burned a candle in it, the candle would burn out very quickly, much before it ran out of wax. He further discovered that a mouse could similarly ""injure"" air. He then showed that the air that had been ""injured"" by the candle and the mouse could be restored by a plant. In 1778, Jan Ingenhousz, repeated Priestley's experiments. He discovered that it was the influence of sunlight on the plant that could cause it to revive a mouse in a matter of hours. In 1796, Jean Senebier, a Swiss pastor, botanist, and naturalist, demonstrated that green plants consume carbon dioxide and release oxygen under the influence of light. Soon afterward, Nicolas-Théodore de Saussure showed that the increase in mass of the plant as it grows could not be due only to uptake of CO 2 but also to the incorporation of water. Thus, the basic reaction by which photosynthesis is used to produce food (such as glucose) was outlined. Cornelis Van Niel made key discoveries explaining the chemistry of photosynthesis. By studying purple sulfur bacteria and green bacteria he was the first to demonstrate that photosynthesis is a light-dependent redox reaction, in which hydrogen reduces carbon dioxide. Robert Emerson discovered two light reactions by testing plant productivity using different wavelengths of light. With the red alone, the light reactions were suppressed. When blue and red were combined, the output was much more substantial. Thus, there were two photosystems, one absorbing up to 600 nm wavelengths, the other up to 700 nm. The former is known as PSII, the latter is PSI. PSI contains only chlorophyll ""a"", PSII contains primarily chlorophyll ""a"" with most of the available chlorophyll ""b"", among other pigment. These include phycobilins, which are the red and blue pigments of red and blue algae respectively, and fucoxanthol for brown algae and diatoms. The process is most productive when the absorption of quanta are equal in both the PSII and PSI, assuring that input energy from the antenna complex is divided between the PSI and PSII system, which in turn powers the photochemistry. [13]Melvin Calvin works in his photosynthesis laboratory. Robert Hill thought that a complex of reactions consisting of an intermediate to cytochrome b 6 (now a plastoquinone), another is from cytochrome f to a step in the carbohydrate-generating mechanisms. These are linked by plastoquinone, which does require energy to reduce cytochrome f for it is a sufficient reductant. Further experiments to prove that the oxygen developed during the photosynthesis of green plants came from water, were performed by Hill in 1937 and 1939. He showed that isolated chloroplasts give off oxygen in the presence of unnatural reducing agents like iron oxalate, ferricyanide or benzoquinone after exposure to light. The Hill reaction [70] is as follows:2 H 2 O + 2 A + (light, chloroplasts) → 2 AH 2 + O 2where A is the electron acceptor. Therefore, in light, the electron acceptor is reduced and oxygen is evolved. Samuel Ruben and Martin Kamen used radioactive isotopes to determine that the oxygen liberated in photosynthesis came from the water. Melvin Calvin and Andrew Benson, along with James Bassham, elucidated the path of carbon assimilation (the photosynthetic carbon reduction cycle) in plants. The carbon reduction cycle is known as the Calvin cycle, which ignores the contribution of Bassham and Benson. Many scientists refer to the cycle as the Calvin-Benson Cycle, Benson-Calvin, and some even call it the Calvin-Benson-Bassham (or CBB) Cycle. Nobel Prize -winning scientist Rudolph A. Marcus was able to discover the function and significance of the electron transport chain. Otto Heinrich Warburg and Dean Burk discovered the I-quantum photosynthesis reaction that splits the CO 2, activated by the respiration. [71]Louis N. M. Duysens and Jan Amesz discovered that chlorophyll a will absorb one light, oxidize cytochrome f, chlorophyll a (and other pigments) will absorb another light, but will reduce this same oxidized cytochrome, stating the two light reactions are in series. Development of the concept In 1893, Charles Reid Barnes proposed two terms, photosyntax and photosynthesis, for the biological process of synthesis of complex carbon compounds out of carbonic acid, in the presence of chlorophyll, under the influence of light. Over time, the term photosynthesis came into common usage as the term of choice. Later discovery of anoxygenic photosynthetic bacteria and photophosphorylation necessitated redefinition of the term. [72]C3 : C4 photosynthesis research After WWII at late 1940 at the University of California, Berkeley, the details of photosynthetic carbon metabolism were sorted out by the chemists Melvin Calvin, Andrew Benson, James Bassham and a score of students and researchers utilizing the carbon-14 isotope and paper chromatography techniques. [73] The pathway of CO2 fixation by the algae Chlorella in a fraction of a second in light resulted in a 3 carbon molecule called phosphoglyceric acid (PGA). For that original and ground-breaking work, a Nobel Prize in Chemistry was awarded to Melvin Calvin in 1961. In parallel, plant physiologists studied leaf gas exchanges using the new method of infrared gas analysis and a leaf chamber where the net photosynthetic rates ranged from 10 to 13 u mole CO2/square metere.sec., with the conclusion that all terrestrial plants having the same photosynthetic capacities that were light saturated at less than 50% of sunlight. [74] [75]Later in 1958-1963 at Cornell University, field grown maize was reported to have much greater leaf photosynthetic rates of 40 u mol CO2/square meter.sec and was not saturated at near full sunlight. [76] [77] This higher rate in maize was almost double those observed in other species such as wheat and soybean, indicating that large differences in photosynthesis exist among higher plants. At the University of Arizona, detailed gas exchange research on more than 15 species of monocot and dicot uncovered for the first time that differences in leaf anatomy are crucial factors in differentiating photosynthetic capacities among species. [78] [79] In tropical grasses, including maize, sorghum, sugarcane, Bermuda grass and in the dicot amaranthus, leaf photosynthetic rates were around 38−40 u mol CO2/square meter.sec., and the leaves have two types of green cells, i. e. outer layer of mesophyll cells surrounding a tightly packed cholorophyllous vascular bundle sheath cells. This type of anatomy was termed Kranz anatomy in the 19th century by the botanist Gottlieb Haberlandt while studying leaf anatomy of sugarcane. [80] Plant species with the greatest photosynthetic rates and Kranz anatomy showed no apparent photorespiration, very low CO2 compensation point, high optimum temperature, high stomatal resistances and lower mesophyll resistances for gas diffusion and rates never saturated at full sun light. [81] The research at Arizona was designated Citation Classic by the ISI 1986. [79] These species was later termed C4 plants as the first stable compound of CO2 fixation in light has 4 carbon as malate and aspartate. [82] [83] [84] Other species that lack Kranz anatomy were termed C3 type such as cotton and sunflower, as the first stable carbon compound is the 3-carbon PGA acid. At 1000 ppm CO2 in measuring air, both the C3 and C4 plants had similar leaf photosynthetic rates around 60 u mole CO2/square meter.sec. indicating the suppression of photorespiration in C3 plants. [78] [79]Factors The leaf is the primary site of photosynthesis in plants. There are three main factors affecting photosynthesis and several corollary factors. The three main are: Light irradiance and wavelength Carbon dioxide concentration Temperature. Total photosynthesis is limited by a range of environmental factors. These include the amount of light available, the amount of leaf area a plant has to capture light (shading by other plants is a major limitation of photosynthesis), rate at which carbon dioxide can be supplied to the chloroplasts to support photosynthesis, the availability of water, and the availability of suitable temperatures for carrying out photosynthesis. [85]Light intensity (irradiance), wavelength and temperature See also: PI (photosynthesis-irradiance) curve Absorbance spectra of free chlorophyll a ( green) and b ( red) in a solvent. The action spectra of chlorophyll molecules are slightly modified in vivo depending on specific pigment-protein interactions. The process of photosynthesis provides the main input of free energy into the biosphere, and is one of four main ways in which radiation is important for plant life. [86]The radiation climate within plant communities is extremely variable, with both time and space. In the early 20th century, Frederick Blackman and Gabrielle Matthaei investigated the effects of light intensity ( irradiance) and temperature on the rate of carbon assimilation. At constant temperature, the rate of carbon assimilation varies with irradiance, increasing as the irradiance increases, but reaching a plateau at higher irradiance. At low irradiance, increasing the temperature has little influence on the rate of carbon assimilation. At constant high irradiance, the rate of carbon assimilation increases as the temperature is increased. These two experiments illustrate several important points: First, it is known that, in general, photochemical reactions are not affected by temperature. However, these experiments clearly show that temperature affects the rate of carbon assimilation, so there must be two sets of reactions in the full process of carbon assimilation. These are the light-dependent 'photochemical' temperature-independent stage, and the light-independent, temperature-dependent stage. Second, Blackman's experiments illustrate the concept of limiting factors. Another limiting factor is the wavelength of light. Cyanobacteria, which reside several meters underwater, cannot receive the correct wavelengths required to cause photoinduced charge separation in conventional photosynthetic pigments. To combat this problem, a series of proteins with different pigments surround the reaction center. This unit is called a phycobilisome. [ clarification needed]Carbon dioxide levels and photorespiration Photorespiration As carbon dioxide concentrations rise, the rate at which sugars are made by the light-independent reactions increases until limited by other factors. Ru Bis CO, the enzyme that captures carbon dioxide in the light-independent reactions, has a binding affinity for both carbon dioxide and oxygen. When the concentration of carbon dioxide is high, Ru Bis CO will fix carbon dioxide. However, if the carbon dioxide concentration is low, Ru Bis CO will bind oxygen instead of carbon dioxide. This process, called photorespiration, uses energy, but does not produce sugars. Ru Bis CO oxygenase activity is disadvantageous to plants for several reasons: One product of oxygenase activity is phosphoglycolate (2 carbon) instead of 3-phosphoglycerate (3 carbon). Phosphoglycolate cannot be metabolized by the Calvin-Benson cycle and represents carbon lost from the cycle. A high oxygenase activity, therefore, drains the sugars that are required to recycle ribulose 5-bisphosphate and for the continuation of the Calvin-Benson cycle. Phosphoglycolate is quickly metabolized to glycolate that is toxic to a plant at a high concentration; it inhibits photosynthesis. Salvaging glycolate is an energetically expensive process that uses the glycolate pathway, and only 75% of the carbon is returned to the Calvin-Benson cycle as 3-phosphoglycerate. The reactions also produce ammonia (NH 3 ), which is able to diffuse out of the plant, leading to a loss of nitrogen. A highly simplified summary is:2 glycolate + ATP → 3-phosphoglycerate + carbon dioxide + ADP + NH 3The salvaging pathway for the products of Ru Bis CO oxygenase activity is more commonly known as photorespiration, since it is characterized by light-dependent oxygen consumption and the release of carbon dioxide. See also Environment portal Ecology portal Earth sciences portal Metabolism portal Jan Anderson (scientist)Artificial photosynthesis Calvin-Benson cycle Carbon fixation Cellular respiration Chemosynthesis Integrated fluorometer Light-dependent reaction Organic reaction Photobiology Photoinhibition Photosynthetic reaction center Photosynthetically active radiation Photosystem Photosystem IPhotosystem IIQuantum biology Radiosynthesis Red edge Vitamin DHill reaction References^ ""photosynthesis"". Online Etymology Dictionary.^ φῶς. Liddell, Henry George; Scott, Robert; A Greek–English Lexicon at the Perseus Project^ σύνθεσις. 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Introductory plant biology. New York: Mc Graw-Hill. ISBN 0-07-290941-2. Blankenship RE (2014). Molecular Mechanisms of Photosynthesis (2nd ed.). John Wiley & Sons. ISBN 978-1-4051-8975-0. Govindjee, Beatty JT, Gest H, Allen JF (2006). Discoveries in Photosynthesis. Advances in Photosynthesis and Respiration. 20. Berlin: Springer. ISBN 1-4020-3323-0. Reece JB, et al. (2013). Campbell Biology. Benjamin Cummings. ISBN 978-0321775658. Papers Gupta RS, Mukhtar T, Singh B (Jun 1999). ""Evolutionary relationships among photosynthetic prokaryotes ( Heliobacterium chlorum, Chloroflexus aurantiacus, cyanobacteria, Chlorobium tepidum and proteobacteria): implications regarding the origin of photosynthesis"". Molecular Microbiology. 32 (5): 893–906. doi: 10.1046/j.1365-2958.1999.01417.x. PMID 10361294. Rutherford AW, Faller P (Jan 2003). ""Photosystem II: evolutionary perspectives"". Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London. Series B, Biological Sciences. 358 (1429): 245–53. doi: 10.1098/rstb.2002.1186. PMC 1693113. PMID 12594932. External links Find more about Photosynthesis at Wikipedia's sister projects Definitions from Wiktionary Media from Wikimedia Commons Textbooks from Wikibooks Learning resources from Wikiversity Data from Wikidata A collection of photosynthesis pages for all levels from a renowned expert (Govindjee)In depth, advanced treatment of photosynthesis, also from Govindjee Science Aid: Photosynthesis Article appropriate for high school science Metabolism, Cellular Respiration and Photosynthesis – The Virtual Library of Biochemistry and Cell Biology Overall examination of Photosynthesis at an intermediate level Overall Energetics of Photosynthesis Photosynthesis Discovery Milestones – experiments and background The source of oxygen produced by photosynthesis Interactive animation, a textbook tutorial Marshall J (2011-03-29). ""First practical artificial leaf makes debut"". Discovery News. 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[ "\"From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedianavigation search Schematic of photosynthesis in plants.", "The carbohydrates produced are stored in or used by the plant.", "Overall equation for the type of photosynthesis that occurs in plants Composite image showing the global distribution of photosynthesis, including both oceanic phytoplankton and terrestrial vegetation.", "Dark red and blue-green indicate regions of high photosynthetic activity in the ocean and on land, respectively.", "Photosynthesis is a process used by plants and other organisms to convert light energy into chemical energy that can later be released to fuel the organisms' activities ( energy transformation ).", "This chemical energy is stored in carbohydrate molecules, such as sugars, which are synthesized from carbon dioxide and water – hence the name photosynthesis, from the Greek φῶς, phōs, \"\"light\"\", and σύνθεσις, synthesis, \"\"putting together\"\".", "[1] [2] [3] In most cases, oxygen is also released as a waste product.", "Most plants, most algae, and cyanobacteria perform photosynthesis; such organisms are called photoautotrophs.", "Photosynthesis is largely responsible for producing and maintaining the oxygen content of the Earth's atmosphere, and supplies all of the organic compounds and most of the energy necessary for life on Earth.", "[4]Although photosynthesis is performed differently by different species, the process always begins when energy from light is absorbed by proteins called reaction centres that contain green chlorophyll pigments.", "In plants, these proteins are held inside organelles called chloroplasts, which are most abundant in leaf cells, while in bacteria they are embedded in the plasma membrane.", "In these light-dependent reactions, some energy is used to strip electrons from suitable substances, such as water, producing oxygen gas.", "The hydrogen freed by the splitting of water is used in the creation of two further compounds that serve as short-term stores of energy, enabling its transfer to drive other reactions: these compounds are reduced nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate (NADPH) and adenosine triphosphate (ATP), the \"\"energy currency\"\" of cells.", "In plants, algae and cyanobacteria, long-term energy storage in the form of sugars is produced by a subsequent sequence of light-independent reactions called the Calvin cycle; some bacteria use different mechanisms, such as the reverse Krebs cycle, to achieve the same end.", "In the Calvin cycle, atmospheric carbon dioxide is incorporated into already existing organic carbon compounds, such as ribulose bisphosphate (Ru BP).", "[5] Using the ATP and NADPH produced by the light-dependent reactions, the resulting compounds are then reduced and removed to form further carbohydrates, such as glucose.", "The first photosynthetic organisms probably evolved early in the evolutionary history of life and most likely used reducing agents such as hydrogen or hydrogen sulfide, rather than water, as sources of electrons.", "[6] Cyanobacteria appeared later; the excess oxygen they produced contributed directly to the oxygenation of the Earth, [7] which rendered the evolution of complex life possible.", "Today, the average rate of energy capture by photosynthesis globally is approximately 130 terawatts, [8] [9] [10] which is about three times the current power consumption of human civilization.", "[11] Photosynthetic organisms also convert around 100–115 thousand million metric tonnes of carbon into biomass per year.", "[12] [13]Contents [ hide ]1 Overview2 Photosynthetic membranes and organelles3 Light-dependent reactions3.1 Z scheme3.2 Water photolysis4 Light-independent reactions4.1 Calvin cycle4.2 Carbon concentrating mechanisms4.2.1 On land4.2.2 In water5 Order and kinetics6 Efficiency7 Evolution7.1 Symbiosis and the origin of chloroplasts7.2 Cyanobacteria and the evolution of photosynthesis8 Discovery8.1 Development of the concept8.2 C3 : C4 photosynthesis research9 Factors9.1 Light intensity (irradiance), wavelength and temperature9.2 Carbon dioxide levels and photorespiration10 See also11 References12 Further reading12.1 Books12.2 Papers13 External links Overview Photosynthesis changes sunlight into chemical energy, splits water to liberate O 2, and fixes CO 2 into sugar.", "Photosynthetic organisms are photoautotrophs, which means that they are able to synthesize food directly from carbon dioxide and water using energy from light.", "However, not all organisms that use light as a source of energy carry out photosynthesis; photoheterotrophs use organic compounds, rather than carbon dioxide, as a source of carbon.", "[4] In plants, algae, and cyanobacteria, photosynthesis releases oxygen.", "This is called oxygenic photosynthesis and is by far the most common type of photosynthesis used by living organisms.", "Although there are some differences between oxygenic photosynthesis in plants, algae, and cyanobacteria, the overall process is quite similar in these organisms.", "There are also many varieties of anoxygenic photosynthesis, used mostly by certain types of bacteria, which consume carbon dioxide but do not release oxygen.", "Carbon dioxide is converted into sugars in a process called carbon fixation; photosynthesis captures energy from sunlight to convert carbon dioxide into carbohydrate.", "Carbon fixation is an endothermic redox reaction.", "In general outline, photosynthesis is the opposite of cellular respiration; in the latter, glucose and other compounds are oxidized to produce carbon dioxide and water, and to release chemical energy (an exothermic reaction) to drive the organism's metabolism.", "The two processes, reduction of carbon dioxide to carbohydrate and then later oxidation of the carbohydrate, are distinct: photosynthesis and cellular respiration take place through a different sequence of chemical reactions and in different cellular compartments.", "The general equation for photosynthesis as first proposed by Cornelius van Niel is therefore: [14]CO 2 + 2H 2 A + photons → [ CH 2O ] + 2A + H 2 Ocarbon dioxide + electron donor + light energy → carbohydrate + oxidized electron donor + water Since water is used as the electron donor in oxygenic photosynthesis, the equation for this process is: CO 2 + 2H 2 O + photons → [CH 2 O] + O 2 + H 2 Ocarbon dioxide + water + light energy → carbohydrate + oxygen + water This equation emphasizes that water is both a reactant in the light-dependent reaction and a product of the light-independent reaction, but canceling n water molecules from each side gives the net equation: CO 2 + H 2 O + photons → [CH 2 O] + O 2carbon dioxide + water + light energy → carbohydrate + oxygen Other processes substitute other compounds (such as arsenite) for water in the electron-supply role; for example some microbes use sunlight to oxidize arsenite to arsenate: [15] The equation for this reaction is: CO 2 + (As O 3−3) + photons → (As O 3−4) + CO [16]carbon dioxide + arsenite + light energy → arsenate + carbon monoxide (used to build other compounds in subsequent reactions)Photosynthesis occurs in two stages.", "In the first stage, light-dependent reactions or light reactions capture the energy of light and use it to make the energy-storage molecules ATP and NADPH.", "During the second stage, the light-independent reactions use these products to capture and reduce carbon dioxide.", "Most organisms that utilize oxygenic photosynthesis use visible light for the light-dependent reactions, although at least three use shortwave infrared or, more specifically, far-red radiation.", "[17]Some organisms employ even more radical variants of photosynthesis.", "Some archea use a simpler method that employs a pigment similar to those used for vision in animals.", "The bacteriorhodopsin changes its configuration in response to sunlight, acting as a proton pump.", "This produces a proton gradient more directly, which is then converted to chemical energy.", "The process does not involve carbon dioxide fixation and does not release oxygen, and seems to have evolved separately from the more common types of photosynthesis.", "[18] [19]Photosynthetic membranes and organelles Chloroplast ultrastructure: 1. outer membrane 2. intermembrane space 3. inner membrane (1+2+3: envelope) 4. stroma (aqueous fluid) 5. thylakoid lumen (inside of thylakoid) 6. thylakoid membrane 7. granum (stack of thylakoids) 8. thylakoid (lamella) 9. starch 10. ribosome 11. plastidial DNA 12. plastoglobule (drop of lipids)Main articles: Chloroplast and Thylakoid In photosynthetic bacteria, the proteins that gather light for photosynthesis are embedded in cell membranes.", "In its simplest form, this involves the membrane surrounding the cell itself.", "[20] However, the membrane may be tightly folded into cylindrical sheets called thylakoids, [21] or bunched up into round vesicles called intracytoplasmic membranes.", "[22] These structures can fill most of the interior of a cell, giving the membrane a very large surface area and therefore increasing the amount of light that the bacteria can absorb.", "[21]In plants and algae, photosynthesis takes place in organelles called chloroplasts.", "A typical plant cell contains about 10 to 100 chloroplasts.", "The chloroplast is enclosed by a membrane.", "This membrane is composed of a phospholipid inner membrane, a phospholipid outer membrane, and an intermembrane space.", "Enclosed by the membrane is an aqueous fluid called the stroma.", "Embedded within the stroma are stacks of thylakoids (grana), which are the site of photosynthesis.", "The thylakoids appear as flattened disks.", "The thylakoid itself is enclosed by the thylakoid membrane, and within the enclosed volume is a lumen or thylakoid space.", "Embedded in the thylakoid membrane are integral and peripheral membrane protein complexes of the photosynthetic system.", "Plants absorb light primarily using the pigment chlorophyll.", "The green part of the light spectrum is not absorbed but is reflected which is the reason that most plants have a green color.", "Besides chlorophyll, plants also use pigments such as carotenes and xanthophylls.", "[23] Algae also use chlorophyll, but various other pigments are present, such as phycocyanin, carotenes, and xanthophylls in green algae, phycoerythrin in red algae (rhodophytes) and fucoxanthin in brown algae and diatoms resulting in a wide variety of colors.", "These pigments are embedded in plants and algae in complexes called antenna proteins.", "In such proteins, the pigments are arranged to work together.", "Such a combination of proteins is also called a light-harvesting complex.", "Although all cells in the green parts of a plant have chloroplasts, the majority of those are found in specially adapted structures called leaves.", "Certain species adapted to conditions of strong sunlight and aridity, such as many Euphorbia and cactus species, have their main photosynthetic organs in their stems.", "The cells in the interior tissues of a leaf, called the mesophyll, can contain between 450,000 and 800,000 chloroplasts for every square millimeter of leaf.", "The surface of the leaf is coated with a water-resistant waxy cuticle that protects the leaf from excessive evaporation of water and decreases the absorption of ultraviolet or blue light to reduce heating.", "The transparent epidermis layer allows light to pass through to the palisade mesophyll cells where most of the photosynthesis takes place.", "Light-dependent reactions Light-dependent reactions of photosynthesis at the thylakoid membrane Main article: Light-dependent reactions In the light-dependent reactions, one molecule of the pigment chlorophyll absorbs one photon and loses one electron.", "This electron is passed to a modified form of chlorophyll called pheophytin, which passes the electron to a quinone molecule, starting the flow of electrons down an electron transport chain that leads to the ultimate reduction of NADP to NADPH.", "In addition, this creates a proton gradient (energy gradient) across the chloroplast membrane, which is used by ATP synthase in the synthesis of ATP.", "The chlorophyll molecule ultimately regains the electron it lost when a water molecule is split in a process called photolysis, which releases a dioxygen (O 2) molecule as a waste product.", "The overall equation for the light-dependent reactions under the conditions of non-cyclic electron flow in green plants is: [24]2 H 2 O + 2 NADP + + 3 ADP + 3 P + light → 2 NADPH + 2 H + + 3 ATP + O 2Not all wavelengths of light can support photosynthesis.", "The photosynthetic action spectrum depends on the type of accessory pigments present.", "For example, in green plants, the action spectrum resembles the absorption spectrum for chlorophylls and carotenoids with absorption peaks in violet-blue and red light.", "In red algae, the action spectrum is blue-green light, which allows these algae to use the blue end of the spectrum to grow in the deeper waters that filter out the longer wavelengths (red light) used by above ground green plants.", "The non-absorbed part of the light spectrum is what gives photosynthetic organisms their color (e.g., green plants, red algae, purple bacteria) and is the least effective for photosynthesis in the respective organisms.", "Z scheme The \"\"Z scheme\"\"In plants, light-dependent reactions occur in the thylakoid membranes of the chloroplasts where they drive the synthesis of ATP and NADPH.", "The light-dependent reactions are of two forms: cyclic and non-cyclic.", "In the non-cyclic reaction, the photons are captured in the light-harvesting antenna complexes of photosystem II by chlorophyll and other accessory pigments (see diagram at right).", "The absorption of a photon by the antenna complex frees an electron by a process called photoinduced charge separation.", "The antenna system is at the core of the chlorophyll molecule of the photosystem II reaction center.", "That freed electron is transferred to the primary electron-acceptor molecule, pheophytin.", "As the electrons are shuttled through an electron transport chain (the so-called Z-scheme shown in the diagram), it initially functions to generate a chemiosmotic potential by pumping proton cations (H +) across the membrane and into the thylakoid space.", "An ATP synthase enzyme uses that chemiosmotic potential to make ATP during photophosphorylation, whereas NADPH is a product of the terminal redox reaction in the Z-scheme.", "The electron enters a chlorophyll molecule in Photosystem I.", "There it is further excited by the light absorbed by that photosystem.", "The electron is then passed along a chain of electron acceptors to which it transfers some of its energy.", "The energy delivered to the electron acceptors is used to move hydrogen ions across the thylakoid membrane into the lumen.", "The electron is eventually used to reduce the co-enzyme NADP with a H + to NADPH (which has functions in the light-independent reaction); at that point, the path of that electron ends.", "The cyclic reaction is similar to that of the non-cyclic, but differs in that it generates only ATP, and no reduced NADP (NADPH) is created.", "The cyclic reaction takes place only at photosystem I.", "Once the electron is displaced from the photosystem, the electron is passed down the electron acceptor molecules and returns to photosystem I, from where it was emitted, hence the name cyclic reaction.", "Water photolysis Main articles: Photodissociation and Oxygen evolution The NADPH is the main reducing agent produced by chloroplasts, which then goes on to provide a source of energetic electrons in other cellular reactions.", "Its production leaves chlorophyll in photosystem I with a deficit of electrons (chlorophyll has been oxidized), which must be balanced by some other reducing agent that will supply the missing electron.", "The excited electrons lost from chlorophyll from photosystem I are supplied from the electron transport chain by plastocyanin.", "However, since photosystem II is the first step of the Z-scheme, an external source of electrons is required to reduce its oxidized chlorophyll a molecules.", "The source of electrons in green-plant and cyanobacterial photosynthesis is water.", "Two water molecules are oxidized by four successive charge-separation reactions by photosystem II to yield a molecule of diatomic oxygen and four hydrogen ions; the electrons yielded are transferred to a redox-active tyrosine residue that then reduces the oxidized chlorophyll a (called P680) that serves as the primary light-driven electron donor in the photosystem II reaction center.", "That photo receptor is in effect reset and is then able to repeat the absorption of another photon and the release of another photo-dissociated electron.", "The oxidation of water is catalyzed in photosystem II by a redox-active structure that contains four manganese ions and a calcium ion; this oxygen-evolving complex binds two water molecules and contains the four oxidizing equivalents that are used to drive the water-oxidizing reaction (Dolai's S-state diagrams).", "[25] Photosystem II is the only known biological enzyme that carries out this oxidation of water.", "The hydrogen ions released contribute to the transmembrane chemiosmotic potential that leads to ATP synthesis.", "Oxygen is a waste product of light-dependent reactions, but the majority of organisms on Earth use oxygen for cellular respiration, including photosynthetic organisms.", "[26] [27]Light-independent reactions Calvin cycle Main articles: Calvin cycle, Carbon fixation, and Light-independent reactions In the light-independent (or \"\"dark\"\") reactions, the enzyme Ru Bis CO captures CO 2 from the atmosphere and, in a process called the Calvin-Benson cycle, it uses the newly formed NADPH and releases three-carbon sugars, which are later combined to form sucrose and starch.", "The overall equation for the light-independent reactions in green plants is [24]: 1283 CO 2 + 9 ATP + 6 NADPH + 6 H + → C 3 H 6 O 3 -phosphate + 9 ADP + 8 P + 6 NADP + + 3 H 2 OOverview of the Calvin cycle and carbon fixation Carbon fixation produces the intermediate three-carbon sugar product, which is then converted to the final carbohydrate products.", "The simple carbon sugars produced by photosynthesis are then used in the forming of other organic compounds, such as the building material cellulose, the precursors for lipid and amino acid biosynthesis, or as a fuel in cellular respiration.", "The latter occurs not only in plants but also in animals when the energy from plants is passed through a food chain.", "The fixation or reduction of carbon dioxide is a process in which carbon dioxide combines with a five-carbon sugar, ribulose 1,5-bisphosphate, to yield two molecules of a three-carbon compound, glycerate 3-phosphate, also known as 3-phosphoglycerate.", "Glycerate 3-phosphate, in the presence of ATP and NADPH produced during the light-dependent stages, is reduced to glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate.", "This product is also referred to as 3-phosphoglyceraldehyde ( PGAL) or, more generically, as triose phosphate.", "Most (5 out of 6 molecules) of the glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate produced is used to regenerate ribulose 1,5-bisphosphate so the process can continue.", "The triose phosphates not thus \"\"recycled\"\" often condense to form hexose phosphates, which ultimately yield sucrose, starch and cellulose.", "The sugars produced during carbon metabolism yield carbon skeletons that can be used for other metabolic reactions like the production of amino acids and lipids.", "Carbon concentrating mechanisms On land Overview of C4 carbon fixation In hot and dry conditions, plants close their stomata to prevent water loss.", "Under these conditions, CO 2 will decrease and oxygen gas, produced by the light reactions of photosynthesis, will increase, causing an increase of photorespiration by the oxygenase activity of ribulose-1,5-bisphosphate carboxylase/oxygenase and decrease in carbon fixation.", "Some plants have evolved mechanisms to increase the CO 2 concentration in the leaves under these conditions.", "[28]Main article: C4 carbon fixation Plants that use the C 4 carbon fixation process chemically fix carbon dioxide in the cells of the mesophyll by adding it to the three-carbon molecule phosphoenolpyruvate (PEP), a reaction catalyzed by an enzyme called PEP carboxylase, creating the four-carbon organic acid oxaloacetic acid.", "Oxaloacetic acid or malate synthesized by this process is then translocated to specialized bundle sheath cells where the enzyme Ru Bis CO and other Calvin cycle enzymes are located, and where CO 2 released by decarboxylation of the four-carbon acids is then fixed by Ru Bis CO activity to the three-carbon 3-phosphoglyceric acids.", "The physical separation of Ru Bis CO from the oxygen-generating light reactions reduces photorespiration and increases CO 2 fixation and, thus, the photosynthetic capacity of the leaf.", "[29] C 4 plants can produce more sugar than C 3 plants in conditions of high light and temperature.", "Many important crop plants are C 4 plants, including maize, sorghum, sugarcane, and millet.", "Plants that do not use PEP-carboxylase in carbon fixation are called C 3plants because the primary carboxylation reaction, catalyzed by Ru Bis CO, produces the three-carbon 3-phosphoglyceric acids directly in the Calvin-Benson cycle.", "Over 90% of plants use C 3 carbon fixation, compared to 3% that use C 4 carbon fixation; [30] however, the evolution of C 4 in over 60 plant lineages makes it a striking example of convergent evolution.", "[28]Main article: CAM photosynthesis Xerophytes, such as cacti and most succulents, also use PEP carboxylase to capture carbon dioxide in a process called Crassulacean acid metabolism (CAM).", "In contrast to C 4 metabolism, which spatially separates the CO 2 fixation to PEP from the Calvin cycle, CAM temporally separates these two processes.", "CAM plants have a different leaf anatomy from C 3 plants, and fix the CO 2 at night, when their stomata are open.", "CAM plants store the CO 2 mostly in the form of malic acid via carboxylation of phosphoenolpyruvate to oxaloacetate, which is then reduced to malate.", "Decarboxylation of malate during the day releases CO 2 inside the leaves, thus allowing carbon fixation to 3-phosphoglycerate by Ru Bis CO. Sixteen thousand species of plants use CAM.", "[31]In water Cyanobacteria possess carboxysomes, which increase the concentration of CO 2 around Ru Bis CO to increase the rate of photosynthesis.", "An enzyme, carbonic anhydrase, located within the carboxysome releases CO 2 from the dissolved hydrocarbonate ions (HCO −3 ).", "Before the CO 2 diffuses out it is quickly sponged up by Ru Bis CO, which is concentrated within the carboxysomes.", "HCO −3 ions are made from CO 2 outside the cell by another carbonic anhydrase and are actively pumped into the cell by a membrane protein.", "They cannot cross the membrane as they are charged, and within the cytosol they turn back into CO 2 very slowly without the help of carbonic anhydrase.", "This causes the HCO −3 ions to accumulate within the cell from where they diffuse into the carboxysomes.", "[32] Pyrenoids in algae and hornworts also act to concentrate CO 2 around rubisco.", "[33]Order and kinetics The overall process of photosynthesis takes place in four stages: [13]Stage Description Time scale1 Energy transfer in antenna chlorophyll (thylakoid membranes) femtosecond to picosecond2 Transfer of electrons in photochemical reactions (thylakoid membranes) picosecond to nanosecond3 Electron transport chain and ATP synthesis (thylakoid membranes) microsecond to millisecond4 Carbon fixation and export of stable products millisecond to second Efficiency Main article: Photosynthetic efficiency Plants usually convert light into chemical energy with a photosynthetic efficiency of 3–6%.", "[34] Absorbed light that is unconverted is dissipated primarily as heat, with a small fraction (1–2%) [35] re-emitted as chlorophyll fluorescence at longer (redder) wavelengths.", "This fact allows measurement of the light reaction of photosynthesis by using chlorophyll fluorometers.", "[36]Actual plants' photosynthetic efficiency varies with the frequency of the light being converted, light intensity, temperature and proportion of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere, and can vary from 0.1% to 8%.", "[37] By comparison, solar panels convert light into electric energy at an efficiency of approximately 6–20% for mass-produced panels, and above 40% in laboratory devices.", "The efficiency of both light and dark reactions can be measured but the relationship between the two can be complex.", "[38] For example, the ATP and NADPH energy molecules, created by the light reaction, can be used for carbon fixation or for photorespiration in C 3 plants.", "[38] Electrons may also flow to other electron sinks.", "[39] [40] [41] For this reason, it is not uncommon for authors to differentiate between work done under non-photorespiratory conditions and under photorespiratory conditions.", "[42] [43] [44]Chlorophyll fluorescence of photosystem II can measure the light reaction, and Infrared gas analyzers can measure the dark reaction.", "[45] It is also possible to investigate both at the same time using an integrated chlorophyll fluorometer and gas exchange system, or by using two separate systems together.", "[46] Infrared gas analyzers and some moisture sensors are sensitive enough to measure the photosynthetic assimilation of CO 2, and of ΔH 2 O using reliable methods [47] CO 2 is commonly measured in μmols/m 2 /s −1, parts per million or volume per million and H 2 0 is commonly measured in mmol/m 2 /s −1 or in mbars.", "[47] By measuring CO 2 assimilation, ΔH 2 O, leaf temperature, barometric pressure, leaf area, and photosynthetically active radiation or PAR, it becomes possible to estimate, “A” or carbon assimilation, “E” or transpiration, “gs” or stomatal conductance, and Ci or intracellular CO 2.", "[47] However, it is more common to used chlorophyll fluorescence for plant stress measurement, where appropriate, because the most commonly used measuring parameters FV/FM and Y (II) or F/FM’ can be made in a few seconds, allowing the measurement of larger plant populations.", "[44]Gas exchange systems that offer control of CO 2 levels, above and below ambient, allow the common practice of measurement of A/Ci curves, at different CO 2 levels, to characterize a plant’s photosynthetic response.", "[47]Integrated chlorophyll fluorometer – gas exchange systems allow a more precise measure of photosynthetic response and mechanisms.", "[45] [46] While standard gas exchange photosynthesis systems can measure Ci, or substomatal CO 2 levels, the addition of integrated chlorophyll fluorescence measurements allows a more precise measurement of C C to replace Ci.", "[46] [48] The estimation of CO 2 at the site of carboxylation in the chloroplast, or C C, becomes possible with the measurement of mesophyll conductance or g m using an integrated system.", "[45] [46] [49]Photosynthesis measurement systems are not designed to directly measure the amount of light absorbed by the leaf.", "But analysis of chlorophyll-fluorescence, P700- and P515-absorbance and gas exchange measurements reveal detailed information about e.g.", "the photosystems, quantum efficiency and the CO 2 assimilation rates.", "With some instruments even wavelength-dependency of the photosynthetic efficiency can be analyzed.", "[50]A phenomenon known as quantum walk increases the efficiency of the energy transport of light significantly.", "In the photosynthetic cell of an algae, bacterium, or plant, there are light-sensitive molecules called chromophores arranged in an antenna-shaped structure named a photocomplex.", "When a photon is absorbed by a chromophore, it is converted into a quasiparticle referred to as an exciton, which jumps from chromophore to chromophore towards the reaction center of the photocomplex, a collection of molecules that traps its energy in a chemical form that makes it accessible for the cell's metabolism.", "The exciton's wave properties enable it to cover a wider area and try out several possible paths simultaneously, allowing it to instantaneously \"\"choose\"\" the most efficient route, where it will have the highest probability of arriving at its destination in the minimum possible time.", "Because that quantum walking takes place at temperatures far higher than quantum phenomena usually occur, it is only possible over very short distances, due to obstacles in the form of destructive interference that come into play.", "These obstacles cause the particle to lose its wave properties for an instant before it regains them once again after it is freed from its locked position through a classic \"\"hop\"\".", "The movement of the electron towards the photo center is therefore covered in a series of conventional hops and quantum walks.", "[51] [52] [53]Evolution Life timelineview • discuss • edit-4500 —–-4000 —–-3500 —–-3000 —–-2500 —–-2000 —–-1500 —–-1000 —–-500 —–0 —water Single-celled lifephotosynthesis Eukaryotes Multicellular life Land life Dinosaurs Mammals Flowers← Earliest Earth ( −4540)← Earliest water← Earliest life← LHB meteorites← Earliest oxygen← Atmospheric oxygen← Oxygen crisis← Earliest sexual reproduction← Ediacara biota← Cambrian explosion← Earliest humans P h a n e r o z o i c P r o t e r o z o i c A r c h e a n H a d e a n Pongola Huronian Cryogenian Andean Karoo Quaternaryice ages Axis scale: million years Also see: Human timeline and Nature timeline Main article: Evolution of photosynthesis Early photosynthetic systems, such as those in green and purple sulfur and green and purple nonsulfur bacteria, are thought to have been anoxygenic, and used various other molecules as electron donors rather than water.", "Green and purple sulfur bacteria are thought to have used hydrogen and sulfur as electron donors.", "Green nonsulfur bacteria used various amino and other organic acids as an electron donor.", "Purple nonsulfur bacteria used a variety of nonspecific organic molecules.", "The use of these molecules is consistent with the geological evidence that Earth's early atmosphere was highly reducing at that time.", "[54]Fossils of what are thought to be filamentous photosynthetic organisms have been dated at 3.4 billion years old.", "[55] [56] More recent studies, reported in March 2018, also suggest that photosynthesis may have begun about 3.4 billion years ago.", "[57] [58]The main source of oxygen in the Earth's atmosphere derives from oxygenic photosynthesis, and its first appearance is sometimes referred to as the oxygen catastrophe.", "Geological evidence suggests that oxygenic photosynthesis, such as that in cyanobacteria, became important during the Paleoproterozoic era around 2 billion years ago.", "Modern photosynthesis in plants and most photosynthetic prokaryotes is oxygenic.", "Oxygenic photosynthesis uses water as an electron donor, which is oxidized to molecular oxygen ( O 2) in the photosynthetic reaction center.", "Symbiosis and the origin of chloroplasts Plant cells with visible chloroplasts (from a moss, Plagiomnium affine)Several groups of animals have formed symbiotic relationships with photosynthetic algae.", "These are most common in corals, sponges and sea anemones.", "It is presumed that this is due to the particularly simple body plans and large surface areas of these animals compared to their volumes.", "[59] In addition, a few marine mollusks Elysia viridis and Elysia chlorotica also maintain a symbiotic relationship with chloroplasts they capture from the algae in their diet and then store in their bodies.", "This allows the mollusks to survive solely by photosynthesis for several months at a time.", "[60] [61] Some of the genes from the plant cell nucleus have even been transferred to the slugs, so that the chloroplasts can be supplied with proteins that they need to survive.", "[62]An even closer form of symbiosis may explain the origin of chloroplasts.", "Chloroplasts have many similarities with photosynthetic bacteria, including a circular chromosome, prokaryotic-type ribosome, and similar proteins in the photosynthetic reaction center.", "[63] [64] The endosymbiotic theory suggests that photosynthetic bacteria were acquired (by endocytosis) by early eukaryotic cells to form the first plant cells.", "Therefore, chloroplasts may be photosynthetic bacteria that adapted to life inside plant cells.", "Like mitochondria, chloroplasts possess their own DNA, separate from the nuclear DNA of their plant host cells and the genes in this chloroplast DNA resemble those found in cyanobacteria.", "[65] DNA in chloroplasts codes for redox proteins such as those found in the photosynthetic reaction centers.", "The Co RR Hypothesis proposes that this Co -location is required for R edox R egulation.", "[ clarification needed]Cyanobacteria and the evolution of photosynthesis The biochemical capacity to use water as the source for electrons in photosynthesis evolved once, in a common ancestor of extant cyanobacteria.", "The geological record indicates that this transforming event took place early in Earth's history, at least 2450–2320 million years ago (Ma), and, it is speculated, much earlier.", "[66] [67] Because the Earth's atmosphere contained almost no oxygen during the estimated development of photosynthesis, it is believed that the first photosynthetic cyanobacteria did not generate oxygen.", "[68] Available evidence from geobiological studies of Archean (>2500 Ma) sedimentary rocks indicates that life existed 3500 Ma, but the question of when oxygenic photosynthesis evolved is still unanswered.", "A clear paleontological window on cyanobacterial evolution opened about 2000 Ma, revealing an already-diverse biota of blue-green algae.", "Cyanobacteria remained the principal primary producers of oxygen throughout the Proterozoic Eon (2500–543 Ma), in part because the redox structure of the oceans favored photoautotrophs capable of nitrogen fixation.", "[ citation needed] Green algae joined blue-green algae as the major primary producers of oxygen on continental shelves near the end of the Proterozoic, but it was only with the Mesozoic (251–65 Ma) radiations of dinoflagellates, coccolithophorids, and diatoms did the primary production of oxygen in marine shelf waters take modern form.", "Cyanobacteria remain critical to marine ecosystems as primary producers of oxygen in oceanic gyres, as agents of biological nitrogen fixation, and, in modified form, as the plastids of marine algae.", "[69]Discovery Although some of the steps in photosynthesis are still not completely understood, the overall photosynthetic equation has been known since the 19th century.", "Jan van Helmont began the research of the process in the mid-17th century when he carefully measured the mass of the soil used by a plant and the mass of the plant as it grew.", "After noticing that the soil mass changed very little, he hypothesized that the mass of the growing plant must come from the water, the only substance he added to the potted plant.", "His hypothesis was partially accurate — much of the gained mass also comes from carbon dioxide as well as water.", "However, this was a signaling point to the idea that the bulk of a plant's biomass comes from the inputs of photosynthesis, not the soil itself.", "Joseph Priestley, a chemist and minister, discovered that, when he isolated a volume of air under an inverted jar, and burned a candle in it, the candle would burn out very quickly, much before it ran out of wax.", "He further discovered that a mouse could similarly \"\"injure\"\" air.", "He then showed that the air that had been \"\"injured\"\" by the candle and the mouse could be restored by a plant.", "In 1778, Jan Ingenhousz, repeated Priestley's experiments.", "He discovered that it was the influence of sunlight on the plant that could cause it to revive a mouse in a matter of hours.", "In 1796, Jean Senebier, a Swiss pastor, botanist, and naturalist, demonstrated that green plants consume carbon dioxide and release oxygen under the influence of light.", "Soon afterward, Nicolas-Théodore de Saussure showed that the increase in mass of the plant as it grows could not be due only to uptake of CO 2 but also to the incorporation of water.", "Thus, the basic reaction by which photosynthesis is used to produce food (such as glucose) was outlined.", "Cornelis Van Niel made key discoveries explaining the chemistry of photosynthesis.", "By studying purple sulfur bacteria and green bacteria he was the first to demonstrate that photosynthesis is a light-dependent redox reaction, in which hydrogen reduces carbon dioxide.", "Robert Emerson discovered two light reactions by testing plant productivity using different wavelengths of light.", "With the red alone, the light reactions were suppressed.", "When blue and red were combined, the output was much more substantial.", "Thus, there were two photosystems, one absorbing up to 600 nm wavelengths, the other up to 700 nm.", "The former is known as PSII, the latter is PSI.", "PSI contains only chlorophyll \"\"a\"\", PSII contains primarily chlorophyll \"\"a\"\" with most of the available chlorophyll \"\"b\"\", among other pigment.", "These include phycobilins, which are the red and blue pigments of red and blue algae respectively, and fucoxanthol for brown algae and diatoms.", "The process is most productive when the absorption of quanta are equal in both the PSII and PSI, assuring that input energy from the antenna complex is divided between the PSI and PSII system, which in turn powers the photochemistry.", "[13]Melvin Calvin works in his photosynthesis laboratory.", "Robert Hill thought that a complex of reactions consisting of an intermediate to cytochrome b 6 (now a plastoquinone), another is from cytochrome f to a step in the carbohydrate-generating mechanisms.", "These are linked by plastoquinone, which does require energy to reduce cytochrome f for it is a sufficient reductant.", "Further experiments to prove that the oxygen developed during the photosynthesis of green plants came from water, were performed by Hill in 1937 and 1939.", "He showed that isolated chloroplasts give off oxygen in the presence of unnatural reducing agents like iron oxalate, ferricyanide or benzoquinone after exposure to light.", "The Hill reaction [70] is as follows:2 H 2 O + 2 A + (light, chloroplasts) → 2 AH 2 + O 2where A is the electron acceptor.", "Therefore, in light, the electron acceptor is reduced and oxygen is evolved.", "Samuel Ruben and Martin Kamen used radioactive isotopes to determine that the oxygen liberated in photosynthesis came from the water.", "Melvin Calvin and Andrew Benson, along with James Bassham, elucidated the path of carbon assimilation (the photosynthetic carbon reduction cycle) in plants.", "The carbon reduction cycle is known as the Calvin cycle, which ignores the contribution of Bassham and Benson.", "Many scientists refer to the cycle as the Calvin-Benson Cycle, Benson-Calvin, and some even call it the Calvin-Benson-Bassham (or CBB) Cycle.", "Nobel Prize -winning scientist Rudolph A. Marcus was able to discover the function and significance of the electron transport chain.", "Otto Heinrich Warburg and Dean Burk discovered the I-quantum photosynthesis reaction that splits the CO 2, activated by the respiration.", "[71]Louis N. M. Duysens and Jan Amesz discovered that chlorophyll a will absorb one light, oxidize cytochrome f, chlorophyll a (and other pigments) will absorb another light, but will reduce this same oxidized cytochrome, stating the two light reactions are in series.", "Development of the concept In 1893, Charles Reid Barnes proposed two terms, photosyntax and photosynthesis, for the biological process of synthesis of complex carbon compounds out of carbonic acid, in the presence of chlorophyll, under the influence of light.", "Over time, the term photosynthesis came into common usage as the term of choice.", "Later discovery of anoxygenic photosynthetic bacteria and photophosphorylation necessitated redefinition of the term.", "[72]C3 : C4 photosynthesis research After WWII at late 1940 at the University of California, Berkeley, the details of photosynthetic carbon metabolism were sorted out by the chemists Melvin Calvin, Andrew Benson, James Bassham and a score of students and researchers utilizing the carbon-14 isotope and paper chromatography techniques.", "[73] The pathway of CO2 fixation by the algae Chlorella in a fraction of a second in light resulted in a 3 carbon molecule called phosphoglyceric acid (PGA).", "For that original and ground-breaking work, a Nobel Prize in Chemistry was awarded to Melvin Calvin in 1961.", "In parallel, plant physiologists studied leaf gas exchanges using the new method of infrared gas analysis and a leaf chamber where the net photosynthetic rates ranged from 10 to 13 u mole CO2/square metere.sec., with the conclusion that all terrestrial plants having the same photosynthetic capacities that were light saturated at less than 50% of sunlight.", "[74] [75]Later in 1958-1963 at Cornell University, field grown maize was reported to have much greater leaf photosynthetic rates of 40 u mol CO2/square meter.sec and was not saturated at near full sunlight.", "[76] [77] This higher rate in maize was almost double those observed in other species such as wheat and soybean, indicating that large differences in photosynthesis exist among higher plants.", "At the University of Arizona, detailed gas exchange research on more than 15 species of monocot and dicot uncovered for the first time that differences in leaf anatomy are crucial factors in differentiating photosynthetic capacities among species.", "[78] [79] In tropical grasses, including maize, sorghum, sugarcane, Bermuda grass and in the dicot amaranthus, leaf photosynthetic rates were around 38−40 u mol CO2/square meter.sec., and the leaves have two types of green cells, i. e. outer layer of mesophyll cells surrounding a tightly packed cholorophyllous vascular bundle sheath cells.", "This type of anatomy was termed Kranz anatomy in the 19th century by the botanist Gottlieb Haberlandt while studying leaf anatomy of sugarcane.", "[80] Plant species with the greatest photosynthetic rates and Kranz anatomy showed no apparent photorespiration, very low CO2 compensation point, high optimum temperature, high stomatal resistances and lower mesophyll resistances for gas diffusion and rates never saturated at full sun light.", "[81] The research at Arizona was designated Citation Classic by the ISI 1986.", "[79] These species was later termed C4 plants as the first stable compound of CO2 fixation in light has 4 carbon as malate and aspartate.", "[82] [83] [84] Other species that lack Kranz anatomy were termed C3 type such as cotton and sunflower, as the first stable carbon compound is the 3-carbon PGA acid.", "At 1000 ppm CO2 in measuring air, both the C3 and C4 plants had similar leaf photosynthetic rates around 60 u mole CO2/square meter.sec.", "indicating the suppression of photorespiration in C3 plants.", "[78] [79]Factors The leaf is the primary site of photosynthesis in plants.", "There are three main factors affecting photosynthesis and several corollary factors.", "The three main are: Light irradiance and wavelength Carbon dioxide concentration Temperature.", "Total photosynthesis is limited by a range of environmental factors.", "These include the amount of light available, the amount of leaf area a plant has to capture light (shading by other plants is a major limitation of photosynthesis), rate at which carbon dioxide can be supplied to the chloroplasts to support photosynthesis, the availability of water, and the availability of suitable temperatures for carrying out photosynthesis.", "[85]Light intensity (irradiance), wavelength and temperature See also: PI (photosynthesis-irradiance) curve Absorbance spectra of free chlorophyll a ( green) and b ( red) in a solvent.", "The action spectra of chlorophyll molecules are slightly modified in vivo depending on specific pigment-protein interactions.", "The process of photosynthesis provides the main input of free energy into the biosphere, and is one of four main ways in which radiation is important for plant life.", "[86]The radiation climate within plant communities is extremely variable, with both time and space.", "In the early 20th century, Frederick Blackman and Gabrielle Matthaei investigated the effects of light intensity ( irradiance) and temperature on the rate of carbon assimilation.", "At constant temperature, the rate of carbon assimilation varies with irradiance, increasing as the irradiance increases, but reaching a plateau at higher irradiance.", "At low irradiance, increasing the temperature has little influence on the rate of carbon assimilation.", "At constant high irradiance, the rate of carbon assimilation increases as the temperature is increased.", "These two experiments illustrate several important points: First, it is known that, in general, photochemical reactions are not affected by temperature.", "However, these experiments clearly show that temperature affects the rate of carbon assimilation, so there must be two sets of reactions in the full process of carbon assimilation.", "These are the light-dependent 'photochemical' temperature-independent stage, and the light-independent, temperature-dependent stage.", "Second, Blackman's experiments illustrate the concept of limiting factors.", "Another limiting factor is the wavelength of light.", "Cyanobacteria, which reside several meters underwater, cannot receive the correct wavelengths required to cause photoinduced charge separation in conventional photosynthetic pigments.", "To combat this problem, a series of proteins with different pigments surround the reaction center.", "This unit is called a phycobilisome.", "[ clarification needed]Carbon dioxide levels and photorespiration Photorespiration As carbon dioxide concentrations rise, the rate at which sugars are made by the light-independent reactions increases until limited by other factors.", "Ru Bis CO, the enzyme that captures carbon dioxide in the light-independent reactions, has a binding affinity for both carbon dioxide and oxygen.", "When the concentration of carbon dioxide is high, Ru Bis CO will fix carbon dioxide.", "However, if the carbon dioxide concentration is low, Ru Bis CO will bind oxygen instead of carbon dioxide.", "This process, called photorespiration, uses energy, but does not produce sugars.", "Ru Bis CO oxygenase activity is disadvantageous to plants for several reasons: One product of oxygenase activity is phosphoglycolate (2 carbon) instead of 3-phosphoglycerate (3 carbon).", "Phosphoglycolate cannot be metabolized by the Calvin-Benson cycle and represents carbon lost from the cycle.", "A high oxygenase activity, therefore, drains the sugars that are required to recycle ribulose 5-bisphosphate and for the continuation of the Calvin-Benson cycle.", "Phosphoglycolate is quickly metabolized to glycolate that is toxic to a plant at a high concentration; it inhibits photosynthesis.", "Salvaging glycolate is an energetically expensive process that uses the glycolate pathway, and only 75% of the carbon is returned to the Calvin-Benson cycle as 3-phosphoglycerate.", "The reactions also produce ammonia (NH 3 ), which is able to diffuse out of the plant, leading to a loss of nitrogen.", "A highly simplified summary is:2 glycolate + ATP → 3-phosphoglycerate + carbon dioxide + ADP + NH 3The salvaging pathway for the products of Ru Bis CO oxygenase activity is more commonly known as photorespiration, since it is characterized by light-dependent oxygen consumption and the release of carbon dioxide.", "See also Environment portal Ecology portal Earth sciences portal Metabolism portal Jan Anderson (scientist)Artificial photosynthesis Calvin-Benson cycle Carbon fixation Cellular respiration Chemosynthesis Integrated fluorometer Light-dependent reaction Organic reaction Photobiology Photoinhibition Photosynthetic reaction center Photosynthetically active radiation Photosystem Photosystem IPhotosystem IIQuantum biology Radiosynthesis Red edge Vitamin DHill reaction References^ \"\"photosynthesis\"\".", "Online Etymology Dictionary.^ 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P. (2002) Temperature Response of Mesophyll Conductance.", "Implications for the Determination of Rubisco Enzyme Kinetics and for Limitations to Photosynthesis in Vivo\"\".", "Plant Physiology.", "130 (4): 1992–1998.", "doi: 10.1104/pp.008250.^ YIN X, Struik PC (2009).", "\"\"Theoretical reconsiderations when estimating the mesophyll conductanceto CO2 diffusion in leaves of C3 plants by analysis of combined gas exchange and chlorophyll fluorescence measurements pce_2016 1513..1\"\".", "Plant, Cell and Environment.", "32 (11): 1513–1524 [1524].", "doi: 10.1111/j.1365-3040.2009.02016.x.^ Schreiber U, Klughammer C, Kolbowski J (2012).", "\"\"Assessment of wavelength-dependent parameters of photosynthetic electron transport with a new type of multi-color PAM chlorophyll fluorometer\"\".", "Photosynthesis research.", "113 (1–3): 127–144.", "doi: 10.1007/s11120-012-9758-1.^ Palmer J (21 June 2013).", "\"\"Plants 'seen doing quantum physics ' \"\".", "BBC News.^ Lloyd S (10 March 2014).", "\"\"Quantum Biology: Better Living Through Quantum Mechanics - The Nature of Reality\"\".", "Nova: PBS Online, WGBH Boston.^ Hildner R, Brinks D, Nieder JB, Cogdell RJ, van Hulst NF (Jun 2013).", "\"\"Quantum coherent energy transfer over varying pathways in single light-harvesting complexes\"\".", "Science.", "340 (6139): 1448–51.", "doi: 10.1126/science.1235820.", "PMID 23788794.^ Gale J (2009).", "Astrobiology of Earth : The emergence, evolution and future of life on a planet in turmoil.", "OUP Oxford.", "pp.", "112–113.", "ISBN 9780191548352.^ Davis K (2 October 2004).", "\"\"Photosynthesis got a really early start\"\".", "New Scientist.^ Hooper R (19 August 2006).", "\"\"Revealing the dawn of photosynthesis\"\".", "New Scientist.^ Caredona, Tanai (6 March 2018).", "\"\"Early Archean origin of heterodimeric Photosystem I\"\".", "Elsevier.", "doi: 10.1016/j.heliyon.2018.e00548.", "Retrieved 23 March 2018.^ Howard, Victoria (7 March 2018).", "\"\"Photosynthesis Originated A Billion Years Earlier Than We Thought, Study Shows\"\".", "Astrobiology Magazine.", "Retrieved 23 March 2018.^ Venn AA, Loram JE, Douglas AE (2008).", "\"\"Photosynthetic symbioses in animals\"\".", "Journal of Experimental Botany.", "59 (5): 1069–80.", "doi: 10.1093/jxb/erm328.", "PMID 18267943.^ Rumpho ME, Summer EJ, Manhart JR (May 2000).", "\"\"Solar-powered sea slugs.", "Mollusc/algal chloroplast symbiosis\"\".", "Plant Physiology.", "123 (1): 29–38.", "doi: 10.1104/pp.123.1.29.", "PMC 1539252.", "PMID 10806222.^ Muscatine L, Greene RW (1973).", "\"\"Chloroplasts and algae as symbionts in molluscs\"\".", "International Review of Cytology.", "International Review of Cytology.", "36: 137–69.", "doi: 10.1016/S0074-7696 (08)60217-X.", "ISBN 9780123643360.", "PMID 4587388.^ Rumpho ME, Worful JM, Lee J, Kannan K, Tyler MS, Bhattacharya D, Moustafa A, Manhart JR (Nov 2008).", "\"\"Horizontal gene transfer of the algal nuclear gene psb O to the photosynthetic sea slug Elysia chlorotica\"\".", "Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America.", "105 (46): 17867–71.", "Bibcode: 2008PNAS..10517867R.", "doi: 10.1073/pnas.0804968105.", "PMC 2584685.", "PMID 19004808.^ Douglas SE (Dec 1998).", "\"\"Plastid evolution: origins, diversity, trends\"\".", "Current Opinion in Genetics & Development.", "8 (6): 655–61.", "doi: 10.1016/S0959-437X (98)80033-6.", "PMID 9914199.^ Reyes-Prieto A, Weber AP, Bhattacharya D (2007).", "\"\"The origin and establishment of the plastid in algae and plants\"\".", "Annual Review of Genetics.", "41: 147–68.", "doi: 10.1146/annurev.genet.41.110306.130134.", "PMID 17600460.^ Raven JA, Allen JF (2003).", "\"\"Genomics and chloroplast evolution: what did cyanobacteria do for plants?\"\".", "Genome Biology.", "4 (3): 209. doi: 10.1186/gb-2003-4-3-209.", "PMC 153454.", "PMID 12620099.^ Tomitani A, Knoll AH, Cavanaugh CM, Ohno T (Apr 2006).", "\"\"The evolutionary diversification of cyanobacteria: molecular-phylogenetic and paleontological perspectives\"\".", "Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America.", "103 (14): 5442–7.", "doi: 10.1073/pnas.0600999103.", "PMC 1459374.", "PMID 16569695.^ \"\"Cyanobacteria: Fossil Record\"\".", "Ucmp.berkeley.edu.", "Retrieved 2010-08-26.^ Smith A (2010).", "Plant biology.", "New York, NY: Garland Science.", "p. 5.", "ISBN 0815340257.^ Herrero A, Flores E (2008).", "The Cyanobacteria: Molecular Biology, Genomics and Evolution (1st ed.).", "Caister Academic Press.", "ISBN 978-1-904455-15-8.^ Walker DA (2002). \"\"", "' And whose bright presence' - an appreciation of Robert Hill and his reaction\"\" (PDF).", "Photosynthesis Research.", "73 (1–3): 51–4.", "doi: 10.1023/A:1020479620680.", "PMID 16245102.^ Otto Warburg – Biography.", "Nobelprize.org (1970-08-01).", "Retrieved on 2011-11-03.^ Gest H (2002).", "\"\"History of the word photosynthesis and evolution of its definition\"\".", "Photosynthesis Research.", "73 (1–3): 7–10.", "doi: 10.1023/A:1020419417954.", "PMID 16245098.^ Calvin M (July 1989).", "\"\"Forty years of photosynthesis and related activities\"\".", "Photosynthesis Research.", "21 (1).", "doi: 10.1007/BF00047170 (inactive 2018-03-04).^ Verduin J (1953).", "\"\"A table of photosynthesis rates under optimal, near natural conditions\"\".", "Am.", "J. Bot.", "40 (9): 675–679.", "doi: 10.1002/j.1537-2197.1953.tb06540.x.", "JSTOR 2439681.^ Verduin J, Whitwer EE, Cowell BC (1959).", "\"\"Maximal photosynthetic rates in nature\"\".", "Science.", "130 (3370): 268–9.", "doi: 10.1126/science.130.3370.268.", "PMID 13668557.^ Hesketh JD, Musgrave R (1962).", "\"\"Photosynthesis under field conditions.", "IV.", "Light studies with individual corn leaves\"\".", "Crop Sci.", "2 (4): 311–315.", "doi: 10.2135/cropsci1962.0011183x000200040011x.^ Hesketh JD, Moss DN (1963).", "\"\"Variation in the response of photosynthesis to light\"\".", "Crop Sci.", "3: 107–110.^ a b El-Sharkawy, MA, Hesketh JD (1965).", "\"\"Photosynthesis among species in relation to characteristics of leaf anatomy and CO2 diffusion resistances\"\".", "Crop Sci.", "5 (6): 517–521.", "doi: 10.2135/cropsci1965.0011183x000500060010x.^ a b c El-Sharkawy MA, Hesketh JD (1986).", "\"\"Citation Classic-Photosynthesis among species in relation to characteristics of leaf anatomy and CO2 diffusion resistances\"\" (PDF).", "Curr.", "Cont./Agr.", "Biol.", "Environ.", "27: 14.", "[ permanent dead link]^ Haberlandt G (1904).", "Physiologische Pflanzanatomie.", "Leipzig: Engelmann.^ El-Sharkawy MA (1965).", "Factors Limiting Photosynthetic Rates of Different Plant Species (Ph.", "D. thesis).", "The University of Arizona, Tucson, USA.^ Karpilov YS (1960).", "\"\"The distribution of radioactvity in carbon-14 among the products of photosynthesis in maize\"\".", "Proc.", "Kazan Agric.", "Inst.", "14: 15–24.^ Kortschak HP, Hart CE, Burr GO (1965).", "\"\"Carbon dioxide fixation in sugarcane leaves\"\".", "Plant Physiol.", "40 (2): 209–213.", "doi: 10.1104/pp.40.2.209.^ Hatch MD, Slack CR (1966).", "\"\"Photosynthesis by sugar-cane leaves.", "A new carboxylation reaction and the pathway of sugar formation\"\".", "Biochem.", "J.", "101: 103–111.", "doi: 10.1042/bj1010103.^ Chapin FS, Matson PA, Mooney HA (2002).", "Principles of Terrestrial Ecosystem Ecology.", "New York: Springer.", "pp.", "97–104.", "ISBN 978-0-387-95443-1.^ Jones HG (2014).", "Plants and Microclimate: a Quantitative Approach to Environmental Plant Physiology (Third ed.).", "Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.", "ISBN 978-0-521-27959-8.", "Further reading Books Bidlack JE, Stern KR, Jansky S (2003).", "Introductory plant biology.", "New York: Mc Graw-Hill.", "ISBN 0-07-290941-2.", "Blankenship RE (2014).", "Molecular Mechanisms of Photosynthesis (2nd ed.).", "John Wiley & Sons.", "ISBN 978-1-4051-8975-0.", "Govindjee, Beatty JT, Gest H, Allen JF (2006).", "Discoveries in Photosynthesis.", "Advances in Photosynthesis and Respiration.", "20.", "Berlin: Springer.", "ISBN 1-4020-3323-0.", "Reece JB, et al.", "(2013).", "Campbell Biology.", "Benjamin Cummings.", "ISBN 978-0321775658.", "Papers Gupta RS, Mukhtar T, Singh B (Jun 1999).", "\"\"Evolutionary relationships among photosynthetic prokaryotes ( Heliobacterium chlorum, Chloroflexus aurantiacus, cyanobacteria, Chlorobium tepidum and proteobacteria): implications regarding the origin of photosynthesis\"\".", "Molecular Microbiology.", "32 (5): 893–906.", "doi: 10.1046/j.1365-2958.1999.01417.x.", "PMID 10361294.", "Rutherford AW, Faller P (Jan 2003).", "\"\"Photosystem II: evolutionary perspectives\"\".", "Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London.", "Series B, Biological Sciences.", "358 (1429): 245–53.", "doi: 10.1098/rstb.2002.1186.", "PMC 1693113.", "PMID 12594932.", "External links Find more about Photosynthesis at Wikipedia's sister projects Definitions from Wiktionary Media from Wikimedia Commons Textbooks from Wikibooks Learning resources from Wikiversity Data from Wikidata A collection of photosynthesis pages for all levels from a renowned expert (Govindjee)In depth, advanced treatment of photosynthesis, also from Govindjee Science Aid: Photosynthesis Article appropriate for high school science Metabolism, Cellular Respiration and Photosynthesis – The Virtual Library of Biochemistry and Cell Biology Overall examination of Photosynthesis at an intermediate level Overall Energetics of Photosynthesis Photosynthesis Discovery Milestones – experiments and background The source of oxygen produced by photosynthesis Interactive animation, a textbook tutorial Marshall J (2011-03-29).", "\"\"First practical artificial leaf makes debut\"\".", "Discovery News.", "Photosynthesis – Light Dependent & Light Independent Stages Khan Academy, video introduction Library resources about Photosynthesis Resources in your library [ hide]v t e Botany History of botany Subdisciplines Plant systematics Ethnobotany Paleobotany Plant anatomy Plant ecology Phytogeography Geobotany Flora Phytochemistry Plant pathology Bryology Phycology Floristics Dendrology Plant groups Algae Archaeplastida Bryophyte Non-vascular plants Vascular plants Spermatophytes Pteridophyte Gymnosperm Angiosperm Plant morphology ( glossary)Plant cells Cell wall Phragmoplast Plastid Plasmodesma Vacuole Tissues Meristem Vascular tissue Vascular bundle Ground tissue Mesophyll Cork Wood Storage organs Vegetative Root Rhizoid Bulb Rhizome Shoot Stem Leaf Petiole Cataphyll Bud Sessility Reproductive (Flower)Flower development Inflorescence Umbel Raceme Bract Pedicellate Flower Whorl Floral symmetry Floral diagram Floral formula Receptacle Hypanthium (Floral cup) Perianth Tepal Petal Sepal Sporophyll Gynoecium Ovary Ovule Stigma Archegonium Androecium Stamen Staminode Pollen Tapetum Gynandrium Gametophyte Sporophyte Plant embryo Fruit Fruit anatomy Berry Capsule Seed Seed dispersal Endosperm Surface structures Epicuticular wax Plant cuticle Epidermis Stoma Nectary Trichome Prickle Plant physiology Materials Nutrition Photosynthesis Chlorophyll Plant hormone Transpiration Turgor pressure Bulk flow Aleurone Phytomelanin Sugar Sap Starch Cellulose Plant growth and habit Secondary growth Woody plants Herbaceous plants Habit Vines Lianas Shrubs Subshrubs Trees Succulent plants Reproduction Evolution Ecology Alternation of generations Sporangium Spore Microsporangia Microspore Megasporangium Megaspore Pollination Pollinators Pollen tube Double fertilization Germination Evolutionary development Evolutionary historytimeline Hardiness zone Plant taxonomy History of plant systematics Herbarium Biological classification Botanical nomenclature Botanical name Correct name Author citation International Code of Nomenclature for algae, fungi, and plants (ICN) - for Cultivated Plants (ICNCP)Taxonomic rank International Association for Plant Taxonomy (IAPT) Plant taxonomy systems Cultivated plant taxonomy Citrus taxonomy cultigencultivar Group grex Practice Agronomy Floriculture Forestry Horticulture Lists Related topics Botanical terms Botanistsby author abbreviation Botanical expedition Category Portal Wiki Project [ show]v t e Metabolism map [ show]v t e Ecology: Modelling ecosystems: Trophic components [ show]v t e Ecology: Modelling ecosystems: Other components Authority control GND: 4045936-6 NDL: 00566168Categories: Agronomy Biological processes Botany Cellular respiration Metabolism Photosynthesis Plant physiology Ecosystems Quantum biology Plant nutrition \"" ]
D67401
http://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/urinary-tract-infection/basics/causes/CON-20037892
Overview
Print Overview Female urinary system Male urinary system A urinary tract infection (UTI) is an infection in any part of your urinary system — your kidneys, ureters, bladder and urethra. Most infections involve the lower urinary tract — the bladder and the urethra. Women are at greater risk of developing a UTI than are men. Infection limited to your bladder can be painful and annoying. However, serious consequences can occur if a UTI spreads to your kidneys. Doctors typically treat urinary tract infections with antibiotics. But you can take steps to reduce your chances of getting a UTI in the first place. Urinary tract infection care at Mayo Clinic Symptoms Urinary tract infections don't always cause signs and symptoms, but when they do they may include: A strong, persistent urge to urinate A burning sensation when urinating Passing frequent, small amounts of urine Urine that appears cloudy Urine that appears red, bright pink or cola-colored — a sign of blood in the urine Strong-smelling urine Pelvic pain, in women — especially in the center of the pelvis and around the area of the pubic bone UTIs may be overlooked or mistaken for other conditions in older adults. Types of urinary tract infection Each type of UTI may result in more-specific signs and symptoms, depending on which part of your urinary tract is infected. Part of urinary tract affected Signs and symptoms Kidneys (acute pyelonephritis)Upper back and side (flank) pain High fever Shaking and chills Nausea Vomiting Bladder (cystitis)Pelvic pressure Lower abdomen discomfort Frequent, painful urination Blood in urine Urethra (urethritis)Burning with urination Discharge When to see a doctor Contact your doctor if you have signs and symptoms of a UTI. Request an Appointment at Mayo Clinic Causes Urinary tract infections typically occur when bacteria enter the urinary tract through the urethra and begin to multiply in the bladder. Although the urinary system is designed to keep out such microscopic invaders, these defenses sometimes fail. When that happens, bacteria may take hold and grow into a full-blown infection in the urinary tract. The most common UTIs occur mainly in women and affect the bladder and urethra. Infection of the bladder (cystitis). This type of UTI is usually caused by Escherichia coli (E. coli), a type of bacteria commonly found in the gastrointestinal (GI) tract. However, sometimes other bacteria are responsible. Sexual intercourse may lead to cystitis, but you don't have to be sexually active to develop it. All women are at risk of cystitis because of their anatomy — specifically, the short distance from the urethra to the anus and the urethral opening to the bladder. Infection of the urethra (urethritis). This type of UTI can occur when GI bacteria spread from the anus to the urethra. Also, because the female urethra is close to the vagina, sexually transmitted infections, such as herpes, gonorrhea, chlamydia and mycoplasma, can cause urethritis. Risk factors Urinary tract infections are common in women, and many women experience more than one infection during their lifetimes. Risk factors specific to women for UTIs include: Female anatomy. A woman has a shorter urethra than a man does, which shortens the distance that bacteria must travel to reach the bladder. Sexual activity. Sexually active women tend to have more UTIs than do women who aren't sexually active. Having a new sexual partner also increases your risk. Certain types of birth control. Women who use diaphragms for birth control may be at higher risk, as well as women who use spermicidal agents. Menopause. After menopause, a decline in circulating estrogen causes changes in the urinary tract that make you more vulnerable to infection. Other risk factors for UTIs include: Urinary tract abnormalities. Babies born with urinary tract abnormalities that don't allow urine to leave the body normally or cause urine to back up in the urethra have an increased risk of UTIs. Blockages in the urinary tract. Kidney stones or an enlarged prostate can trap urine in the bladder and increase the risk of UTIs. A suppressed immune system. Diabetes and other diseases that impair the immune system — the body's defense against germs — can increase the risk of UTIs. Catheter use. People who can't urinate on their own and use a tube (catheter) to urinate have an increased risk of UTIs. This may include people who are hospitalized, people with neurological problems that make it difficult to control their ability to urinate and people who are paralyzed. A recent urinary procedure. Urinary surgery or an exam of your urinary tract that involves medical instruments can both increase your risk of developing a urinary tract infection. Complications When treated promptly and properly, lower urinary tract infections rarely lead to complications. But left untreated, a urinary tract infection can have serious consequences. Complications of a UTI may include: Recurrent infections, especially in women who experience two or more UTIs in a six-month period or four or more within a year. Permanent kidney damage from an acute or chronic kidney infection (pyelonephritis) due to an untreated UTI. Increased risk in pregnant women of delivering low birth weight or premature infants. Urethral narrowing (stricture) in men from recurrent urethritis, previously seen with gonococcal urethritis. Sepsis, a potentially life-threatening complication of an infection, especially if the infection works its way up your urinary tract to your kidneys. Prevention You can take these steps to reduce your risk of urinary tract infections: Drink plenty of liquids, especially water. Drinking water helps dilute your urine and ensures that you'll urinate more frequently — allowing bacteria to be flushed from your urinary tract before an infection can begin. Drink cranberry juice. Although studies are not conclusive that cranberry juice prevents UTIs, it is likely not harmful. Wipe from front to back. Doing so after urinating and after a bowel movement helps prevent bacteria in the anal region from spreading to the vagina and urethra. Empty your bladder soon after intercourse. Also, drink a full glass of water to help flush bacteria. Avoid potentially irritating feminine products. Using deodorant sprays or other feminine products, such as douches and powders, in the genital area can irritate the urethra. Change your birth control method. Diaphragms, or unlubricated or spermicide-treated condoms, can all contribute to bacterial growth. By Mayo Clinic Staff Urinary tract infection (UTI) care at Mayo Clinic Request an Appointment at Mayo Clinic Diagnosis & treatment Aug. 25, 2017Print Share on: Facebook Twitter References Related Antibiotics and pregnancy Symptom Checker Urinary tract infection (UTI)Symptoms & causes Diagnosis & treatment Doctors & departments Care at Mayo Clinic Advertisement Mayo Clinic does not endorse companies or products. Advertising revenue supports our not-for-profit mission. Advertising & Sponsorship Policy Opportunities Ad Choices Mayo Clinic Marketplace Check out these best-sellers and special offers on books and newsletters from Mayo Clinic. FREE TRIAL – Mayo Clinic Health Letter Stop Osteoporosis in Its Tracks Improve Your Hearing and Balance Best Treatment Strategies for Arthritis The Mayo Clinic Diet Online CON-20314573Patient Care & Health Information Diseases & Conditions Urinary tract infection (UTI)
[ "Print Overview Female urinary system Male urinary system A urinary tract infection (UTI) is an infection in any part of your urinary system — your kidneys, ureters, bladder and urethra.", "Most infections involve the lower urinary tract — the bladder and the urethra.", "Women are at greater risk of developing a UTI than are men.", "Infection limited to your bladder can be painful and annoying.", "However, serious consequences can occur if a UTI spreads to your kidneys.", "Doctors typically treat urinary tract infections with antibiotics.", "But you can take steps to reduce your chances of getting a UTI in the first place.", "Urinary tract infection care at Mayo Clinic Symptoms Urinary tract infections don't always cause signs and symptoms, but when they do they may include: A strong, persistent urge to urinate A burning sensation when urinating Passing frequent, small amounts of urine Urine that appears cloudy Urine that appears red, bright pink or cola-colored — a sign of blood in the urine Strong-smelling urine Pelvic pain, in women — especially in the center of the pelvis and around the area of the pubic bone UTIs may be overlooked or mistaken for other conditions in older adults.", "Types of urinary tract infection Each type of UTI may result in more-specific signs and symptoms, depending on which part of your urinary tract is infected.", "Part of urinary tract affected Signs and symptoms Kidneys (acute pyelonephritis)Upper back and side (flank) pain High fever Shaking and chills Nausea Vomiting Bladder (cystitis)Pelvic pressure Lower abdomen discomfort Frequent, painful urination Blood in urine Urethra (urethritis)Burning with urination Discharge When to see a doctor Contact your doctor if you have signs and symptoms of a UTI.", "Request an Appointment at Mayo Clinic Causes Urinary tract infections typically occur when bacteria enter the urinary tract through the urethra and begin to multiply in the bladder.", "Although the urinary system is designed to keep out such microscopic invaders, these defenses sometimes fail.", "When that happens, bacteria may take hold and grow into a full-blown infection in the urinary tract.", "The most common UTIs occur mainly in women and affect the bladder and urethra.", "Infection of the bladder (cystitis).", "This type of UTI is usually caused by Escherichia coli (E. coli), a type of bacteria commonly found in the gastrointestinal (GI) tract.", "However, sometimes other bacteria are responsible.", "Sexual intercourse may lead to cystitis, but you don't have to be sexually active to develop it.", "All women are at risk of cystitis because of their anatomy — specifically, the short distance from the urethra to the anus and the urethral opening to the bladder.", "Infection of the urethra (urethritis).", "This type of UTI can occur when GI bacteria spread from the anus to the urethra.", "Also, because the female urethra is close to the vagina, sexually transmitted infections, such as herpes, gonorrhea, chlamydia and mycoplasma, can cause urethritis.", "Risk factors Urinary tract infections are common in women, and many women experience more than one infection during their lifetimes.", "Risk factors specific to women for UTIs include: Female anatomy.", "A woman has a shorter urethra than a man does, which shortens the distance that bacteria must travel to reach the bladder.", "Sexual activity.", "Sexually active women tend to have more UTIs than do women who aren't sexually active.", "Having a new sexual partner also increases your risk.", "Certain types of birth control.", "Women who use diaphragms for birth control may be at higher risk, as well as women who use spermicidal agents.", "Menopause.", "After menopause, a decline in circulating estrogen causes changes in the urinary tract that make you more vulnerable to infection.", "Other risk factors for UTIs include: Urinary tract abnormalities.", "Babies born with urinary tract abnormalities that don't allow urine to leave the body normally or cause urine to back up in the urethra have an increased risk of UTIs.", "Blockages in the urinary tract.", "Kidney stones or an enlarged prostate can trap urine in the bladder and increase the risk of UTIs.", "A suppressed immune system.", "Diabetes and other diseases that impair the immune system — the body's defense against germs — can increase the risk of UTIs.", "Catheter use.", "People who can't urinate on their own and use a tube (catheter) to urinate have an increased risk of UTIs.", "This may include people who are hospitalized, people with neurological problems that make it difficult to control their ability to urinate and people who are paralyzed.", "A recent urinary procedure.", "Urinary surgery or an exam of your urinary tract that involves medical instruments can both increase your risk of developing a urinary tract infection.", "Complications When treated promptly and properly, lower urinary tract infections rarely lead to complications.", "But left untreated, a urinary tract infection can have serious consequences.", "Complications of a UTI may include: Recurrent infections, especially in women who experience two or more UTIs in a six-month period or four or more within a year.", "Permanent kidney damage from an acute or chronic kidney infection (pyelonephritis) due to an untreated UTI.", "Increased risk in pregnant women of delivering low birth weight or premature infants.", "Urethral narrowing (stricture) in men from recurrent urethritis, previously seen with gonococcal urethritis.", "Sepsis, a potentially life-threatening complication of an infection, especially if the infection works its way up your urinary tract to your kidneys.", "Prevention You can take these steps to reduce your risk of urinary tract infections: Drink plenty of liquids, especially water.", "Drinking water helps dilute your urine and ensures that you'll urinate more frequently — allowing bacteria to be flushed from your urinary tract before an infection can begin.", "Drink cranberry juice.", "Although studies are not conclusive that cranberry juice prevents UTIs, it is likely not harmful.", "Wipe from front to back.", "Doing so after urinating and after a bowel movement helps prevent bacteria in the anal region from spreading to the vagina and urethra.", "Empty your bladder soon after intercourse.", "Also, drink a full glass of water to help flush bacteria.", "Avoid potentially irritating feminine products.", "Using deodorant sprays or other feminine products, such as douches and powders, in the genital area can irritate the urethra.", "Change your birth control method.", "Diaphragms, or unlubricated or spermicide-treated condoms, can all contribute to bacterial growth.", "By Mayo Clinic Staff Urinary tract infection (UTI) care at Mayo Clinic Request an Appointment at Mayo Clinic Diagnosis & treatment Aug. 25, 2017Print Share on: Facebook Twitter References Related Antibiotics and pregnancy Symptom Checker Urinary tract infection (UTI)Symptoms & causes Diagnosis & treatment Doctors & departments Care at Mayo Clinic Advertisement Mayo Clinic does not endorse companies or products.", "Advertising revenue supports our not-for-profit mission.", "Advertising & Sponsorship Policy Opportunities Ad Choices Mayo Clinic Marketplace Check out these best-sellers and special offers on books and newsletters from Mayo Clinic.", "FREE TRIAL – Mayo Clinic Health Letter Stop Osteoporosis in Its Tracks Improve Your Hearing and Balance Best Treatment Strategies for Arthritis The Mayo Clinic Diet Online CON-20314573Patient Care & Health Information Diseases & Conditions Urinary tract infection (UTI)" ]
D243472
http://healthyeating.sfgate.com/many-calories-carbs-should-women-day-3900.html
How Many Calories & Carbs Should Women Have a Day?
"Written by Fred Decker; Updated March 15, 2018Related Articles How Much Protein & Carbs Per Day if Over 50? The Recommended Intake of Grams of Carbohydrates per Day for Women Recommended Daily Carbohydrate Requirements for Women How Many Grams of Protein Should a 50-Year-Old Woman Eat in a Day? Nutrition isn't a ""one size fits all"" proposition. Women's nutritional needs vary depending on age and activity level. The Dietary Guidelines for Americans offer a good benchmark to tell you how many calories you need each day, and suggest appropriate ranges for carbs, but within those ranges you'll still have room to personalize the numbers and make them work for you. Tip The recommended number of calories for women ranges from as high as 2,000 to as low as 1,600 depending on age. Carbohydrates should account for 45 to 65 percent of that total. Calorie and Carb Numbers by Age When you're young and active, and your body is still under construction, you'll need more calories to fuel that activity and growth. As the years pass, metabolism and muscle mass decrease, so you need fewer calories. Your recommended intake of carbohydrates is expressed as a percentage of calories, so that drops as well. The recommended figures from the Dietary Guidelines for Americans are: Age 19-30: 2,000 calories, of which 900 to 1300 can come from carbohydrates Age 31-50: 1,800 calories, of which 810 to 1170 can come from carbohydrates Age 51+: 1600 calories, of which 720 to 1040 can come from carbohydrates Fine-Tuning Your Calories Those figures are a starting point, so they're not cast in stone. They're calculated by looking at the Institute of Medicine's Daily Reference Intakes for various nutrients, and then determining how much healthy food it takes to get the nutrition you need. Your level of physical activity is one important variable. Even in your mid-40s, for example, if you're physically active you may need up to 22 percent more calories. On the other hand, if you're trying to lose weight or if you have a slow metabolism, you may want to consume fewer calories than recommended. It may take some time to find the right levels, so be patient and consciously keep track of your calories until you get there. Counting the Carbs Total calories are relatively straightforward to track, and separating out how many of those come from carbs just takes a little math. It's easier to count the actual grams of carbs, because that's how they're listed on nutritional facts labels. Carbs typically contain four calories per gram, so if your recommended intake is 900 to 1300 calories, you'd divide that by four to arrive at 225 to 325 grams. According to the Dietary Guidelines, the actual carb consumption by most women is on the lower end of that range. Working out your own level, based on your calorie intake, is a more personalized approach. Making Good Choices The source of your calories and carbohydrates is important to your overall health. The Dietary Guidelines' calorie recommendations are based on the quantity of healthy foods you need to eat for optimal nutrition. The lower the number of calories you consume, the less leeway you'll have for foods that aren't high in nutrition. It's sad but true, a man eating 3,000 calories each day can afford more treats than a woman eating 1,600 calories. That's why each one has to count: Your calories and carbs should come mostly from nutrient-rich foods including a variety of fresh vegetables, lean proteins, whole grains and healthy fats. Avoid added sugars, trans fats, and highly-processed foods. References (6)Dietary Guidelines for Americans, 2015-2020: Appendix 7 - Nutritional Goals for Age-Sex Groups Based on Dietary Reference Intakes and Dietary Guidelines Recommendations Dietary Guidelines for Americans, 2015-2020: Appendix 2 - Estimated Calorie Needs per Day, by Age, Sex, and Physical Activity Level National Heart, Lung and Blood Institute: Aim For a Healthy Weight Centers for Disease Control and Prevention: Finding a Balance Institutes of Medicine: Dietary Reference Intakes for Energy, Carbohydrate, Fiber, Fat, Fatty Acids, Cholesterol, Protein and Amino Acids Chapter 6, Dietary Carbohydrates - Sugars and Starches Dietary Guidelines for Americans, 2015-2020: A Closer Look Inside Healthy Eating Patterns About the Author Fred Decker is a trained chef and certified food-safety trainer. Decker wrote for the Saint John, New Brunswick Telegraph-Journal, and has been published in Canada's Hospitality and Foodservice magazine. He's held positions selling computers, insurance and mutual funds, and was educated at Memorial University of Newfoundland and the Northern Alberta Institute of Technology. Photo Credits Whole grain toast served with butter. image by William Berry from Fotolia.com Cite this Article "
[ "\"Written by Fred Decker; Updated March 15, 2018Related Articles How Much Protein & Carbs Per Day if Over 50?", "The Recommended Intake of Grams of Carbohydrates per Day for Women Recommended Daily Carbohydrate Requirements for Women How Many Grams of Protein Should a 50-Year-Old Woman Eat in a Day?", "Nutrition isn't a \"\"one size fits all\"\" proposition.", "Women's nutritional needs vary depending on age and activity level.", "The Dietary Guidelines for Americans offer a good benchmark to tell you how many calories you need each day, and suggest appropriate ranges for carbs, but within those ranges you'll still have room to personalize the numbers and make them work for you.", "Tip The recommended number of calories for women ranges from as high as 2,000 to as low as 1,600 depending on age.", "Carbohydrates should account for 45 to 65 percent of that total.", "Calorie and Carb Numbers by Age When you're young and active, and your body is still under construction, you'll need more calories to fuel that activity and growth.", "As the years pass, metabolism and muscle mass decrease, so you need fewer calories.", "Your recommended intake of carbohydrates is expressed as a percentage of calories, so that drops as well.", "The recommended figures from the Dietary Guidelines for Americans are: Age 19-30: 2,000 calories, of which 900 to 1300 can come from carbohydrates Age 31-50: 1,800 calories, of which 810 to 1170 can come from carbohydrates Age 51+: 1600 calories, of which 720 to 1040 can come from carbohydrates Fine-Tuning Your Calories Those figures are a starting point, so they're not cast in stone.", "They're calculated by looking at the Institute of Medicine's Daily Reference Intakes for various nutrients, and then determining how much healthy food it takes to get the nutrition you need.", "Your level of physical activity is one important variable.", "Even in your mid-40s, for example, if you're physically active you may need up to 22 percent more calories.", "On the other hand, if you're trying to lose weight or if you have a slow metabolism, you may want to consume fewer calories than recommended.", "It may take some time to find the right levels, so be patient and consciously keep track of your calories until you get there.", "Counting the Carbs Total calories are relatively straightforward to track, and separating out how many of those come from carbs just takes a little math.", "It's easier to count the actual grams of carbs, because that's how they're listed on nutritional facts labels.", "Carbs typically contain four calories per gram, so if your recommended intake is 900 to 1300 calories, you'd divide that by four to arrive at 225 to 325 grams.", "According to the Dietary Guidelines, the actual carb consumption by most women is on the lower end of that range.", "Working out your own level, based on your calorie intake, is a more personalized approach.", "Making Good Choices The source of your calories and carbohydrates is important to your overall health.", "The Dietary Guidelines' calorie recommendations are based on the quantity of healthy foods you need to eat for optimal nutrition.", "The lower the number of calories you consume, the less leeway you'll have for foods that aren't high in nutrition.", "It's sad but true, a man eating 3,000 calories each day can afford more treats than a woman eating 1,600 calories.", "That's why each one has to count: Your calories and carbs should come mostly from nutrient-rich foods including a variety of fresh vegetables, lean proteins, whole grains and healthy fats.", "Avoid added sugars, trans fats, and highly-processed foods.", "References (6)Dietary Guidelines for Americans, 2015-2020: Appendix 7 - Nutritional Goals for Age-Sex Groups Based on Dietary Reference Intakes and Dietary Guidelines Recommendations Dietary Guidelines for Americans, 2015-2020: Appendix 2 - Estimated Calorie Needs per Day, by Age, Sex, and Physical Activity Level National Heart, Lung and Blood Institute: Aim For a Healthy Weight Centers for Disease Control and Prevention: Finding a Balance Institutes of Medicine: Dietary Reference Intakes for Energy, Carbohydrate, Fiber, Fat, Fatty Acids, Cholesterol, Protein and Amino Acids Chapter 6, Dietary Carbohydrates - Sugars and Starches Dietary Guidelines for Americans, 2015-2020: A Closer Look Inside Healthy Eating Patterns About the Author Fred Decker is a trained chef and certified food-safety trainer.", "Decker wrote for the Saint John, New Brunswick Telegraph-Journal, and has been published in Canada's Hospitality and Foodservice magazine.", "He's held positions selling computers, insurance and mutual funds, and was educated at Memorial University of Newfoundland and the Northern Alberta Institute of Technology.", "Photo Credits Whole grain toast served with butter.", "image by William Berry from Fotolia.com Cite this Article \"" ]
D42897
http://blog.foodnetwork.com/healthyeats/2013/06/25/how-long-will-the-food-in-your-refrigerator-last/
How Long Will the Food in Your Refrigerator Last?
How Long Will the Food in Your Refrigerator Last? Go ahead, open your fridge. How long have the items been in there? Is everything you've got chilling safe to eat, or should you toss it? Pinterest Facebook Twitter Email By: Toby Amidor, M. S., R. D., C. D. N. Go ahead, open your fridge. How long have most of the items been in there? You're probably thinking to yourself, when should they be tossed? Since the sniff test or a quick eyeball over isn't the best way to make that determination, take a look at the guidelines and then get ready to keep or toss ‘em. The Guidelines Your refrigerator and freezer are temporary storage facilities that can extend the shelf life of food. However, the food stored in your fridge and freezer can definitely spoil within a specific time frame. Here are guidelines for common foods but if you're ever in doubt, toss the food out. Baby Food Leftover baby food (jarred or canned): 2 to 3 days (refrigerator)Beverages Opened canned juices: 5 to 7 days (refrigerator)Fresh orange juice: 6 days (refrigerator) or 6 months (freezer)Opened sodas or carbonated beverages: 2 to 3 days (refrigerator)Soy or rice milk: 7 to 10 days (refrigerator); don't freeze Breads and Grains Store-bought bagels: 1 to 2 weeks (refrigerator) or 2 months (freezer)Commercial breads: 1 to 2 weeks (refrigerator) or 3 months (freezer)Unopened flavored rice: 6 months (pantry)Unopened white flour: 6 to 12 months (pantry)Muffins: 1 week (refrigerator) or 2 months (freezer)Uncooked brown or white rice: 6 months (refrigerator) or 2 years (pantry)Leftover pasta dishes: 1 to 2 days (refrigerator) or 2 months (freezer)Homemade cake: 3 months (freezer)Frozen waffles or pancakes: 3 to 4 days (refrigerator) or 2 months (freezer)Condiments Opened barbecue sauce: 4 months (refrigerator)Opened canned tomato sauce: 5 days (refrigerator)Opened jar of commercial mayonnaise: 2 months (refrigerator); don't freeze Opened bottle of ketchup or chili sauce: 6 months (refrigerator)Opened jar of mustard: 1 year (refrigerator)Opened bottle of olive or vegetable oil: 4 months Shredded Parmesan cheese: 1 month (refrigerator) or 3-4 months (freezer)Opened jar of natural peanut butter: 4 to 6 months (refrigerator) or 2-3 months (freezer)Opened jar of pasta sauce: 4 days (refrigerator)Unopened coffee jar: 2 years (pantry)Olives: 2 weeks (refrigerator); don't freeze Meats and Poultry Raw sausage (pork, beef, or turkey): 1 to 2 days (refrigerator) or 1 to 2 months (freezer)Cooked chicken or turkey dishes: 3 to 4 days (refrigerator) or 4 to 6 months (freezer)Fried chicken: 3 to 4 days (refrigerator) or 4 months (freezer)Cooked ground chicken or turkey: 3 to 4 days (refrigerator) or 2 to 3 months (freezer)Cooked chicken nuggets: 1 to 2 days (refrigerator) or 1 to 2 months (freezer)Meats with gravy or sauces: 1 to 2 days refrigerator or 6 months (freezer)Rotisserie chicken: 3 to 4 days (refrigerator) or 2 to 3 months (freezer)Opened package of hot dogs: 1 week (refrigerator) or 1 to 2 months (freezer)Opened package of deli meat: 3 to 4 days (refrigerator) or 1 to 2 months (freezer)Cooked meat dishes: 3 to 4 days (refrigerator) or 2 to 6 months (freezer)Dairy Foods Ice cream: 2 to 4 months (freezer)Butter: 1 to 3 months (refrigerator) or 6-9 months (freezer)Margarine: 4 to 5 months (refrigerator) or 1 year (freezer)Milk: 1 week (refrigerator) or 3 months (freezer)Sour cream: 1 to 3 weeks (refrigerator); don't freeze Yogurt: 1 to 2 week (refrigerator) or 1 to 2 months (freezer)Prepared Foods Cut-up fruit: 4 days after cut; don’t freeze Tuna or egg salad: 3 days (refrigerator); don't freeze Hard cooked eggs: 1 week (refrigerator); don't freeze Freezer-Aisle Items Frozen fruit: 1 year (freezer)Frozen shrimp: 1 year (freezer)Frozen veggies: 8 months (freezer)Other Common Leftovers Pizza: 3 to 4 days (refrigerator) or 1 month (freezer)Takeout: 3 to 5 days (refrigerator); don’t freeze To find out the shelf life of additional foods, download the Academy of Nutrition and Dietetics Is My Food Safe app. Keep Reading Next Up Star in Training The Next Food Network Star winner Aarti Sequeira takes us through the making of her new show, Aarti Party.
[ "How Long Will the Food in Your Refrigerator Last?", "Go ahead, open your fridge.", "How long have the items been in there?", "Is everything you've got chilling safe to eat, or should you toss it?", "Pinterest Facebook Twitter Email By: Toby Amidor, M. S., R. D., C. D. N. Go ahead, open your fridge.", "How long have most of the items been in there?", "You're probably thinking to yourself, when should they be tossed?", "Since the sniff test or a quick eyeball over isn't the best way to make that determination, take a look at the guidelines and then get ready to keep or toss ‘em.", "The Guidelines Your refrigerator and freezer are temporary storage facilities that can extend the shelf life of food.", "However, the food stored in your fridge and freezer can definitely spoil within a specific time frame.", "Here are guidelines for common foods but if you're ever in doubt, toss the food out.", "Baby Food Leftover baby food (jarred or canned): 2 to 3 days (refrigerator)Beverages Opened canned juices: 5 to 7 days (refrigerator)Fresh orange juice: 6 days (refrigerator) or 6 months (freezer)Opened sodas or carbonated beverages: 2 to 3 days (refrigerator)Soy or rice milk: 7 to 10 days (refrigerator); don't freeze Breads and Grains Store-bought bagels: 1 to 2 weeks (refrigerator) or 2 months (freezer)Commercial breads: 1 to 2 weeks (refrigerator) or 3 months (freezer)Unopened flavored rice: 6 months (pantry)Unopened white flour: 6 to 12 months (pantry)Muffins: 1 week (refrigerator) or 2 months (freezer)Uncooked brown or white rice: 6 months (refrigerator) or 2 years (pantry)Leftover pasta dishes: 1 to 2 days (refrigerator) or 2 months (freezer)Homemade cake: 3 months (freezer)Frozen waffles or pancakes: 3 to 4 days (refrigerator) or 2 months (freezer)Condiments Opened barbecue sauce: 4 months (refrigerator)Opened canned tomato sauce: 5 days (refrigerator)Opened jar of commercial mayonnaise: 2 months (refrigerator); don't freeze Opened bottle of ketchup or chili sauce: 6 months (refrigerator)Opened jar of mustard: 1 year (refrigerator)Opened bottle of olive or vegetable oil: 4 months Shredded Parmesan cheese: 1 month (refrigerator) or 3-4 months (freezer)Opened jar of natural peanut butter: 4 to 6 months (refrigerator) or 2-3 months (freezer)Opened jar of pasta sauce: 4 days (refrigerator)Unopened coffee jar: 2 years (pantry)Olives: 2 weeks (refrigerator); don't freeze Meats and Poultry Raw sausage (pork, beef, or turkey): 1 to 2 days (refrigerator) or 1 to 2 months (freezer)Cooked chicken or turkey dishes: 3 to 4 days (refrigerator) or 4 to 6 months (freezer)Fried chicken: 3 to 4 days (refrigerator) or 4 months (freezer)Cooked ground chicken or turkey: 3 to 4 days (refrigerator) or 2 to 3 months (freezer)Cooked chicken nuggets: 1 to 2 days (refrigerator) or 1 to 2 months (freezer)Meats with gravy or sauces: 1 to 2 days refrigerator or 6 months (freezer)Rotisserie chicken: 3 to 4 days (refrigerator) or 2 to 3 months (freezer)Opened package of hot dogs: 1 week (refrigerator) or 1 to 2 months (freezer)Opened package of deli meat: 3 to 4 days (refrigerator) or 1 to 2 months (freezer)Cooked meat dishes: 3 to 4 days (refrigerator) or 2 to 6 months (freezer)Dairy Foods Ice cream: 2 to 4 months (freezer)Butter: 1 to 3 months (refrigerator) or 6-9 months (freezer)Margarine: 4 to 5 months (refrigerator) or 1 year (freezer)Milk: 1 week (refrigerator) or 3 months (freezer)Sour cream: 1 to 3 weeks (refrigerator); don't freeze Yogurt: 1 to 2 week (refrigerator) or 1 to 2 months (freezer)Prepared Foods Cut-up fruit: 4 days after cut; don’t freeze Tuna or egg salad: 3 days (refrigerator); don't freeze Hard cooked eggs: 1 week (refrigerator); don't freeze Freezer-Aisle Items Frozen fruit: 1 year (freezer)Frozen shrimp: 1 year (freezer)Frozen veggies: 8 months (freezer)Other Common Leftovers Pizza: 3 to 4 days (refrigerator) or 1 month (freezer)Takeout: 3 to 5 days (refrigerator); don’t freeze To find out the shelf life of additional foods, download the Academy of Nutrition and Dietetics Is My Food Safe app.", "Keep Reading Next Up Star in Training The Next Food Network Star winner Aarti Sequeira takes us through the making of her new show, Aarti Party." ]
D141334
http://healthyrecipesblogs.com/2011/08/09/how-to-bake-chicken-breast/
How To Bake Chicken Breast
How To Bake Chicken Breast How to bake chicken breast? Bake for a short time at a high temperature. You will get delightfully juicy baked chicken breast, every time. Save The secret to juicy baked chicken breast? Bake for a short time at a high temperature. Baking for 30 minutes at 350 degrees F will yield dry meat. But baking for just 20 minutes at 450 degrees will result in delightfully juicy baked chicken breast, every time. I used to dread having baked chicken breast for dinner. It always turned out so dry! But I still made it, because it’s so convenient, filling and affordable. I tried all kinds of marinades and seasonings. Nothing helped!It turns out, I simply didn’t know how to bake chicken breast. Who would have thought that the secret was simply in how long to bake it, and in the oven’s temperature? This baked chicken breast is well seasoned, and excellent on its own. I like to bake several chicken breasts at a time, because leftovers are incredibly versatile. I use the leftovers in lots of tasty recipes, such as stuffed poblano peppers, enchilada casserole, and chicken chilli. The possibilities are endless!Watch the video to see how easy this recipe is: Baked Chicken Breast Your browser does not currently recognize any of the video formats available. Click here to visit our frequently asked questions about HTML5 video.0:00 / 1:02Baked Chicken Breast Print Prep and Cool time10 mins Cook time20 mins Total time30 mins Yield: 2 servings Ingredients2 large (8 oz each) boneless, skinless chicken breasts Olive oil cooking spray, or 2 teaspoons olive oil½ teaspoon kosher salt¼ teaspoon Freshly ground black pepper¼ teaspoon garlic powder¼ teaspoon onion powder¼ teaspoon dried oregano¼ teaspoon paprika Instructions Preheat oven to 450 degrees F. Line a baking dish with foil. Spray or brush both sides of each chicken breast with olive oil, and sprinkle with the seasonings. Bake, uncovered, for 15-20 minutes (depending on the size of your chicken breasts), until internal temperature reaches 160-165 degrees F and juices run clear when pierced with a fork. The center of the chicken breasts should be white and opaque, not pink. Transfer the baked chicken breasts to a platter. Loosely cover with foil and allow to rest 5-10 minutes before slicing and serving. Nutrition Per Serving Serving size: 1 chicken breast; Calories: 272 Fat: 7g Carbohydrates: 0g Sugar: 0g Sodium: 640mg Fiber: 0g Protein: 46g Save Save More Healthy Recipes: Grilled Chicken Skewers Tarragon Chicken Blackened Chicken Broiler Chicken Kabobs Pin 932 Share 102 Yum 2 Stumble Tweet Filed Under: Chicken Recipes
[ "How To Bake Chicken Breast How to bake chicken breast?", "Bake for a short time at a high temperature.", "You will get delightfully juicy baked chicken breast, every time.", "Save The secret to juicy baked chicken breast?", "Bake for a short time at a high temperature.", "Baking for 30 minutes at 350 degrees F will yield dry meat.", "But baking for just 20 minutes at 450 degrees will result in delightfully juicy baked chicken breast, every time.", "I used to dread having baked chicken breast for dinner.", "It always turned out so dry!", "But I still made it, because it’s so convenient, filling and affordable.", "I tried all kinds of marinades and seasonings.", "Nothing helped!It turns out, I simply didn’t know how to bake chicken breast.", "Who would have thought that the secret was simply in how long to bake it, and in the oven’s temperature?", "This baked chicken breast is well seasoned, and excellent on its own.", "I like to bake several chicken breasts at a time, because leftovers are incredibly versatile.", "I use the leftovers in lots of tasty recipes, such as stuffed poblano peppers, enchilada casserole, and chicken chilli.", "The possibilities are endless!Watch the video to see how easy this recipe is: Baked Chicken Breast Your browser does not currently recognize any of the video formats available.", "Click here to visit our frequently asked questions about HTML5 video.0:00 / 1:02Baked Chicken Breast Print Prep and Cool time10 mins Cook time20 mins Total time30 mins Yield: 2 servings Ingredients2 large (8 oz each) boneless, skinless chicken breasts Olive oil cooking spray, or 2 teaspoons olive oil½ teaspoon kosher salt¼ teaspoon Freshly ground black pepper¼ teaspoon garlic powder¼ teaspoon onion powder¼ teaspoon dried oregano¼ teaspoon paprika Instructions Preheat oven to 450 degrees F. Line a baking dish with foil.", "Spray or brush both sides of each chicken breast with olive oil, and sprinkle with the seasonings.", "Bake, uncovered, for 15-20 minutes (depending on the size of your chicken breasts), until internal temperature reaches 160-165 degrees F and juices run clear when pierced with a fork.", "The center of the chicken breasts should be white and opaque, not pink.", "Transfer the baked chicken breasts to a platter.", "Loosely cover with foil and allow to rest 5-10 minutes before slicing and serving.", "Nutrition Per Serving Serving size: 1 chicken breast; Calories: 272 Fat: 7g Carbohydrates: 0g Sugar: 0g Sodium: 640mg Fiber: 0g Protein: 46g Save Save More Healthy Recipes: Grilled Chicken Skewers Tarragon Chicken Blackened Chicken Broiler Chicken Kabobs Pin 932 Share 102 Yum 2 Stumble Tweet Filed Under: Chicken Recipes" ]
D93001
http://www.costhowmuch.com/ps/current-postage-stamp.htm
.
"Home > Ship & Postage How Much Does A Postage Stamp Cost For 2018Effective January 21, 2018 the cost of a first class (1) ounce letter sent through the United States Post Office increased one cent from $0.49 to $0.50 for letters mailed within the United States. Any extra ounce (s) remain subject to a fee of $0.21 per added ounce. These fees will continue to apply for an indeterminate period of time. Prior to this, on January 22, 2017 the Post Office increased the fee from $0.47 to $0.49 for letters mailed within the United States. Reversing the $0.2 price drop from $0.49 to $0.47 effective April 10, 2016. That $0.49 was the amount that went into effect January 26, 2014 as the result of a $0.03 increase from $0.46. Letters destined for Canada and Mexico - for the (1) ounce first class letter remain at $1.15 with the global forever stamp - applying to all international destinations. To be sendable by the USPS: a letter must have dimensions of no less than 3-1/2 inches tall with a maximum of 6 1/8"". The width shall be 5"" to 11-1/2 inches. The thickness at least .007 inches which should be no more than 1/4"" to be handled by the processing facilities. As the new increases reflect an effort by the UPS to raise needed funds, the rate at which the Post Office can take charges higher is based on an inflationary rate that comes from the CPI. History The most recent price adjustment is the result of the filing by the U. S. Postal Service of a notice of mailing services price adjustments with the Postal Regulatory Commission (PRC). During 2017 the post office reported losses of $2.7 billion. For the fiscal year 2016 the post office recorded losses of $2.8 billion. July 2010 - the USPS initiated a proposal for a 2 cent rise in stamps, which was shot down later that year. Loaded with several billion dollars in losses, and closing a number of facilities, it appeared that at that time they would probably in the future be looking for ways to compensate. - How massively things have changed with stamps since 1853, the first year stamps were put into use. Tips Some consumers buy extra forever stamps since they are claimed to send even when higher postage surpasses these rates in the years ahead. While postage continues to go up, there are still options like electronic mail, or a phone plan with generous or unlimited long distance/texting such as with some of the cell phone carriers. For mailing out bills, many companies have switched to the online payment option - that is, if you are comfortable with its measure of safety. "
[ "\"Home > Ship & Postage How Much Does A Postage Stamp Cost For 2018Effective January 21, 2018 the cost of a first class (1) ounce letter sent through the United States Post Office increased one cent from $0.49 to $0.50 for letters mailed within the United States.", "Any extra ounce (s) remain subject to a fee of $0.21 per added ounce.", "These fees will continue to apply for an indeterminate period of time.", "Prior to this, on January 22, 2017 the Post Office increased the fee from $0.47 to $0.49 for letters mailed within the United States.", "Reversing the $0.2 price drop from $0.49 to $0.47 effective April 10, 2016.", "That $0.49 was the amount that went into effect January 26, 2014 as the result of a $0.03 increase from $0.46.", "Letters destined for Canada and Mexico - for the (1) ounce first class letter remain at $1.15 with the global forever stamp - applying to all international destinations.", "To be sendable by the USPS: a letter must have dimensions of no less than 3-1/2 inches tall with a maximum of 6 1/8\"\".", "The width shall be 5\"\" to 11-1/2 inches.", "The thickness at least .007 inches which should be no more than 1/4\"\" to be handled by the processing facilities.", "As the new increases reflect an effort by the UPS to raise needed funds, the rate at which the Post Office can take charges higher is based on an inflationary rate that comes from the CPI.", "History The most recent price adjustment is the result of the filing by the U. S. Postal Service of a notice of mailing services price adjustments with the Postal Regulatory Commission (PRC).", "During 2017 the post office reported losses of $2.7 billion.", "For the fiscal year 2016 the post office recorded losses of $2.8 billion.", "July 2010 - the USPS initiated a proposal for a 2 cent rise in stamps, which was shot down later that year.", "Loaded with several billion dollars in losses, and closing a number of facilities, it appeared that at that time they would probably in the future be looking for ways to compensate.", "- How massively things have changed with stamps since 1853, the first year stamps were put into use.", "Tips Some consumers buy extra forever stamps since they are claimed to send even when higher postage surpasses these rates in the years ahead.", "While postage continues to go up, there are still options like electronic mail, or a phone plan with generous or unlimited long distance/texting such as with some of the cell phone carriers.", "For mailing out bills, many companies have switched to the online payment option - that is, if you are comfortable with its measure of safety. \"" ]
D103255
http://www.consumerfinancereport.com/tax-debt-relief/how-long-does-it-take-to-get-your-tax-refund-back.htm
How Long Does it Take to Get Your Tax Refund Back?
"How Long Does it Take to Get Your Tax Refund Back? A common question heard at tax time is ""how long does it take to get my refund back?"" Consumers, especially those struggling in tough economic times, look forward to the financial boost that a tax refund gives. The good news is that the IRS provides the necessary tools that make finding the status of a federal tax refund check just a mouse click away. With state refund checks however, it's a little trickier since you have to know which state agency controls the tax return process. In this article, we'll guide you through the IRS's guidelines for when how long the refund check should take, and review the proper channels for getting both federal and state tax fund questions answered. Federal Tax Refunds How you file your taxes, via either U. S. mail or electronic filing, dictates how long it normally takes to receive a refund. Filing a return through the mail is, of course, the slower of the two processes. For those who mail their federal return, the IRS will remit a tax refund within six weeks after they have been received the completed return. If you file electronically, you should receive your tax refund within three weeks. The IRS allows two options for receiving a federal tax refund: paper check sent via the mail, or an electronic funds transfer (also called a direct deposit). The direct deposit method, not surprisingly, is always the quicker option. The Federal 1040 form contains a section where consumers can opt for a direct deposit. If you want the IRS to electronically deposit your refund into more than one account you will need to file a separate form 8888. How to Check on Your Federal Tax Refund For anyone wanting to check the status of their tax refund, simply go to the IRS's Where's my refund webpage where you'll find an easy to use tool to request the information. If you would rather check the refund status by phone, you may call 1-800-829-1954. The IRS asks that you wait 3 days after filing electronically, or 3 weeks after mailing a return before checking for a status update. For those who file an amended return, however, the period to receive a refund check will take 8-12 weeks. For efilers (e.g., those who file electronically) here is a refund cycle chart that gives target dates when either an electronic direct deposit or mailed paper check should be expected given a particular filing date. Tips on Ensuring a Quick Refund By eliminating mistakes, consumers can ensure that their refund is received in as timely a fashion as possible. The most common mistakes, which can cause delays in receiving a refund, are listed below: Social security number missing or incorrect Incorrect tax result, given reported income and filing status, was entered Mathematical errors in figuring the taxable income, withholding and estimated tax payments, Earned Income Credit, Standard Deduction for age 65 or over or blind, the taxable amount of social security benefits, and child and dependent care credit Items entered on incorrect line, especially estimated tax and withholding General Math Errors State Tax Refund Process As you might expect, each state has its own specific agencies and rules that govern taxation processes. Many states have a Department of Revenue that deals with tax filings and returns, for other states it may be the Tax Commission, Department of Taxation, or some other similar named department. To check status on a state tax refund, find the state taxation agency for your particular state and go their website. Most state agencies, like the IRS, provide tools or resources for consumers to check on tax refund status. "
[ "\"How Long Does it Take to Get Your Tax Refund Back?", "A common question heard at tax time is \"\"how long does it take to get my refund back?\"\"", "Consumers, especially those struggling in tough economic times, look forward to the financial boost that a tax refund gives.", "The good news is that the IRS provides the necessary tools that make finding the status of a federal tax refund check just a mouse click away.", "With state refund checks however, it's a little trickier since you have to know which state agency controls the tax return process.", "In this article, we'll guide you through the IRS's guidelines for when how long the refund check should take, and review the proper channels for getting both federal and state tax fund questions answered.", "Federal Tax Refunds How you file your taxes, via either U. S. mail or electronic filing, dictates how long it normally takes to receive a refund.", "Filing a return through the mail is, of course, the slower of the two processes.", "For those who mail their federal return, the IRS will remit a tax refund within six weeks after they have been received the completed return.", "If you file electronically, you should receive your tax refund within three weeks.", "The IRS allows two options for receiving a federal tax refund: paper check sent via the mail, or an electronic funds transfer (also called a direct deposit).", "The direct deposit method, not surprisingly, is always the quicker option.", "The Federal 1040 form contains a section where consumers can opt for a direct deposit.", "If you want the IRS to electronically deposit your refund into more than one account you will need to file a separate form 8888.", "How to Check on Your Federal Tax Refund For anyone wanting to check the status of their tax refund, simply go to the IRS's Where's my refund webpage where you'll find an easy to use tool to request the information.", "If you would rather check the refund status by phone, you may call 1-800-829-1954.", "The IRS asks that you wait 3 days after filing electronically, or 3 weeks after mailing a return before checking for a status update.", "For those who file an amended return, however, the period to receive a refund check will take 8-12 weeks.", "For efilers (e.g., those who file electronically) here is a refund cycle chart that gives target dates when either an electronic direct deposit or mailed paper check should be expected given a particular filing date.", "Tips on Ensuring a Quick Refund By eliminating mistakes, consumers can ensure that their refund is received in as timely a fashion as possible.", "The most common mistakes, which can cause delays in receiving a refund, are listed below: Social security number missing or incorrect Incorrect tax result, given reported income and filing status, was entered Mathematical errors in figuring the taxable income, withholding and estimated tax payments, Earned Income Credit, Standard Deduction for age 65 or over or blind, the taxable amount of social security benefits, and child and dependent care credit Items entered on incorrect line, especially estimated tax and withholding General Math Errors State Tax Refund Process As you might expect, each state has its own specific agencies and rules that govern taxation processes.", "Many states have a Department of Revenue that deals with tax filings and returns, for other states it may be the Tax Commission, Department of Taxation, or some other similar named department.", "To check status on a state tax refund, find the state taxation agency for your particular state and go their website.", "Most state agencies, like the IRS, provide tools or resources for consumers to check on tax refund status. \"" ]
D86146
http://smallbusiness.chron.com/long-priority-mail-first-class-mail-take-12165.html
How Long Does Priority Mail and First Class Mail Take?
Related Articles1What Is a First Class Mail Parcel?2Difference Between Certified & Registered Mail3When Does You Tube Start Paying You?4USPS Priority Mail Restrictions Whether it's to ship goods, send invoices or advertise their services, many businesses make frequent visits to the post office. The United States Postal Service offers two important products for business owners: First-Class Mail and Priority Mail. These services help businesses get everything from appointment reminder postcards, to customer-ordered goods out the door and on their way to the customer. While both services offer an efficient way to ship packages, Priority Mail and First-Class Mail have different time frames. Mailing Classifications With basic First-Class Mail, you can send postcards, letters, small envelopes and other thin documents such as invoices. You can also send thick mailers and packages weighing up to 13 ounces through First-Class Mail. Business customers who frequently send packages can use First-Class Mail Commercial Plus, which allows packages that weigh up to 1 pound. However, you must commit to sending a minimum number of packages each year to use the Commercial Plus service. Business owners who do not want to commit to the minimum requirements can send packages through Priority Mail. Timeframe The United States Postal Services reports that as of January 2018, it takes an average of one to three days for First-Class Mail to arrive at its destination. Priority Mail likewise takes one to three days. USPS only includes the time a package stays in transit in their estimations. Packages dropped off at a post office during business hours usually leave that day. Packages dropped off after hours may take an additional day. Distance also plays a factor. Packages sent to inter-state locations may arrive sooner than packages sent across the country. Exceptions Some packages may take longer to arrive due to mailing delays. USPS also recognizes federal holidays and will hold packages in transit on those days. Occasionally, USPS experiences a backlog, especially around peak times such as Christmas. The backlog may cause packages to arrive after the estimated time. Weather delays may also play a factor. While USPS delivers in bad weather, severe weather and national disasters can prevent mail from reaching affected areas. Tips Customers can purchase Delivery Confirmation on Priority Mail packages. With Delivery Confirmation, customers can track the status of a package through the USPS website. The tracking feature shows where a package stands in transit and notifies customers when USPS has completed delivery. Delivery confirmation is available for First-Class mail with the purchase of extra services, such as certified or registered mail. References (3)About the Author Amelia Jenkins has more than eight years of professional writing experience, covering financial, environmental and travel topics. Her work has appeared on MSN and various other websites and her articles have topped the best-of list for sites like Bankrate and Kipplinger. Jenkins studied English at Tarrant County College. Photo Creditshand mit brief image by Dron from Fotolia.com Cite this Article
[ "Related Articles1What Is a First Class Mail Parcel?2Difference Between Certified & Registered Mail3When Does You Tube Start Paying You?4USPS Priority Mail Restrictions Whether it's to ship goods, send invoices or advertise their services, many businesses make frequent visits to the post office.", "The United States Postal Service offers two important products for business owners: First-Class Mail and Priority Mail.", "These services help businesses get everything from appointment reminder postcards, to customer-ordered goods out the door and on their way to the customer.", "While both services offer an efficient way to ship packages, Priority Mail and First-Class Mail have different time frames.", "Mailing Classifications With basic First-Class Mail, you can send postcards, letters, small envelopes and other thin documents such as invoices.", "You can also send thick mailers and packages weighing up to 13 ounces through First-Class Mail.", "Business customers who frequently send packages can use First-Class Mail Commercial Plus, which allows packages that weigh up to 1 pound.", "However, you must commit to sending a minimum number of packages each year to use the Commercial Plus service.", "Business owners who do not want to commit to the minimum requirements can send packages through Priority Mail.", "Timeframe The United States Postal Services reports that as of January 2018, it takes an average of one to three days for First-Class Mail to arrive at its destination.", "Priority Mail likewise takes one to three days.", "USPS only includes the time a package stays in transit in their estimations.", "Packages dropped off at a post office during business hours usually leave that day.", "Packages dropped off after hours may take an additional day.", "Distance also plays a factor.", "Packages sent to inter-state locations may arrive sooner than packages sent across the country.", "Exceptions Some packages may take longer to arrive due to mailing delays.", "USPS also recognizes federal holidays and will hold packages in transit on those days.", "Occasionally, USPS experiences a backlog, especially around peak times such as Christmas.", "The backlog may cause packages to arrive after the estimated time.", "Weather delays may also play a factor.", "While USPS delivers in bad weather, severe weather and national disasters can prevent mail from reaching affected areas.", "Tips Customers can purchase Delivery Confirmation on Priority Mail packages.", "With Delivery Confirmation, customers can track the status of a package through the USPS website.", "The tracking feature shows where a package stands in transit and notifies customers when USPS has completed delivery.", "Delivery confirmation is available for First-Class mail with the purchase of extra services, such as certified or registered mail.", "References (3)About the Author Amelia Jenkins has more than eight years of professional writing experience, covering financial, environmental and travel topics.", "Her work has appeared on MSN and various other websites and her articles have topped the best-of list for sites like Bankrate and Kipplinger.", "Jenkins studied English at Tarrant County College.", "Photo Creditshand mit brief image by Dron from Fotolia.com Cite this Article" ]
D74169
http://americanpregnancy.org/getting-pregnant/can-get-pregnant-period/
Can You Get Pregnant on Your Period?
Can You Get Pregnant on Your Period? Home / Getting Pregnant / Can You Get Pregnant on Your Period? Whether you are trying to get pregnant or looking for ways to avoid pregnancy while engaging in sex, a common question is whether or not you can have sex and get pregnant on your period? Similarly, many people ask can you get pregnant right after your period or is it possible to get pregnant right before your period. You are not alone if either of these is one of your questions. The probabilities of getting pregnant in these different situations vary. Some of the situations noted above are better for trying to conceive than the other, while one of the above is better for having sex with a lesser chance of getting pregnant. Can You Get Pregnant on Your Period? The question about whether you can get pregnant on your period or not is probably the most common of the three situations noted above. The answer is yes and no. The probability is that you would not get pregnant having sex during your period. Apart from being messier and less desirable, having sex during your period will more than likely not result in getting pregnant. More than likely, your ovulation is several days away decreasing any chances of conceiving during this time. However, there are exceptions. The above applies to women who have typical 28 to 30 day or longer cycles. If you happen to be one of the individuals who has a shorter cycle there is a chance you could get pregnant while having sex during your period. Now you are asking, “How does that happen?” If your cycle is shorter, for example, every 21 to 24 days, this means you are ovulating earlier in the cycle. Sperm can live inside you for 2, 3 and up to 5 days. You could have sex towards the end of your bleeding and then actually conceive 4 or 5 days later with your early ovulation. The probabilities of getting pregnant while on your period are low, but the possibilities are there. This is not the time to have sex if you are trying to get pregnant. Can You Get Pregnant Right After Your Period? Yes, you can get pregnant right after your period. You are actually starting to move into your fertility window. On a typical cycle that occurs every 28 to 30 days, the fertility window is usually between Day 11 and Day 21 . As noted above sperm can live 2, 3 and up to 5 days. If your period (bleeding time) last for 5 to 7 days, and you have sex right after that, you are approaching your fertility window. If you stop bleeding on Day 6, have sex on Day 7, and ovulate on Day 11. It is possible that the sperm from Day 6 will be waiting in your fallopian tubes for conception. Of course, your chances of conceiving right after your period increase with each day after your bleeding has stopped. If you are trying to conceive this is a good time to start having sex. Increase your chances of conception by having sex every other day for the next 14 days. Can You Get Pregnant Right Before Your Period? The likelihood of getting pregnant right before your period is extremely low. For women who have a typical cycle of 28 to 30 days or longer and their cycles are regular, it is fairly safe to say that your ovulation occurred between Day 11 and Day 21. The egg is only available for 12 to 24 hours for conception. This would mean that the days right before your period are the safest for having sex without the expectation of getting pregnant. The number of “safe days” right before your period go up with longer cycles and lessen with shorter cycles. If you know when ovulation occurred and you wait for 36 to 48 hours later, then you should be beyond the possibilities of conception. The further you move away from ovulation, the less likely your chance will be for conceiving. This is not the time to be having sex if you are trying to conceive. However, it is still a good time to enjoy the intimacy with your partner. If you are trying to get pregnant, you should get a copy of the Essential Guide to Getting Pregnant. Last updated: September 2, 2016 at 4:28 am Share Pin Tweet Share360
[ "Can You Get Pregnant on Your Period?", "Home / Getting Pregnant / Can You Get Pregnant on Your Period?", "Whether you are trying to get pregnant or looking for ways to avoid pregnancy while engaging in sex, a common question is whether or not you can have sex and get pregnant on your period?", "Similarly, many people ask can you get pregnant right after your period or is it possible to get pregnant right before your period.", "You are not alone if either of these is one of your questions.", "The probabilities of getting pregnant in these different situations vary.", "Some of the situations noted above are better for trying to conceive than the other, while one of the above is better for having sex with a lesser chance of getting pregnant.", "Can You Get Pregnant on Your Period?", "The question about whether you can get pregnant on your period or not is probably the most common of the three situations noted above.", "The answer is yes and no.", "The probability is that you would not get pregnant having sex during your period.", "Apart from being messier and less desirable, having sex during your period will more than likely not result in getting pregnant.", "More than likely, your ovulation is several days away decreasing any chances of conceiving during this time.", "However, there are exceptions.", "The above applies to women who have typical 28 to 30 day or longer cycles.", "If you happen to be one of the individuals who has a shorter cycle there is a chance you could get pregnant while having sex during your period.", "Now you are asking, “How does that happen?” If your cycle is shorter, for example, every 21 to 24 days, this means you are ovulating earlier in the cycle.", "Sperm can live inside you for 2, 3 and up to 5 days.", "You could have sex towards the end of your bleeding and then actually conceive 4 or 5 days later with your early ovulation.", "The probabilities of getting pregnant while on your period are low, but the possibilities are there.", "This is not the time to have sex if you are trying to get pregnant.", "Can You Get Pregnant Right After Your Period?", "Yes, you can get pregnant right after your period.", "You are actually starting to move into your fertility window.", "On a typical cycle that occurs every 28 to 30 days, the fertility window is usually between Day 11 and Day 21 .", "As noted above sperm can live 2, 3 and up to 5 days.", "If your period (bleeding time) last for 5 to 7 days, and you have sex right after that, you are approaching your fertility window.", "If you stop bleeding on Day 6, have sex on Day 7, and ovulate on Day 11.", "It is possible that the sperm from Day 6 will be waiting in your fallopian tubes for conception.", "Of course, your chances of conceiving right after your period increase with each day after your bleeding has stopped.", "If you are trying to conceive this is a good time to start having sex.", "Increase your chances of conception by having sex every other day for the next 14 days.", "Can You Get Pregnant Right Before Your Period?", "The likelihood of getting pregnant right before your period is extremely low.", "For women who have a typical cycle of 28 to 30 days or longer and their cycles are regular, it is fairly safe to say that your ovulation occurred between Day 11 and Day 21.", "The egg is only available for 12 to 24 hours for conception.", "This would mean that the days right before your period are the safest for having sex without the expectation of getting pregnant.", "The number of “safe days” right before your period go up with longer cycles and lessen with shorter cycles.", "If you know when ovulation occurred and you wait for 36 to 48 hours later, then you should be beyond the possibilities of conception.", "The further you move away from ovulation, the less likely your chance will be for conceiving.", "This is not the time to be having sex if you are trying to conceive.", "However, it is still a good time to enjoy the intimacy with your partner.", "If you are trying to get pregnant, you should get a copy of the Essential Guide to Getting Pregnant.", "Last updated: September 2, 2016 at 4:28 am Share Pin Tweet Share360" ]
D10666
http://serendip.brynmawr.edu/bb/kinser/Structure1.html
Brain Structures and their Functions
"Brain Structures and their Functions Cerebrum Cerebellum Limbic System Brain Stem The nervous system is your body's decision and communication center. The central nervous system (CNS) is made of the brain and the spinal cord and the peripheral nervous system (PNS) is made of nerves. Together they control every part of your daily life, from breathing and blinking to helping you memorize facts for a test. Nerves reach from your brain to your face, ears, eyes, nose, and spinal cord... and from the spinal cord to the rest of your body. Sensory nerves gather information from the environment, send that info to the spinal cord, which then speed the message to the brain. The brain then makes sense of that message and fires off a response. Motor neurons deliver the instructions from the brain to the rest of your body. The spinal cord, made of a bundle of nerves running up and down the spine, is similar to a superhighway, speeding messages to and from the brain at every second. The brain is made of three main parts: the forebrain, midbrain, and hindbrain. The forebrain consists of the cerebrum, thalamus, and hypothalamus (part of the limbic system). The midbrain consists of the tectum and tegmentum. The hindbrain is made of the cerebellum, pons and medulla. Often the midbrain, pons, and medulla are referred to together as the brainstem. The Cerebrum: The cerebrum or cortex is the largest part of the human brain, associated with higher brain function such as thought and action. The cerebral cortex is divided into four sections, called ""lobes"": the frontal lobe, parietal lobe, occipital lobe, and temporal lobe. Here is a visual representation of the cortex: What do each of these lobes do? Frontal Lobe- associated with reasoning, planning, parts of speech, movement, emotions, and problem solving Parietal Lobe- associated with movement, orientation, recognition, perception of stimuli Occipital Lobe- associated with visual processing Temporal Lobe- associated with perception and recognition of auditory stimuli, memory, and speech Note that the cerebral cortex is highly wrinkled. Essentially this makes the brain more efficient, because it can increase the surface area of the brain and the amount of neurons within it. We will discuss the relevance of the degree of cortical folding (or gyrencephalization) later. (Go here for more information about cortical folding)A deep furrow divides the cerebrum into two halves, known as the left and right hemispheres. The two hemispheres look mostly symmetrical yet it has been shown that each side functions slightly different than the other. Sometimes the right hemisphere is associated with creativity and the left hemispheres is associated with logic abilities. The corpus callosum is a bundle of axons which connects these two hemispheres. Nerve cells make up the gray surface of the cerebrum which is a little thicker than your thumb. White nerve fibers underneath carry signals between the nerve cells and other parts of the brain and body. The neocortex occupies the bulk of the cerebrum. This is a six-layered structure of the cerebral cortex which is only found in mammals. It is thought that the neocortex is a recently evolved structure, and is associated with ""higher"" information processing by more fully evolved animals (such as humans, primates, dolphins, etc). For more information about the neocortex, click here . The Cerebellum: The cerebellum, or ""little brain"", is similar to the cerebrum in that it has two hemispheres and has a highly folded surface or cortex. This structure is associated with regulation and coordination of movement, posture, and balance. The cerebellum is assumed to be much older than the cerebrum, evolutionarily. What do I mean by this? In other words, animals which scientists assume to have evolved prior to humans, for example reptiles, do have developed cerebellums. However, reptiles do not have neocortex. Go here for more discussion of the neocortex or go to the following web site for a more detailed look at evolution of brain structures and intelligence: ""Ask the Experts"": Evolution and Intelligence Limbic System: The limbic system, often referred to as the ""emotional brain"", is found buried within the cerebrum. Like the cerebellum, evolutionarily the structure is rather old. This system contains the thalamus, hypothalamus, amygdala, and hippocampus. Here is a visual representation of this system, from a midsagittal view of the human brain: Click on the words to learn what these structures do: Thalamus Hypothalamus Amygdala Hippocampus Brain Stem: Underneath the limbic system is the brain stem. This structure is responsible for basic vital life functions such as breathing, heartbeat, and blood pressure. Scientists say that this is the ""simplest"" part of human brains because animals' entire brains, such as reptiles (who appear early on the evolutionary scale) resemble our brain stem. Look at a good example of this here . The brain stem is made of the midbrain, pons, and medulla. Click on the words to learn what these structures do: Midbrain Pons Medulla Go back to slicing What's the point? On towards magnification I want to start over, please "
[ "\"Brain Structures and their Functions Cerebrum Cerebellum Limbic System Brain Stem The nervous system is your body's decision and communication center.", "The central nervous system (CNS) is made of the brain and the spinal cord and the peripheral nervous system (PNS) is made of nerves.", "Together they control every part of your daily life, from breathing and blinking to helping you memorize facts for a test.", "Nerves reach from your brain to your face, ears, eyes, nose, and spinal cord... and from the spinal cord to the rest of your body.", "Sensory nerves gather information from the environment, send that info to the spinal cord, which then speed the message to the brain.", "The brain then makes sense of that message and fires off a response.", "Motor neurons deliver the instructions from the brain to the rest of your body.", "The spinal cord, made of a bundle of nerves running up and down the spine, is similar to a superhighway, speeding messages to and from the brain at every second.", "The brain is made of three main parts: the forebrain, midbrain, and hindbrain.", "The forebrain consists of the cerebrum, thalamus, and hypothalamus (part of the limbic system).", "The midbrain consists of the tectum and tegmentum.", "The hindbrain is made of the cerebellum, pons and medulla.", "Often the midbrain, pons, and medulla are referred to together as the brainstem.", "The Cerebrum: The cerebrum or cortex is the largest part of the human brain, associated with higher brain function such as thought and action.", "The cerebral cortex is divided into four sections, called \"\"lobes\"\": the frontal lobe, parietal lobe, occipital lobe, and temporal lobe.", "Here is a visual representation of the cortex: What do each of these lobes do?", "Frontal Lobe- associated with reasoning, planning, parts of speech, movement, emotions, and problem solving Parietal Lobe- associated with movement, orientation, recognition, perception of stimuli Occipital Lobe- associated with visual processing Temporal Lobe- associated with perception and recognition of auditory stimuli, memory, and speech Note that the cerebral cortex is highly wrinkled.", "Essentially this makes the brain more efficient, because it can increase the surface area of the brain and the amount of neurons within it.", "We will discuss the relevance of the degree of cortical folding (or gyrencephalization) later.", "(Go here for more information about cortical folding)A deep furrow divides the cerebrum into two halves, known as the left and right hemispheres.", "The two hemispheres look mostly symmetrical yet it has been shown that each side functions slightly different than the other.", "Sometimes the right hemisphere is associated with creativity and the left hemispheres is associated with logic abilities.", "The corpus callosum is a bundle of axons which connects these two hemispheres.", "Nerve cells make up the gray surface of the cerebrum which is a little thicker than your thumb.", "White nerve fibers underneath carry signals between the nerve cells and other parts of the brain and body.", "The neocortex occupies the bulk of the cerebrum.", "This is a six-layered structure of the cerebral cortex which is only found in mammals.", "It is thought that the neocortex is a recently evolved structure, and is associated with \"\"higher\"\" information processing by more fully evolved animals (such as humans, primates, dolphins, etc).", "For more information about the neocortex, click here .", "The Cerebellum: The cerebellum, or \"\"little brain\"\", is similar to the cerebrum in that it has two hemispheres and has a highly folded surface or cortex.", "This structure is associated with regulation and coordination of movement, posture, and balance.", "The cerebellum is assumed to be much older than the cerebrum, evolutionarily.", "What do I mean by this?", "In other words, animals which scientists assume to have evolved prior to humans, for example reptiles, do have developed cerebellums.", "However, reptiles do not have neocortex.", "Go here for more discussion of the neocortex or go to the following web site for a more detailed look at evolution of brain structures and intelligence: \"\"Ask the Experts\"\": Evolution and Intelligence Limbic System: The limbic system, often referred to as the \"\"emotional brain\"\", is found buried within the cerebrum.", "Like the cerebellum, evolutionarily the structure is rather old.", "This system contains the thalamus, hypothalamus, amygdala, and hippocampus.", "Here is a visual representation of this system, from a midsagittal view of the human brain: Click on the words to learn what these structures do: Thalamus Hypothalamus Amygdala Hippocampus Brain Stem: Underneath the limbic system is the brain stem.", "This structure is responsible for basic vital life functions such as breathing, heartbeat, and blood pressure.", "Scientists say that this is the \"\"simplest\"\" part of human brains because animals' entire brains, such as reptiles (who appear early on the evolutionary scale) resemble our brain stem.", "Look at a good example of this here .", "The brain stem is made of the midbrain, pons, and medulla.", "Click on the words to learn what these structures do: Midbrain Pons Medulla Go back to slicing What's the point?", "On towards magnification I want to start over, please \"" ]
D51734
http://www.womenshealth.gov/publications/our-publications/fact-sheet/menstruation.html
Menstrual Cycle
Menstrual Cycle The menstrual cycle is the hormonal process a woman’s body goes through each month to prepare for a possible pregnancy. Regular menstrual periods in the years between puberty and menopause are usually a sign that your body is working normally. Irregular or heavy, painful periods are not normal. Many women also get premenstrual syndrome (PMS) symptoms. You can take steps at home and talk to your doctor or nurse about ways to treat your period problems and PMS. Top questions about the menstrual cycle What is a typical menstrual cycle like? What is a normal amount of bleeding during a menstrual period? Should I track my menstrual periods? View more
[ "Menstrual Cycle The menstrual cycle is the hormonal process a woman’s body goes through each month to prepare for a possible pregnancy.", "Regular menstrual periods in the years between puberty and menopause are usually a sign that your body is working normally.", "Irregular or heavy, painful periods are not normal.", "Many women also get premenstrual syndrome (PMS) symptoms.", "You can take steps at home and talk to your doctor or nurse about ways to treat your period problems and PMS.", "Top questions about the menstrual cycle What is a typical menstrual cycle like?", "What is a normal amount of bleeding during a menstrual period?", "Should I track my menstrual periods?", "View more" ]
D116851
https://techboomers.com/t/amazon-customer-service
Amazon Customer Service
"Amazon Customer Service Last Updated: April 20, 2017 - 8:26 EDTHow to Contact Amazon Customer Service Your browser does not currently recognize any of the video formats available. Click here to visit our frequently asked questions about HTML5 video.0:00 / 2:27Hopefully, you won’t have any problems with anything that you order from Amazon.com. With that said, accidents and mistakes happen, and you may get stuck in an unfortunate situation where your order is uncannily late or doesn’t arrive at all, or it arrives broken, defective, or with parts missing. Whatever the issue, you’re going to want to get in touch with Amazon’s customer service department. To contact Amazon by phone: The easiest way to contact Amazon’s customer service department is by using their toll-free phone number at 1-888-280-4331. If you need the personal touch, feel free to call and speak to a representative. If you want a more efficient way to solve your problem, use Amazon’s guided contact process. To contact Amazon using their guided customer service process: Sign into your Amazon account and click Help on the right menu. Click Contact Us. Enter the details of your problem. Choose from Email, Phone, or Chat as a method of resolving your issue. Based on your choice, click Send Email, Call Me Now, or Start Chat to deal with a customer service representative. Need a bit more detail about how this process works? Read our step-by-step guide (with pictures) below. Detailed instructions for contacting Amazon using the guided customer service process1. Sign in to Amazon. Go to www.amazon.com and log in (if you haven’t already).2. Get help from Amazon. Scroll to the bottom of the screen and click Help in the right-hand menu.3. Contact Amazon. Move your mouse cursor over “Need More Help?” and click Contact Us . You may be prompted to log in (again) when you do this; you can click Skip Sign In to skip this step, but by logging in, they will have your information ready when you contact them.4. Explain your problem, and choose a method to send your issue report. The next screen lets you specify information that will give the customer service team a quick overview of your problem so that they can help you solve it faster. You don’t have to fill in all of the information here, but the more you do, the better customer service can help you. First up is the “What Can We Help You With?” section. Click the buttons here to explain the type of product or service that you need help with: an order, one of Amazon’s unique products, downloadable digital content, or something else. Note that depending on which one you choose, you may get different sub-options. For example, if your problem is with An Order I Placed (as it is in the screenshot here), you can search for and select the specific order that you’re having a problem with. Next is “Tell Us More about Your Issue.” You can click the drop-down menus here to select details about exactly what kind of problem you’re having with the product or service you’ve selected. Again, based on what you chose in the above section, you will have different sub-options. For example, you may specify that the problem with your order is with the item itself, the sub-problem being that the item or some of its parts were missing, and the further sub-problem being that the entire item was missing from the package. Once you have filled in enough information in the above options, the “How Would You like to Contact Us?” options will become available. Sometimes, depending on the options you’ve chosen, they will suggest a specific way to contact their customer service department. Regardless, click one to start the contact process.5. If you selected email, enter additional information and send an email. If you choose to contact Amazon customer service by clicking Email, you’ll see this screen. Click Edit Items or Details to go back to the previous screen if you entered any information incorrectly. Otherwise, click in the box that says “Enter Additional Information” and type in a more detailed explanation of the problem. Depending on the information you’ve already given about your problem, you may get a hint as to what to put here. When you’re finished, click Send Email.6. If you selected phone, have Amazon call you. If you choose to contact Amazon customer service by clicking Phone, you’ll see this screen. Click Edit Items or Details to go back to the previous screen if you entered any information incorrectly. Otherwise, click the drop-down menu labelled “Country” and select what country you’re calling from, click in the boxes marked “Your Number” and type in your phone number, and then click Call Me Now . An Amazon customer service representative should call the phone number that you entered shortly, and they will walk you through solving the problem.7. If you selected chat, begin your chat with the representative. If you choose to contact Amazon customer service by clicking Chat, you’ll see this screen pop up. Click in the field marked “Name” and type in your name, click in the field marked “Email” and type in the email address that you use for your account, and then click in the field marked “How Can We Help You Today?” and type in a more detailed explanation of the problem. Then click Start Chat to begin sending quick messages back and forth with a customer service representative to work out the problem.4 Amazon customer service tips Though there are stories here and there on the Internet from disgruntled Amazon customers who think they were treated poorly by Amazon’s customer service team, the general consensus is that Amazon’s customer service department is actually one of the best ones among today’s big Internet-based companies, with an overall customer satisfaction rating of around 87%, which is far better than some of its competitors such as e Bay.com, which has a notoriously lax attitude towards customer service. With that said, there are a few things you can do to make your encounter with Amazon’s customer service department run as smoothly as possible, should you ever find yourself needing to contact them.1. Use the guided contact process from the start – it makes everyone’s lives easier. As we said above, calling Amazon’s toll-free customer service number may be the fastest way to get in touch with the customer service department, but it’s definitely not the most efficient way. By logging in and using the guided contact process, the customer service representative will have all the information they need about you to help fix your problem right in front of them when you get in touch.2. Provide as much information as possible, and be as detailed in your explanations as you possibly can. Following the above point, provide as many details about your problem as possible as you go through the guided contact process. It will help the customer service representative that you connect with narrow down your problem and offer a solution more readily.3. Be patient and courteous with the customer service representatives. We know it’s hard to stay calm when something’s not right, but remember that the customer service department isn’t the source of your problem; it’s the shipping division, the courier service, or the third-party seller (if you bought from one). Staying connected and not losing your temper is the only way you’re going to help the customer service representative make things right.4. If you bought from a third-party seller, contact them too. You may actually want to contact the seller first, before you try to contact a customer service branch. The seller may be able to explain the problem, or at least give you information that you can provide to a customer service representative to help them help you fix your problem. And that’s how you contact Amazon customer service. Remember that Amazon wants to help you solve your problems – their reputation is staked on it! If the issue you’re having is a safety concern, consider reading our article on how to stay safe while using Amazon. More Great Related Articles Tips and Tricks How to Choose the Best Free Email Service Tips and Tricks How to Get Free Shipping on Amazon Tips and Tricks How to Cancel Angie’s List Tips and Tricks How to Delete Your Coursera Account Previous Tutorial Amazon Trade-In Program Next Tutorial How Does Amazon Make Money? Did you learn what you wanted to? Was something in this tutorial missing, confusing, or out of date? Or did it give you all the information you needed, and you just want to say ""thanks""? We'd love to hear what you thought! "
[ "\"Amazon Customer Service Last Updated: April 20, 2017 - 8:26 EDTHow to Contact Amazon Customer Service Your browser does not currently recognize any of the video formats available.", "Click here to visit our frequently asked questions about HTML5 video.0:00 / 2:27Hopefully, you won’t have any problems with anything that you order from Amazon.com.", "With that said, accidents and mistakes happen, and you may get stuck in an unfortunate situation where your order is uncannily late or doesn’t arrive at all, or it arrives broken, defective, or with parts missing.", "Whatever the issue, you’re going to want to get in touch with Amazon’s customer service department.", "To contact Amazon by phone: The easiest way to contact Amazon’s customer service department is by using their toll-free phone number at 1-888-280-4331.", "If you need the personal touch, feel free to call and speak to a representative.", "If you want a more efficient way to solve your problem, use Amazon’s guided contact process.", "To contact Amazon using their guided customer service process: Sign into your Amazon account and click Help on the right menu.", "Click Contact Us.", "Enter the details of your problem.", "Choose from Email, Phone, or Chat as a method of resolving your issue.", "Based on your choice, click Send Email, Call Me Now, or Start Chat to deal with a customer service representative.", "Need a bit more detail about how this process works?", "Read our step-by-step guide (with pictures) below.", "Detailed instructions for contacting Amazon using the guided customer service process1.", "Sign in to Amazon.", "Go to www.amazon.com and log in (if you haven’t already).2.", "Get help from Amazon.", "Scroll to the bottom of the screen and click Help in the right-hand menu.3.", "Contact Amazon.", "Move your mouse cursor over “Need More Help?” and click Contact Us .", "You may be prompted to log in (again) when you do this; you can click Skip Sign In to skip this step, but by logging in, they will have your information ready when you contact them.4.", "Explain your problem, and choose a method to send your issue report.", "The next screen lets you specify information that will give the customer service team a quick overview of your problem so that they can help you solve it faster.", "You don’t have to fill in all of the information here, but the more you do, the better customer service can help you.", "First up is the “What Can We Help You With?” section.", "Click the buttons here to explain the type of product or service that you need help with: an order, one of Amazon’s unique products, downloadable digital content, or something else.", "Note that depending on which one you choose, you may get different sub-options.", "For example, if your problem is with An Order I Placed (as it is in the screenshot here), you can search for and select the specific order that you’re having a problem with.", "Next is “Tell Us More about Your Issue.” You can click the drop-down menus here to select details about exactly what kind of problem you’re having with the product or service you’ve selected.", "Again, based on what you chose in the above section, you will have different sub-options.", "For example, you may specify that the problem with your order is with the item itself, the sub-problem being that the item or some of its parts were missing, and the further sub-problem being that the entire item was missing from the package.", "Once you have filled in enough information in the above options, the “How Would You like to Contact Us?” options will become available.", "Sometimes, depending on the options you’ve chosen, they will suggest a specific way to contact their customer service department.", "Regardless, click one to start the contact process.5.", "If you selected email, enter additional information and send an email.", "If you choose to contact Amazon customer service by clicking Email, you’ll see this screen.", "Click Edit Items or Details to go back to the previous screen if you entered any information incorrectly.", "Otherwise, click in the box that says “Enter Additional Information” and type in a more detailed explanation of the problem.", "Depending on the information you’ve already given about your problem, you may get a hint as to what to put here.", "When you’re finished, click Send Email.6.", "If you selected phone, have Amazon call you.", "If you choose to contact Amazon customer service by clicking Phone, you’ll see this screen.", "Click Edit Items or Details to go back to the previous screen if you entered any information incorrectly.", "Otherwise, click the drop-down menu labelled “Country” and select what country you’re calling from, click in the boxes marked “Your Number” and type in your phone number, and then click Call Me Now .", "An Amazon customer service representative should call the phone number that you entered shortly, and they will walk you through solving the problem.7.", "If you selected chat, begin your chat with the representative.", "If you choose to contact Amazon customer service by clicking Chat, you’ll see this screen pop up.", "Click in the field marked “Name” and type in your name, click in the field marked “Email” and type in the email address that you use for your account, and then click in the field marked “How Can We Help You Today?” and type in a more detailed explanation of the problem.", "Then click Start Chat to begin sending quick messages back and forth with a customer service representative to work out the problem.4 Amazon customer service tips Though there are stories here and there on the Internet from disgruntled Amazon customers who think they were treated poorly by Amazon’s customer service team, the general consensus is that Amazon’s customer service department is actually one of the best ones among today’s big Internet-based companies, with an overall customer satisfaction rating of around 87%, which is far better than some of its competitors such as e Bay.com, which has a notoriously lax attitude towards customer service.", "With that said, there are a few things you can do to make your encounter with Amazon’s customer service department run as smoothly as possible, should you ever find yourself needing to contact them.1.", "Use the guided contact process from the start – it makes everyone’s lives easier.", "As we said above, calling Amazon’s toll-free customer service number may be the fastest way to get in touch with the customer service department, but it’s definitely not the most efficient way.", "By logging in and using the guided contact process, the customer service representative will have all the information they need about you to help fix your problem right in front of them when you get in touch.2.", "Provide as much information as possible, and be as detailed in your explanations as you possibly can.", "Following the above point, provide as many details about your problem as possible as you go through the guided contact process.", "It will help the customer service representative that you connect with narrow down your problem and offer a solution more readily.3.", "Be patient and courteous with the customer service representatives.", "We know it’s hard to stay calm when something’s not right, but remember that the customer service department isn’t the source of your problem; it’s the shipping division, the courier service, or the third-party seller (if you bought from one).", "Staying connected and not losing your temper is the only way you’re going to help the customer service representative make things right.4.", "If you bought from a third-party seller, contact them too.", "You may actually want to contact the seller first, before you try to contact a customer service branch.", "The seller may be able to explain the problem, or at least give you information that you can provide to a customer service representative to help them help you fix your problem.", "And that’s how you contact Amazon customer service.", "Remember that Amazon wants to help you solve your problems – their reputation is staked on it!", "If the issue you’re having is a safety concern, consider reading our article on how to stay safe while using Amazon.", "More Great Related Articles Tips and Tricks How to Choose the Best Free Email Service Tips and Tricks How to Get Free Shipping on Amazon Tips and Tricks How to Cancel Angie’s List Tips and Tricks How to Delete Your Coursera Account Previous Tutorial Amazon Trade-In Program Next Tutorial How Does Amazon Make Money?", "Did you learn what you wanted to?", "Was something in this tutorial missing, confusing, or out of date?", "Or did it give you all the information you needed, and you just want to say \"\"thanks\"\"?", "We'd love to hear what you thought! \"" ]
D145992
http://www.defenders.org/grasslands/temperate-grasslands
Temperate Grasslands
Temperate Grasslands Location Temperate grasslands are located north of the Tropic of Cancer (23.5 degrees North) and south of the Tropic of Capricorn (23.5 degrees South). The major temperate grasslands include the veldts of Africa, the pampas of South America, the steppes of Eurasia, and the plains of North America. Plants Grasses are the dominant vegetation. Trees and large shrubs are largely absent. Seasonal drought, occasional fires and grazing by large mammals all prevent woody shrubs and trees from becoming established. A few trees such as cottonwoods, oaks and willows grow in river valleys, and a few hundred species of flowers grow among the grasses. The various species of grasses include purple needlegrass, blue grama, buffalo grass, and galleta. Flowers include asters, blazing stars, coneflowers, goldenrods, sunflowers, clovers, psoraleas, and wild indigos. Animals Temperate grasslands have a low diversity of wildlife, but a high abundance of wildlife. In North America the dominant grazing animals are bison and pronghorn. Rodents include pocket gophers and prairie dogs. Carnivores include wolves, coyotes, swift foxes, badgers and black-footed ferrets. Birds include grouses, meadowlarks, quails, sparrows, hawks and owls. Climate Temperate grasslands have hot summers and cold winters. Summer temperatures can be well over 100 degrees Fahrenheit, while winter temperatures can be as low as -40 degrees Fahrenheit. They typically have between 10 and 35 inches of precipitation a year, much of it occurring in the late spring and early summer. Snow often serves as a reservoir of moisture for the beginning of the growing season. Seasonal drought and occasional fires help maintain these grasslands. Soil Temperate grasslands have soils that are nutrient-rich from the growth and decay of deep, many-branched grass roots. The rotted roots hold the soil together and provide a food source for living plants. The world's most fertile soils underlie the eastern prairies of the U. S., the pampas of South America, and the steppes of Ukraine and Russia. Threats Overgrazing by livestock and plowing are the two greatest threats to temperate grasslands. Since the development of the steel plow much of these grasslands have been converted to agricultural lands because of their rich soil. About 47 percent of temperate grasslands have been converted to agriculture or urban development. Lack of fire and fragmentation are also threats, as is past and present wildlife eradication (including the bison slaughter of the 1800s and ongoing prairie dog poisoning in North America’s plains).
[ "Temperate Grasslands Location Temperate grasslands are located north of the Tropic of Cancer (23.5 degrees North) and south of the Tropic of Capricorn (23.5 degrees South).", "The major temperate grasslands include the veldts of Africa, the pampas of South America, the steppes of Eurasia, and the plains of North America.", "Plants Grasses are the dominant vegetation.", "Trees and large shrubs are largely absent.", "Seasonal drought, occasional fires and grazing by large mammals all prevent woody shrubs and trees from becoming established.", "A few trees such as cottonwoods, oaks and willows grow in river valleys, and a few hundred species of flowers grow among the grasses.", "The various species of grasses include purple needlegrass, blue grama, buffalo grass, and galleta.", "Flowers include asters, blazing stars, coneflowers, goldenrods, sunflowers, clovers, psoraleas, and wild indigos.", "Animals Temperate grasslands have a low diversity of wildlife, but a high abundance of wildlife.", "In North America the dominant grazing animals are bison and pronghorn.", "Rodents include pocket gophers and prairie dogs.", "Carnivores include wolves, coyotes, swift foxes, badgers and black-footed ferrets.", "Birds include grouses, meadowlarks, quails, sparrows, hawks and owls.", "Climate Temperate grasslands have hot summers and cold winters.", "Summer temperatures can be well over 100 degrees Fahrenheit, while winter temperatures can be as low as -40 degrees Fahrenheit.", "They typically have between 10 and 35 inches of precipitation a year, much of it occurring in the late spring and early summer.", "Snow often serves as a reservoir of moisture for the beginning of the growing season.", "Seasonal drought and occasional fires help maintain these grasslands.", "Soil Temperate grasslands have soils that are nutrient-rich from the growth and decay of deep, many-branched grass roots.", "The rotted roots hold the soil together and provide a food source for living plants.", "The world's most fertile soils underlie the eastern prairies of the U. S., the pampas of South America, and the steppes of Ukraine and Russia.", "Threats Overgrazing by livestock and plowing are the two greatest threats to temperate grasslands.", "Since the development of the steel plow much of these grasslands have been converted to agricultural lands because of their rich soil.", "About 47 percent of temperate grasslands have been converted to agriculture or urban development.", "Lack of fire and fragmentation are also threats, as is past and present wildlife eradication (including the bison slaughter of the 1800s and ongoing prairie dog poisoning in North America’s plains)." ]
D42148
http://home.costhelper.com/blacktop-driveway.html
Asphalt Driveway Cost
"Typical: $2-$5 a Square Foot 12'x50' Driveway: $1,200-$3,000+E-mail Post Tweet Comments (5)Asphalt is a common driveway material because of its relatively low price compared to concrete. It generally works better and is more popular in colder climates because it can crack with constant exposure to high temperatures. Typical costs: Cost Helper readers report paying $2,300 -$10,300 to install a new asphalt driveway or completely remove replace an old one, or $1.67 -$2.72 a square foot, with an average cost of $2.24 a square foot. Readers report paying $2,000 -$3,800 to door-to-door contractors to redo all or parts of an asphalt driveway, at $0.73 -$1.37 a square foot with an average of $1.17 a square foot. An asphalt driveway typically costs about $2 -$5 a square foot, $1,200 - $3,000 for a 12'x50' single-car driveway; or $25,000 -$50,000 for up to a quarter mile. Slopes, curves, odd shapes and other complications add to the total cost, and smaller jobs aren't necessarily cheaper because it costs the contractor a minimum amount to haul the asphalt heater, steamroller and other equipment to the site. Costs can go as low as $1 -$2 a square foot or less, particularly for repaving work by door-to-door hustlers claiming they have ""left over"" asphalt in their truck and will install it cheaply; many experts caution against this, because the quality of the work may be substandard, there's no way to find the company after the work is done and the ""left over"" asphalt may have cooled off too much, which affects its durability and quality. What should be included: Asphalt requires professional equipment and a trained crew. It can include removing topsoil and organic material or existing pavement; compacting the soil; installing geo-tech fabric if the soil is weak or drains poorly; laying a base; and applying 2""-3"" of asphalt and compacting it. Ask The Builder.com offers tips on residential asphalt paving [ 1] . Wait about 24-48 hours before driving or parking on fresh asphalt (or longer if the weather is hot). However, it can take up to 12 months for asphalt to completely harden and cure. An asphalt driveway can last 10-35 years, depending on the quality of the installation and maintenance. The Family Handyman magazine explains factors that make an asphalt driveway durable [ 2] . If more than 55% to 60% of an old asphalt driveway contains wide or spiderweb cracks, sinkholes or potholes, it typically needs to be removed and replaced rather than repaved. Additional costs: Because a driveway connects to a public street, there may be local regulations governing the width of the driveway and the materials used to build it. A permit is typically required, and fees vary from nominal to pricey, depending on location. An asphalt driveway should be sealed about six to eight months after installation, and again every 2-5 years. Some experts recommend sealing a driveway every year, depending on climate and other conditions. Do-it-yourself supplies can cost $50 -$200 depending on the size and condition of the driveway, and the quality of the sealer. Professional driveway sealing can cost $200 -$500 or more. Shopping for an asphalt driveway: Asphalt driveways are typically installed by asphalt or paving contractors (although general building or landscaping contractors may do this as part of a larger project, and sub out the asphalt work. The Better Business Bureau lists tips for selecting an asphalt driveway contractor [ 3] . Get several estimates; ask for and check references (if possible, visit a previous project); make sure the company is properly insured and licensed [ 4] ; and check for any complaints filed with the Better Business Bureau [ 5] . E-mail Post Tweet Comments (5)Cost Helper News7 Ways to Stretch Your Reduced Food Budget End of the year budgets are tight for everyone, especially in this economy. It's especially hard for the millions of Americans who depend on government programs like food stamps to help make ends meet. || Posted November 11 20137 Lesser-Known Discounts for the 50+ Crowd As they age, members of the Baby Boomer generation don't like to admit that they're senior citizens, but they love getting discounts. It's kind of a quandary, because some of the best deals available are reduced prices for older folks.|| Posted October 21 2013‣ All Cost Helper Blog Posts What People Are Paying - Recent Comments Asfault Amount: $3,000.00Posted by: a user in Sudbury, Other. Posted: February 8th, 2018 07:02PMSq Ft of Driveway: 12ft - 60ft Contractor: I want to build asfault driveways. Wide 12’ length 60’ how much does it cost to build driveways Was this post helpful to you? yes no Report prohibited or spam Asphalt driveway Amount: $5,000.00Posted by: Toby Heine in Ashland City, TN. Posted: November 21st, 2016 02:11AMSq Ft of Driveway: 2200 Contractor: Dans paving &concrete Told me I would be getting a 10/150 drive and a 30/40 turn around. Ended up with an 8/100 drive and 25/30 turn around. They stretched it so thin dout it will last two years. Why do we fall for their scams with our hard earned money. Was this post helpful to you? yes no Report prohibited or spamnew asphalt driveway Amount: $4,000.00Posted by: Mss G in north platte, NE. Posted: September 1st, 2016 12:09PMSq Ft of Driveway: 4400 Contractor: Lovell Asphalt, Columbus, NELooks great, experienced crew of 6 total workers took about 5 hours total to grade gravel driveway, lay out 4 inch thick asphalt millings from local road, compact and oil. Only time will tell how it holds up. Have not driven on yet. will wait a couple days. Get a firm estimate before work starts. Was this post helpful to you? yes no Report prohibited or spam Paving over old asphalt Amount: $1,800.00Posted by: Greg huntwork in Union city, IN. Posted: April 21st, 2015 10:04AMSq Ft of Driveway: 110' x 12 Contractor: Was this post helpful to you? yes no Report prohibited or spam Driveway seal Amount: $2,400.00Posted by: linda Briel in prospect, VA. Posted: February 4th, 2015 07:02PMSq Ft of Driveway: 80ft long by 8ft wide Contractor: Appomattox paving inc They showed up one and asked to seal my drive, told him needed written est but he just went on about how much a sq ft. I told him no but his crew had already started. They did not fill incracks as promised, shoddy work which took under 2 hours. The guy is Jonathon Peery 434 473 2591. I'm an old widow and they got me. Was this post helpful to you? yes no Report prohibited or spam Comment On Your Experience With an Asphalt Driveway Subject: *Amount Spent: *Sq Ft of Driveway: Contractor: Comments: Purchased: Year: City: * State: *Information about you: Email: * Email addresses are not displayed. Name: This is the name we'll display with your post. Remember me on this computer*=required field. External Resources:www.askthebuilder.com/tips-on-residential-blacktop-asphalt-paving/www.familyhandyman.com/masonry/how-to-install-a-durable-asphalt-drivewaywww.bbb.org/dayton/business-reviews/paving-contractors/industry-tips/asphalt-driveway-c...www.contractors-license.org/www.bbb.org/us/Find-Business-Reviews/More Home and Garden Topics Check Out All Costs for Home and Garden How Much Do Replacement Windows Cost? How Much Does a Storm Shelter Cost? How Much Does Heating Oil Cost? Search Thousands of Topics on Cost Helper.com How much does cost? "
[ "\"Typical: $2-$5 a Square Foot 12'x50' Driveway: $1,200-$3,000+E-mail Post Tweet Comments (5)Asphalt is a common driveway material because of its relatively low price compared to concrete.", "It generally works better and is more popular in colder climates because it can crack with constant exposure to high temperatures.", "Typical costs: Cost Helper readers report paying $2,300 -$10,300 to install a new asphalt driveway or completely remove replace an old one, or $1.67 -$2.72 a square foot, with an average cost of $2.24 a square foot.", "Readers report paying $2,000 -$3,800 to door-to-door contractors to redo all or parts of an asphalt driveway, at $0.73 -$1.37 a square foot with an average of $1.17 a square foot.", "An asphalt driveway typically costs about $2 -$5 a square foot, $1,200 - $3,000 for a 12'x50' single-car driveway; or $25,000 -$50,000 for up to a quarter mile.", "Slopes, curves, odd shapes and other complications add to the total cost, and smaller jobs aren't necessarily cheaper because it costs the contractor a minimum amount to haul the asphalt heater, steamroller and other equipment to the site.", "Costs can go as low as $1 -$2 a square foot or less, particularly for repaving work by door-to-door hustlers claiming they have \"\"left over\"\" asphalt in their truck and will install it cheaply; many experts caution against this, because the quality of the work may be substandard, there's no way to find the company after the work is done and the \"\"left over\"\" asphalt may have cooled off too much, which affects its durability and quality.", "What should be included: Asphalt requires professional equipment and a trained crew.", "It can include removing topsoil and organic material or existing pavement; compacting the soil; installing geo-tech fabric if the soil is weak or drains poorly; laying a base; and applying 2\"\"-3\"\" of asphalt and compacting it.", "Ask The Builder.com offers tips on residential asphalt paving [ 1] .", "Wait about 24-48 hours before driving or parking on fresh asphalt (or longer if the weather is hot).", "However, it can take up to 12 months for asphalt to completely harden and cure.", "An asphalt driveway can last 10-35 years, depending on the quality of the installation and maintenance.", "The Family Handyman magazine explains factors that make an asphalt driveway durable [ 2] .", "If more than 55% to 60% of an old asphalt driveway contains wide or spiderweb cracks, sinkholes or potholes, it typically needs to be removed and replaced rather than repaved.", "Additional costs: Because a driveway connects to a public street, there may be local regulations governing the width of the driveway and the materials used to build it.", "A permit is typically required, and fees vary from nominal to pricey, depending on location.", "An asphalt driveway should be sealed about six to eight months after installation, and again every 2-5 years.", "Some experts recommend sealing a driveway every year, depending on climate and other conditions.", "Do-it-yourself supplies can cost $50 -$200 depending on the size and condition of the driveway, and the quality of the sealer.", "Professional driveway sealing can cost $200 -$500 or more.", "Shopping for an asphalt driveway: Asphalt driveways are typically installed by asphalt or paving contractors (although general building or landscaping contractors may do this as part of a larger project, and sub out the asphalt work.", "The Better Business Bureau lists tips for selecting an asphalt driveway contractor [ 3] .", "Get several estimates; ask for and check references (if possible, visit a previous project); make sure the company is properly insured and licensed [ 4] ; and check for any complaints filed with the Better Business Bureau [ 5] .", "E-mail Post Tweet Comments (5)Cost Helper News7 Ways to Stretch Your Reduced Food Budget End of the year budgets are tight for everyone, especially in this economy.", "It's especially hard for the millions of Americans who depend on government programs like food stamps to help make ends meet.", "|| Posted November 11 20137 Lesser-Known Discounts for the 50+ Crowd As they age, members of the Baby Boomer generation don't like to admit that they're senior citizens, but they love getting discounts.", "It's kind of a quandary, because some of the best deals available are reduced prices for older folks.|| Posted October 21 2013‣ All Cost Helper Blog Posts What People Are Paying - Recent Comments Asfault Amount: $3,000.00Posted by: a user in Sudbury, Other.", "Posted: February 8th, 2018 07:02PMSq Ft of Driveway: 12ft - 60ft Contractor: I want to build asfault driveways.", "Wide 12’ length 60’ how much does it cost to build driveways Was this post helpful to you?", "yes no Report prohibited or spam Asphalt driveway Amount: $5,000.00Posted by: Toby Heine in Ashland City, TN.", "Posted: November 21st, 2016 02:11AMSq Ft of Driveway: 2200 Contractor: Dans paving &concrete Told me I would be getting a 10/150 drive and a 30/40 turn around.", "Ended up with an 8/100 drive and 25/30 turn around.", "They stretched it so thin dout it will last two years.", "Why do we fall for their scams with our hard earned money.", "Was this post helpful to you?", "yes no Report prohibited or spamnew asphalt driveway Amount: $4,000.00Posted by: Mss G in north platte, NE.", "Posted: September 1st, 2016 12:09PMSq Ft of Driveway: 4400 Contractor: Lovell Asphalt, Columbus, NELooks great, experienced crew of 6 total workers took about 5 hours total to grade gravel driveway, lay out 4 inch thick asphalt millings from local road, compact and oil.", "Only time will tell how it holds up.", "Have not driven on yet.", "will wait a couple days.", "Get a firm estimate before work starts.", "Was this post helpful to you?", "yes no Report prohibited or spam Paving over old asphalt Amount: $1,800.00Posted by: Greg huntwork in Union city, IN.", "Posted: April 21st, 2015 10:04AMSq Ft of Driveway: 110' x 12 Contractor: Was this post helpful to you?", "yes no Report prohibited or spam Driveway seal Amount: $2,400.00Posted by: linda Briel in prospect, VA. Posted: February 4th, 2015 07:02PMSq Ft of Driveway: 80ft long by 8ft wide Contractor: Appomattox paving inc They showed up one and asked to seal my drive, told him needed written est but he just went on about how much a sq ft.", "I told him no but his crew had already started.", "They did not fill incracks as promised, shoddy work which took under 2 hours.", "The guy is Jonathon Peery 434 473 2591.", "I'm an old widow and they got me.", "Was this post helpful to you?", "yes no Report prohibited or spam Comment On Your Experience With an Asphalt Driveway Subject: *Amount Spent: *Sq Ft of Driveway: Contractor: Comments: Purchased: Year: City: * State: *Information about you: Email: * Email addresses are not displayed.", "Name: This is the name we'll display with your post.", "Remember me on this computer*=required field.", "External Resources:www.askthebuilder.com/tips-on-residential-blacktop-asphalt-paving/www.familyhandyman.com/masonry/how-to-install-a-durable-asphalt-drivewaywww.bbb.org/dayton/business-reviews/paving-contractors/industry-tips/asphalt-driveway-c...www.contractors-license.org/www.bbb.org/us/Find-Business-Reviews/More Home and Garden Topics Check Out All Costs for Home and Garden How Much Do Replacement Windows Cost?", "How Much Does a Storm Shelter Cost?", "How Much Does Heating Oil Cost?", "Search Thousands of Topics on Cost Helper.com How much does cost? \"" ]
D50569
http://www.mayoclinic.org/digestive-system/expert-answers/FAQ-20058340
Digestion: How long does it take?
Appointments at Mayo Clinic Mayo Clinic offers appointments in Arizona, Florida and Minnesota and at Mayo Clinic Health System locations. Request Appointment Digestion: How long does it take? Products and services Free E-newsletter Subscribe to Housecall Our general interest e-newsletter keeps you up to date on a wide variety of health topics. Sign up now How long does it take to digest food — from the time you eat it to the time you excrete it? Answers from Michael F. Picco, M. D. Digestion time varies between individuals and between men and women. After you eat, it takes about six to eight hours for food to pass through your stomach and small intestine. Food then enters your large intestine (colon) for further digestion, absorption of water and, finally, elimination of undigested food. In the 1980s, Mayo Clinic researchers measured digestion time in 21 healthy people. Total transit time, from eating to elimination in stool, averaged 53 hours (although that figure is a little overstated, because the markers used by the researchers passed more slowly through the stomach than actual food). The average transit time through just the large intestine (colon) was 40 hours, with significant difference between men and women: 33 hours for men, 47 hours for women. With Michael F. Picco, M. D. March 17, 2018References See more Expert Answers See also How digestion works Swallowing gum: Is it harmful? Advertisement Mayo Clinic does not endorse companies or products. Advertising revenue supports our not-for-profit mission. Advertising & Sponsorship Policy Opportunities Ad Choices Mayo Clinic Marketplace Check out these best-sellers and special offers on books and newsletters from Mayo Clinic. FREE TRIAL – Mayo Clinic Health Letter Stop Osteoporosis in Its Tracks Improve Your Hearing and Balance Best Treatment Strategies for Arthritis The Mayo Clinic Diet Online Other Topics in Patient Care & Health Info Healthy Lifestyle Symptoms A-Z Diseases and Conditions A-Z Tests and Procedures A-ZDrugs and Supplements A-Z Appointments Patient and Visitor Guide Billing and Insurance Patient Online Services
[ "Appointments at Mayo Clinic Mayo Clinic offers appointments in Arizona, Florida and Minnesota and at Mayo Clinic Health System locations.", "Request Appointment Digestion: How long does it take?", "Products and services Free E-newsletter Subscribe to Housecall Our general interest e-newsletter keeps you up to date on a wide variety of health topics.", "Sign up now How long does it take to digest food — from the time you eat it to the time you excrete it?", "Answers from Michael F. Picco, M. D. Digestion time varies between individuals and between men and women.", "After you eat, it takes about six to eight hours for food to pass through your stomach and small intestine.", "Food then enters your large intestine (colon) for further digestion, absorption of water and, finally, elimination of undigested food.", "In the 1980s, Mayo Clinic researchers measured digestion time in 21 healthy people.", "Total transit time, from eating to elimination in stool, averaged 53 hours (although that figure is a little overstated, because the markers used by the researchers passed more slowly through the stomach than actual food).", "The average transit time through just the large intestine (colon) was 40 hours, with significant difference between men and women: 33 hours for men, 47 hours for women.", "With Michael F. Picco, M. D. March 17, 2018References See more Expert Answers See also How digestion works Swallowing gum: Is it harmful?", "Advertisement Mayo Clinic does not endorse companies or products.", "Advertising revenue supports our not-for-profit mission.", "Advertising & Sponsorship Policy Opportunities Ad Choices Mayo Clinic Marketplace Check out these best-sellers and special offers on books and newsletters from Mayo Clinic.", "FREE TRIAL – Mayo Clinic Health Letter Stop Osteoporosis in Its Tracks Improve Your Hearing and Balance Best Treatment Strategies for Arthritis The Mayo Clinic Diet Online Other Topics in Patient Care & Health Info Healthy Lifestyle Symptoms A-Z Diseases and Conditions A-Z Tests and Procedures A-ZDrugs and Supplements A-Z Appointments Patient and Visitor Guide Billing and Insurance Patient Online Services" ]
D124648
http://healthyeating.sfgate.com/list-good-carbs-bad-carbs-6520.html
List of Good Carbs & Bad Carbs
"Written by Mala Srivastava; Updated July 20, 2017Related Articles List of Carbs to Avoid for Weight Loss Which Foods Are Considered Carbs? List of Healthy Carbs Are Potatoes Good Carbs? Carbohydrates provide your body with glucose it needs to function properly. Two types of carbohydrates exist: complex carbohydrates and simple carbohydrates. Foods rich in complex or ""good"" carbohydrates take time to break down into glucose, while foods high in simple or ""bad"" carbohydrates convert to glucose very quickly. ""Bad"" carbohydrates cause blood sugar levels to spike, so knowing which foods to eat and which to avoid can play a role in maintaining your overall health. Whole-Grain Products Whole-grain products such as brown rice, whole-grain pasta, beans, whole wheat bread, whole oats, buckwheat, millet, whole rye, whole-grain barley and whole-grain corn are considered good carbohydrates. These foods are rich in fiber, vitamins, minerals and phytonutrients that are beneficial to your health. Also, they have a low glycemic index because they cause a slower change in blood sugar levels. Diets rich in high glycemic index foods cause a rapid rise in blood glucose levels, thereby increasing the risk for diabetes and heart disease. By contrast, foods with a low glycemic index help you achieve a more stable blood sugar and improve weight loss and control Type 2 diabetes. Fruits, Vegetables and Legumes Fruits and vegetables are loaded with vitamins, nutrients and carbohydrates. People who consume about 2,000 calories per day should eat 2 cups of fruit and 2.5 cups of vegetables daily. Legumes such as beans, peas and lentils are high in fiber, carbohydrates and protein and low in fat. Legumes may decrease the risk of cardiovascular disease, Type 2 diabetes and prostate cancer, reports the Linus Pauling Institute. On a 2,000-calorie daily diet, you should eat 3 cups of legumes a week, according to USDA Choose My Plate.gov. Refined Grains, Sweets and Biscuits Refined grains such as white bread, pizza crust, pretzels, hamburger buns and megamuffins are bad carbohydrates. During the refining process, these grains are stripped of B-vitamins, fiber and certain minerals. In addition, they also have a high glycemic index, negatively affecting blood sugar levels. Other examples of bad carbohydrates include chips, cookies, sodas, bagels, cake, pastries, pancakes, soda, high fructose corn syrup and baked goods. These foods are low in nutrient density as they have little or no nutritional value and supply a large amount of calories. According to researchers at Yale University, bad carbohydrates such as sweets and biscuits cause falls in blood sugar, affecting the part of the brain that controls impulse. This leads to a loss of self-control and a desire for unhealthy, high-calorie foods. A diet high in calories contributes to weight gain, which increases the risk for developing Type 2 diabetes. Suggestions Include beans in your diet as they are a good source of protein and slowly digested carbohydrates. Harvard School of Public Health suggests eating whole wheat or whole oats for breakfast, using whole-grain breads for lunch or snacks and trying brown rice, wheatberries or millet with dinner. In this way, you can add more good carbohydrates to your diet. The recommended serving sizes for breads and cereals are 1 slice of bread, 1 ounce of ready-to-eat cereal, ½ cup of cooked cereal or ½ cup of cooked dry beans. References (8)Centers for Disease Control and Prevention: Carbohydrates Harvard School of Public Health: Carbohydrates: Good Carbs Guide the Way Choose My Plate.gov: Home Linus Pauling Institute: Legumes The New York Times: Eating Well; It's Better to Be Whole Than Refined Daily Mail: Could Your Sweet Tooth be a Warning Sign That You're Ill? American Diabetes Association: Diabetes Myths Medline Plus: Carbohydrates About the Author Mala Srivastava covers health and business for several online publications. She holds a Master of Science in microbiology from India's HNB Garhwal University and a Master of Pharmaceutical Business Management from ICFAI University. Photo Creditsmilk image by Sergey Goruppa from Fotolia.com Cite this Article "
[ "\"Written by Mala Srivastava; Updated July 20, 2017Related Articles List of Carbs to Avoid for Weight Loss Which Foods Are Considered Carbs?", "List of Healthy Carbs Are Potatoes Good Carbs?", "Carbohydrates provide your body with glucose it needs to function properly.", "Two types of carbohydrates exist: complex carbohydrates and simple carbohydrates.", "Foods rich in complex or \"\"good\"\" carbohydrates take time to break down into glucose, while foods high in simple or \"\"bad\"\" carbohydrates convert to glucose very quickly.", "\"\"Bad\"\" carbohydrates cause blood sugar levels to spike, so knowing which foods to eat and which to avoid can play a role in maintaining your overall health.", "Whole-Grain Products Whole-grain products such as brown rice, whole-grain pasta, beans, whole wheat bread, whole oats, buckwheat, millet, whole rye, whole-grain barley and whole-grain corn are considered good carbohydrates.", "These foods are rich in fiber, vitamins, minerals and phytonutrients that are beneficial to your health.", "Also, they have a low glycemic index because they cause a slower change in blood sugar levels.", "Diets rich in high glycemic index foods cause a rapid rise in blood glucose levels, thereby increasing the risk for diabetes and heart disease.", "By contrast, foods with a low glycemic index help you achieve a more stable blood sugar and improve weight loss and control Type 2 diabetes.", "Fruits, Vegetables and Legumes Fruits and vegetables are loaded with vitamins, nutrients and carbohydrates.", "People who consume about 2,000 calories per day should eat 2 cups of fruit and 2.5 cups of vegetables daily.", "Legumes such as beans, peas and lentils are high in fiber, carbohydrates and protein and low in fat.", "Legumes may decrease the risk of cardiovascular disease, Type 2 diabetes and prostate cancer, reports the Linus Pauling Institute.", "On a 2,000-calorie daily diet, you should eat 3 cups of legumes a week, according to USDA Choose My Plate.gov.", "Refined Grains, Sweets and Biscuits Refined grains such as white bread, pizza crust, pretzels, hamburger buns and megamuffins are bad carbohydrates.", "During the refining process, these grains are stripped of B-vitamins, fiber and certain minerals.", "In addition, they also have a high glycemic index, negatively affecting blood sugar levels.", "Other examples of bad carbohydrates include chips, cookies, sodas, bagels, cake, pastries, pancakes, soda, high fructose corn syrup and baked goods.", "These foods are low in nutrient density as they have little or no nutritional value and supply a large amount of calories.", "According to researchers at Yale University, bad carbohydrates such as sweets and biscuits cause falls in blood sugar, affecting the part of the brain that controls impulse.", "This leads to a loss of self-control and a desire for unhealthy, high-calorie foods.", "A diet high in calories contributes to weight gain, which increases the risk for developing Type 2 diabetes.", "Suggestions Include beans in your diet as they are a good source of protein and slowly digested carbohydrates.", "Harvard School of Public Health suggests eating whole wheat or whole oats for breakfast, using whole-grain breads for lunch or snacks and trying brown rice, wheatberries or millet with dinner.", "In this way, you can add more good carbohydrates to your diet.", "The recommended serving sizes for breads and cereals are 1 slice of bread, 1 ounce of ready-to-eat cereal, ½ cup of cooked cereal or ½ cup of cooked dry beans.", "References (8)Centers for Disease Control and Prevention: Carbohydrates Harvard School of Public Health: Carbohydrates: Good Carbs Guide the Way Choose My Plate.gov: Home Linus Pauling Institute: Legumes The New York Times: Eating Well; It's Better to Be Whole Than Refined Daily Mail: Could Your Sweet Tooth be a Warning Sign That You're Ill?", "American Diabetes Association: Diabetes Myths Medline Plus: Carbohydrates About the Author Mala Srivastava covers health and business for several online publications.", "She holds a Master of Science in microbiology from India's HNB Garhwal University and a Master of Pharmaceutical Business Management from ICFAI University.", "Photo Creditsmilk image by Sergey Goruppa from Fotolia.com Cite this Article \"" ]
D243471
http://healthyeating.sfgate.com/recommended-amount-percent-carbohydrates-per-day-7287.html
The Recommended Amount & Percent of Carbohydrates Per Day
"Written by Erin Coleman, R. D., L. D.; Updated December 06, 2017Related Articles The Recommended Intake of Grams of Carbohydrates per Day for Women Recommended Daily Carbohydrate Requirements for Women Daily Carbohydrates and Calorie Intake for Men""Daily Amounts of Carbs, Fat, Fiber, Sodium & Protein""Carbohydrates are your body’s main source of energy, and should make up the largest percentage of your daily calorie intake. Since carbohydrates provide 4 calories per gram, it’s easy to calculate your carbohydrate needs using carb percentage recommendations. When determining your carb requirements, first determine your daily calorie needs. Percent of Calories According to the Institute of Medicine, children and adults should consume 45 to 65 percent of their calorie intake as carbohydrates, and at least 130 grams of carbs per day. Since lowering your carb intake and increasing protein intake can help reduce your total calorie intake for weight loss, aim to consume about 50 percent of your calories from carbs for successful weight loss. Athletes require more carbs to replace muscle glycogen lost during physical training; some athletes need up to 70 percent of their calorie intake from carbs, according to the American Academy of Orthopaedic Surgeons. Calorie Needs According to the Dietary Guidelines for Americans 2015, women generally need 1,600 to 2,400 calories per day to maintain a healthy body weight, while men usually need 2,000 to 3,000 calories each day. If you're overweight, women should aim for 1,200 to 1,500 calories daily, while a suitable goal for males seeking weight loss is 1,500 to 1,800 per day (See Ref 4: pg 20). You can use your body weight to estimate your individualized calorie needs for weight maintenance by multiplying your body weight — in pounds — by 13 if you’re sedentary, 16 if you’re moderately active and 18 if you exercise regularly, according to Harvard Medical School. For weight loss, most women need 1,000 to 1,200 calories and the majority of men require 1,200 to 1,600 calories each day, according to the National Heart, Lung and Blood Institute. Some active women and women who weigh more than 164 pounds may need up to 1,600 calories a day to lose weight without feeling hungry. Grams of Carbs Determine the number of grams of carbs you need each day by calculating 45 to 65 percent of your total calorie intake, and dividing by 4. For example, if you eat a 2,000-calorie diet, shoot for 225 to 325 grams of carbs per day; and if you eat 2,500 calories a day, aim for 281 to 406 grams of carbs. Adults who drop their intake to 1,200 calories a day for weight loss need about 50 percent of their calories from carbs, or 150 grams per day. Carbs to Limit Although carbs should make up the majority of your calorie intake, limit ""bad"" carbs — such as refined grains and added sugars — as much as possible since they provide calories but few additional nutrients. According to the American Heart Association, men should limit added sugars to 9 teaspoons, or 150 calories, per day and women should eat no more than 6 teaspoons, or 100 calories, from added sugars each day. These extra sugars are present in desserts, sweets, syrups, pastries, many granola bars, sodas and other sugary beverages. Refined grains are in foods such as white bread and white rice. Healthy Carbs Meeting your daily carb requirements with healthy carbs, instead of refined grains and sugars, will help you maintain a healthy body weight and boost your energy level. Examples of nutritious carbs include whole grains, fruits, vegetables, legumes, low-fat milk, low-fat yogurt, nuts and seeds. References (4)American Academy of Orthopaedic Surgeons: Sports Nutrition National Heart, Lung and Blood Institute: How are Overweight and Obesity Treated? American Heart Association: Sugars and Carbohydrates Department of Health and Human Services: Dietary Guidelines for Americans 2015-2020About the Author Erin Coleman is a registered and licensed dietitian. She also holds a Bachelor of Science in dietetics and has extensive experience working as a health writer and health educator. Her articles are published on various health, nutrition and fitness websites. Photo Creditspasta image by Yvonne Bogdanski from Fotolia.com Cite this Article "
[ "\"Written by Erin Coleman, R. D., L. D.; Updated December 06, 2017Related Articles The Recommended Intake of Grams of Carbohydrates per Day for Women Recommended Daily Carbohydrate Requirements for Women Daily Carbohydrates and Calorie Intake for Men\"\"Daily Amounts of Carbs, Fat, Fiber, Sodium & Protein\"\"Carbohydrates are your body’s main source of energy, and should make up the largest percentage of your daily calorie intake.", "Since carbohydrates provide 4 calories per gram, it’s easy to calculate your carbohydrate needs using carb percentage recommendations.", "When determining your carb requirements, first determine your daily calorie needs.", "Percent of Calories According to the Institute of Medicine, children and adults should consume 45 to 65 percent of their calorie intake as carbohydrates, and at least 130 grams of carbs per day.", "Since lowering your carb intake and increasing protein intake can help reduce your total calorie intake for weight loss, aim to consume about 50 percent of your calories from carbs for successful weight loss.", "Athletes require more carbs to replace muscle glycogen lost during physical training; some athletes need up to 70 percent of their calorie intake from carbs, according to the American Academy of Orthopaedic Surgeons.", "Calorie Needs According to the Dietary Guidelines for Americans 2015, women generally need 1,600 to 2,400 calories per day to maintain a healthy body weight, while men usually need 2,000 to 3,000 calories each day.", "If you're overweight, women should aim for 1,200 to 1,500 calories daily, while a suitable goal for males seeking weight loss is 1,500 to 1,800 per day (See Ref 4: pg 20).", "You can use your body weight to estimate your individualized calorie needs for weight maintenance by multiplying your body weight — in pounds — by 13 if you’re sedentary, 16 if you’re moderately active and 18 if you exercise regularly, according to Harvard Medical School.", "For weight loss, most women need 1,000 to 1,200 calories and the majority of men require 1,200 to 1,600 calories each day, according to the National Heart, Lung and Blood Institute.", "Some active women and women who weigh more than 164 pounds may need up to 1,600 calories a day to lose weight without feeling hungry.", "Grams of Carbs Determine the number of grams of carbs you need each day by calculating 45 to 65 percent of your total calorie intake, and dividing by 4.", "For example, if you eat a 2,000-calorie diet, shoot for 225 to 325 grams of carbs per day; and if you eat 2,500 calories a day, aim for 281 to 406 grams of carbs.", "Adults who drop their intake to 1,200 calories a day for weight loss need about 50 percent of their calories from carbs, or 150 grams per day.", "Carbs to Limit Although carbs should make up the majority of your calorie intake, limit \"\"bad\"\" carbs — such as refined grains and added sugars — as much as possible since they provide calories but few additional nutrients.", "According to the American Heart Association, men should limit added sugars to 9 teaspoons, or 150 calories, per day and women should eat no more than 6 teaspoons, or 100 calories, from added sugars each day.", "These extra sugars are present in desserts, sweets, syrups, pastries, many granola bars, sodas and other sugary beverages.", "Refined grains are in foods such as white bread and white rice.", "Healthy Carbs Meeting your daily carb requirements with healthy carbs, instead of refined grains and sugars, will help you maintain a healthy body weight and boost your energy level.", "Examples of nutritious carbs include whole grains, fruits, vegetables, legumes, low-fat milk, low-fat yogurt, nuts and seeds.", "References (4)American Academy of Orthopaedic Surgeons: Sports Nutrition National Heart, Lung and Blood Institute: How are Overweight and Obesity Treated?", "American Heart Association: Sugars and Carbohydrates Department of Health and Human Services: Dietary Guidelines for Americans 2015-2020About the Author Erin Coleman is a registered and licensed dietitian.", "She also holds a Bachelor of Science in dietetics and has extensive experience working as a health writer and health educator.", "Her articles are published on various health, nutrition and fitness websites.", "Photo Creditspasta image by Yvonne Bogdanski from Fotolia.com Cite this Article \"" ]
D27280
https://www.greatamericaneclipse.com/20th-century/
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D91518
http://www.businessinsider.com/amazon-prime-versus-netflix-versus-hulu-plus-2014-4
Amazon Prime Versus Netflix Versus Hulu Plus: Which Should You Pay For?
"Jillian D'Onfro Apr. 25, 2014, 6:30 PM 1,103,394Business Insider Amazon recently announced a new deal with HBO that will give its Prime members access to a large selection of the network's classic content, making Amazon's Instant Video catalog a whole lot more attractive to potential subscribers. This new deal — plus the company's recent influx of original content — are making Amazon a realistic contender in the TV and movie streaming service wars. So, it's time for a throwdown: Which streaming service should rule your screen, Netflix, Amazon Instant Video, or Hulu Plus? Let's dive into some of the details: Price: Netflix subscriptions currently cost $7.99 per month, but that price will rise by $1 or $2 for new members later this quarter. Existing members will keep their current price for a ""generous"" period of time. Assuming the $2 increase, Netflix will soon cost $119.88 per year. Amazon Prime membership costs $99 per year (or about $8.25 per month), but also includes unlimited, free two-day shipping on many items. You also get access to the company's growing selection of streaming TV shows and movies. Hulu Plus costs $7.99 per month or $95.88 per year. We haven't heard of any upcoming price increases and don't expect to since Hulu can keep prices low by showing advertisements along with its programming. Netflix and Amazon don't show you ads. Cheapest option: Hulu Prime is the cheapest streaming service, though only by a smidge. Interface: We decided to compare the desktop interface of each of these services, even though they each have a their respective apps for phones, tablets, smart TVs, streaming boxes, etc. One of the best parts about Netflix's desktop UI is how visual and personalized it is. One of the first categories you see is ""Top Picks"" for you, which makes it easy to find new content. Plus, Netflix lets you create different profiles, so if you share your service with a roommate or family member, you can make sure that your recommendations are true to what you actually watch. Although you can only sort by genre from the menu, scrolling through your home-page will reveal some of Netflix's signature quirkily-specific recommendation categories, like ""Romantic movies featuring a strong female lead. ""Netflix Amazon's Prime Instant Video interface isn't the best for quick, easy discovery. On the one-hand, you have more way more ways to filter your content options: You can search by genre, mood (like bleak, touching, or offbeat), theme (like tough guys, or obsession), actor, or director. If you have a specific idea or what you're looking for, you'll have no trouble. But, on the desktop version at least, there's no personalized recommendations (though we did get them on the i Pad app), so it's harder to find something new quickly when you don't know what you want. Plus, you don't get as much info about each individual show when you hover over it as you do on Netflix. Finally, because Amazon's catalog includes tons of titles that aren't included for free with Prime, you need to remember to check the ""Prime"" box when you're searching, or you could be disappointed when you find something that you don't actually have access to. Amazon Once you sign into your Hulu Plus account, you'll be quickly directed to a list of the shows that you usually watch, so diving into your addiction to Modern Family couldn't be easier. Hulu Plus, like Netflix, has a list of top recommendations for you based on other shows that you've shown interest in, though it also puts more of a focus on content that is popular on the site at any given time. The site also lets you sort by network, which is helpful if you know that you really like Comedy Central or CW shows, for example. Hulu Although each of the user interface's had their perks, Netflix wins out because of its ability to support multiple profiles, the amount of info you get about a show just by hovering over it on the home-page, and the ultra-specific recommendation categories. Selection: Life Hacker did a really interesting analysis of which streaming service offers the best selection back in March. The site looked at the top 250 TV shows as ranked by IMDB, and checked which service offered which shows. It also highlighted the top 25 most popular shows (none of the top 25 changed in light of Amazon's new HBO deal). Head over to Life Hacker to see their infographic, but here's the gist: Netflix has more than twice the streaming selection of Amazon Instant Video when it comes to the 250 hottest TV shows. Although Hulu Plus streams more current-running episodes, it has fewer of the hottest shows than Netflix or Amazon overall. Netflix has the most exclusive content. House of Cards/Netflix Original shows: Here are the original TV shows that you need to sign-up to watch. Although each service also has several ""exclusive"" shows, these ones are strictly pegged ""original. ""Netflix: ""Orange is the New Black,"" ""House of Cards,"" ""Hemlock Grove,"" ""Lilyhammer,"" ""Bad Samaritans,"" ""The Ropes,"" and ""Arrested Development"" (season four only)Amazon Prime: ""Alpha House,"" ""Betas,"" ""Mozart in the Jungle,"" ""Wishenpoof!"" ""The After,"" ""Bosch,"" ""Gortimer Gibbon's Life on Normal Street,"" and ""Transparent""Hulu Plus: ""Quick Draw,"" ""The Awesomes,"" ""Deadbeat,"" ""The Wrong Mans,"" ""Behind the Mask,"" ""Up to Speed,"" ""Spoilers with Kevin Smith,"" ""Battleground,"" ""A Day in the Life""Best original shows: At this point, there is much, much more hype around ""House of Cards"" and ""Orange is the New Black"" than any of the other shows on this list. However, several of Amazon and Hulu's shows are just getting started (or haven't even aired yet), so there's still time for one of them to come out with a huge hit. Flickr/Wonderlane Where are the crowds: Want to know what all your friends are watching? Here are the numbers for each service. Netflix: 35.67 million subscribers Amazon Prime: "" At least "" 20 million people use Prime, but we have no real indication on how many use Prime Instant Video, other than that the company said in its Q1 earnings call that video streams nearly tripled in the last year Hulu Plus: 5 million subscribers, as of December. Most popular: Netflix is the most popular service Unique Offerings: Comparing these services only on the above criteria wouldn't cover the whole story. Each service has something extra on its side. It needs to be noted that Netflix is really trumping the competition when it comes to original programming. ""House of Cards"" and ""Orange is the New Black"" both attracted huge audiences. Not to mention, that the creator of the popular show Arrested Development just signed on to do another new Netflix show. Amazon Prime membership offers tons of great content, but its biggest draw could still be the free, two-day shipping that it offers for lots of products. If you're a big Amazon shopper, it's almost a no-brainer to sign-up for Prime, because you're canceling out a lot of the shipping costs that could otherwise add up fast. Although the HBO content that Amazon will be getting on May 21 isn't as ""hot"" as other shows on Netflix or Hulu Plus, there are lots of extremely high-quality, well-reviewed series like ""The Wire"" and ""Flight of the Concords"" for viewers to dive into. If you buy a lot of stuff on Amazon, Prime is worth it. And you can't complain about getting a bunch of free stuff to watch to boot. If you want to watch the latest episodes of your favorite popular shows, Hulu Plus is the place to go. Although you can binge-watch entire seasons of shows, Netflix and Amazon generally have to wait several months before they can stream the latest seasons. For example, on Netflix you can watch all of season two of ""New Girl,"" but you have to wait until the whole third season is released a month or so after it ends, while you can watch the five latest episodes of ""New Girl"" on Hulu Plus right now. Still, you have to deal with commercials just like you do with regular TV. Conclusion Even with all the facts in front of us, it's hard to make an over-arching statement on which streaming service is best for everyone. Hulu Plus is the top choice for getting the newest episodes, but Netflix has the most entertaining original series and greatest selection of hot shows. Netflix has the best user and recommendation experience overall. If you're just looking for TV and movies, we're leaning towards Netflix as the best choice. However, because Amazon Instant Video is just one aspect of Amazon Prime,and Netflix, and Hulu Plus are still relatively inexpensive, it doesn't have to be a case of either/or. If you spend a lot of money on Amazon and you want to diversify your TV selection, Prime is worth the money. One other thing is for certain, too: If you still pay-full price for cable, then you may need to consider cutting the cord. More: Netflix Amazon Prime Hulu Plusfacebook linkedin twitter Recommended For You Powered By Sailthru "
[ "\"Jillian D'Onfro Apr.", "25, 2014, 6:30 PM 1,103,394Business Insider Amazon recently announced a new deal with HBO that will give its Prime members access to a large selection of the network's classic content, making Amazon's Instant Video catalog a whole lot more attractive to potential subscribers.", "This new deal — plus the company's recent influx of original content — are making Amazon a realistic contender in the TV and movie streaming service wars.", "So, it's time for a throwdown: Which streaming service should rule your screen, Netflix, Amazon Instant Video, or Hulu Plus?", "Let's dive into some of the details: Price: Netflix subscriptions currently cost $7.99 per month, but that price will rise by $1 or $2 for new members later this quarter.", "Existing members will keep their current price for a \"\"generous\"\" period of time.", "Assuming the $2 increase, Netflix will soon cost $119.88 per year.", "Amazon Prime membership costs $99 per year (or about $8.25 per month), but also includes unlimited, free two-day shipping on many items.", "You also get access to the company's growing selection of streaming TV shows and movies.", "Hulu Plus costs $7.99 per month or $95.88 per year.", "We haven't heard of any upcoming price increases and don't expect to since Hulu can keep prices low by showing advertisements along with its programming.", "Netflix and Amazon don't show you ads.", "Cheapest option: Hulu Prime is the cheapest streaming service, though only by a smidge.", "Interface: We decided to compare the desktop interface of each of these services, even though they each have a their respective apps for phones, tablets, smart TVs, streaming boxes, etc.", "One of the best parts about Netflix's desktop UI is how visual and personalized it is.", "One of the first categories you see is \"\"Top Picks\"\" for you, which makes it easy to find new content.", "Plus, Netflix lets you create different profiles, so if you share your service with a roommate or family member, you can make sure that your recommendations are true to what you actually watch.", "Although you can only sort by genre from the menu, scrolling through your home-page will reveal some of Netflix's signature quirkily-specific recommendation categories, like \"\"Romantic movies featuring a strong female lead.", "\"\"Netflix Amazon's Prime Instant Video interface isn't the best for quick, easy discovery.", "On the one-hand, you have more way more ways to filter your content options: You can search by genre, mood (like bleak, touching, or offbeat), theme (like tough guys, or obsession), actor, or director.", "If you have a specific idea or what you're looking for, you'll have no trouble.", "But, on the desktop version at least, there's no personalized recommendations (though we did get them on the i Pad app), so it's harder to find something new quickly when you don't know what you want.", "Plus, you don't get as much info about each individual show when you hover over it as you do on Netflix.", "Finally, because Amazon's catalog includes tons of titles that aren't included for free with Prime, you need to remember to check the \"\"Prime\"\" box when you're searching, or you could be disappointed when you find something that you don't actually have access to.", "Amazon Once you sign into your Hulu Plus account, you'll be quickly directed to a list of the shows that you usually watch, so diving into your addiction to Modern Family couldn't be easier.", "Hulu Plus, like Netflix, has a list of top recommendations for you based on other shows that you've shown interest in, though it also puts more of a focus on content that is popular on the site at any given time.", "The site also lets you sort by network, which is helpful if you know that you really like Comedy Central or CW shows, for example.", "Hulu Although each of the user interface's had their perks, Netflix wins out because of its ability to support multiple profiles, the amount of info you get about a show just by hovering over it on the home-page, and the ultra-specific recommendation categories.", "Selection: Life Hacker did a really interesting analysis of which streaming service offers the best selection back in March.", "The site looked at the top 250 TV shows as ranked by IMDB, and checked which service offered which shows.", "It also highlighted the top 25 most popular shows (none of the top 25 changed in light of Amazon's new HBO deal).", "Head over to Life Hacker to see their infographic, but here's the gist: Netflix has more than twice the streaming selection of Amazon Instant Video when it comes to the 250 hottest TV shows.", "Although Hulu Plus streams more current-running episodes, it has fewer of the hottest shows than Netflix or Amazon overall.", "Netflix has the most exclusive content.", "House of Cards/Netflix Original shows: Here are the original TV shows that you need to sign-up to watch.", "Although each service also has several \"\"exclusive\"\" shows, these ones are strictly pegged \"\"original.", "\"\"Netflix: \"\"Orange is the New Black,\"\" \"\"House of Cards,\"\" \"\"Hemlock Grove,\"\" \"\"Lilyhammer,\"\" \"\"Bad Samaritans,\"\" \"\"The Ropes,\"\" and \"\"Arrested Development\"\" (season four only)Amazon Prime: \"\"Alpha House,\"\" \"\"Betas,\"\" \"\"Mozart in the Jungle,\"\" \"\"Wishenpoof!\"\"", "\"\"The After,\"\" \"\"Bosch,\"\" \"\"Gortimer Gibbon's Life on Normal Street,\"\" and \"\"Transparent\"\"Hulu Plus: \"\"Quick Draw,\"\" \"\"The Awesomes,\"\" \"\"Deadbeat,\"\" \"\"The Wrong Mans,\"\" \"\"Behind the Mask,\"\" \"\"Up to Speed,\"\" \"\"Spoilers with Kevin Smith,\"\" \"\"Battleground,\"\" \"\"A Day in the Life\"\"Best original shows: At this point, there is much, much more hype around \"\"House of Cards\"\" and \"\"Orange is the New Black\"\" than any of the other shows on this list.", "However, several of Amazon and Hulu's shows are just getting started (or haven't even aired yet), so there's still time for one of them to come out with a huge hit.", "Flickr/Wonderlane Where are the crowds: Want to know what all your friends are watching?", "Here are the numbers for each service.", "Netflix: 35.67 million subscribers Amazon Prime: \"\" At least \"\" 20 million people use Prime, but we have no real indication on how many use Prime Instant Video, other than that the company said in its Q1 earnings call that video streams nearly tripled in the last year Hulu Plus: 5 million subscribers, as of December.", "Most popular: Netflix is the most popular service Unique Offerings: Comparing these services only on the above criteria wouldn't cover the whole story.", "Each service has something extra on its side.", "It needs to be noted that Netflix is really trumping the competition when it comes to original programming.", "\"\"House of Cards\"\" and \"\"Orange is the New Black\"\" both attracted huge audiences.", "Not to mention, that the creator of the popular show Arrested Development just signed on to do another new Netflix show.", "Amazon Prime membership offers tons of great content, but its biggest draw could still be the free, two-day shipping that it offers for lots of products.", "If you're a big Amazon shopper, it's almost a no-brainer to sign-up for Prime, because you're canceling out a lot of the shipping costs that could otherwise add up fast.", "Although the HBO content that Amazon will be getting on May 21 isn't as \"\"hot\"\" as other shows on Netflix or Hulu Plus, there are lots of extremely high-quality, well-reviewed series like \"\"The Wire\"\" and \"\"Flight of the Concords\"\" for viewers to dive into.", "If you buy a lot of stuff on Amazon, Prime is worth it.", "And you can't complain about getting a bunch of free stuff to watch to boot.", "If you want to watch the latest episodes of your favorite popular shows, Hulu Plus is the place to go.", "Although you can binge-watch entire seasons of shows, Netflix and Amazon generally have to wait several months before they can stream the latest seasons.", "For example, on Netflix you can watch all of season two of \"\"New Girl,\"\" but you have to wait until the whole third season is released a month or so after it ends, while you can watch the five latest episodes of \"\"New Girl\"\" on Hulu Plus right now.", "Still, you have to deal with commercials just like you do with regular TV.", "Conclusion Even with all the facts in front of us, it's hard to make an over-arching statement on which streaming service is best for everyone.", "Hulu Plus is the top choice for getting the newest episodes, but Netflix has the most entertaining original series and greatest selection of hot shows.", "Netflix has the best user and recommendation experience overall.", "If you're just looking for TV and movies, we're leaning towards Netflix as the best choice.", "However, because Amazon Instant Video is just one aspect of Amazon Prime,and Netflix, and Hulu Plus are still relatively inexpensive, it doesn't have to be a case of either/or.", "If you spend a lot of money on Amazon and you want to diversify your TV selection, Prime is worth the money.", "One other thing is for certain, too: If you still pay-full price for cable, then you may need to consider cutting the cord.", "More: Netflix Amazon Prime Hulu Plusfacebook linkedin twitter Recommended For You Powered By Sailthru \"" ]
D129305
http://www.livestrong.com/article/474832-recommended-grams-of-sugar-per-day/
Recommended Grams of Sugar Per Day
Recommended Grams of Sugar Per Dayby ELLE PAULA Oct. 03, 2017Sugar is one of the most commonly used food additives in America, improving the taste of foods and beverages and prolonging the shelf-life of processed food products. With the exception of salt, Americans consume 10 times more added sugar than any other food additive, according to an infographic published by Forbes.com. Sure, sugar tastes sweet -- but what the sweetener is doing to your health is far from it. Video of the Day Error loading player: Flash plugin failed to load Health Implications Added sugar has no nutritional value. The sweetener provides extra calories but none of the vital nutrients your body needs to stay healthy. In fact, consuming too much added sugar has been linked to obesity, high blood pressure, depression, headaches, fatigue, low blood sugar, diabetes and acne. Sugar may cause irritability and nervous tension, according to the Forbes.com infographic, which also reports that sugar has addictive properties that can keep you wanting more. The Stats The average American consumes 3 pounds of sugar a week and 130 pounds a year, reports Forbes.com. This is equal to about 3,550 pounds of sugar in a lifetime. The consumption of added sugar accounts for an intake of 500 calories per day, which can cause a weight gain of 1 pound per week. American Heart Association Recommendations The recommendations for added sugar are provided by the American Heart Association as an upper limit. This means that there is no minimum amount you need to take in each day, but there is a maximum. These recommendations are based on gender. Women should limit sugar intake to no more than 6 teaspoons per day, which provides about 100 calories. Men should limit sugar intake to no more than 9 teaspoons, or about 150 calories. In contrast, the average adult consumes 22 teaspoons per day. Other Recommendations The Institute of Medicine, a charter of the National Academy of Sciences, provides sugar recommendations different from those of the American Heart Association. The IOM states that added sugars should account for no more than 25 percent of the calories you eat. If you are on a standard 2,000-calorie diet, this means that you should be eating no more than 500 calories from sugar, or 125 grams. Like all carbohydrates, sugar contains 4 calories per gram. The USDA recommendations are lower than the IOM's. They state that the combination of added sugars and solid fats -- which include butter, lard and margarine -- should provide no more than 5 to 15 percent of daily calories. Lose Weight. Feel Great!Change your life with My Plate by LIVE STRONG . COMGOALGENDER AGEWEIGHT HEIGHTGET MY CALORIE GOALYOU MIGHT ALSO LIKE10 Worst Food Additives What Are the Benefits of Cutting Sugar from Your Diet?? How Many Calories Are in One Tablespoon of Sugar? Side Effects of Sugar Substitutes The Best Way to Wean Off Sugar Naturally Foods That Contain Xylitol The Ultimate Guide to Natural Sweeteners How to Substitute Sweet Leaf Liquid Stevia for Honey in Baking What Drinks Use Stevia? A List of Foods Containing Aspartame 5 Ways to Make Your Own Energy Bars I Feel Bad After Eating Sugar The Calories in Stevia The Effect of Refined Sugar on the Body Recommended Daily Allowance of Sugar Fruits With High Fiber & Low Sugar How to Eat Foods Without Preservatives What Effects Does Eating Too Much Sugar Have on the Body? What is a Sucralose Migraine? 10 Easy Drink Swaps to Cut Down on Sugar
[ "Recommended Grams of Sugar Per Dayby ELLE PAULA Oct. 03, 2017Sugar is one of the most commonly used food additives in America, improving the taste of foods and beverages and prolonging the shelf-life of processed food products.", "With the exception of salt, Americans consume 10 times more added sugar than any other food additive, according to an infographic published by Forbes.com.", "Sure, sugar tastes sweet -- but what the sweetener is doing to your health is far from it.", "Video of the Day Error loading player: Flash plugin failed to load Health Implications Added sugar has no nutritional value.", "The sweetener provides extra calories but none of the vital nutrients your body needs to stay healthy.", "In fact, consuming too much added sugar has been linked to obesity, high blood pressure, depression, headaches, fatigue, low blood sugar, diabetes and acne.", "Sugar may cause irritability and nervous tension, according to the Forbes.com infographic, which also reports that sugar has addictive properties that can keep you wanting more.", "The Stats The average American consumes 3 pounds of sugar a week and 130 pounds a year, reports Forbes.com.", "This is equal to about 3,550 pounds of sugar in a lifetime.", "The consumption of added sugar accounts for an intake of 500 calories per day, which can cause a weight gain of 1 pound per week.", "American Heart Association Recommendations The recommendations for added sugar are provided by the American Heart Association as an upper limit.", "This means that there is no minimum amount you need to take in each day, but there is a maximum.", "These recommendations are based on gender.", "Women should limit sugar intake to no more than 6 teaspoons per day, which provides about 100 calories.", "Men should limit sugar intake to no more than 9 teaspoons, or about 150 calories.", "In contrast, the average adult consumes 22 teaspoons per day.", "Other Recommendations The Institute of Medicine, a charter of the National Academy of Sciences, provides sugar recommendations different from those of the American Heart Association.", "The IOM states that added sugars should account for no more than 25 percent of the calories you eat.", "If you are on a standard 2,000-calorie diet, this means that you should be eating no more than 500 calories from sugar, or 125 grams.", "Like all carbohydrates, sugar contains 4 calories per gram.", "The USDA recommendations are lower than the IOM's.", "They state that the combination of added sugars and solid fats -- which include butter, lard and margarine -- should provide no more than 5 to 15 percent of daily calories.", "Lose Weight.", "Feel Great!Change your life with My Plate by LIVE STRONG .", "COMGOALGENDER AGEWEIGHT HEIGHTGET MY CALORIE GOALYOU MIGHT ALSO LIKE10 Worst Food Additives What Are the Benefits of Cutting Sugar from Your Diet??", "How Many Calories Are in One Tablespoon of Sugar?", "Side Effects of Sugar Substitutes The Best Way to Wean Off Sugar Naturally Foods That Contain Xylitol The Ultimate Guide to Natural Sweeteners How to Substitute Sweet Leaf Liquid Stevia for Honey in Baking What Drinks Use Stevia?", "A List of Foods Containing Aspartame 5 Ways to Make Your Own Energy Bars I Feel Bad After Eating Sugar The Calories in Stevia The Effect of Refined Sugar on the Body Recommended Daily Allowance of Sugar Fruits With High Fiber & Low Sugar How to Eat Foods Without Preservatives What Effects Does Eating Too Much Sugar Have on the Body?", "What is a Sucralose Migraine?", "10 Easy Drink Swaps to Cut Down on Sugar" ]
D69864
http://health.costhelper.com/dentures.html
Dentures Cost
"Cost Helper > Health & Personal Care > Dentistry & Orthodontics > Dentures Dentures Cost How Much Do Dentures Cost? Basic to Mid-Range: $600-$3,000 for a set Premium Dentures: $4,000-$8,000+ for a set E-mail Post Tweet Comments (59)Crafted of resin, porcelain, acrylic and/or metal, dentures are removable plates used when most or all of the teeth are missing. Conventional dentures are held in place by suction and possibly dental adhesive, while implant dentures are supported by dental implants but are still removable. Typical costs: If dentures are medically necessary, insurance might pay 15%-50% of the costs (up to the plan's annual limit, if there is one). A basic denture starts at about $300-$500 per plate, or $600-$1,000 for a full set of upper and lower teeth. These typically have limited warranties, don't last as long as more expensive models, tend to look artificial and may be adapted from a standard size instead of a customized fit. A mid-range denture typically costs $500-$1,500 per plate or $1,000-$3,000 for a set. These offer a fairly personalized fit and usually come with a 1- or 2-year warranty. Premium dentures can cost $2,000-$4,000 per plate, or $4,000-$8,000 or more for a set. Dentures in this price range are a personalized fit, use high-end materials to simulate the look of gums and teeth as closely as possible, last a long time and are warranted against chipping and cracking for 5-10 years or longer. Often the price includes several follow-up visits to fine-tune the fit. Removable partial dentures start at $300 -$500, average around $700-$1,800, and can cost $2,000-$4,000 or more in gold (instead of acrylic or another metal). Partial dentures use a metal framework to hold artificial teeth in place, and can be attached to natural teeth with metal clasps or with precision attachments that are nearly invisible but require crowns on the real teeth. It is often necessary to pull any remaining damaged teeth before getting dentures. Tooth extraction typically costs $75-$450 per tooth for a simple extraction and $150-$650 or more per tooth for a surgical extraction. Depending on the number of teeth to be pulled, the total cost of getting dentures can be $1,500-$20,000 or more for a full set (uppers and lowers). Cost Helper readers report paying $2,000-$18,000 for a full set of removable dentures including tooth extractions and other preparation work, at an average cost of $9,063. Two to six dental implants that support a removable denture plate can cost $3,500-$30,000 or more depending on the number and type of implants (mini-implants are less expensive), denture materials (in some cases an existing denture plate can be adapted for use with implants) and any other procedures needed. A full set (upper and lower) of implants and dentures can cost $7,000-$90,000 or more. Related articles: Dental Bridge, Dental Implants, Full Mouth Reconstruction, Gum Repair, False Teeth What should be included: Dentures are available from a dentist or a prosthodontist (with specialized training in dentures), and prosthodontists typically charge more than dentists. The American Dental Association provides an overview of dentures [ 1] . Conventional dentures are installed after the last teeth are removed, to allow for healing (typically six to eight weeks). There are typically separate appointments for impressions and measurements; checking a ""try-in"" model for fit; inserting and adjusting the final denture; and follow-up appointments to check comfort and function. Immediate (same-day) dentures are made in advance and inserted when the teeth are pulled. The University of Iowa provides an overview of immediate dentures [ 2] and a California dentist has a immediate denture video [ 3] . An implant-supported denture often provides a better fit on the bottom jaw than conventional dentures. In many cases, an implant overdenture on the bottom is paired with a conventional top denture. It can take several months to learn to eat and speak while wearing dentures, and they require daily cleaning. Simple Steps Dental.com lists tips for living with dentures [ 4] . Additional costs: Dentures may crack or break, and the fit will change over time. Repairs can cost $50-$200 and professional relining to adjust the fit is typically $250-$450. Do-it-yourself repair or reline kits (available from drug stores or online) cost $10-$50. Discounts: The National Institute of Dental and Craniofacial Research has tips for finding low-cost dental care [ 5] . Shopping for dentures: Ask how the dentures will be customized to fit, the materials used and how many follow-up appointments are included. A dental adhesive manufacturer lists questions to ask before getting dentures [ 6] . If the patient has dental insurance, the insurance company will provide a list of approved dentists. Or search for local members of the American College of Prosthodontists [ 7] , the American Dental Association [ 8] or the American Academy of Cosmetic Dentistry [ 9] . Material on this page is for informational purposes only and should not be construed as medical advice. Always consult your physician or pharmacist regarding medications or medical procedures. E-mail Post Tweet Comments (59)Cost Helper News7 Ways to Stretch Your Reduced Food Budget End of the year budgets are tight for everyone, especially in this economy. It's especially hard for the millions of Americans who depend on government programs like food stamps to help make ends meet. || Posted November 11 20137 Lesser-Known Discounts for the 50+ Crowd As they age, members of the Baby Boomer generation don't like to admit that they're senior citizens, but they love getting discounts. It's kind of a quandary, because some of the best deals available are reduced prices for older folks.|| Posted October 21 2013‣ All Cost Helper Blog Posts What People Are Paying - Recent Comments Page 2 of 2 - << Previous 1 2Cheap dentures a few states away Amount: $250.00 total Posted by: Holyhammer in Corbin, KY. Posted: April 3rd, 2018 10:04PMDentist: Cumberland Valley Denture Type: Single/Set I live near one of the cheapest denture shops in the country. I plan to get a full upper and a partial lower as soon as I can get into an oral surgeon to get my top teeth and roots removed. I just hate having to go 6-8 weeks w/o teeth in public and at work. It cost a few hundred more to get the temp detures, which I cannot afford. Was this post helpful to you? yes no Report prohibited or spamhelp Amount: $0.00 total Posted by: William loftus in Berwyn, IL. Posted: February 16th, 2018 11:02AMI need financial help with partials and deep cleaning someone out there can you help me financially I am poor with Medicare, Medicaid I am desperate with no options they say if I do not get the partials I will loose the rest of my teeth and my facial features will be affected. Was this post helpful to you? yes no Report prohibited or spam Denture cost Amount: $1,800.00 total Posted by: [email protected] in Los angeles, CA. Posted: January 23rd, 2018 01:01PMDentist: Whittier Type: I just went to see how much it's going to cost me for upper and lower and this is the price Why does everyone charge different prices Was this post helpful to you? yes no Report prohibited or spam Need upper and lower dentures Amount: $4,000.00 total Posted by: Les Bennington in POPLAR BLUFF, MO. Posted: January 23rd, 2018 01:01AMDentist: All about smiles dental Type: Was this post helpful to you? yes no Report prohibited or spam Taking care of natural teeth. Amount: $2,500.00 total Posted by: debby ann jackson in anderson, SC. Posted: May 3rd, 2017 06:05PMThe biggest problem I have is that I constantly feel the dentures part of the upper roof of my mouth I can't get use to that feeling. I also have to take them out when I eat. I can't eat pizza or chew meat because the top dentures move around.please people take care of your teeth having dentures is not fun. I read you are suppose to have 32 teeth I know have 8 natural teeth. Was this post helpful to you? yes no Report prohibited or spamextractions/upper denture Amount: $2,028.00 total Posted by: gj moore in grovetown, GA. Posted: April 23rd, 2017 01:04PMDentist: grovetown family dental Type: family dental6 extractions top teeth + upper denture cost: 50% discount - $300 per tooth = $1800 plus office visit- no dental ins- 50% upfront and 50% when denture are in - I have used this dentist- was on special program - already had upper and lower dentures- my tooth evaluation was high-tooth were loose- I had incident when removing my upper denture-part of wire that help to hold denture in- broke off - not able to repair my choice was either new upper partial or extractions and upper denture - I already paid out over $5000 for treatments and upper and lower partials.i research on computer to get data for extraction and denture - ada need an over/view of dental charges for treatment - each set their own charges and payment plan Was this post helpful to you? yes no Report prohibited or spam Upper DENTURE implant Amount: $8,000.00 total Posted by: Vanessa13 in Garden City, MI. Posted: February 2nd, 2017 08:02PMDentist: Looking Type: Implanted upper denture Please if anyone has any info on how much an upper implanted denture will cost please respond if you can. I was quoted 5,000 for a regular upper denture (the removable one) so I was only guessing that the implanted one would cost about 8/10,000Was this post helpful to you? yes no Report prohibited or spam Extractions and full set of dentures Amount: $4,305.00 total Posted by: vwc in Bedford, VA. Posted: February 2nd, 2017 12:02PMDentist: Jennifer Aniston-Sako Type: DDSI had 30 extractions at $95x28 and $145x2, I had only ~8 whole teeth but all had roots. I was fitted with immediate dentures and will get the permanent dentures in 6 months or so. Dentures were 'Economy-Plus' at $1,460 for full set. All extractions and immediate dentures were same day at Affordable Dentures. Was this post helpful to you? yes no Report prohibited or spam My Dentures Amount: $0.00 total Posted by: ROBERTA L. BUTLER in Sacramento, CA. Posted: January 3rd, 2017 12:01PMDentist: Dr. Uriel Carranza Type: General Dentistry Dr. Carranza is Absolutely the Greatest Dentist. He made a Beautiful set of Dentures for me that was covered by My Insurance Co. Was this post helpful to you? yes no Report prohibited or spamfull dentures Amount: $2,500.00 total Posted by: AJSALT in Lakewood, CA. Posted: November 22nd, 2016 08:11PMDentist: alex burns Type: Was this post helpful to you? yes no Report prohibited or spam Upper Immediate Denture Amount: $1,200.00 total Posted by: Harley Man in Clearwater, FL. Posted: November 19th, 2016 05:11AMDentist: Advanced Dental of Clearwater Type: Immediate Had 6 remaining top teeth extracted at $208 per tooth. Immediate top dentures were $1200 with Advanced Dental ""discount program"" which cost $50 for the Family Plan for 1 year. Long story short save 20% on the overall cost Was this post helpful to you? yes no Report prohibited or spam Complete upper and partial lower denture Amount: $8.00 total Posted by: Rio Lady in Mc Allen, TX. Posted: September 21st, 2016 09:09PMDentist: Mc Allen Dental Clinic Type: Dentures Took a year and half to get the procedures finished but I'm happy with the result. I originally planned to get implanted dentures, but the combined cost with the oral surgeon and the dentist would have been $20,000, which I just didn't have. These look very natural, and they fit well. Was this post helpful to you? yes no Report prohibited or spamwives dentures Amount: $18.00 total Posted by: John, Shers husband in Idaho Falls, ID. Posted: May 7th, 2016 06:05PMDentist: dr tom anderson Type:started with a tooth ache,five days later he pulled every tooth and four root canals in 2.5 hrs in the chair, twodays later she got blood clots in heer legs and traveled to her heart and to her lungs and carpet bombed her lungs with blood clots, DR says just a coincidence never from the dental surgery. 67K hospital bill later ( 2 yrs later now over 80K in medical,they could install her dentures for 15 months , (blood clots got her so weak and run down , nothing would heal, implants finally were strong enough at 16 months , they said, and installed them , but she hadn't eaten solid food for 15 months, now so weak and thin the implants don't fit, they want another few hundred to adjust them, 22months later and still don't fit,she now is anorexic going 2 yrs withouut eating lost almost 40 # is down to 80+ , PS no insurance self pay up front,so because of a tooth ache 100K gone Was this post helpful to you? yes no Report prohibited or spam Looking for sliding scale or payments that I don\'t have to get a credit card for Amount: $0.00 total Posted by: CHandy70 in Gibsonton, FL. Posted: May 3rd, 2016 01:05AMDentist: Type: Denture Implants I at age 16 was in car accident went through the windshield and lost 4 on top and 4 lower so have had partials the last 30 years. Now I have one tooth left on top so I at least need the upper denture implant as for the bottoms well they are not great but can make due a few more years before I will have to get them. I have very lil income as I have just started my cleaning business last year. That being said I am very willing to trade services so long as it a denture implant or something very similar. Right now business is pretty slow always is during the summer. I am OCD and a perfectionist most likely the reason I love cleaning and do it better than most anyone with lil to no chemicals except the normal items you already have at home that care not harmful to the environment people/pets. You give me a beautiful smile back so I can also eat more than soups/foods that require lil to no chewing. I will give u the cleanest office & home 5 days a week for 6-8 months promise Was this post helpful to you? yes no Report prohibited or spam Full set, 10 extractions - Dental College Amount: $880.00 total Posted by: Alec Kazzam in Memphis, TN. Posted: April 6th, 2016 04:04AMDentist: UT College of Dentistry Type: Dental College Extractions were the main cost saver ($30 each) but you have to pay for the dentures first ($500). Don't think they would have accepted me if I only wanted extractions. TOOK 5 MONTHS and 6 or 7 visits to get these ""immediate"" dentures. Look good out of my mouth but when I smile u see all the bottom teeth and hardly any top ones. LOTS of overbite make biting PB&J sandwich impossible. Was this post helpful to you? yes no Report prohibited or spamtemporary upper denture Amount: $4,300.00 total Posted by: c. j. sykes in Overland Park, KS. Posted: March 24th, 2016 09:03AMDentist: Dr. Amet Type: Temporary Temporary due to having implants as soon as healing is complete after extractions. The denture was in no way near fitting. It is of extremely poor quality and has not been adjusted. $4.3K is outrageous for a temporary!Was this post helpful to you? yes no Report prohibited or spamupper partial Amount: $1,700.00 total Posted by: Nice in Naples, FL. Posted: March 7th, 2016 07:03PMDentist: William Gibson Type: Central Dental Naples, FLThis cost was with insurance paying some. Was this post helpful to you? yes no Report prohibited or spam Front two teeth partial Amount: $723.00 total Posted by: ghudresb in waco, TX. Posted: December 4th, 2015 06:12PMDentist: Dr. Levoy Type: front teeth partial Very happy, partial was 500.00, the rest was getting old badly decayed inplants out. Was this post helpful to you? yes no Report prohibited or spamimmediate denture Amount: $1,275.00 total Posted by: mbn in westfield, WI. Posted: November 1st, 2015 06:11AMDentist: dr. Type: immediate upperdr recommended immediate dentures. what I read on immediate dentures was that they are generally temporary. apparently per this dentist not so. now wants to charge 380 for reline knowing the bone was receded a lot and would have to reline right away. given all I know now, I would never go to this dentist again. ask more questions, get more estimates from other dentists. upper plate only has 12 teeth in it. inside of teeth do not touch lower permanent teeth, gap of at least 1/8 "" between gm and inside of plate, gum does not touch bottom of gums at all. Was this post helpful to you? yes no Report prohibited or spam Tooth Amount: $1,000.00 total Posted by: Patrick123 in Utica, NY. Posted: August 16th, 2015 07:08PMDentist: Type: Doesn\'t matter I lost half of my one front those, how much can cost Was this post helpful to you? yes no Report prohibited or spam In need of dental help Amount: $0.00 total Posted by: mshunky in Wauseon, OH. Posted: July 28th, 2015 03:07AMDentist: Type: braces and I had a great smile everybody In need of a professional dentist. I live in Northwest Ohio. Had my left leg amputated some years back. Then I came down with mrsa., so now I'm in need of dental help. After the Drs removed my leg then after year, they had come back and take off 2 more inches. I was fitted with a prosthetic and it never fit. Then I spend 2 1/2 years in a nursing home that sucks. I'm afraid of getting ripped off with getting false teeth. If anyone can recommend a dentist that does this kind of work in Northwest Ohio please email me. THANKS IN ADVANCE I just want to smile again. Was this post helpful to you? yes no Report prohibited or spam Dentures Amount: $2,000.00 total Posted by: Perry in Milwaukee, WI. Posted: May 21st, 2015 01:05AMDentist: Dr frost Type: temperature I had 10 top teeth removed with a temporary denture. Staff was very nice and caring.love u Dr frost life changer.. Was this post helpful to you? yes no Report prohibited or spamtemporary partial Amount: $609.00 total Posted by: taken advantage of in st charles, MO. Posted: February 10th, 2015 01:02PMDentist: Michel l. Type: dentist I feel like I truly got ripped off by this dentist no one told me my partial was a temp now they want 888.oo more dollars for the permanent partial for real and I have insurance the office made me pay that 609 up on front before they did any work I am very unhappy called bbb Was this post helpful to you? yes no Report prohibited or spammissing tooth from Dentures Amount: $5,500.00 total Posted by: Mz Achona67 in new york, NY. Posted: January 3rd, 2015 09:01PMDentist: Morris Park Dental Type: DDSI had a full set of Dentures done October 2010. Very nicely done. Well low and behold while eating one day a tooth came out. This was Sept 2014. Went to get it fixed, wasn't expecting a fee, since i paid a lot for them. Well here it is Jan 3,2015 and another tooth has come out. I can't afford to have them fixed. I need help. From Bronx New York. Was this post helpful to you? yes no Report prohibited or spam Are impressions and preparations i ncluded in price of bridge Amount: $2,300.00 total Posted by: Doodles in Falmouth, MA. Posted: December 28th, 2014 03:12PMDentist: Prosthodontist Type: Was this post helpful to you? yes no Report prohibited or spam Dentures Amount: $4,030.00 total Posted by: Maggiemae368 in Garden city, MI. Posted: December 18th, 2014 08:12PMDentist: Dr jerry Morof Type: DDS PCI made a mistake I said my debtures were $6,000 Dr. Jerry gave me a surprise the price was actually lower then the original estimate. I thoroughly recommend Dr. Jerry dentures look like my own teeth Was this post helpful to you? yes no Report prohibited or spam Dentures Amount: $6,000.00 total Posted by: Maggie Mae 368 in Garden city, MI. Posted: December 14th, 2014 06:12PMDentist: Dr jerry Morof Type: DDS PCThis will be my second set of dentures. I've learned there are different types for different budgets. My first pair were premium and lasted over 25 years. After searching all over town 1 800 dentist referred me to Dr Jerry he is semi retired and wonderful he mastered dentures but there not cheap but you get what you pay for. So if you need dentures try to afford the premium cause cheap dentures are not worth it in the long run Was this post helpful to you? yes no Report prohibited or spam Dentures Amount: $2,229.00 total Posted by: Puni Brew in Richton Park, IL. Posted: December 4th, 2014 07:12PMDentist: Liqing Zhang Type: Upper Denture They only lasted one year before breaking in half. I was totally disgusted and never went back to her ever again. Was this post helpful to you? yes no Report prohibited or spam Go off shore Amount: $1,000.00 total Posted by: tim watt in Phoenix, AZ. Posted: July 22nd, 2014 08:07AMDentist: mexico Type: I had 16 teeth pulled and plates made for under $1,000. I went in in the morning and had new teeth the early the next morning with the main cost being $40 a tooth for pulling which took about a half hour. The upper fits well and I have been getting by with lower, need it refitted but do not have the doe re me at present. It is just crazy what dentists and doctors charge for routine proceedures here in the US. Was this post helpful to you? yes no Report prohibited or spamfree dentures Amount: $0.00 total Posted by: sexygranny in Oakland, CA. Posted: March 14th, 2014 01:03AMIf you do not have much money and you need dental care or extractions and a full denture you can try calling Missions od Mercy and go to one of their free clinics... Many states are now doing the LARELL One Step Denture for the clinic patients... You can have teeth removed and after that get a free LARELL Denture if Missions of Mercy has the denture clinic... Just takes an hour and you leave with brand new great looking dentures. You can call and see if they offer the Larell clinic for dentures... I got mine in Sacramento Ca last year and they are really great. Was this post helpful to you? yes no Report prohibited or spamdentures Amount: $5,600.00 total Posted by: impatient in perris, CA. Posted: November 19th, 2013 10:11AMDentist: cross dental group Type: med grade They gave me three choices 3000 5000 10.000 i choice the middle i get them in today they didnt have mine ready the day all my teeth were pulled i wasnt happy they Left me no choice so i called Just now they want me to Wait again another appt i new the dentist was lying to me when he promised me they would be ready a week later said he wanted them to be perfect. Sure. So ill post when i get and see if they are perfect Was this post helpful to you? yes no Report prohibited or spam Great service from Elmont Health center Amount: $350.00 total Posted by: Sarah1977 in Elmont, NY. Posted: October 10th, 2013 07:10AMDentist: Dr Rory S. Sadoff, DDS Type: Dentures They were great guarenteed and they are super in my mouth Was this post helpful to you? yes no Report prohibited or spamfull set of dentures Amount: $5,000.00 total Posted by: beautifulsmileat40 in aurora, OH. Posted: March 23rd, 2013 05:03PMDentist: dr kramer/dental works Type: premiumhe couldn't have been a more caring ,attentive dentist.he was absolutely wonderful.i am 40 yrs old and was very concerned about my appearance . he did many fittings before he made my permanent set of dentures until i was 100% pleased with them. i am thrilled with how they turned out.they are beautiful and No one can tell they are dentures. Was this post helpful to you? yes no Report prohibited or spam Full permanent upper denture cost Amount: $22,000.00 total Posted by: Toothless in White Plains, NY. Posted: October 19th, 2012 11:10PMDentist: Family Dental Type: General Dentist I live in Westchester Co, NY. My dentist quoted me $22,000 for a permanent upper denture, the one that screws on to the implants. I am not including the cost for extractions, bone replacement or temporary denture. This quote is only for the actual denture. Does this cost seem correct? Was this post helpful to you? yes no Report prohibited or spam Page 2 of 2 - << Previous 1 2Comment On Your Experience With Dentures Subject: *Amount Spent: * total Dentist: Type: Comments: Purchased: Year: City: * State: *Information about you: Email: * Email addresses are not displayed. Name: This is the name we'll display with your post. Remember me on this computer*=required field. External Resources:www.mouthhealthy.org/en/az-topics/d/Dentures.aspxwww.dentistry.uiowa.edu/public/oral/immediate.htmlwww.youtube.com/watch?v=LOjx GFZEVZs&feature=relatedwww.simplestepsdental.com/SS/iht SS/r.==/st.31862/t.32276/pr.3.htmlwww.nidcr.nih.gov/oralhealth/popularpublications/findinglowcostdentalcare/www.dentureliving.com/new-to-dentures/questions-to-ask-your-dentistwww.gotoapro.org/find-a-prosthodontist/www.mouthhealthy.org/en/find-a-dentist.aspxwww.aacd.com/index.php?module=aacd.websiteforms&cmd=memberreferral More Health & Personal Care Topics Check Out All Costs for Health & Personal Care How Much Does Medical Marijuana Cost? How Much Do Braces Cost? How Much Does Hip Replacement Cost? Search Thousands of Topics on Cost Helper.com How much does cost? Today's Featured Cost Articles Mother's Day is coming up. We cover the cost of massages and other spa treatments. Spring has sprung. Are you thinking about allergy shots? April is craft month. We have the cost of scrapbooking and other crafts. The price of a ""Forever"" stamp increases to 50 cents on January 21, 2018. What would a personal trainer cost to reach those New Year's resolutions? About Cost Helper Cost Helper is based in Silicon Valley and provides consumers with unbiased price information about thousands of goods and services. Our writers are experienced journalists who adhere to our strict editorial ethics policy. Cost Helper Community Sinus Infections - Steroid shot and sent home Paid: 2753.00 I woke up having breathing problems. I went to nearby non-hospital THH office. Nurse took blood pressure and temperature. Dr came in the room and spent less than 10 minutes and stated I had sinus infection... [more]-Bill Moore Emergency Room Visit Cost Mold Testing Pacific Palisades, CAPaid: 800.00 It cost us 800. We were pleased with Knight Environmental consulting who we hired. They were very thorough. Friendly and respectful of our home. They checked everywhere in our 7000ft home and tested the air... [more]-AMY SCHWARTZMold Inspection Costextraction Paid: 739.00 Had 3 extractions yesterday. The cost was 304.00 each extraction but with some kind of insurance plan you could get 30% off. The plan was 75.00 annually and came at a huge savings on the work as my final cost with the plan was 814... [more]-Dental mess Tooth Extraction Cost Mc Henry MD - Suburban Propane Paid: 3300.00 Just got my bill and in 5 weeks we supposedly used 356 gals. Hard to do when you are not there the entire time and you turned the thermostat to 60. They charged $.35 more per gallon then from 5 weeks ago. $3.42 per gallon... [more]-Check your bill with Suburban Propane Tank Cost Laceration from stick Paid: 25.00 Slipped and fell on a stick while running around on a hill, and recieved 2 lacerations on my right leg, one about an inch long and one about 2 inches long. Called my insurance asap (Kaiser) and they directed me to one of their Urgent Cares... [more]-Stitches Cost Urinalysis was asked of me Paid: 3920.00 This was supposed to cost $250. Total!$3,675. for a urinalysis. Not mentioned anywhere on ANY search was this required to get a card... [more]-Nellie28Medical Marijuana Card Cost "
[ "\"Cost Helper > Health & Personal Care > Dentistry & Orthodontics > Dentures Dentures Cost How Much Do Dentures Cost?", "Basic to Mid-Range: $600-$3,000 for a set Premium Dentures: $4,000-$8,000+ for a set E-mail Post Tweet Comments (59)Crafted of resin, porcelain, acrylic and/or metal, dentures are removable plates used when most or all of the teeth are missing.", "Conventional dentures are held in place by suction and possibly dental adhesive, while implant dentures are supported by dental implants but are still removable.", "Typical costs: If dentures are medically necessary, insurance might pay 15%-50% of the costs (up to the plan's annual limit, if there is one).", "A basic denture starts at about $300-$500 per plate, or $600-$1,000 for a full set of upper and lower teeth.", "These typically have limited warranties, don't last as long as more expensive models, tend to look artificial and may be adapted from a standard size instead of a customized fit.", "A mid-range denture typically costs $500-$1,500 per plate or $1,000-$3,000 for a set.", "These offer a fairly personalized fit and usually come with a 1- or 2-year warranty.", "Premium dentures can cost $2,000-$4,000 per plate, or $4,000-$8,000 or more for a set.", "Dentures in this price range are a personalized fit, use high-end materials to simulate the look of gums and teeth as closely as possible, last a long time and are warranted against chipping and cracking for 5-10 years or longer.", "Often the price includes several follow-up visits to fine-tune the fit.", "Removable partial dentures start at $300 -$500, average around $700-$1,800, and can cost $2,000-$4,000 or more in gold (instead of acrylic or another metal).", "Partial dentures use a metal framework to hold artificial teeth in place, and can be attached to natural teeth with metal clasps or with precision attachments that are nearly invisible but require crowns on the real teeth.", "It is often necessary to pull any remaining damaged teeth before getting dentures.", "Tooth extraction typically costs $75-$450 per tooth for a simple extraction and $150-$650 or more per tooth for a surgical extraction.", "Depending on the number of teeth to be pulled, the total cost of getting dentures can be $1,500-$20,000 or more for a full set (uppers and lowers).", "Cost Helper readers report paying $2,000-$18,000 for a full set of removable dentures including tooth extractions and other preparation work, at an average cost of $9,063.", "Two to six dental implants that support a removable denture plate can cost $3,500-$30,000 or more depending on the number and type of implants (mini-implants are less expensive), denture materials (in some cases an existing denture plate can be adapted for use with implants) and any other procedures needed.", "A full set (upper and lower) of implants and dentures can cost $7,000-$90,000 or more.", "Related articles: Dental Bridge, Dental Implants, Full Mouth Reconstruction, Gum Repair, False Teeth What should be included: Dentures are available from a dentist or a prosthodontist (with specialized training in dentures), and prosthodontists typically charge more than dentists.", "The American Dental Association provides an overview of dentures [ 1] .", "Conventional dentures are installed after the last teeth are removed, to allow for healing (typically six to eight weeks).", "There are typically separate appointments for impressions and measurements; checking a \"\"try-in\"\" model for fit; inserting and adjusting the final denture; and follow-up appointments to check comfort and function.", "Immediate (same-day) dentures are made in advance and inserted when the teeth are pulled.", "The University of Iowa provides an overview of immediate dentures [ 2] and a California dentist has a immediate denture video [ 3] .", "An implant-supported denture often provides a better fit on the bottom jaw than conventional dentures.", "In many cases, an implant overdenture on the bottom is paired with a conventional top denture.", "It can take several months to learn to eat and speak while wearing dentures, and they require daily cleaning.", "Simple Steps Dental.com lists tips for living with dentures [ 4] .", "Additional costs: Dentures may crack or break, and the fit will change over time.", "Repairs can cost $50-$200 and professional relining to adjust the fit is typically $250-$450.", "Do-it-yourself repair or reline kits (available from drug stores or online) cost $10-$50.", "Discounts: The National Institute of Dental and Craniofacial Research has tips for finding low-cost dental care [ 5] .", "Shopping for dentures: Ask how the dentures will be customized to fit, the materials used and how many follow-up appointments are included.", "A dental adhesive manufacturer lists questions to ask before getting dentures [ 6] .", "If the patient has dental insurance, the insurance company will provide a list of approved dentists.", "Or search for local members of the American College of Prosthodontists [ 7] , the American Dental Association [ 8] or the American Academy of Cosmetic Dentistry [ 9] .", "Material on this page is for informational purposes only and should not be construed as medical advice.", "Always consult your physician or pharmacist regarding medications or medical procedures.", "E-mail Post Tweet Comments (59)Cost Helper News7 Ways to Stretch Your Reduced Food Budget End of the year budgets are tight for everyone, especially in this economy.", "It's especially hard for the millions of Americans who depend on government programs like food stamps to help make ends meet.", "|| Posted November 11 20137 Lesser-Known Discounts for the 50+ Crowd As they age, members of the Baby Boomer generation don't like to admit that they're senior citizens, but they love getting discounts.", "It's kind of a quandary, because some of the best deals available are reduced prices for older folks.|| Posted October 21 2013‣ All Cost Helper Blog Posts What People Are Paying - Recent Comments Page 2 of 2 - << Previous 1 2Cheap dentures a few states away Amount: $250.00 total Posted by: Holyhammer in Corbin, KY. Posted: April 3rd, 2018 10:04PMDentist: Cumberland Valley Denture Type: Single/Set I live near one of the cheapest denture shops in the country.", "I plan to get a full upper and a partial lower as soon as I can get into an oral surgeon to get my top teeth and roots removed.", "I just hate having to go 6-8 weeks w/o teeth in public and at work.", "It cost a few hundred more to get the temp detures, which I cannot afford.", "Was this post helpful to you?", "yes no Report prohibited or spamhelp Amount: $0.00 total Posted by: William loftus in Berwyn, IL.", "Posted: February 16th, 2018 11:02AMI need financial help with partials and deep cleaning someone out there can you help me financially I am poor with Medicare, Medicaid I am desperate with no options they say if I do not get the partials I will loose the rest of my teeth and my facial features will be affected.", "Was this post helpful to you?", "yes no Report prohibited or spam Denture cost Amount: $1,800.00 total Posted by: [email protected] in Los angeles, CA.", "Posted: January 23rd, 2018 01:01PMDentist: Whittier Type: I just went to see how much it's going to cost me for upper and lower and this is the price Why does everyone charge different prices Was this post helpful to you?", "yes no Report prohibited or spam Need upper and lower dentures Amount: $4,000.00 total Posted by: Les Bennington in POPLAR BLUFF, MO.", "Posted: January 23rd, 2018 01:01AMDentist: All about smiles dental Type: Was this post helpful to you?", "yes no Report prohibited or spam Taking care of natural teeth.", "Amount: $2,500.00 total Posted by: debby ann jackson in anderson, SC.", "Posted: May 3rd, 2017 06:05PMThe biggest problem I have is that I constantly feel the dentures part of the upper roof of my mouth I can't get use to that feeling.", "I also have to take them out when I eat.", "I can't eat pizza or chew meat because the top dentures move around.please people take care of your teeth having dentures is not fun.", "I read you are suppose to have 32 teeth I know have 8 natural teeth.", "Was this post helpful to you?", "yes no Report prohibited or spamextractions/upper denture Amount: $2,028.00 total Posted by: gj moore in grovetown, GA. Posted: April 23rd, 2017 01:04PMDentist: grovetown family dental Type: family dental6 extractions top teeth + upper denture cost: 50% discount - $300 per tooth = $1800 plus office visit- no dental ins- 50% upfront and 50% when denture are in - I have used this dentist- was on special program - already had upper and lower dentures- my tooth evaluation was high-tooth were loose- I had incident when removing my upper denture-part of wire that help to hold denture in- broke off - not able to repair my choice was either new upper partial or extractions and upper denture - I already paid out over $5000 for treatments and upper and lower partials.i research on computer to get data for extraction and denture - ada need an over/view of dental charges for treatment - each set their own charges and payment plan Was this post helpful to you?", "yes no Report prohibited or spam Upper DENTURE implant Amount: $8,000.00 total Posted by: Vanessa13 in Garden City, MI.", "Posted: February 2nd, 2017 08:02PMDentist: Looking Type: Implanted upper denture Please if anyone has any info on how much an upper implanted denture will cost please respond if you can.", "I was quoted 5,000 for a regular upper denture (the removable one) so I was only guessing that the implanted one would cost about 8/10,000Was this post helpful to you?", "yes no Report prohibited or spam Extractions and full set of dentures Amount: $4,305.00 total Posted by: vwc in Bedford, VA. Posted: February 2nd, 2017 12:02PMDentist: Jennifer Aniston-Sako Type: DDSI had 30 extractions at $95x28 and $145x2, I had only ~8 whole teeth but all had roots.", "I was fitted with immediate dentures and will get the permanent dentures in 6 months or so.", "Dentures were 'Economy-Plus' at $1,460 for full set.", "All extractions and immediate dentures were same day at Affordable Dentures.", "Was this post helpful to you?", "yes no Report prohibited or spam My Dentures Amount: $0.00 total Posted by: ROBERTA L. BUTLER in Sacramento, CA.", "Posted: January 3rd, 2017 12:01PMDentist: Dr. Uriel Carranza Type: General Dentistry Dr. Carranza is Absolutely the Greatest Dentist.", "He made a Beautiful set of Dentures for me that was covered by My Insurance Co. Was this post helpful to you?", "yes no Report prohibited or spamfull dentures Amount: $2,500.00 total Posted by: AJSALT in Lakewood, CA.", "Posted: November 22nd, 2016 08:11PMDentist: alex burns Type: Was this post helpful to you?", "yes no Report prohibited or spam Upper Immediate Denture Amount: $1,200.00 total Posted by: Harley Man in Clearwater, FL.", "Posted: November 19th, 2016 05:11AMDentist: Advanced Dental of Clearwater Type: Immediate Had 6 remaining top teeth extracted at $208 per tooth.", "Immediate top dentures were $1200 with Advanced Dental \"\"discount program\"\" which cost $50 for the Family Plan for 1 year.", "Long story short save 20% on the overall cost Was this post helpful to you?", "yes no Report prohibited or spam Complete upper and partial lower denture Amount: $8.00 total Posted by: Rio Lady in Mc Allen, TX.", "Posted: September 21st, 2016 09:09PMDentist: Mc Allen Dental Clinic Type: Dentures Took a year and half to get the procedures finished but I'm happy with the result.", "I originally planned to get implanted dentures, but the combined cost with the oral surgeon and the dentist would have been $20,000, which I just didn't have.", "These look very natural, and they fit well.", "Was this post helpful to you?", "yes no Report prohibited or spamwives dentures Amount: $18.00 total Posted by: John, Shers husband in Idaho Falls, ID.", "Posted: May 7th, 2016 06:05PMDentist: dr tom anderson Type:started with a tooth ache,five days later he pulled every tooth and four root canals in 2.5 hrs in the chair, twodays later she got blood clots in heer legs and traveled to her heart and to her lungs and carpet bombed her lungs with blood clots, DR says just a coincidence never from the dental surgery.", "67K hospital bill later ( 2 yrs later now over 80K in medical,they could install her dentures for 15 months , (blood clots got her so weak and run down , nothing would heal, implants finally were strong enough at 16 months , they said, and installed them , but she hadn't eaten solid food for 15 months, now so weak and thin the implants don't fit, they want another few hundred to adjust them, 22months later and still don't fit,she now is anorexic going 2 yrs withouut eating lost almost 40 # is down to 80+ , PS no insurance self pay up front,so because of a tooth ache 100K gone Was this post helpful to you?", "yes no Report prohibited or spam Looking for sliding scale or payments that I don\\'t have to get a credit card for Amount: $0.00 total Posted by: CHandy70 in Gibsonton, FL.", "Posted: May 3rd, 2016 01:05AMDentist: Type: Denture Implants I at age 16 was in car accident went through the windshield and lost 4 on top and 4 lower so have had partials the last 30 years.", "Now I have one tooth left on top so I at least need the upper denture implant as for the bottoms well they are not great but can make due a few more years before I will have to get them.", "I have very lil income as I have just started my cleaning business last year.", "That being said I am very willing to trade services so long as it a denture implant or something very similar.", "Right now business is pretty slow always is during the summer.", "I am OCD and a perfectionist most likely the reason I love cleaning and do it better than most anyone with lil to no chemicals except the normal items you already have at home that care not harmful to the environment people/pets.", "You give me a beautiful smile back so I can also eat more than soups/foods that require lil to no chewing.", "I will give u the cleanest office & home 5 days a week for 6-8 months promise Was this post helpful to you?", "yes no Report prohibited or spam Full set, 10 extractions - Dental College Amount: $880.00 total Posted by: Alec Kazzam in Memphis, TN.", "Posted: April 6th, 2016 04:04AMDentist: UT College of Dentistry Type: Dental College Extractions were the main cost saver ($30 each) but you have to pay for the dentures first ($500).", "Don't think they would have accepted me if I only wanted extractions.", "TOOK 5 MONTHS and 6 or 7 visits to get these \"\"immediate\"\" dentures.", "Look good out of my mouth but when I smile u see all the bottom teeth and hardly any top ones.", "LOTS of overbite make biting PB&J sandwich impossible.", "Was this post helpful to you?", "yes no Report prohibited or spamtemporary upper denture Amount: $4,300.00 total Posted by: c. j. sykes in Overland Park, KS.", "Posted: March 24th, 2016 09:03AMDentist: Dr. Amet Type: Temporary Temporary due to having implants as soon as healing is complete after extractions.", "The denture was in no way near fitting.", "It is of extremely poor quality and has not been adjusted.", "$4.3K is outrageous for a temporary!Was this post helpful to you?", "yes no Report prohibited or spamupper partial Amount: $1,700.00 total Posted by: Nice in Naples, FL.", "Posted: March 7th, 2016 07:03PMDentist: William Gibson Type: Central Dental Naples, FLThis cost was with insurance paying some.", "Was this post helpful to you?", "yes no Report prohibited or spam Front two teeth partial Amount: $723.00 total Posted by: ghudresb in waco, TX.", "Posted: December 4th, 2015 06:12PMDentist: Dr. Levoy Type: front teeth partial Very happy, partial was 500.00, the rest was getting old badly decayed inplants out.", "Was this post helpful to you?", "yes no Report prohibited or spamimmediate denture Amount: $1,275.00 total Posted by: mbn in westfield, WI.", "Posted: November 1st, 2015 06:11AMDentist: dr.", "Type: immediate upperdr recommended immediate dentures.", "what I read on immediate dentures was that they are generally temporary.", "apparently per this dentist not so.", "now wants to charge 380 for reline knowing the bone was receded a lot and would have to reline right away.", "given all I know now, I would never go to this dentist again.", "ask more questions, get more estimates from other dentists.", "upper plate only has 12 teeth in it.", "inside of teeth do not touch lower permanent teeth, gap of at least 1/8 \"\" between gm and inside of plate, gum does not touch bottom of gums at all.", "Was this post helpful to you?", "yes no Report prohibited or spam Tooth Amount: $1,000.00 total Posted by: Patrick123 in Utica, NY.", "Posted: August 16th, 2015 07:08PMDentist: Type: Doesn\\'t matter I lost half of my one front those, how much can cost Was this post helpful to you?", "yes no Report prohibited or spam In need of dental help Amount: $0.00 total Posted by: mshunky in Wauseon, OH.", "Posted: July 28th, 2015 03:07AMDentist: Type: braces and I had a great smile everybody In need of a professional dentist.", "I live in Northwest Ohio.", "Had my left leg amputated some years back.", "Then I came down with mrsa., so now I'm in need of dental help.", "After the Drs removed my leg then after year, they had come back and take off 2 more inches.", "I was fitted with a prosthetic and it never fit.", "Then I spend 2 1/2 years in a nursing home that sucks.", "I'm afraid of getting ripped off with getting false teeth.", "If anyone can recommend a dentist that does this kind of work in Northwest Ohio please email me.", "THANKS IN ADVANCE I just want to smile again.", "Was this post helpful to you?", "yes no Report prohibited or spam Dentures Amount: $2,000.00 total Posted by: Perry in Milwaukee, WI.", "Posted: May 21st, 2015 01:05AMDentist: Dr frost Type: temperature I had 10 top teeth removed with a temporary denture.", "Staff was very nice and caring.love u Dr frost life changer.. Was this post helpful to you?", "yes no Report prohibited or spamtemporary partial Amount: $609.00 total Posted by: taken advantage of in st charles, MO.", "Posted: February 10th, 2015 01:02PMDentist: Michel l. Type: dentist I feel like I truly got ripped off by this dentist no one told me my partial was a temp now they want 888.oo more dollars for the permanent partial for real and I have insurance the office made me pay that 609 up on front before they did any work I am very unhappy called bbb Was this post helpful to you?", "yes no Report prohibited or spammissing tooth from Dentures Amount: $5,500.00 total Posted by: Mz Achona67 in new york, NY.", "Posted: January 3rd, 2015 09:01PMDentist: Morris Park Dental Type: DDSI had a full set of Dentures done October 2010.", "Very nicely done.", "Well low and behold while eating one day a tooth came out.", "This was Sept 2014.", "Went to get it fixed, wasn't expecting a fee, since i paid a lot for them.", "Well here it is Jan 3,2015 and another tooth has come out.", "I can't afford to have them fixed.", "I need help.", "From Bronx New York.", "Was this post helpful to you?", "yes no Report prohibited or spam Are impressions and preparations i ncluded in price of bridge Amount: $2,300.00 total Posted by: Doodles in Falmouth, MA.", "Posted: December 28th, 2014 03:12PMDentist: Prosthodontist Type: Was this post helpful to you?", "yes no Report prohibited or spam Dentures Amount: $4,030.00 total Posted by: Maggiemae368 in Garden city, MI.", "Posted: December 18th, 2014 08:12PMDentist: Dr jerry Morof Type: DDS PCI made a mistake I said my debtures were $6,000 Dr. Jerry gave me a surprise the price was actually lower then the original estimate.", "I thoroughly recommend Dr. Jerry dentures look like my own teeth Was this post helpful to you?", "yes no Report prohibited or spam Dentures Amount: $6,000.00 total Posted by: Maggie Mae 368 in Garden city, MI.", "Posted: December 14th, 2014 06:12PMDentist: Dr jerry Morof Type: DDS PCThis will be my second set of dentures.", "I've learned there are different types for different budgets.", "My first pair were premium and lasted over 25 years.", "After searching all over town 1 800 dentist referred me to Dr Jerry he is semi retired and wonderful he mastered dentures but there not cheap but you get what you pay for.", "So if you need dentures try to afford the premium cause cheap dentures are not worth it in the long run Was this post helpful to you?", "yes no Report prohibited or spam Dentures Amount: $2,229.00 total Posted by: Puni Brew in Richton Park, IL.", "Posted: December 4th, 2014 07:12PMDentist: Liqing Zhang Type: Upper Denture They only lasted one year before breaking in half.", "I was totally disgusted and never went back to her ever again.", "Was this post helpful to you?", "yes no Report prohibited or spam Go off shore Amount: $1,000.00 total Posted by: tim watt in Phoenix, AZ.", "Posted: July 22nd, 2014 08:07AMDentist: mexico Type: I had 16 teeth pulled and plates made for under $1,000.", "I went in in the morning and had new teeth the early the next morning with the main cost being $40 a tooth for pulling which took about a half hour.", "The upper fits well and I have been getting by with lower, need it refitted but do not have the doe re me at present.", "It is just crazy what dentists and doctors charge for routine proceedures here in the US.", "Was this post helpful to you?", "yes no Report prohibited or spamfree dentures Amount: $0.00 total Posted by: sexygranny in Oakland, CA.", "Posted: March 14th, 2014 01:03AMIf you do not have much money and you need dental care or extractions and a full denture you can try calling Missions od Mercy and go to one of their free clinics...", "Many states are now doing the LARELL One Step Denture for the clinic patients... You can have teeth removed and after that get a free LARELL Denture if Missions of Mercy has the denture clinic... Just takes an hour and you leave with brand new great looking dentures.", "You can call and see if they offer the Larell clinic for dentures...", "I got mine in Sacramento Ca last year and they are really great.", "Was this post helpful to you?", "yes no Report prohibited or spamdentures Amount: $5,600.00 total Posted by: impatient in perris, CA.", "Posted: November 19th, 2013 10:11AMDentist: cross dental group Type: med grade They gave me three choices 3000 5000 10.000 i choice the middle i get them in today they didnt have mine ready the day all my teeth were pulled i wasnt happy they Left me no choice so i called Just now they want me to Wait again another appt i new the dentist was lying to me when he promised me they would be ready a week later said he wanted them to be perfect.", "Sure.", "So ill post when i get and see if they are perfect Was this post helpful to you?", "yes no Report prohibited or spam Great service from Elmont Health center Amount: $350.00 total Posted by: Sarah1977 in Elmont, NY.", "Posted: October 10th, 2013 07:10AMDentist: Dr Rory S. Sadoff, DDS Type: Dentures They were great guarenteed and they are super in my mouth Was this post helpful to you?", "yes no Report prohibited or spamfull set of dentures Amount: $5,000.00 total Posted by: beautifulsmileat40 in aurora, OH.", "Posted: March 23rd, 2013 05:03PMDentist: dr kramer/dental works Type: premiumhe couldn't have been a more caring ,attentive dentist.he was absolutely wonderful.i am 40 yrs old and was very concerned about my appearance .", "he did many fittings before he made my permanent set of dentures until i was 100% pleased with them.", "i am thrilled with how they turned out.they are beautiful and No one can tell they are dentures.", "Was this post helpful to you?", "yes no Report prohibited or spam Full permanent upper denture cost Amount: $22,000.00 total Posted by: Toothless in White Plains, NY.", "Posted: October 19th, 2012 11:10PMDentist: Family Dental Type: General Dentist I live in Westchester Co, NY.", "My dentist quoted me $22,000 for a permanent upper denture, the one that screws on to the implants.", "I am not including the cost for extractions, bone replacement or temporary denture.", "This quote is only for the actual denture.", "Does this cost seem correct?", "Was this post helpful to you?", "yes no Report prohibited or spam Page 2 of 2 - << Previous 1 2Comment On Your Experience With Dentures Subject: *Amount Spent: * total Dentist: Type: Comments: Purchased: Year: City: * State: *Information about you: Email: * Email addresses are not displayed.", "Name: This is the name we'll display with your post.", "Remember me on this computer*=required field.", "External Resources:www.mouthhealthy.org/en/az-topics/d/Dentures.aspxwww.dentistry.uiowa.edu/public/oral/immediate.htmlwww.youtube.com/watch?v=LOjx GFZEVZs&feature=relatedwww.simplestepsdental.com/SS/iht SS/r.==/st.31862/t.32276/pr.3.htmlwww.nidcr.nih.gov/oralhealth/popularpublications/findinglowcostdentalcare/www.dentureliving.com/new-to-dentures/questions-to-ask-your-dentistwww.gotoapro.org/find-a-prosthodontist/www.mouthhealthy.org/en/find-a-dentist.aspxwww.aacd.com/index.php?module=aacd.websiteforms&cmd=memberreferral More Health & Personal Care Topics Check Out All Costs for Health & Personal Care How Much Does Medical Marijuana Cost?", "How Much Do Braces Cost?", "How Much Does Hip Replacement Cost?", "Search Thousands of Topics on Cost Helper.com How much does cost?", "Today's Featured Cost Articles Mother's Day is coming up.", "We cover the cost of massages and other spa treatments.", "Spring has sprung.", "Are you thinking about allergy shots?", "April is craft month.", "We have the cost of scrapbooking and other crafts.", "The price of a \"\"Forever\"\" stamp increases to 50 cents on January 21, 2018.", "What would a personal trainer cost to reach those New Year's resolutions?", "About Cost Helper Cost Helper is based in Silicon Valley and provides consumers with unbiased price information about thousands of goods and services.", "Our writers are experienced journalists who adhere to our strict editorial ethics policy.", "Cost Helper Community Sinus Infections - Steroid shot and sent home Paid: 2753.00 I woke up having breathing problems.", "I went to nearby non-hospital THH office.", "Nurse took blood pressure and temperature.", "Dr came in the room and spent less than 10 minutes and stated I had sinus infection... [more]-Bill Moore Emergency Room Visit Cost Mold Testing Pacific Palisades, CAPaid: 800.00 It cost us 800.", "We were pleased with Knight Environmental consulting who we hired.", "They were very thorough.", "Friendly and respectful of our home.", "They checked everywhere in our 7000ft home and tested the air... [more]-AMY SCHWARTZMold Inspection Costextraction Paid: 739.00 Had 3 extractions yesterday.", "The cost was 304.00 each extraction but with some kind of insurance plan you could get 30% off.", "The plan was 75.00 annually and came at a huge savings on the work as my final cost with the plan was 814... [more]-Dental mess Tooth Extraction Cost Mc Henry MD - Suburban Propane Paid: 3300.00 Just got my bill and in 5 weeks we supposedly used 356 gals.", "Hard to do when you are not there the entire time and you turned the thermostat to 60.", "They charged $.35 more per gallon then from 5 weeks ago.", "$3.42 per gallon... [more]-Check your bill with Suburban Propane Tank Cost Laceration from stick Paid: 25.00 Slipped and fell on a stick while running around on a hill, and recieved 2 lacerations on my right leg, one about an inch long and one about 2 inches long.", "Called my insurance asap (Kaiser) and they directed me to one of their Urgent Cares... [more]-Stitches Cost Urinalysis was asked of me Paid: 3920.00 This was supposed to cost $250.", "Total!$3,675.", "for a urinalysis.", "Not mentioned anywhere on ANY search was this required to get a card... [more]-Nellie28Medical Marijuana Card Cost \"" ]
D54552
http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2014/08/18/cost-of-raising-a-child_n_5688179.html
This Is How Much It Costs To Raise A Child In The U.S.
It’s no shocker that raising a child can put a strain on family finances. But seeing the total cost may leave you stunned. The average cost of raising a child born in 2013 up until age 18 for a middle-income family in the U. S. is approximately $245,340 (or $304,480, adjusted for projected inflation), according to the latest annual “Cost of Raising A Child” report from the U. S. Department of Agriculture. The estimate is 1.8 percent higher than the previous year. That equates to roughly $12,800 - $14,970 per child per year for a two-parent family with a median annual income between $61,530 and $106,540. The annual cost can vary based on factors like the child’s age, the number of children in the family and the family’s income and location.“In today’s economy, it’s important to be prepared with as much information as possible when planning for the future ,” said USDA Food, Nutrition and Consumer Services Under Secretary Kevin Concannon, per a written statement issued alongside the report. “In addition to giving families with children an indication of expenses they might want to be prepared for, the report is a critical resource for state governments in determining child support guidelines and foster care payments.”Housing is the top expense, accounting for $73,600 or about 30 percent of the total cost of raising a child. The next-biggest expenses are child care and education (18 percent) and food (16 percent). Transportation, health care, clothing and miscellaneous expenses were also considered. The cost of college, pregnancy or other expenses after age 18 were not factored in. The overall cost is a good deal higher than figures estimated in 1960 by the USDA’s first “Cost of Raising A Child” report. Back then, “a middle-income family could have expected to spend $25,230 ($198,560 in 2013 dollars) to raise a child until the age of 18,” according to the new report, which also notes that “ [h]ealth care expenses for a child have doubled as a percentage of total child-rearing costs during that time.”The 1960 report found that housing was the largest expense for families, as it is today. To estimate how much it will cost to raise your child, check out the USDA’s “Cost of Raising a Child” calculator.
[ "It’s no shocker that raising a child can put a strain on family finances.", "But seeing the total cost may leave you stunned.", "The average cost of raising a child born in 2013 up until age 18 for a middle-income family in the U. S. is approximately $245,340 (or $304,480, adjusted for projected inflation), according to the latest annual “Cost of Raising A Child” report from the U. S. Department of Agriculture.", "The estimate is 1.8 percent higher than the previous year.", "That equates to roughly $12,800 - $14,970 per child per year for a two-parent family with a median annual income between $61,530 and $106,540.", "The annual cost can vary based on factors like the child’s age, the number of children in the family and the family’s income and location.“In today’s economy, it’s important to be prepared with as much information as possible when planning for the future ,” said USDA Food, Nutrition and Consumer Services Under Secretary Kevin Concannon, per a written statement issued alongside the report.", "“In addition to giving families with children an indication of expenses they might want to be prepared for, the report is a critical resource for state governments in determining child support guidelines and foster care payments.”Housing is the top expense, accounting for $73,600 or about 30 percent of the total cost of raising a child.", "The next-biggest expenses are child care and education (18 percent) and food (16 percent).", "Transportation, health care, clothing and miscellaneous expenses were also considered.", "The cost of college, pregnancy or other expenses after age 18 were not factored in.", "The overall cost is a good deal higher than figures estimated in 1960 by the USDA’s first “Cost of Raising A Child” report.", "Back then, “a middle-income family could have expected to spend $25,230 ($198,560 in 2013 dollars) to raise a child until the age of 18,” according to the new report, which also notes that “ [h]ealth care expenses for a child have doubled as a percentage of total child-rearing costs during that time.”The 1960 report found that housing was the largest expense for families, as it is today.", "To estimate how much it will cost to raise your child, check out the USDA’s “Cost of Raising a Child” calculator." ]
D63040
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Circulatory_system
Circulatory system
"From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedianavigation search""Bloodstream"" redirects here. For the song by Ed Sheeran, see Bloodstream (song). This article is about the animal circulatory system. For plants, see Vascular tissue. Circulatory system The human circulatory system (simplified). Red indicates oxygenated blood carried in arteries, blue indicates deoxygenated blood carried in veins. Capillaries, which join the arteries and veins, and the lymphatic vessels are not shown. Identifiers Me SH D002319TA A12.0.00.001FMA 7161Anatomical terminology [ edit on Wikidata]The circulatory system, also called the cardiovascular system or the vascular system, is an organ system that permits blood to circulate and transport nutrients (such as amino acids and electrolytes ), oxygen, carbon dioxide, hormones, and blood cells to and from the cells in the body to provide nourishment and help in fighting diseases, stabilize temperature and p H, and maintain homeostasis. The circulatory system includes the lymphatic system, which circulates lymph. [1] The passage of lymph for example takes much longer than that of blood. [2] Blood is a fluid consisting of plasma, red blood cells, white blood cells, and platelets that is circulated by the heart through the vertebrate vascular system, carrying oxygen and nutrients to and waste materials away from all body tissues. Lymph is essentially recycled excess blood plasma after it has been filtered from the interstitial fluid (between cells) and returned to the lymphatic system. The cardiovascular (from Latin words meaning ""heart"" and ""vessel"") system comprises the blood, heart, and blood vessels. [3] The lymph, lymph nodes, and lymph vessels form the lymphatic system, which returns filtered blood plasma from the interstitial fluid (between cells) as lymph. The circulatory system of the blood is seen as having two components, a systemic circulation and a pulmonary circulation. [4]While humans, as well as other vertebrates, have a closed cardiovascular system (meaning that the blood never leaves the network of arteries, veins and capillaries ), some invertebrate groups have an open cardiovascular system. The lymphatic system, on the other hand, is an open system providing an accessory route for excess interstitial fluid to be returned to the blood. [5] The more primitive, diploblastic animal phyla lack circulatory systems. Many diseases affect the circulatory system. This includes cardiovascular disease, affecting the cardiovascular system, and lymphatic disease affecting the lymphatic system. Cardiologists are medical professionals which specialise in the heart, and cardiothoracic surgeons specialise in operating on the heart and its surrounding areas. Vascular surgeons focus on other parts of the circulatory system. Contents [ hide ]1 Structure1.1 Cardiovascular system1.1.1 Arteries1.1.2 Capillaries1.1.3 Veins1.1.4 Coronary vessels1.1.5 Portal veins1.1.6 Heart1.1.7 Lungs1.1.8 Systemic circulation1.1.9 Brain1.1.10 Kidneys1.2 Lymphatic system2 Development2.1 Heart2.2 Arteries2.3 Veins3 Function3.1 Cardiovascular system3.2 Lymphatic system4 Clinical significance4.1 Cardiovascular disease4.2 Investigations4.3 Surgery5 Society and culture6 Other animals6.1 Open circulatory system6.2 Closed circulatory system6.3 No circulatory system7 History8 See also9 References10 External links Structure Cardiovascular system Depiction of the heart, major veins and arteries constructed from body scans. Cross section of a human artery Relative percentages of cardiac output delivered to major organ systems The essential components of the human cardiovascular system are the heart, blood and blood vessels. [6] It includes the pulmonary circulation, a ""loop"" through the lungs where blood is oxygenated; and the systemic circulation, a ""loop"" through the rest of the body to provide oxygenated blood. The systemic circulation can also be seen to function in two parts–a macrocirculation and a microcirculation. An average adult contains five to six quarts (roughly 4.7 to 5.7 liters) of blood, accounting for approximately 7% of their total body weight. [7] Blood consists of plasma, red blood cells, white blood cells, and platelets. Also, the digestive system works with the circulatory system to provide the nutrients the system needs to keep the heart pumping. [8]The cardiovascular systems of humans are closed, meaning that the blood never leaves the network of blood vessels. In contrast, oxygen and nutrients diffuse across the blood vessel layers and enter interstitial fluid, which carries oxygen and nutrients to the target cells, and carbon dioxide and wastes in the opposite direction. The other component of the circulatory system, the lymphatic system, is open. Arteries See also: Arterial tree Oxygenated blood enters the systemic circulation when leaving the left ventricle, through the aortic semilunar valve. The first part of the systemic circulation is the aorta, a massive and thick-walled artery. The aorta arches and gives branches supplying the upper part of the body after passing through the aortic opening of the diaphragm at the level of thoracic ten vertebra, it enters the abdomen. Later it descends down and supplies branches to abdomen, pelvis, perineum and the lower limbs. The walls of aorta are elastic. This elasticity helps to maintain the blood pressure throughout the body. When the aorta receives almost five litres of blood from the heart, it recoils and is responsible for pulsating blood pressure. Moreover, as aorta branches into smaller arteries, their elasticity goes on decreasing and their compliance goes on increasing. Capillaries Arteries branch into small passages called arterioles and then into the capillaries. [9] The capillaries merge to bring blood into the venous system. [10]Veins After their passage through body tissues, capillaries merge once again into venules, which continue to merge into veins. The venous system finally coalesces into two major veins: the superior vena cava (roughly speaking draining the areas above the heart) and the inferior vena cava (roughly speaking from areas below the heart). These two great vessels empty into the right atrium of the heart. Coronary vessels Main article: Coronary circulation The heart itself is supplied with oxygen and nutrients through a small ""loop"" of the systemic circulation and derives very little from the blood contained within the four chambers. Portal veins Main article: Portal vein The general rule is that arteries from the heart branch out into capillaries, which collect into veins leading back to the heart. Portal veins are a slight exception to this. In humans the only significant example is the hepatic portal vein which combines from capillaries around the gastrointestinal tract where the blood absorbs the various products of digestion; rather than leading directly back to the heart, the hepatic portal vein branches into a second capillary system in the liver. Heart Main article: Heart View from the front The heart pumps oxygenated blood to the body and deoxygenated blood to the lungs. In the human heart there is one atrium and one ventricle for each circulation, and with both a systemic and a pulmonary circulation there are four chambers in total: left atrium, left ventricle, right atrium and right ventricle. The right atrium is the upper chamber of the right side of the heart. The blood that is returned to the right atrium is deoxygenated (poor in oxygen) and passed into the right ventricle to be pumped through the pulmonary artery to the lungs for re-oxygenation and removal of carbon dioxide. The left atrium receives newly oxygenated blood from the lungs as well as the pulmonary vein which is passed into the strong left ventricle to be pumped through the aorta to the different organs of the body. The coronary circulation system provides a blood supply to the heart muscle itself. The coronary circulation begins near the origin of the aorta by two coronary arteries: the right coronary artery and the left coronary artery. After nourishing the heart muscle, blood returns through the coronary veins into the coronary sinus and from this one into the right atrium. Back flow of blood through its opening during atrial systole is prevented by the Thebesian valve. The smallest cardiac veins drain directly into the heart chambers. [8]Lungs The pulmonary circulation as it passes from the heart. Showing both the pulmonary and bronchial arteries. Main article: Pulmonary circulation The circulatory system of the lungs is the portion of the cardiovascular system in which oxygen -depleted blood is pumped away from the heart, via the pulmonary artery, to the lungs and returned, oxygenated, to the heart via the pulmonary vein. Oxygen deprived blood from the superior and inferior vena cava enters the right atrium of the heart and flows through the tricuspid valve (right atrioventricular valve) into the right ventricle, from which it is then pumped through the pulmonary semilunar valve into the pulmonary artery to the lungs. Gas exchange occurs in the lungs, whereby CO 2 is released from the blood, and oxygen is absorbed. The pulmonary vein returns the now oxygen-rich blood to the left atrium. [8]A separate system known as the bronchial circulation supplies blood to the tissue of the larger airways of the lung. Systemic circulation The systemic circulation and capillary networks shown and also as separate from the pulmonary circulation Systemic circulation is the portion of the cardiovascular system which transports oxygenated blood away from the heart through the aorta from the left ventricle where the blood has been previously deposited from pulmonary circulation, to the rest of the body, and returns oxygen-depleted blood back to the heart. [8]Brain Main article: Cerebral circulation The brain has a dual blood supply that comes from arteries at its front and back. These are called the ""anterior"" and ""posterior"" circulation respectively. The anterior circulation arises from the internal carotid arteries and supplies the front of the brain. The posterior circulation arises from the vertebral arteries, and supplies the back of the brain and brainstem. The circulation from the front and the back join together ( anastomise) at the Circle of Willis. Kidneys The renal circulation receives around 20% of the cardiac output. It branches from the abdominal aorta and returns blood to the ascending vena cava. It is the blood supply to the kidneys, and contains many specialized blood vessels. Lymphatic system Main article: Lymphatic system The lymphatic system is part of the circulatory system. It is a network of lymphatic vessels and lymph capillaries, lymph nodes and organs, and lymphatic tissues and circulating lymph. One of its major functions is to carry the lymph, draining and returning interstitial fluid back towards the heart for return to the cardiovascular system, by emptying into the lymphatic ducts. Its other main function is in the adaptive immune system. [11]Development Main article: Fetal circulation The development of the circulatory system starts with vasculogenesis in the embryo. The human arterial and venous systems develop from different areas in the embryo. The arterial system develops mainly from the aortic arches, six pairs of arches which develop on the upper part of the embryo. The venous system arises from three bilateral veins during weeks 4 – 8 of embryogenesis. Fetal circulation begins within the 8th week of development. Fetal circulation does not include the lungs, which are bypassed via the truncus arteriosus. Before birth the fetus obtains oxygen (and nutrients) from the mother through the placenta and the umbilical cord. [12]Heart Main article: Heart development Arteries Main article: Aortic arches The human arterial system originates from the aortic arches and from the dorsal aortae starting from week 4 of embryonic life. The first and second aortic arches regress and forms only the maxillary arteries and stapedial arteries respectively. The arterial system itself arises from aortic arches 3, 4 and 6 (aortic arch 5 completely regresses). The dorsal aortae, present on the dorsal side of the embryo, are initially present on both sides of the embryo. They later fuse to form the basis for the aorta itself. Approximately thirty smaller arteries branch from this at the back and sides. These branches form the intercostal arteries, arteries of the arms and legs, lumbar arteries and the lateral sacral arteries. Branches to the sides of the aorta will form the definitive renal, suprarenal and gonadal arteries. Finally, branches at the front of the aorta consist of the vitelline arteries and umbilical arteries. The vitelline arteries form the celiac, superior and inferior mesenteric arteries of the gastrointestinal tract. After birth, the umbilical arteries will form the internal iliac arteries. Veins The human venous system develops mainly from the vitelline veins, the umbilical veins and the cardinal veins, all of which empty into the sinus venosus. Function Cardiovascular system Animation of a typical human red blood cell cycle in the circulatory system. This animation occurs at a faster rate (~20 seconds of the average 60-second cycle) and shows the red blood cell deforming as it enters capillaries, as well as the bars changing color as the cell alternates in states of oxygenation along the circulatory system. Main article: Blood § Oxygen transport About 98.5% of the oxygen in a sample of arterial blood in a healthy human, breathing air at sea-level pressure, is chemically combined with hemoglobin molecules. About 1.5% is physically dissolved in the other blood liquids and not connected to hemoglobin. The hemoglobin molecule is the primary transporter of oxygen in mammals and many other species. Lymphatic system Main article: Lymphatic system § Function Clinical significance Many diseases affect the circulatory system. This includes cardiovascular disease, affecting the cardiovascular system, and lymphatic disease affecting the lymphatic system. Cardiologists are medical professionals which specialise in the heart, and cardiothoracic surgeons specialise in operating on the heart and its surrounding areas. Vascular surgeons focus on other parts of the circulatory system. Cardiovascular disease Main article: Cardiovascular disease Diseases affecting the cardiovascular system are called cardiovascular disease. Many of these diseases are called "" lifestyle diseases "" because they develop over time and are related to a person's exercise habits, diet, whether they smoke, and other lifestyle choices a person makes. Atherosclerosis is the precursor to many of these diseases. It is where small atheromatous plaques build up in the walls of medium and large arteries. This may eventually grow or rupture to occlude the arteries. It is also a risk factor for acute coronary syndromes, which are diseases which are characterised by a sudden deficit of oxygenated blood to the heart tissue. Atherosclerosis is also associated with problems such as aneurysm formation or splitting (""dissection"") of arteries. Another major cardiovascular disease involves the creation of a clot, called a ""thrombus"". These can originate in veins or arteries. Deep venous thrombosis, which mostly occurs in the legs, is one cause of clots in the veins of the legs, particularly when a person has been stationary for a long time. These clots may embolise, meaning travel to another location in the body. The results of this may include pulmonary embolus, transient ischaemic attacks, or stroke. Cardiovascular diseases may also be congenital in nature, such as heart defects or persistent fetal circulation, where the circulatory changes that are supposed to happen after birth do not. Not all congenital changes to the circulatory system are associated with diseases, a large number are anatomical variations. Investigations Magnetic resonance angiography of aberrant subclavian artery The function and health of the circulatory system and its parts are measured in a variety of manual and automated ways. These include simple methods such as those that are part of the cardiovascular examination, including the taking of a person's pulse as an indicator of a person's heart rate, the taking of blood pressure through a sphygmomanometer or the use of a stethoscope to listen to the heart for murmurs which may indicate problems with the heart's valves. An electrocardiogram can also be used to evaluate the way in which electricity is conducted through the heart. Other more invasive means can also be used. A cannula or catheter inserted into an artery may be used to measure pulse pressure or pulmonary wedge pressures. Angiography, which involves injecting a dye into an artery to visualise an arterial tree, can be used in the heart ( coronary angiography) or brain. At the same time as the arteries are visualised, blockages or narrowings may be fixed through the insertion of stents, and active bleeds may be managed by the insertion of coils. An MRI may be used to image arteries, called an MRI angiogram. For evaluation of the blood supply to the lungs a CT pulmonary angiogram may be used. Vascular ultrasonography include for example: Intravascular ultrasound Ultrasonography of deep venous thrombosis Ultrasonography of chronic venous insufficiency of the legs Surgery This section needs expansion. You can help by adding to it. (March 2015)There are a number of surgical procedures performed on the circulatory system: Coronary artery bypass surgery Coronary stent used in angioplasty Vascular surgery Vein stripping Cosmetic procedures Cardiovascular procedures are more likely to be performed in an inpatient setting than in an ambulatory care setting; in the United States, only 28% of cardiovascular surgeries were performed in the ambulatory care setting. [13]Society and culture This section needs expansion. You can help by adding to it. (March 2015)Other animals While humans, as well as other vertebrates, have a closed cardiovascular system (meaning that the blood never leaves the network of arteries, veins and capillaries ), some invertebrate groups have an open cardiovascular system. The lymphatic system, on the other hand, is an open system providing an accessory route for excess interstitial fluid to be returned to the blood. [5] The more primitive, diploblastic animal phyla lack circulatory systems. The blood vascular system first appeared probably in an ancestor of the triploblasts over 600 million years ago, overcoming the time-distance constraints of diffusion, while endothelium evolved in an ancestral vertebrate some 540–510 million years ago. [14]Open circulatory system See also: Hemolymph The open circulatory system of the grasshopper – made up of a heart, vessels and hemolymph. The hemolymph is pumped through the heart, into the aorta, dispersed into the head and throughout the hemocoel, then back through the ostia in the heart and the process repeated. In arthropods, the open circulatory system is a system in which a fluid in a cavity called the hemocoel bathes the organs directly with oxygen and nutrients and there is no distinction between blood and interstitial fluid; this combined fluid is called hemolymph or haemolymph. [15] Muscular movements by the animal during locomotion can facilitate hemolymph movement, but diverting flow from one area to another is limited. When the heart relaxes, blood is drawn back toward the heart through open-ended pores (ostia). Hemolymph fills all of the interior hemocoel of the body and surrounds all cells. Hemolymph is composed of water, inorganic salts (mostly sodium, chlorine, potassium, magnesium, and calcium ), and organic compounds (mostly carbohydrates, proteins, and lipids ). The primary oxygen transporter molecule is hemocyanin. There are free-floating cells, the hemocytes, within the hemolymph. They play a role in the arthropod immune system. Flatworms, such as this Pseudoceros bifurcus, lack specialized circulatory organs Closed circulatory system Two-chambered heart of a fish The circulatory systems of all vertebrates, as well as of annelids (for example, earthworms) and cephalopods ( squids, octopuses and relatives) are closed, just as in humans. Still, the systems of fish, amphibians, reptiles, and birds show various stages of the evolution of the circulatory system. [16]In fish, the system has only one circuit, with the blood being pumped through the capillaries of the gills and on to the capillaries of the body tissues. This is known as single cycle circulation. The heart of fish is, therefore, only a single pump (consisting of two chambers). In amphibians and most reptiles, a double circulatory system is used, but the heart is not always completely separated into two pumps. Amphibians have a three-chambered heart. In reptiles, the ventricular septum of the heart is incomplete and the pulmonary artery is equipped with a sphincter muscle. This allows a second possible route of blood flow. Instead of blood flowing through the pulmonary artery to the lungs, the sphincter may be contracted to divert this blood flow through the incomplete ventricular septum into the left ventricle and out through the aorta. This means the blood flows from the capillaries to the heart and back to the capillaries instead of to the lungs. This process is useful to ectothermic (cold-blooded) animals in the regulation of their body temperature. Birds, mammals, and crocodilians show complete separation of the heart into two pumps, for a total of four heart chambers; it is thought that the four-chambered heart of birds and crocodilians evolved independently from that of mammals. [17]No circulatory system Circulatory systems are absent in some animals, including flatworms. Their body cavity has no lining or enclosed fluid. Instead a muscular pharynx leads to an extensively branched digestive system that facilitates direct diffusion of nutrients to all cells. The flatworm's dorso-ventrally flattened body shape also restricts the distance of any cell from the digestive system or the exterior of the organism. Oxygen can diffuse from the surrounding water into the cells, and carbon dioxide can diffuse out. Consequently, every cell is able to obtain nutrients, water and oxygen without the need of a transport system. Some animals, such as jellyfish, have more extensive branching from their gastrovascular cavity (which functions as both a place of digestion and a form of circulation), this branching allows for bodily fluids to reach the outer layers, since the digestion begins in the inner layers. History Human anatomical chart of blood vessels, with heart, lungs, liver and kidneys included. Other organs are numbered and arranged around it. Before cutting out the figures on this page, Vesalius suggests that readers glue the page onto parchment and gives instructions on how to assemble the pieces and paste the multilayered figure onto a base ""muscle man"" illustration. ""Epitome"", fol.14a. HMD Collection, WZ 240 V575dh Z 1543. The earliest known writings on the circulatory system are found in the Ebers Papyrus (16th century BCE), an ancient Egyptian medical papyrus containing over 700 prescriptions and remedies, both physical and spiritual. In the papyrus, it acknowledges the connection of the heart to the arteries. The Egyptians thought air came in through the mouth and into the lungs and heart. From the heart, the air travelled to every member through the arteries. Although this concept of the circulatory system is only partially correct, it represents one of the earliest accounts of scientific thought. In the 6th century BCE, the knowledge of circulation of vital fluids through the body was known to the Ayurvedic physician Sushruta in ancient India. [18] He also seems to have possessed knowledge of the arteries, described as 'channels' by Dwivedi & Dwivedi (2007). [18] The valves of the heart were discovered by a physician of the Hippocratean school around the 4th century BCE. However their function was not properly understood then. Because blood pools in the veins after death, arteries look empty. Ancient anatomists assumed they were filled with air and that they were for transport of air. The Greek physician, Herophilus, distinguished veins from arteries but thought that the pulse was a property of arteries themselves. Greek anatomist Erasistratus observed that arteries that were cut during life bleed. He ascribed the fact to the phenomenon that air escaping from an artery is replaced with blood that entered by very small vessels between veins and arteries. Thus he apparently postulated capillaries but with reversed flow of blood. [19]In 2nd century AD Rome, the Greek physician Galen knew that blood vessels carried blood and identified venous (dark red) and arterial (brighter and thinner) blood, each with distinct and separate functions. Growth and energy were derived from venous blood created in the liver from chyle, while arterial blood gave vitality by containing pneuma (air) and originated in the heart. Blood flowed from both creating organs to all parts of the body where it was consumed and there was no return of blood to the heart or liver. The heart did not pump blood around, the heart's motion sucked blood in during diastole and the blood moved by the pulsation of the arteries themselves. Galen believed that the arterial blood was created by venous blood passing from the left ventricle to the right by passing through 'pores' in the interventricular septum, air passed from the lungs via the pulmonary artery to the left side of the heart. As the arterial blood was created 'sooty' vapors were created and passed to the lungs also via the pulmonary artery to be exhaled. In 1025, The Canon of Medicine by the Persian physician, Avicenna, ""erroneously accepted the Greek notion regarding the existence of a hole in the ventricular septum by which the blood traveled between the ventricles."" Despite this, Avicenna ""correctly wrote on the cardiac cycles and valvular function"", and ""had a vision of blood circulation"" in his Treatise on Pulse. [20] [ verification needed] While also refining Galen's erroneous theory of the pulse, Avicenna provided the first correct explanation of pulsation: ""Every beat of the pulse comprises two movements and two pauses. Thus, expansion : pause : contraction : pause. [...] The pulse is a movement in the heart and arteries ... which takes the form of alternate expansion and contraction."" [21]In 1242, the Arabian physician, Ibn al-Nafis, became the first person to accurately describe the process of pulmonary circulation, for which he is sometimes considered the father of circulatory physiology. [22] [ not in citation given] Ibn al-Nafis stated in his Commentary on Anatomy in Avicenna's Canon:""...the blood from the right chamber of the heart must arrive at the left chamber but there is no direct pathway between them. The thick septum of the heart is not perforated and does not have visible pores as some people thought or invisible pores as Galen thought. The blood from the right chamber must flow through the vena arteriosa ( pulmonary artery) to the lungs, spread through its substances, be mingled there with air, pass through the arteria venosa ( pulmonary vein) to reach the left chamber of the heart and there form the vital spirit...""In addition, Ibn al-Nafis had an insight into what would become a larger theory of the capillary circulation. He stated that ""there must be small communications or pores ( manafidh in Arabic) between the pulmonary artery and vein,"" a prediction that preceded the discovery of the capillary system by more than 400 years. [23] Ibn al-Nafis' theory, however, was confined to blood transit in the lungs and did not extend to the entire body. Michael Servetus was the first European to describe the function of pulmonary circulation, although his achievement was not widely recognized at the time, for a few reasons. He firstly described it in the ""Manuscript of Paris"" [24] [25] (near 1546), but this work was never published. And later he published this description, but in a theological treatise, Christianismi Restitutio, not in a book on medicine. Only three copies of the book survived but these remained hidden for decades, the rest were burned shortly after its publication in 1553 because of persecution of Servetus by religious authorities. Better known discovery of pulmonary circulation was by Vesalius 's successor at Padua, Realdo Colombo, in 1559. Image of veins from William Harvey 's Exercitatio Anatomica de Motu Cordis et Sanguinis in Animalibus, 1628Finally, William Harvey, a pupil of Hieronymus Fabricius (who had earlier described the valves of the veins without recognizing their function), performed a sequence of experiments, and published Exercitatio Anatomica de Motu Cordis et Sanguinis in Animalibus in 1628, which ""demonstrated that there had to be a direct connection between the venous and arterial systems throughout the body, and not just the lungs. Most importantly, he argued that the beat of the heart produced a continuous circulation of blood through minute connections at the extremities of the body. This is a conceptual leap that was quite different from Ibn al-Nafis' refinement of the anatomy and bloodflow in the heart and lungs."" [26] This work, with its essentially correct exposition, slowly convinced the medical world. However, Harvey was not able to identify the capillary system connecting arteries and veins; these were later discovered by Marcello Malpighi in 1661. In 1956, André Frédéric Cournand, Werner Forssmann and Dickinson W. Richards were awarded the Nobel Prize in Medicine ""for their discoveries concerning heart catheterization and pathological changes in the circulatory system."" [27] In his Nobel lecture, Forssmann credits Harvey as birthing cardiology with the publication of his book in 1628. [28]In the 1970s, Diana Mc Sherry developed computer-based systems to create images of the circulatory system and heart without the need for surgery. [29]See also Cardiology Vital heat Cardiac muscle Major systems of the human body Amato Lusitano Vascular resistance References^ "" circulatory system "" at Dorland's Medical Dictionary^ ""Let's beat cancer sooner"". Cancer Research UK. Retrieved April 13, 2017.^ "" cardiovascular system "" at Dorland's Medical Dictionary^ ""How does the blood circulatory system work?"". Pub Med Health. 1 August 2016.^ a b Sherwood, Lauralee (2011). Human Physiology: From Cells to Systems. Cengage Learning. pp. 401–. ISBN 978-1-133-10893-1.^ Cardiovascular System at the US National Library of Medicine Medical Subject Headings (Me SH)^ Pratt, Rebecca. ""Cardiovascular System: Blood"". Anatomy One. Amirsys, Inc. Archived from the original on 2017-02-24.^ a b c d Guyton, Arthur; Hall, John (2000). Guyton Textbook of Medical Physiology (10 ed.). ISBN 072168677X.^ National Institutes of Health. ""What Are the Lungs?"". nih.gov. Archived from the original on 2014-10-04.^ State University of New York (February 3, 2014). ""The Circulatory System"". suny.edu. Archived from the original on February 3, 2014.^ Alberts, B.; Johnson, A.; Lewis, J.; Raff, M.; Roberts, K.; Walters, P. (2002). Molecular Biology of the Cell (4th ed.). New York and London: Garland Science. ISBN 0-8153-3218-1.^ Whitaker, Kent (2001). ""Fetal Circulation"". Comprehensive Perinatal and Pediatric Respiratory Care. Delmar Thomson Learning. pp. 18–20. ISBN 978-0-7668-1373-1.^ Wier LM, Steiner CA, Owens PL (April 17, 2015). ""Surgeries in Hospital-Owned Outpatient Facilities, 2012"". HCUP Statistical Brief #188. Rockville, MD: Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality.^ Monahan‐Earley, R., Dvorak, A. M., & Aird, W. C. (2013). Evolutionary origins of the blood vascular system and endothelium. Journal of Thrombosis and Haemostasis 11 (s1): 46-66.^ Bailey, Regina. ""Circulatory System"". biology.about.com.^ Simões-Costa MS, et al. 2005. The evolutionary origin of cardiac chambers. Dev. Biol. 277: 1–15.^ ""Crocodilian Hearts"". National Center for Science Education. October 24, 2008. Retrieved October 3, 2015.^ a b Dwivedi, Girish & Dwivedi, Shridhar (2007). ""History of Medicine: Sushruta – the Clinician – Teacher par Excellence"" Archived October 10, 2008, at the Wayback Machine ., Indian J Chest Dis Allied Sci Vol.49 pp.243-4, National Informatics Centre (Government of India).^ Anatomy – History of anatomy. Scienceclarified.com. Retrieved 2013-09-15.^ Shoja, M. M.; Tubbs, R. S.; Loukas, M.; Khalili, M.; Alakbarli, F.; Cohen-Gadol, A. A. (2009). ""Vasovagal syncope in the Canon of Avicenna: The first mention of carotid artery hypersensitivity"". International Journal of Cardiology. 134 (3): 297–301. doi: 10.1016/j.ijcard.2009.02.035. PMID 19332359.^ Hajar, Rachel (1999). ""The Greco-Islamic Pulse"". Heart Views. 1 (4): 136–140 [138]. Archived from the original on 2014-01-09.^ Reflections, Chairman's (2004). ""Traditional Medicine Among Gulf Arabs, Part II: Blood-letting"". Heart Views. 5 (2): 74–85 [80]. Archived from the original on 2007-09-11.^ West, J. B. (2008). ""Ibn al-Nafis, the pulmonary circulation, and the Islamic Golden Age"". Journal of Applied Physiology. 105 (6): 1877–1880. doi: 10.1152/japplphysiol.91171.2008. PMC 2612469. PMID 18845773.^ Gonzalez Etxeberria, Patxi (2011) Amor a la verdad, el – vida y obra de Miguel servet [ The love for truth. Life and work of Michael Servetus ]. Navarro y Navarro, Zaragoza, collaboration with the Government of Navarra, Department of Institutional Relations and Education of the Government of Navarra. ISBN 8423532666 pp. 215–228 & 62nd illustration (XLVII)^ Michael Servetus Research Study with graphical proof on the Manuscript of Paris and many other manuscripts and new works by Servetus^ Pormann, Peter E. and Smith, E. Savage (2007) Medieval Islamic medicine Georgetown University, Washington DC, p. 48, ISBN 1589011619.^ ""The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 1956"". Nobel Foundation. Retrieved 2007-07-28.^ ""The Role of Heart Catheterization and Angiocardiography in the Development of Modern Medicine"". Retrieved 2017-10-08.^ Wayne, Tiffany K. (2011). American women of science since 1900. Santa Barbara, Calif.: ABC-CLIO. pp. 677–678. ISBN 9781598841589. External links Find more about Circulatory system at Wikipedia's sister projects Definitions from Wiktionary Media from Wikimedia Commons News from Wikinews Quotations from Wikiquote Texts from Wikisource Textbooks from Wikibooks Learning resources from Wikiversity Library resources about Circulatory system Resources in your libraryhttp://cnx.org/content/m46646/latest/The Circulatory System Reiber C. L. & Mc Gaw I. J. (2009). ""A Review of the ""Open"" and ""Closed"" Circulatory Systems: New Terminology for Complex Invertebrate Circulatory Systems in Light of Current Findings"". International Journal of Zoology 2009: 8 pages. doi: 10.1155/2009/301284. Patwardhan K. The history of the discovery of blood circulation: unrecognized contributions of Ayurveda masters. Adv Physiol Educ. 2012 Jun;36 (2):77–82. Michael Servetus Research Study on the Manuscript of Paris by Servetus (1546 description of the Pulmonary Circulation) [ hide]v t e Anatomy of the heart General Surfacebase apex sulcicoronary interatrial anterior interventricular posterior interventricularbordersrightleft Internalatriainteratrial septum pectinate muscles terminal sulcusventriclesinterventricular septumtrabeculae carneae chordae tendineae papillary musclevalves cusps atrioventricular septumcardiac skeleton intervenous tubercle Chambers Right heart ( venae cavae, coronary sinus) → right atrium ( atrial appendage, fossa ovalis, limbus of fossa ovalis, crista terminalis, valve of inferior vena cava, valve of coronary sinus) → tricuspid valve → right ventricle ( infundibulum, moderator band/septomarginal trabecula, crista supraventricularis ), → pulmonary valve → ( pulmonary artery and pulmonary circulation)Left heart ( pulmonary veins) → left atrium ( atrial appendage) → mitral valve → left ventricle → aortic valve ( aortic sinus) → ( aorta and systemic circulation)Layers Endocardiumheart valves Myocardium Conduction systemcardiac pacemaker SA node Bachmann's bundle AV node bundle of Hisbundle branches Purkinje fibers Pericardial cavitypericardial sinus Pericardiumfibrous pericardiumsternopericardial ligamentsserous pericardiumepicardium/visceral layerfold of left vena cava Blood supply Circulatory system Coronary circulation Coronary arteries [ show]v t e Arteries and veins [ show]v t e Physiology of the cardiovascular system [ show]v t e Development of the circulatory system [ show]v t e Cardiovascular disease (heart) ( I00–I52, 390–429) [ show]v t e Human systems and organs [ show]v t e Diving medicine, physiology, physics and environment Authority control GND: 4134345-1 NDL: 00575112Categories: Circulatory system Exercise physiology Angiology "
[ "\"From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedianavigation search\"\"Bloodstream\"\" redirects here.", "For the song by Ed Sheeran, see Bloodstream (song).", "This article is about the animal circulatory system.", "For plants, see Vascular tissue.", "Circulatory system The human circulatory system (simplified).", "Red indicates oxygenated blood carried in arteries, blue indicates deoxygenated blood carried in veins.", "Capillaries, which join the arteries and veins, and the lymphatic vessels are not shown.", "Identifiers Me SH D002319TA A12.0.00.001FMA 7161Anatomical terminology [ edit on Wikidata]The circulatory system, also called the cardiovascular system or the vascular system, is an organ system that permits blood to circulate and transport nutrients (such as amino acids and electrolytes ), oxygen, carbon dioxide, hormones, and blood cells to and from the cells in the body to provide nourishment and help in fighting diseases, stabilize temperature and p H, and maintain homeostasis.", "The circulatory system includes the lymphatic system, which circulates lymph.", "[1] The passage of lymph for example takes much longer than that of blood.", "[2] Blood is a fluid consisting of plasma, red blood cells, white blood cells, and platelets that is circulated by the heart through the vertebrate vascular system, carrying oxygen and nutrients to and waste materials away from all body tissues.", "Lymph is essentially recycled excess blood plasma after it has been filtered from the interstitial fluid (between cells) and returned to the lymphatic system.", "The cardiovascular (from Latin words meaning \"\"heart\"\" and \"\"vessel\"\") system comprises the blood, heart, and blood vessels.", "[3] The lymph, lymph nodes, and lymph vessels form the lymphatic system, which returns filtered blood plasma from the interstitial fluid (between cells) as lymph.", "The circulatory system of the blood is seen as having two components, a systemic circulation and a pulmonary circulation.", "[4]While humans, as well as other vertebrates, have a closed cardiovascular system (meaning that the blood never leaves the network of arteries, veins and capillaries ), some invertebrate groups have an open cardiovascular system.", "The lymphatic system, on the other hand, is an open system providing an accessory route for excess interstitial fluid to be returned to the blood.", "[5] The more primitive, diploblastic animal phyla lack circulatory systems.", "Many diseases affect the circulatory system.", "This includes cardiovascular disease, affecting the cardiovascular system, and lymphatic disease affecting the lymphatic system.", "Cardiologists are medical professionals which specialise in the heart, and cardiothoracic surgeons specialise in operating on the heart and its surrounding areas.", "Vascular surgeons focus on other parts of the circulatory system.", "Contents [ hide ]1 Structure1.1 Cardiovascular system1.1.1 Arteries1.1.2 Capillaries1.1.3 Veins1.1.4 Coronary vessels1.1.5 Portal veins1.1.6 Heart1.1.7 Lungs1.1.8 Systemic circulation1.1.9 Brain1.1.10 Kidneys1.2 Lymphatic system2 Development2.1 Heart2.2 Arteries2.3 Veins3 Function3.1 Cardiovascular system3.2 Lymphatic system4 Clinical significance4.1 Cardiovascular disease4.2 Investigations4.3 Surgery5 Society and culture6 Other animals6.1 Open circulatory system6.2 Closed circulatory system6.3 No circulatory system7 History8 See also9 References10 External links Structure Cardiovascular system Depiction of the heart, major veins and arteries constructed from body scans.", "Cross section of a human artery Relative percentages of cardiac output delivered to major organ systems The essential components of the human cardiovascular system are the heart, blood and blood vessels.", "[6] It includes the pulmonary circulation, a \"\"loop\"\" through the lungs where blood is oxygenated; and the systemic circulation, a \"\"loop\"\" through the rest of the body to provide oxygenated blood.", "The systemic circulation can also be seen to function in two parts–a macrocirculation and a microcirculation.", "An average adult contains five to six quarts (roughly 4.7 to 5.7 liters) of blood, accounting for approximately 7% of their total body weight.", "[7] Blood consists of plasma, red blood cells, white blood cells, and platelets.", "Also, the digestive system works with the circulatory system to provide the nutrients the system needs to keep the heart pumping.", "[8]The cardiovascular systems of humans are closed, meaning that the blood never leaves the network of blood vessels.", "In contrast, oxygen and nutrients diffuse across the blood vessel layers and enter interstitial fluid, which carries oxygen and nutrients to the target cells, and carbon dioxide and wastes in the opposite direction.", "The other component of the circulatory system, the lymphatic system, is open.", "Arteries See also: Arterial tree Oxygenated blood enters the systemic circulation when leaving the left ventricle, through the aortic semilunar valve.", "The first part of the systemic circulation is the aorta, a massive and thick-walled artery.", "The aorta arches and gives branches supplying the upper part of the body after passing through the aortic opening of the diaphragm at the level of thoracic ten vertebra, it enters the abdomen.", "Later it descends down and supplies branches to abdomen, pelvis, perineum and the lower limbs.", "The walls of aorta are elastic.", "This elasticity helps to maintain the blood pressure throughout the body.", "When the aorta receives almost five litres of blood from the heart, it recoils and is responsible for pulsating blood pressure.", "Moreover, as aorta branches into smaller arteries, their elasticity goes on decreasing and their compliance goes on increasing.", "Capillaries Arteries branch into small passages called arterioles and then into the capillaries.", "[9] The capillaries merge to bring blood into the venous system.", "[10]Veins After their passage through body tissues, capillaries merge once again into venules, which continue to merge into veins.", "The venous system finally coalesces into two major veins: the superior vena cava (roughly speaking draining the areas above the heart) and the inferior vena cava (roughly speaking from areas below the heart).", "These two great vessels empty into the right atrium of the heart.", "Coronary vessels Main article: Coronary circulation The heart itself is supplied with oxygen and nutrients through a small \"\"loop\"\" of the systemic circulation and derives very little from the blood contained within the four chambers.", "Portal veins Main article: Portal vein The general rule is that arteries from the heart branch out into capillaries, which collect into veins leading back to the heart.", "Portal veins are a slight exception to this.", "In humans the only significant example is the hepatic portal vein which combines from capillaries around the gastrointestinal tract where the blood absorbs the various products of digestion; rather than leading directly back to the heart, the hepatic portal vein branches into a second capillary system in the liver.", "Heart Main article: Heart View from the front The heart pumps oxygenated blood to the body and deoxygenated blood to the lungs.", "In the human heart there is one atrium and one ventricle for each circulation, and with both a systemic and a pulmonary circulation there are four chambers in total: left atrium, left ventricle, right atrium and right ventricle.", "The right atrium is the upper chamber of the right side of the heart.", "The blood that is returned to the right atrium is deoxygenated (poor in oxygen) and passed into the right ventricle to be pumped through the pulmonary artery to the lungs for re-oxygenation and removal of carbon dioxide.", "The left atrium receives newly oxygenated blood from the lungs as well as the pulmonary vein which is passed into the strong left ventricle to be pumped through the aorta to the different organs of the body.", "The coronary circulation system provides a blood supply to the heart muscle itself.", "The coronary circulation begins near the origin of the aorta by two coronary arteries: the right coronary artery and the left coronary artery.", "After nourishing the heart muscle, blood returns through the coronary veins into the coronary sinus and from this one into the right atrium.", "Back flow of blood through its opening during atrial systole is prevented by the Thebesian valve.", "The smallest cardiac veins drain directly into the heart chambers.", "[8]Lungs The pulmonary circulation as it passes from the heart.", "Showing both the pulmonary and bronchial arteries.", "Main article: Pulmonary circulation The circulatory system of the lungs is the portion of the cardiovascular system in which oxygen -depleted blood is pumped away from the heart, via the pulmonary artery, to the lungs and returned, oxygenated, to the heart via the pulmonary vein.", "Oxygen deprived blood from the superior and inferior vena cava enters the right atrium of the heart and flows through the tricuspid valve (right atrioventricular valve) into the right ventricle, from which it is then pumped through the pulmonary semilunar valve into the pulmonary artery to the lungs.", "Gas exchange occurs in the lungs, whereby CO 2 is released from the blood, and oxygen is absorbed.", "The pulmonary vein returns the now oxygen-rich blood to the left atrium.", "[8]A separate system known as the bronchial circulation supplies blood to the tissue of the larger airways of the lung.", "Systemic circulation The systemic circulation and capillary networks shown and also as separate from the pulmonary circulation Systemic circulation is the portion of the cardiovascular system which transports oxygenated blood away from the heart through the aorta from the left ventricle where the blood has been previously deposited from pulmonary circulation, to the rest of the body, and returns oxygen-depleted blood back to the heart.", "[8]Brain Main article: Cerebral circulation The brain has a dual blood supply that comes from arteries at its front and back.", "These are called the \"\"anterior\"\" and \"\"posterior\"\" circulation respectively.", "The anterior circulation arises from the internal carotid arteries and supplies the front of the brain.", "The posterior circulation arises from the vertebral arteries, and supplies the back of the brain and brainstem.", "The circulation from the front and the back join together ( anastomise) at the Circle of Willis.", "Kidneys The renal circulation receives around 20% of the cardiac output.", "It branches from the abdominal aorta and returns blood to the ascending vena cava.", "It is the blood supply to the kidneys, and contains many specialized blood vessels.", "Lymphatic system Main article: Lymphatic system The lymphatic system is part of the circulatory system.", "It is a network of lymphatic vessels and lymph capillaries, lymph nodes and organs, and lymphatic tissues and circulating lymph.", "One of its major functions is to carry the lymph, draining and returning interstitial fluid back towards the heart for return to the cardiovascular system, by emptying into the lymphatic ducts.", "Its other main function is in the adaptive immune system.", "[11]Development Main article: Fetal circulation The development of the circulatory system starts with vasculogenesis in the embryo.", "The human arterial and venous systems develop from different areas in the embryo.", "The arterial system develops mainly from the aortic arches, six pairs of arches which develop on the upper part of the embryo.", "The venous system arises from three bilateral veins during weeks 4 – 8 of embryogenesis.", "Fetal circulation begins within the 8th week of development.", "Fetal circulation does not include the lungs, which are bypassed via the truncus arteriosus.", "Before birth the fetus obtains oxygen (and nutrients) from the mother through the placenta and the umbilical cord.", "[12]Heart Main article: Heart development Arteries Main article: Aortic arches The human arterial system originates from the aortic arches and from the dorsal aortae starting from week 4 of embryonic life.", "The first and second aortic arches regress and forms only the maxillary arteries and stapedial arteries respectively.", "The arterial system itself arises from aortic arches 3, 4 and 6 (aortic arch 5 completely regresses).", "The dorsal aortae, present on the dorsal side of the embryo, are initially present on both sides of the embryo.", "They later fuse to form the basis for the aorta itself.", "Approximately thirty smaller arteries branch from this at the back and sides.", "These branches form the intercostal arteries, arteries of the arms and legs, lumbar arteries and the lateral sacral arteries.", "Branches to the sides of the aorta will form the definitive renal, suprarenal and gonadal arteries.", "Finally, branches at the front of the aorta consist of the vitelline arteries and umbilical arteries.", "The vitelline arteries form the celiac, superior and inferior mesenteric arteries of the gastrointestinal tract.", "After birth, the umbilical arteries will form the internal iliac arteries.", "Veins The human venous system develops mainly from the vitelline veins, the umbilical veins and the cardinal veins, all of which empty into the sinus venosus.", "Function Cardiovascular system Animation of a typical human red blood cell cycle in the circulatory system.", "This animation occurs at a faster rate (~20 seconds of the average 60-second cycle) and shows the red blood cell deforming as it enters capillaries, as well as the bars changing color as the cell alternates in states of oxygenation along the circulatory system.", "Main article: Blood § Oxygen transport About 98.5% of the oxygen in a sample of arterial blood in a healthy human, breathing air at sea-level pressure, is chemically combined with hemoglobin molecules.", "About 1.5% is physically dissolved in the other blood liquids and not connected to hemoglobin.", "The hemoglobin molecule is the primary transporter of oxygen in mammals and many other species.", "Lymphatic system Main article: Lymphatic system § Function Clinical significance Many diseases affect the circulatory system.", "This includes cardiovascular disease, affecting the cardiovascular system, and lymphatic disease affecting the lymphatic system.", "Cardiologists are medical professionals which specialise in the heart, and cardiothoracic surgeons specialise in operating on the heart and its surrounding areas.", "Vascular surgeons focus on other parts of the circulatory system.", "Cardiovascular disease Main article: Cardiovascular disease Diseases affecting the cardiovascular system are called cardiovascular disease.", "Many of these diseases are called \"\" lifestyle diseases \"\" because they develop over time and are related to a person's exercise habits, diet, whether they smoke, and other lifestyle choices a person makes.", "Atherosclerosis is the precursor to many of these diseases.", "It is where small atheromatous plaques build up in the walls of medium and large arteries.", "This may eventually grow or rupture to occlude the arteries.", "It is also a risk factor for acute coronary syndromes, which are diseases which are characterised by a sudden deficit of oxygenated blood to the heart tissue.", "Atherosclerosis is also associated with problems such as aneurysm formation or splitting (\"\"dissection\"\") of arteries.", "Another major cardiovascular disease involves the creation of a clot, called a \"\"thrombus\"\".", "These can originate in veins or arteries.", "Deep venous thrombosis, which mostly occurs in the legs, is one cause of clots in the veins of the legs, particularly when a person has been stationary for a long time.", "These clots may embolise, meaning travel to another location in the body.", "The results of this may include pulmonary embolus, transient ischaemic attacks, or stroke.", "Cardiovascular diseases may also be congenital in nature, such as heart defects or persistent fetal circulation, where the circulatory changes that are supposed to happen after birth do not.", "Not all congenital changes to the circulatory system are associated with diseases, a large number are anatomical variations.", "Investigations Magnetic resonance angiography of aberrant subclavian artery The function and health of the circulatory system and its parts are measured in a variety of manual and automated ways.", "These include simple methods such as those that are part of the cardiovascular examination, including the taking of a person's pulse as an indicator of a person's heart rate, the taking of blood pressure through a sphygmomanometer or the use of a stethoscope to listen to the heart for murmurs which may indicate problems with the heart's valves.", "An electrocardiogram can also be used to evaluate the way in which electricity is conducted through the heart.", "Other more invasive means can also be used.", "A cannula or catheter inserted into an artery may be used to measure pulse pressure or pulmonary wedge pressures.", "Angiography, which involves injecting a dye into an artery to visualise an arterial tree, can be used in the heart ( coronary angiography) or brain.", "At the same time as the arteries are visualised, blockages or narrowings may be fixed through the insertion of stents, and active bleeds may be managed by the insertion of coils.", "An MRI may be used to image arteries, called an MRI angiogram.", "For evaluation of the blood supply to the lungs a CT pulmonary angiogram may be used.", "Vascular ultrasonography include for example: Intravascular ultrasound Ultrasonography of deep venous thrombosis Ultrasonography of chronic venous insufficiency of the legs Surgery This section needs expansion.", "You can help by adding to it.", "(March 2015)There are a number of surgical procedures performed on the circulatory system: Coronary artery bypass surgery Coronary stent used in angioplasty Vascular surgery Vein stripping Cosmetic procedures Cardiovascular procedures are more likely to be performed in an inpatient setting than in an ambulatory care setting; in the United States, only 28% of cardiovascular surgeries were performed in the ambulatory care setting.", "[13]Society and culture This section needs expansion.", "You can help by adding to it.", "(March 2015)Other animals While humans, as well as other vertebrates, have a closed cardiovascular system (meaning that the blood never leaves the network of arteries, veins and capillaries ), some invertebrate groups have an open cardiovascular system.", "The lymphatic system, on the other hand, is an open system providing an accessory route for excess interstitial fluid to be returned to the blood.", "[5] The more primitive, diploblastic animal phyla lack circulatory systems.", "The blood vascular system first appeared probably in an ancestor of the triploblasts over 600 million years ago, overcoming the time-distance constraints of diffusion, while endothelium evolved in an ancestral vertebrate some 540–510 million years ago.", "[14]Open circulatory system See also: Hemolymph The open circulatory system of the grasshopper – made up of a heart, vessels and hemolymph.", "The hemolymph is pumped through the heart, into the aorta, dispersed into the head and throughout the hemocoel, then back through the ostia in the heart and the process repeated.", "In arthropods, the open circulatory system is a system in which a fluid in a cavity called the hemocoel bathes the organs directly with oxygen and nutrients and there is no distinction between blood and interstitial fluid; this combined fluid is called hemolymph or haemolymph.", "[15] Muscular movements by the animal during locomotion can facilitate hemolymph movement, but diverting flow from one area to another is limited.", "When the heart relaxes, blood is drawn back toward the heart through open-ended pores (ostia).", "Hemolymph fills all of the interior hemocoel of the body and surrounds all cells.", "Hemolymph is composed of water, inorganic salts (mostly sodium, chlorine, potassium, magnesium, and calcium ), and organic compounds (mostly carbohydrates, proteins, and lipids ).", "The primary oxygen transporter molecule is hemocyanin.", "There are free-floating cells, the hemocytes, within the hemolymph.", "They play a role in the arthropod immune system.", "Flatworms, such as this Pseudoceros bifurcus, lack specialized circulatory organs Closed circulatory system Two-chambered heart of a fish The circulatory systems of all vertebrates, as well as of annelids (for example, earthworms) and cephalopods ( squids, octopuses and relatives) are closed, just as in humans.", "Still, the systems of fish, amphibians, reptiles, and birds show various stages of the evolution of the circulatory system.", "[16]In fish, the system has only one circuit, with the blood being pumped through the capillaries of the gills and on to the capillaries of the body tissues.", "This is known as single cycle circulation.", "The heart of fish is, therefore, only a single pump (consisting of two chambers).", "In amphibians and most reptiles, a double circulatory system is used, but the heart is not always completely separated into two pumps.", "Amphibians have a three-chambered heart.", "In reptiles, the ventricular septum of the heart is incomplete and the pulmonary artery is equipped with a sphincter muscle.", "This allows a second possible route of blood flow.", "Instead of blood flowing through the pulmonary artery to the lungs, the sphincter may be contracted to divert this blood flow through the incomplete ventricular septum into the left ventricle and out through the aorta.", "This means the blood flows from the capillaries to the heart and back to the capillaries instead of to the lungs.", "This process is useful to ectothermic (cold-blooded) animals in the regulation of their body temperature.", "Birds, mammals, and crocodilians show complete separation of the heart into two pumps, for a total of four heart chambers; it is thought that the four-chambered heart of birds and crocodilians evolved independently from that of mammals.", "[17]No circulatory system Circulatory systems are absent in some animals, including flatworms.", "Their body cavity has no lining or enclosed fluid.", "Instead a muscular pharynx leads to an extensively branched digestive system that facilitates direct diffusion of nutrients to all cells.", "The flatworm's dorso-ventrally flattened body shape also restricts the distance of any cell from the digestive system or the exterior of the organism.", "Oxygen can diffuse from the surrounding water into the cells, and carbon dioxide can diffuse out.", "Consequently, every cell is able to obtain nutrients, water and oxygen without the need of a transport system.", "Some animals, such as jellyfish, have more extensive branching from their gastrovascular cavity (which functions as both a place of digestion and a form of circulation), this branching allows for bodily fluids to reach the outer layers, since the digestion begins in the inner layers.", "History Human anatomical chart of blood vessels, with heart, lungs, liver and kidneys included.", "Other organs are numbered and arranged around it.", "Before cutting out the figures on this page, Vesalius suggests that readers glue the page onto parchment and gives instructions on how to assemble the pieces and paste the multilayered figure onto a base \"\"muscle man\"\" illustration.", "\"\"Epitome\"\", fol.14a.", "HMD Collection, WZ 240 V575dh Z 1543.", "The earliest known writings on the circulatory system are found in the Ebers Papyrus (16th century BCE), an ancient Egyptian medical papyrus containing over 700 prescriptions and remedies, both physical and spiritual.", "In the papyrus, it acknowledges the connection of the heart to the arteries.", "The Egyptians thought air came in through the mouth and into the lungs and heart.", "From the heart, the air travelled to every member through the arteries.", "Although this concept of the circulatory system is only partially correct, it represents one of the earliest accounts of scientific thought.", "In the 6th century BCE, the knowledge of circulation of vital fluids through the body was known to the Ayurvedic physician Sushruta in ancient India.", "[18] He also seems to have possessed knowledge of the arteries, described as 'channels' by Dwivedi & Dwivedi (2007).", "[18] The valves of the heart were discovered by a physician of the Hippocratean school around the 4th century BCE.", "However their function was not properly understood then.", "Because blood pools in the veins after death, arteries look empty.", "Ancient anatomists assumed they were filled with air and that they were for transport of air.", "The Greek physician, Herophilus, distinguished veins from arteries but thought that the pulse was a property of arteries themselves.", "Greek anatomist Erasistratus observed that arteries that were cut during life bleed.", "He ascribed the fact to the phenomenon that air escaping from an artery is replaced with blood that entered by very small vessels between veins and arteries.", "Thus he apparently postulated capillaries but with reversed flow of blood.", "[19]In 2nd century AD Rome, the Greek physician Galen knew that blood vessels carried blood and identified venous (dark red) and arterial (brighter and thinner) blood, each with distinct and separate functions.", "Growth and energy were derived from venous blood created in the liver from chyle, while arterial blood gave vitality by containing pneuma (air) and originated in the heart.", "Blood flowed from both creating organs to all parts of the body where it was consumed and there was no return of blood to the heart or liver.", "The heart did not pump blood around, the heart's motion sucked blood in during diastole and the blood moved by the pulsation of the arteries themselves.", "Galen believed that the arterial blood was created by venous blood passing from the left ventricle to the right by passing through 'pores' in the interventricular septum, air passed from the lungs via the pulmonary artery to the left side of the heart.", "As the arterial blood was created 'sooty' vapors were created and passed to the lungs also via the pulmonary artery to be exhaled.", "In 1025, The Canon of Medicine by the Persian physician, Avicenna, \"\"erroneously accepted the Greek notion regarding the existence of a hole in the ventricular septum by which the blood traveled between the ventricles.\"\"", "Despite this, Avicenna \"\"correctly wrote on the cardiac cycles and valvular function\"\", and \"\"had a vision of blood circulation\"\" in his Treatise on Pulse.", "[20] [ verification needed] While also refining Galen's erroneous theory of the pulse, Avicenna provided the first correct explanation of pulsation: \"\"Every beat of the pulse comprises two movements and two pauses.", "Thus, expansion : pause : contraction : pause.", "[...] The pulse is a movement in the heart and arteries ... which takes the form of alternate expansion and contraction.\"\"", "[21]In 1242, the Arabian physician, Ibn al-Nafis, became the first person to accurately describe the process of pulmonary circulation, for which he is sometimes considered the father of circulatory physiology.", "[22] [ not in citation given] Ibn al-Nafis stated in his Commentary on Anatomy in Avicenna's Canon:\"\"...the blood from the right chamber of the heart must arrive at the left chamber but there is no direct pathway between them.", "The thick septum of the heart is not perforated and does not have visible pores as some people thought or invisible pores as Galen thought.", "The blood from the right chamber must flow through the vena arteriosa ( pulmonary artery) to the lungs, spread through its substances, be mingled there with air, pass through the arteria venosa ( pulmonary vein) to reach the left chamber of the heart and there form the vital spirit...\"\"In addition, Ibn al-Nafis had an insight into what would become a larger theory of the capillary circulation.", "He stated that \"\"there must be small communications or pores ( manafidh in Arabic) between the pulmonary artery and vein,\"\" a prediction that preceded the discovery of the capillary system by more than 400 years.", "[23] Ibn al-Nafis' theory, however, was confined to blood transit in the lungs and did not extend to the entire body.", "Michael Servetus was the first European to describe the function of pulmonary circulation, although his achievement was not widely recognized at the time, for a few reasons.", "He firstly described it in the \"\"Manuscript of Paris\"\" [24] [25] (near 1546), but this work was never published.", "And later he published this description, but in a theological treatise, Christianismi Restitutio, not in a book on medicine.", "Only three copies of the book survived but these remained hidden for decades, the rest were burned shortly after its publication in 1553 because of persecution of Servetus by religious authorities.", "Better known discovery of pulmonary circulation was by Vesalius 's successor at Padua, Realdo Colombo, in 1559.", "Image of veins from William Harvey 's Exercitatio Anatomica de Motu Cordis et Sanguinis in Animalibus, 1628Finally, William Harvey, a pupil of Hieronymus Fabricius (who had earlier described the valves of the veins without recognizing their function), performed a sequence of experiments, and published Exercitatio Anatomica de Motu Cordis et Sanguinis in Animalibus in 1628, which \"\"demonstrated that there had to be a direct connection between the venous and arterial systems throughout the body, and not just the lungs.", "Most importantly, he argued that the beat of the heart produced a continuous circulation of blood through minute connections at the extremities of the body.", "This is a conceptual leap that was quite different from Ibn al-Nafis' refinement of the anatomy and bloodflow in the heart and lungs.\"\"", "[26] This work, with its essentially correct exposition, slowly convinced the medical world.", "However, Harvey was not able to identify the capillary system connecting arteries and veins; these were later discovered by Marcello Malpighi in 1661.", "In 1956, André Frédéric Cournand, Werner Forssmann and Dickinson W. Richards were awarded the Nobel Prize in Medicine \"\"for their discoveries concerning heart catheterization and pathological changes in the circulatory system.\"\"", "[27] In his Nobel lecture, Forssmann credits Harvey as birthing cardiology with the publication of his book in 1628.", "[28]In the 1970s, Diana Mc Sherry developed computer-based systems to create images of the circulatory system and heart without the need for surgery.", "[29]See also Cardiology Vital heat Cardiac muscle Major systems of the human body Amato Lusitano Vascular resistance References^ \"\" circulatory system \"\" at Dorland's Medical Dictionary^ \"\"Let's beat cancer sooner\"\".", "Cancer Research UK.", "Retrieved April 13, 2017.^ \"\" cardiovascular system \"\" at Dorland's Medical Dictionary^ \"\"How does the blood circulatory system work?\"\".", "Pub Med Health.", "1 August 2016.^ a b Sherwood, Lauralee (2011).", "Human Physiology: From Cells to Systems.", "Cengage Learning.", "pp.", "401–.", "ISBN 978-1-133-10893-1.^ Cardiovascular System at the US National Library of Medicine Medical Subject Headings (Me SH)^ Pratt, Rebecca.", "\"\"Cardiovascular System: Blood\"\".", "Anatomy One.", "Amirsys, Inc. Archived from the original on 2017-02-24.^ a b c d Guyton, Arthur; Hall, John (2000).", "Guyton Textbook of Medical Physiology (10 ed.).", "ISBN 072168677X.^ National Institutes of Health.", "\"\"What Are the Lungs?\"\".", "nih.gov.", "Archived from the original on 2014-10-04.^ State University of New York (February 3, 2014).", "\"\"The Circulatory System\"\".", "suny.edu.", "Archived from the original on February 3, 2014.^ Alberts, B.; Johnson, A.; Lewis, J.; Raff, M.; Roberts, K.; Walters, P. (2002).", "Molecular Biology of the Cell (4th ed.).", "New York and London: Garland Science.", "ISBN 0-8153-3218-1.^ Whitaker, Kent (2001).", "\"\"Fetal Circulation\"\".", "Comprehensive Perinatal and Pediatric Respiratory Care.", "Delmar Thomson Learning.", "pp.", "18–20.", "ISBN 978-0-7668-1373-1.^ Wier LM, Steiner CA, Owens PL (April 17, 2015).", "\"\"Surgeries in Hospital-Owned Outpatient Facilities, 2012\"\".", "HCUP Statistical Brief #188.", "Rockville, MD: Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality.^ Monahan‐Earley, R., Dvorak, A. M., & Aird, W. C. (2013).", "Evolutionary origins of the blood vascular system and endothelium.", "Journal of Thrombosis and Haemostasis 11 (s1): 46-66.^ Bailey, Regina.", "\"\"Circulatory System\"\".", "biology.about.com.^ Simões-Costa MS, et al.", "2005.", "The evolutionary origin of cardiac chambers.", "Dev.", "Biol.", "277: 1–15.^ \"\"Crocodilian Hearts\"\".", "National Center for Science Education.", "October 24, 2008.", "Retrieved October 3, 2015.^ a b Dwivedi, Girish & Dwivedi, Shridhar (2007).", "\"\"History of Medicine: Sushruta – the Clinician – Teacher par Excellence\"\" Archived October 10, 2008, at the Wayback Machine ., Indian J Chest Dis Allied Sci Vol.49 pp.243-4, National Informatics Centre (Government of India).^ Anatomy – History of anatomy.", "Scienceclarified.com.", "Retrieved 2013-09-15.^ Shoja, M. M.; Tubbs, R. S.; Loukas, M.; Khalili, M.; Alakbarli, F.; Cohen-Gadol, A.", "A.", "(2009).", "\"\"Vasovagal syncope in the Canon of Avicenna: The first mention of carotid artery hypersensitivity\"\".", "International Journal of Cardiology.", "134 (3): 297–301.", "doi: 10.1016/j.ijcard.2009.02.035.", "PMID 19332359.^ Hajar, Rachel (1999).", "\"\"The Greco-Islamic Pulse\"\".", "Heart Views.", "1 (4): 136–140 [138].", "Archived from the original on 2014-01-09.^ Reflections, Chairman's (2004).", "\"\"Traditional Medicine Among Gulf Arabs, Part II: Blood-letting\"\".", "Heart Views.", "5 (2): 74–85 [80].", "Archived from the original on 2007-09-11.^ West, J.", "B.", "(2008).", "\"\"Ibn al-Nafis, the pulmonary circulation, and the Islamic Golden Age\"\".", "Journal of Applied Physiology.", "105 (6): 1877–1880.", "doi: 10.1152/japplphysiol.91171.2008.", "PMC 2612469.", "PMID 18845773.^ Gonzalez Etxeberria, Patxi (2011) Amor a la verdad, el – vida y obra de Miguel servet [ The love for truth.", "Life and work of Michael Servetus ].", "Navarro y Navarro, Zaragoza, collaboration with the Government of Navarra, Department of Institutional Relations and Education of the Government of Navarra.", "ISBN 8423532666 pp.", "215–228 & 62nd illustration (XLVII)^ Michael Servetus Research Study with graphical proof on the Manuscript of Paris and many other manuscripts and new works by Servetus^ Pormann, Peter E. and Smith, E. Savage (2007) Medieval Islamic medicine Georgetown University, Washington DC, p. 48, ISBN 1589011619.^ \"\"The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 1956\"\".", "Nobel Foundation.", "Retrieved 2007-07-28.^ \"\"The Role of Heart Catheterization and Angiocardiography in the Development of Modern Medicine\"\".", "Retrieved 2017-10-08.^ Wayne, Tiffany K. (2011).", "American women of science since 1900.", "Santa Barbara, Calif.: ABC-CLIO.", "pp.", "677–678.", "ISBN 9781598841589.", "External links Find more about Circulatory system at Wikipedia's sister projects Definitions from Wiktionary Media from Wikimedia Commons News from Wikinews Quotations from Wikiquote Texts from Wikisource Textbooks from Wikibooks Learning resources from Wikiversity Library resources about Circulatory system Resources in your libraryhttp://cnx.org/content/m46646/latest/The Circulatory System Reiber C. L. & Mc Gaw I. J.", "(2009).", "\"\"A Review of the \"\"Open\"\" and \"\"Closed\"\" Circulatory Systems: New Terminology for Complex Invertebrate Circulatory Systems in Light of Current Findings\"\".", "International Journal of Zoology 2009: 8 pages.", "doi: 10.1155/2009/301284.", "Patwardhan K. The history of the discovery of blood circulation: unrecognized contributions of Ayurveda masters.", "Adv Physiol Educ.", "2012 Jun;36 (2):77–82.", "Michael Servetus Research Study on the Manuscript of Paris by Servetus (1546 description of the Pulmonary Circulation) [ hide]v t e Anatomy of the heart General Surfacebase apex sulcicoronary interatrial anterior interventricular posterior interventricularbordersrightleft Internalatriainteratrial septum pectinate muscles terminal sulcusventriclesinterventricular septumtrabeculae carneae chordae tendineae papillary musclevalves cusps atrioventricular septumcardiac skeleton intervenous tubercle Chambers Right heart ( venae cavae, coronary sinus) → right atrium ( atrial appendage, fossa ovalis, limbus of fossa ovalis, crista terminalis, valve of inferior vena cava, valve of coronary sinus) → tricuspid valve → right ventricle ( infundibulum, moderator band/septomarginal trabecula, crista supraventricularis ), → pulmonary valve → ( pulmonary artery and pulmonary circulation)Left heart ( pulmonary veins) → left atrium ( atrial appendage) → mitral valve → left ventricle → aortic valve ( aortic sinus) → ( aorta and systemic circulation)Layers Endocardiumheart valves Myocardium Conduction systemcardiac pacemaker SA node Bachmann's bundle AV node bundle of Hisbundle branches Purkinje fibers Pericardial cavitypericardial sinus Pericardiumfibrous pericardiumsternopericardial ligamentsserous pericardiumepicardium/visceral layerfold of left vena cava Blood supply Circulatory system Coronary circulation Coronary arteries [ show]v t e Arteries and veins [ show]v t e Physiology of the cardiovascular system [ show]v t e Development of the circulatory system [ show]v t e Cardiovascular disease (heart) ( I00–I52, 390–429) [ show]v t e Human systems and organs [ show]v t e Diving medicine, physiology, physics and environment Authority control GND: 4134345-1 NDL: 00575112Categories: Circulatory system Exercise physiology Angiology \"" ]
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http://www.fixr.com/costs/install-gutters
How much does it cost to install gutters?
"How much does it cost to install gutters? The average cost to install galvanized or aluminum gutters is approximately $4 to $9 per linear foot. There are also vinyl gutters which are much easier to install, and which run at roughly $3 to $5 per linear foot. Therefore, installing from 125 to 200 feet of gutters will cost $1050-$2400. These prices, however, tend to apply strictly to the DIY homeowners. When a professional gutter company is hired for the work the prices will climb a bit with averages ranging from $1050 and $2400, and with separate prices assigned to downspout installations. For the purpose of this discussion we will look at the price and requirements to install 200 feet of gutters. Cost breakdown For the gutter installation, the typical costs include: Materials - costs for gutters range widely with PVC and vinyl 1 being the least expensive. There are also aluminum gutters (which dent very easily and which become brittle with prolonged exposure to the elements), wood gutters, galvanized steel 2 gutters, and even copper gutters. Plastics range from $3 to $5 per foot, aluminum average $4 to $9, wood are around $16 per foot, steel are from $4 to $8, and copper will be the most expensive with an average price of $20 per foot; and Labor - when the homeowner decides to have the job done by a professional, they will have to add more to the budget for this part of the work. A good carpenter or ""handyman"" can usually handle a gutter guard installation in a very short period of time. It would require the average contractor around seven hours to install a 50 foot section, which means that the project described here would require three days of work and a total of $2200 to complete. Enhancement and improvement costs Gutter Drainage - it will usually require no more than $160 to pay a professional to design and install a system for the drainage of gutter water away from the house or foundation;Removal and Disposal - removing old gutters and disposing of them will usually add to the total cost of the project. To pay a professional for the work will usually demand around $100;Cleaning - the average cost for a professional gutter cleaning is approximately $90 for a single service. In most areas it is necessary to clean gutters at least three times each year;Gutter Guards - there are dozens of varieties of gutter guards, with DIY and professionally installed options among them. The costs for a system can range from as little as $200 (DIY) up to $3600 for a professional installation;Downspout Screens - in addition to using gutter guards, a homeowner may want to consider installing downspout screens. These redirect floating debris away from the downspout opening and allow water to drain away immediately; and Heat Tape - there are many heating elements that are impervious to the effects of freezing temperatures, ice, and water and these will help to prevent ice from forming on top of, or inside a gutter. While a homeowner is installing gutters, or having them installed professionally, they may want to consider installing heating elements wherever icing occurs. Was this guide helpful to you? Yes No Remodeling Terms Cheat Sheet Definitions in laymen's terms, cost considerations, pictures and things you need to know. See full cheat sheet.1 Vinyl: A synthetic plastic made from ethylene and chlorine. Vinyl has many applications in the construction industry and it is widely used in sidings, window frames, roofing and gutters, among others2 Galvanized steel: Steel that has had a protective zinc coating applied to it to make it resistant to rusting How much does it cost to install gutters in my city ? Cost to install gutters varies greatly by region (and even by zip code). To get free estimates from local contractors, please indicate yours. CONTINUE "
[ "\"How much does it cost to install gutters?", "The average cost to install galvanized or aluminum gutters is approximately $4 to $9 per linear foot.", "There are also vinyl gutters which are much easier to install, and which run at roughly $3 to $5 per linear foot.", "Therefore, installing from 125 to 200 feet of gutters will cost $1050-$2400.", "These prices, however, tend to apply strictly to the DIY homeowners.", "When a professional gutter company is hired for the work the prices will climb a bit with averages ranging from $1050 and $2400, and with separate prices assigned to downspout installations.", "For the purpose of this discussion we will look at the price and requirements to install 200 feet of gutters.", "Cost breakdown For the gutter installation, the typical costs include: Materials - costs for gutters range widely with PVC and vinyl 1 being the least expensive.", "There are also aluminum gutters (which dent very easily and which become brittle with prolonged exposure to the elements), wood gutters, galvanized steel 2 gutters, and even copper gutters.", "Plastics range from $3 to $5 per foot, aluminum average $4 to $9, wood are around $16 per foot, steel are from $4 to $8, and copper will be the most expensive with an average price of $20 per foot; and Labor - when the homeowner decides to have the job done by a professional, they will have to add more to the budget for this part of the work.", "A good carpenter or \"\"handyman\"\" can usually handle a gutter guard installation in a very short period of time.", "It would require the average contractor around seven hours to install a 50 foot section, which means that the project described here would require three days of work and a total of $2200 to complete.", "Enhancement and improvement costs Gutter Drainage - it will usually require no more than $160 to pay a professional to design and install a system for the drainage of gutter water away from the house or foundation;Removal and Disposal - removing old gutters and disposing of them will usually add to the total cost of the project.", "To pay a professional for the work will usually demand around $100;Cleaning - the average cost for a professional gutter cleaning is approximately $90 for a single service.", "In most areas it is necessary to clean gutters at least three times each year;Gutter Guards - there are dozens of varieties of gutter guards, with DIY and professionally installed options among them.", "The costs for a system can range from as little as $200 (DIY) up to $3600 for a professional installation;Downspout Screens - in addition to using gutter guards, a homeowner may want to consider installing downspout screens.", "These redirect floating debris away from the downspout opening and allow water to drain away immediately; and Heat Tape - there are many heating elements that are impervious to the effects of freezing temperatures, ice, and water and these will help to prevent ice from forming on top of, or inside a gutter.", "While a homeowner is installing gutters, or having them installed professionally, they may want to consider installing heating elements wherever icing occurs.", "Was this guide helpful to you?", "Yes No Remodeling Terms Cheat Sheet Definitions in laymen's terms, cost considerations, pictures and things you need to know.", "See full cheat sheet.1 Vinyl: A synthetic plastic made from ethylene and chlorine.", "Vinyl has many applications in the construction industry and it is widely used in sidings, window frames, roofing and gutters, among others2 Galvanized steel: Steel that has had a protective zinc coating applied to it to make it resistant to rusting How much does it cost to install gutters in my city ?", "Cost to install gutters varies greatly by region (and even by zip code).", "To get free estimates from local contractors, please indicate yours.", "CONTINUE \"" ]
D16898
http://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/diabetes/basics/tests-diagnosis/CON-20033091
Diagnosis
Diagnosis Symptoms of type 1 diabetes often appear suddenly and are often the reason for checking blood sugar levels. Because symptoms of other types of diabetes and prediabetes come on more gradually or may not be evident, the American Diabetes Association (ADA) has recommended screening guidelines. The ADA recommends that the following people be screened for diabetes: Anyone with a body mass index higher than 25, regardless of age, who has additional risk factors, such as high blood pressure, a sedentary lifestyle, a history of polycystic ovary syndrome, having delivered a baby who weighed more than 9 pounds, a history of diabetes in pregnancy, high cholesterol levels, a history of heart disease, and having a close relative with diabetes. Anyone older than age 45 is advised to receive an initial blood sugar screening, and then, if the results are normal, to be screened every three years thereafter. Tests for type 1 and type 2 diabetes and prediabetes Glycated hemoglobin (A1C) test. This blood test indicates your average blood sugar level for the past two to three months. It measures the percentage of blood sugar attached to hemoglobin, the oxygen-carrying protein in red blood cells. The higher your blood sugar levels, the more hemoglobin you'll have with sugar attached. An A1C level of 6.5 percent or higher on two separate tests indicates that you have diabetes. An A1C between 5.7 and 6.4 percent indicates prediabetes. Below 5.7 is considered normal. If the A1C test results aren't consistent, the test isn't available, or if you have certain conditions that can make the A1C test inaccurate — such as if you're pregnant or have an uncommon form of hemoglobin (known as a hemoglobin variant) — your doctor may use the following tests to diagnose diabetes: Random blood sugar test. A blood sample will be taken at a random time. Regardless of when you last ate, a random blood sugar level of 200 milligrams per deciliter (mg/d L) — 11.1 millimoles per liter (mmol/L) — or higher suggests diabetes. Fasting blood sugar test. A blood sample will be taken after an overnight fast. A fasting blood sugar level less than 100 mg/d L (5.6 mmol/L) is normal. A fasting blood sugar level from 100 to 125 mg/d L (5.6 to 6.9 mmol/L) is considered prediabetes. If it's 126 mg/d L (7 mmol/L) or higher on two separate tests, you have diabetes. Oral glucose tolerance test. For this test, you fast overnight, and the fasting blood sugar level is measured. Then you drink a sugary liquid, and blood sugar levels are tested periodically for the next two hours. A blood sugar level less than 140 mg/d L (7.8 mmol/L) is normal. A reading of more than 200 mg/d L (11.1 mmol/L) after two hours indicates diabetes. A reading between 140 and 199 mg/d L (7.8 mmol/L and 11.0 mmol/L) indicates prediabetes. If type 1 diabetes is suspected, your urine will be tested to look for the presence of a byproduct produced when muscle and fat tissue are used for energy when the body doesn't have enough insulin to use the available glucose (ketones). Your doctor will also likely run a test to see if you have the destructive immune system cells associated with type 1 diabetes called autoantibodies. Tests for gestational diabetes Your doctor will likely evaluate your risk factors for gestational diabetes early in your pregnancy: If you're at high risk of gestational diabetes — for example, if you were obese at the start of your pregnancy, you had gestational diabetes during a previous pregnancy, or you have a mother, father, sibling or child with diabetes — your doctor may test for diabetes at your first prenatal visit. If you're at average risk of gestational diabetes, you'll likely have a screening test for gestational diabetes sometime during your second trimester — typically between 24 and 28 weeks of pregnancy. Your doctor may use the following screening tests: Initial glucose challenge test. You'll begin the glucose challenge test by drinking a syrupy glucose solution. One hour later, you'll have a blood test to measure your blood sugar level. A blood sugar level below 140 mg/d L (7.2 to 7.8 mmol/L) is usually considered normal on a glucose challenge test, although this may vary at specific clinics or labs. If your blood sugar level is higher than normal, it only means you have a higher risk of gestational diabetes. Your doctor will order a follow-up test to determine if you have gestational diabetes. Follow-up glucose tolerance testing. For the follow-up test, you'll be asked to fast overnight and then have your fasting blood sugar level measured. Then you'll drink another sweet solution — this one containing a higher concentration of glucose — and your blood sugar level will be checked every hour for a period of three hours. If at least two of the blood sugar readings are higher than the normal values established for each of the three hours of the test, you'll be diagnosed with gestational diabetes. Treatment Depending on what type of diabetes you have, blood sugar monitoring, insulin and oral medications may play a role in your treatment. Eating a healthy diet, maintaining a healthy weight and participating in regular activity also are important factors in managing diabetes. Treatments for all types of diabetes An important part of managing diabetes — as well as your overall health — is maintaining a healthy weight through a healthy diet and exercise plan: Healthy eating. Contrary to popular perception, there's no specific diabetes diet. You'll need to center your diet on more fruits, vegetables and whole grains — foods that are high in nutrition and fiber and low in fat and calories — and cut down on animal products, refined carbohydrates and sweets. In fact, it's the best eating plan for the entire family. Sugary foods are OK once in a while, as long as they're counted as part of your meal plan. Yet understanding what and how much to eat can be a challenge. A registered dietitian can help you create a meal plan that fits your health goals, food preferences and lifestyle. This will likely include carbohydrate counting, especially if you have type 1 diabetes. Physical activity. Everyone needs regular aerobic exercise, and people who have diabetes are no exception. Exercise lowers your blood sugar level by moving sugar into your cells, where it's used for energy. Exercise also increases your sensitivity to insulin, which means your body needs less insulin to transport sugar to your cells. Get your doctor's OK to exercise. Then choose activities you enjoy, such as walking, swimming or biking. What's most important is making physical activity part of your daily routine. Aim for at least 30 minutes or more of aerobic exercise most days of the week. If you haven't been active for a while, start slowly and build up gradually. Treatments for type 1 and type 2 diabetes Treatment for type 1 diabetes involves insulin injections or the use of an insulin pump, frequent blood sugar checks, and carbohydrate counting. Treatment of type 2 diabetes primarily involves monitoring of your blood sugar, along with diabetes medications, insulin or both. Monitoring your blood sugar. Depending on your treatment plan, you may check and record your blood sugar as often as several times a week to as many as four to eight times a day. Careful monitoring is the only way to make sure that your blood sugar level remains within your target range. People who receive insulin therapy also may choose to monitor their blood sugar levels with a continuous glucose monitor. Although this technology doesn't yet replace the glucose meter, it can provide important information about trends in blood sugar levels. Even with careful management, blood sugar levels can sometimes change unpredictably. With help from your diabetes treatment team, you'll learn how your blood sugar level changes in response to food, physical activity, medications, illness, alcohol, stress — for women, fluctuations in hormone levels. In addition to daily blood sugar monitoring, your doctor will likely recommend regular A1C testing to measure your average blood sugar level for the past two to three months. Compared with repeated daily blood sugar tests, A1C testing better indicates how well your diabetes treatment plan is working overall. An elevated A1C level may signal the need for a change in your insulin regimen or meal plan. Your target A1C goal may vary depending on your age and various other factors. However, for most people with diabetes, the American Diabetes Association recommends an A1C of below 7 percent. Ask your doctor what your A1C target is. Insulin. People with type 1 diabetes need insulin therapy to survive. Many people with type 2 diabetes or gestational diabetes also need insulin therapy. Many types of insulin are available, including rapid-acting insulin, long-acting insulin and intermediate options. Depending on your needs, your doctor may prescribe a mixture of insulin types to use throughout the day and night. Insulin can't be taken orally to lower blood sugar because stomach enzymes interfere with insulin's action. Often insulin is injected using a fine needle and syringe or an insulin pen — a device that looks like a large ink pen. An insulin pump may also be an option. The pump is a device about the size of a cellphone worn on the outside of your body. A tube connects the reservoir of insulin to a catheter that's inserted under the skin of your abdomen. A tubeless pump that works wirelessly is also now available. You program an insulin pump to dispense specific amounts of insulin. It can be adjusted to deliver more or less insulin depending on meals, activity level and blood sugar level. An emerging treatment approach, not yet available, is closed loop insulin delivery, also known as the artificial pancreas. It links a continuous glucose monitor to an insulin pump. The device automatically delivers the correct amount of insulin when the monitor indicates the need for it. There are a number of different versions of the artificial pancreas, and clinical trials have had encouraging results. More research needs to be done before a fully functional artificial pancreas can receive regulatory approval. However, the first step toward an artificial pancreas was approved in 2013. Combining a continuous glucose monitor with an insulin pump, this system stops insulin delivery when blood sugar levels drop too low. Studies on the device found that it could prevent low blood sugar levels overnight without significantly increasing morning blood sugar levels. Oral or other medications. Sometimes other oral or injected medications are prescribed as well. Some diabetes medications stimulate your pancreas to produce and release more insulin. Others inhibit the production and release of glucose from your liver, which means you need less insulin to transport sugar into your cells. Still others block the action of stomach or intestinal enzymes that break down carbohydrates or make your tissues more sensitive to insulin. Metformin (Glucophage, Glumetza, others) is generally the first medication prescribed for type 2 diabetes. Transplantation. In some people who have type 1 diabetes, a pancreas transplant may be an option. Islet transplants are being studied as well. With a successful pancreas transplant, you would no longer need insulin therapy. But transplants aren't always successful — and these procedures pose serious risks. You need a lifetime of immune-suppressing drugs to prevent organ rejection. These drugs can have serious side effects, including a high risk of infection, organ injury and cancer. Because the side effects can be more dangerous than the diabetes, transplants are usually reserved for people whose diabetes can't be controlled or those who also need a kidney transplant. Bariatric surgery. Although it is not specifically considered a treatment for type 2 diabetes, people with type 2 diabetes who also have a body mass index higher than 35 may benefit from this type of surgery. People who've undergone gastric bypass have seen significant improvements in their blood sugar levels. However, this procedure's long-term risks and benefits for type 2 diabetes aren't yet known. Treatment for gestational diabetes Controlling your blood sugar level is essential to keeping your baby healthy and avoiding complications during delivery. In addition to maintaining a healthy diet and exercising, your treatment plan may include monitoring your blood sugar and, in some cases, using insulin or oral medications. Your health care provider will also monitor your blood sugar level during labor. If your blood sugar rises, your baby may release high levels of insulin — which can lead to low blood sugar right after birth. Treatment for prediabetes If you have prediabetes, healthy lifestyle choices can help you bring your blood sugar level back to normal or at least keep it from rising toward the levels seen in type 2 diabetes. Maintaining a healthy weight through exercise and healthy eating can help. Exercising at least 150 minutes a week and losing 5 to 10 percent of your body weight may prevent or delay type 2 diabetes. Sometimes medications — such as metformin (Glucophage, Glumetza, others) — also are an option if you're at high risk of diabetes, including when your prediabetes is worsening or if you have cardiovascular disease, fatty liver disease or polycystic ovary syndrome. In other cases, medications to control cholesterol — statins, in particular — and high blood pressure medications are needed. Your doctor might prescribe low-dose aspirin therapy to help prevent cardiovascular disease if you're at high risk. Healthy lifestyle choices remain key, however. Signs of trouble in any type of diabetes Because so many factors can affect your blood sugar, problems may sometimes arise that require immediate care, such as: High blood sugar (hyperglycemia). Your blood sugar level can rise for many reasons, including eating too much, being sick or not taking enough glucose-lowering medication. Check your blood sugar level as directed by your doctor, and watch for signs and symptoms of high blood sugar — frequent urination, increased thirst, dry mouth, blurred vision, fatigue and nausea. If you have hyperglycemia, you'll need to adjust your meal plan, medications or both. Increased ketones in your urine (diabetic ketoacidosis). If your cells are starved for energy, your body may begin to break down fat. This produces toxic acids known as ketones. Watch for loss of appetite, weakness, vomiting, fever, stomach pain and a sweet, fruity breath. You can check your urine for excess ketones with an over-the-counter ketones test kit. If you have excess ketones in your urine, consult your doctor right away or seek emergency care. This condition is more common in people with type 1 diabetes. Hyperglycemic hyperosmolar nonketotic syndrome. Signs and symptoms of this life-threatening condition include a blood sugar reading over 600 mg/d L (33.3 mmol/L), dry mouth, extreme thirst, fever, drowsiness, confusion, vision loss and hallucinations. Hyperosmolar syndrome is caused by sky-high blood sugar that turns blood thick and syrupy. It tends to be more common in people with type 2 diabetes, and it's often preceded by an illness. Call your doctor or seek immediate medical care if you have signs or symptoms of this condition. Low blood sugar (hypoglycemia). If your blood sugar level drops below your target range, it's known as low blood sugar (hypoglycemia). Your blood sugar level can drop for many reasons, including skipping a meal and getting more physical activity than normal. However, low blood sugar is most likely if you take glucose-lowering medications that promote the secretion of insulin by your pancreas or if you're receiving insulin therapy. Check your blood sugar level regularly, and watch for signs and symptoms of low blood sugar — sweating, shakiness, weakness, hunger, dizziness, headache, blurred vision, heart palpitations, irritability, slurred speech, drowsiness, confusion, fainting and seizures. Low blood sugar is treated with quickly absorbed carbohydrates, such as fruit juice or glucose tablets. Request an Appointment at Mayo Clinic Clinical trials Explore Mayo Clinic studies testing new treatments, interventions and tests as a means to prevent, detect, treat or manage this disease. Lifestyle and home remedies Diabetes is a serious disease. Following your diabetes treatment plan takes round-the-clock commitment. Careful management of diabetes can reduce your risk of serious — even life-threatening — complications. No matter what type of diabetes you have: Make a commitment to managing your diabetes. Learn all you can about diabetes. Establish a relationship with a diabetes educator, and ask your diabetes treatment team for help when you need it. Choose healthy foods and maintain a healthy weight. Losing just 7 percent of your body weight if you're overweight can make a significant difference in your blood sugar control. A healthy diet is one with plenty of fruits, vegetables, whole grains and legumes, with a limited amount of saturated fat. Make physical activity part of your daily routine. Regular exercise can help prevent prediabetes and type 2 diabetes, and it can help those who already have diabetes to maintain better blood sugar control. Thirty minutes of moderate exercise — such as brisk walking — most days of the week is recommended. A combination of exercises — aerobic exercises, such as walking or dancing on most days, combined with resistance training, such as weightlifting or yoga twice a week — often helps control blood sugar more effectively than does either type of exercise alone. Lifestyle for type 1 and type 2 diabetes In addition, if you have type 1 or type 2 diabetes: Identify yourself. Wear a tag or bracelet that says you have diabetes. Keep a glucagon kit nearby in case of a low blood sugar emergency — and make sure your friends and loved ones know how to use it. Schedule a yearly physical and regular eye exams. Your regular diabetes checkups aren't meant to replace yearly physicals or routine eye exams. During the physical, your doctor will look for any diabetes-related complications and screen for other medical problems. Your eye care specialist will check for signs of retinal damage, cataracts and glaucoma. Keep your vaccinations up to date. High blood sugar can weaken your immune system. Get a flu shot every year, and your doctor may recommend the pneumonia vaccine, as well. The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) also currently recommends hepatitis B vaccination if you haven't previously been vaccinated against hepatitis B and you're an adult ages 19 to 59 with type 1 or type 2 diabetes. The most recent CDC guidelines advise vaccination as soon as possible after diagnosis with type 1 or type 2 diabetes. If you are age 60 or older, have diabetes, and haven't previously received the vaccine, talk to your doctor about whether it's right for you. Pay attention to your feet. Wash your feet daily in lukewarm water. Dry them gently, especially between the toes. Moisturize with lotion, but not between the toes. Check your feet every day for blisters, cuts, sores, redness or swelling. Consult your doctor if you have a sore or other foot problem that doesn't heal promptly on its own. Keep your blood pressure and cholesterol under control. Eating healthy foods and exercising regularly can go a long way toward controlling high blood pressure and cholesterol. Medication may be needed, too. Take care of your teeth. Diabetes may leave you prone to more-serious gum infections. Brush and floss your teeth at least twice a day. And if you have type 1 or type 2 diabetes, schedule regular dental exams. Consult your dentist right away if your gums bleed or look red or swollen. If you smoke or use other types of tobacco, ask your doctor to help you quit. Smoking increases your risk of various diabetes complications. Smokers who have diabetes are more likely to die of cardiovascular disease than are nonsmokers who have diabetes, according to the American Diabetes Association. Talk to your doctor about ways to stop smoking or to stop using other types of tobacco. If you drink alcohol, do so responsibly. Alcohol can cause either high or low blood sugar, depending on how much you drink and if you eat at the same time. If you choose to drink, do so only in moderation — one drink a day for women of all ages and men older than 65, and up to two drinks a day for men age 65 and younger — and always with food. Remember to include the carbohydrates from any alcohol you drink in your daily carbohydrate count. And check your blood sugar levels before going to bed. Take stress seriously. The hormones your body may produce in response to prolonged stress may prevent insulin from working properly, which will raise your blood sugar and stress you even more. Set limits for yourself and prioritize your tasks. Learn relaxation techniques. And get plenty of sleep. Alternative medicine Numerous substances have been shown to improve insulin sensitivity in some studies, while other studies fail to find any benefit for blood sugar control or in lowering A1C levels. Because of the conflicting findings, there aren't any alternative therapies that are currently recommended to help with blood sugar management. If you decide to try an alternative therapy, don't stop taking the medications that your doctor has prescribed. Be sure to discuss the use of any of these therapies with your doctor to make sure that they won't cause adverse reactions or interact with your current therapy. Additionally, there are no treatments — alternative or conventional — that can cure diabetes, so it's critical that people who are receiving insulin therapy for diabetes don't stop using insulin unless directed to do so by their physicians. Coping and support Living with diabetes can be difficult and frustrating. Sometimes, even when you've done everything right, your blood sugar levels may rise. But stick with your diabetes management plan, and you'll likely see a positive difference in your A1C when you visit your doctor. Because good diabetes management can be time-consuming, and sometimes overwhelming, some people find it helps to talk to someone. Your doctor can probably recommend a mental health professional for you to speak with, or you may want to try a support group. Sharing your frustrations and your triumphs with people who understand what you're going through can be very helpful. And you may find that others have great tips to share about diabetes management. Your doctor may know of a local support group, or you can call the American Diabetes Association at 800-DIABETES (800-342-2383) or the Juvenile Diabetes Research Foundation at 800-533-CURE (800-533-2873). Preparing for your appointment You're likely to start by seeing your primary care doctor if you're having diabetes symptoms. If your child is having diabetes symptoms, you might see your child's pediatrician. If blood sugar levels are extremely high, you'll likely be sent to the emergency room. If blood sugar levels aren't high enough to put you or your child immediately at risk, you may be referred to a doctor who specializes in diabetes, among other disorders (endocrinologist). Soon after diagnosis, you'll also likely meet with a diabetes educator and a dietitian to get more information on managing your diabetes. Here's some information to help you get ready for your appointment and to know what to expect. What you can do Be aware of any pre-appointment restrictions. When you make the appointment, ask if you need to do anything in advance. This will likely include restricting your diet, such as for a fasting blood sugar test. Write down any symptoms you're experiencing, including any that may seem unrelated. Write down key personal information, including major stresses or recent life changes. If you're monitoring your glucose values at home, bring a record of the glucose results, detailing the dates and times of testing. Make a list of any allergies you have and all medications, vitamins and supplements you're taking. Record your family medical history. In particular, note any relatives who have had diabetes, heart attacks or strokes. Take a family member or friend, if possible. Someone who accompanies you can help you remember information you need. Write down questions to ask your doctor. Ask about aspects of your diabetes management you're unclear about. Be aware if you need any prescription refills. Your doctor can renew your prescriptions while you're there. Preparing a list of questions can help you make the most of your time with your doctor. For diabetes, some questions to ask include: Are the symptoms I'm having related to diabetes or something else? Do I need any tests? What else can I do to protect my health? What are other options to manage my diabetes? I have other health conditions. How can I best manage these conditions together? Are there restrictions I need to follow? Should I see another specialist, such as a dietitian or diabetes educator? Is there a generic alternative to the medicine you're prescribing? Are there brochures or other printed material I can take with me? What websites do you recommend? What to expect from your doctor Your doctor is likely to ask you a number of questions, such as: Can you describe your symptoms? Do you have symptoms all the time, or do they come and go? How severe are your symptoms? Do you have a family history of preeclampsia or diabetes? Tell me about your diet. Do you exercise? What type and how much? By Mayo Clinic Staff
[ "Diagnosis Symptoms of type 1 diabetes often appear suddenly and are often the reason for checking blood sugar levels.", "Because symptoms of other types of diabetes and prediabetes come on more gradually or may not be evident, the American Diabetes Association (ADA) has recommended screening guidelines.", "The ADA recommends that the following people be screened for diabetes: Anyone with a body mass index higher than 25, regardless of age, who has additional risk factors, such as high blood pressure, a sedentary lifestyle, a history of polycystic ovary syndrome, having delivered a baby who weighed more than 9 pounds, a history of diabetes in pregnancy, high cholesterol levels, a history of heart disease, and having a close relative with diabetes.", "Anyone older than age 45 is advised to receive an initial blood sugar screening, and then, if the results are normal, to be screened every three years thereafter.", "Tests for type 1 and type 2 diabetes and prediabetes Glycated hemoglobin (A1C) test.", "This blood test indicates your average blood sugar level for the past two to three months.", "It measures the percentage of blood sugar attached to hemoglobin, the oxygen-carrying protein in red blood cells.", "The higher your blood sugar levels, the more hemoglobin you'll have with sugar attached.", "An A1C level of 6.5 percent or higher on two separate tests indicates that you have diabetes.", "An A1C between 5.7 and 6.4 percent indicates prediabetes.", "Below 5.7 is considered normal.", "If the A1C test results aren't consistent, the test isn't available, or if you have certain conditions that can make the A1C test inaccurate — such as if you're pregnant or have an uncommon form of hemoglobin (known as a hemoglobin variant) — your doctor may use the following tests to diagnose diabetes: Random blood sugar test.", "A blood sample will be taken at a random time.", "Regardless of when you last ate, a random blood sugar level of 200 milligrams per deciliter (mg/d L) — 11.1 millimoles per liter (mmol/L) — or higher suggests diabetes.", "Fasting blood sugar test.", "A blood sample will be taken after an overnight fast.", "A fasting blood sugar level less than 100 mg/d L (5.6 mmol/L) is normal.", "A fasting blood sugar level from 100 to 125 mg/d L (5.6 to 6.9 mmol/L) is considered prediabetes.", "If it's 126 mg/d L (7 mmol/L) or higher on two separate tests, you have diabetes.", "Oral glucose tolerance test.", "For this test, you fast overnight, and the fasting blood sugar level is measured.", "Then you drink a sugary liquid, and blood sugar levels are tested periodically for the next two hours.", "A blood sugar level less than 140 mg/d L (7.8 mmol/L) is normal.", "A reading of more than 200 mg/d L (11.1 mmol/L) after two hours indicates diabetes.", "A reading between 140 and 199 mg/d L (7.8 mmol/L and 11.0 mmol/L) indicates prediabetes.", "If type 1 diabetes is suspected, your urine will be tested to look for the presence of a byproduct produced when muscle and fat tissue are used for energy when the body doesn't have enough insulin to use the available glucose (ketones).", "Your doctor will also likely run a test to see if you have the destructive immune system cells associated with type 1 diabetes called autoantibodies.", "Tests for gestational diabetes Your doctor will likely evaluate your risk factors for gestational diabetes early in your pregnancy: If you're at high risk of gestational diabetes — for example, if you were obese at the start of your pregnancy, you had gestational diabetes during a previous pregnancy, or you have a mother, father, sibling or child with diabetes — your doctor may test for diabetes at your first prenatal visit.", "If you're at average risk of gestational diabetes, you'll likely have a screening test for gestational diabetes sometime during your second trimester — typically between 24 and 28 weeks of pregnancy.", "Your doctor may use the following screening tests: Initial glucose challenge test.", "You'll begin the glucose challenge test by drinking a syrupy glucose solution.", "One hour later, you'll have a blood test to measure your blood sugar level.", "A blood sugar level below 140 mg/d L (7.2 to 7.8 mmol/L) is usually considered normal on a glucose challenge test, although this may vary at specific clinics or labs.", "If your blood sugar level is higher than normal, it only means you have a higher risk of gestational diabetes.", "Your doctor will order a follow-up test to determine if you have gestational diabetes.", "Follow-up glucose tolerance testing.", "For the follow-up test, you'll be asked to fast overnight and then have your fasting blood sugar level measured.", "Then you'll drink another sweet solution — this one containing a higher concentration of glucose — and your blood sugar level will be checked every hour for a period of three hours.", "If at least two of the blood sugar readings are higher than the normal values established for each of the three hours of the test, you'll be diagnosed with gestational diabetes.", "Treatment Depending on what type of diabetes you have, blood sugar monitoring, insulin and oral medications may play a role in your treatment.", "Eating a healthy diet, maintaining a healthy weight and participating in regular activity also are important factors in managing diabetes.", "Treatments for all types of diabetes An important part of managing diabetes — as well as your overall health — is maintaining a healthy weight through a healthy diet and exercise plan: Healthy eating.", "Contrary to popular perception, there's no specific diabetes diet.", "You'll need to center your diet on more fruits, vegetables and whole grains — foods that are high in nutrition and fiber and low in fat and calories — and cut down on animal products, refined carbohydrates and sweets.", "In fact, it's the best eating plan for the entire family.", "Sugary foods are OK once in a while, as long as they're counted as part of your meal plan.", "Yet understanding what and how much to eat can be a challenge.", "A registered dietitian can help you create a meal plan that fits your health goals, food preferences and lifestyle.", "This will likely include carbohydrate counting, especially if you have type 1 diabetes.", "Physical activity.", "Everyone needs regular aerobic exercise, and people who have diabetes are no exception.", "Exercise lowers your blood sugar level by moving sugar into your cells, where it's used for energy.", "Exercise also increases your sensitivity to insulin, which means your body needs less insulin to transport sugar to your cells.", "Get your doctor's OK to exercise.", "Then choose activities you enjoy, such as walking, swimming or biking.", "What's most important is making physical activity part of your daily routine.", "Aim for at least 30 minutes or more of aerobic exercise most days of the week.", "If you haven't been active for a while, start slowly and build up gradually.", "Treatments for type 1 and type 2 diabetes Treatment for type 1 diabetes involves insulin injections or the use of an insulin pump, frequent blood sugar checks, and carbohydrate counting.", "Treatment of type 2 diabetes primarily involves monitoring of your blood sugar, along with diabetes medications, insulin or both.", "Monitoring your blood sugar.", "Depending on your treatment plan, you may check and record your blood sugar as often as several times a week to as many as four to eight times a day.", "Careful monitoring is the only way to make sure that your blood sugar level remains within your target range.", "People who receive insulin therapy also may choose to monitor their blood sugar levels with a continuous glucose monitor.", "Although this technology doesn't yet replace the glucose meter, it can provide important information about trends in blood sugar levels.", "Even with careful management, blood sugar levels can sometimes change unpredictably.", "With help from your diabetes treatment team, you'll learn how your blood sugar level changes in response to food, physical activity, medications, illness, alcohol, stress — for women, fluctuations in hormone levels.", "In addition to daily blood sugar monitoring, your doctor will likely recommend regular A1C testing to measure your average blood sugar level for the past two to three months.", "Compared with repeated daily blood sugar tests, A1C testing better indicates how well your diabetes treatment plan is working overall.", "An elevated A1C level may signal the need for a change in your insulin regimen or meal plan.", "Your target A1C goal may vary depending on your age and various other factors.", "However, for most people with diabetes, the American Diabetes Association recommends an A1C of below 7 percent.", "Ask your doctor what your A1C target is.", "Insulin.", "People with type 1 diabetes need insulin therapy to survive.", "Many people with type 2 diabetes or gestational diabetes also need insulin therapy.", "Many types of insulin are available, including rapid-acting insulin, long-acting insulin and intermediate options.", "Depending on your needs, your doctor may prescribe a mixture of insulin types to use throughout the day and night.", "Insulin can't be taken orally to lower blood sugar because stomach enzymes interfere with insulin's action.", "Often insulin is injected using a fine needle and syringe or an insulin pen — a device that looks like a large ink pen.", "An insulin pump may also be an option.", "The pump is a device about the size of a cellphone worn on the outside of your body.", "A tube connects the reservoir of insulin to a catheter that's inserted under the skin of your abdomen.", "A tubeless pump that works wirelessly is also now available.", "You program an insulin pump to dispense specific amounts of insulin.", "It can be adjusted to deliver more or less insulin depending on meals, activity level and blood sugar level.", "An emerging treatment approach, not yet available, is closed loop insulin delivery, also known as the artificial pancreas.", "It links a continuous glucose monitor to an insulin pump.", "The device automatically delivers the correct amount of insulin when the monitor indicates the need for it.", "There are a number of different versions of the artificial pancreas, and clinical trials have had encouraging results.", "More research needs to be done before a fully functional artificial pancreas can receive regulatory approval.", "However, the first step toward an artificial pancreas was approved in 2013.", "Combining a continuous glucose monitor with an insulin pump, this system stops insulin delivery when blood sugar levels drop too low.", "Studies on the device found that it could prevent low blood sugar levels overnight without significantly increasing morning blood sugar levels.", "Oral or other medications.", "Sometimes other oral or injected medications are prescribed as well.", "Some diabetes medications stimulate your pancreas to produce and release more insulin.", "Others inhibit the production and release of glucose from your liver, which means you need less insulin to transport sugar into your cells.", "Still others block the action of stomach or intestinal enzymes that break down carbohydrates or make your tissues more sensitive to insulin.", "Metformin (Glucophage, Glumetza, others) is generally the first medication prescribed for type 2 diabetes.", "Transplantation.", "In some people who have type 1 diabetes, a pancreas transplant may be an option.", "Islet transplants are being studied as well.", "With a successful pancreas transplant, you would no longer need insulin therapy.", "But transplants aren't always successful — and these procedures pose serious risks.", "You need a lifetime of immune-suppressing drugs to prevent organ rejection.", "These drugs can have serious side effects, including a high risk of infection, organ injury and cancer.", "Because the side effects can be more dangerous than the diabetes, transplants are usually reserved for people whose diabetes can't be controlled or those who also need a kidney transplant.", "Bariatric surgery.", "Although it is not specifically considered a treatment for type 2 diabetes, people with type 2 diabetes who also have a body mass index higher than 35 may benefit from this type of surgery.", "People who've undergone gastric bypass have seen significant improvements in their blood sugar levels.", "However, this procedure's long-term risks and benefits for type 2 diabetes aren't yet known.", "Treatment for gestational diabetes Controlling your blood sugar level is essential to keeping your baby healthy and avoiding complications during delivery.", "In addition to maintaining a healthy diet and exercising, your treatment plan may include monitoring your blood sugar and, in some cases, using insulin or oral medications.", "Your health care provider will also monitor your blood sugar level during labor.", "If your blood sugar rises, your baby may release high levels of insulin — which can lead to low blood sugar right after birth.", "Treatment for prediabetes If you have prediabetes, healthy lifestyle choices can help you bring your blood sugar level back to normal or at least keep it from rising toward the levels seen in type 2 diabetes.", "Maintaining a healthy weight through exercise and healthy eating can help.", "Exercising at least 150 minutes a week and losing 5 to 10 percent of your body weight may prevent or delay type 2 diabetes.", "Sometimes medications — such as metformin (Glucophage, Glumetza, others) — also are an option if you're at high risk of diabetes, including when your prediabetes is worsening or if you have cardiovascular disease, fatty liver disease or polycystic ovary syndrome.", "In other cases, medications to control cholesterol — statins, in particular — and high blood pressure medications are needed.", "Your doctor might prescribe low-dose aspirin therapy to help prevent cardiovascular disease if you're at high risk.", "Healthy lifestyle choices remain key, however.", "Signs of trouble in any type of diabetes Because so many factors can affect your blood sugar, problems may sometimes arise that require immediate care, such as: High blood sugar (hyperglycemia).", "Your blood sugar level can rise for many reasons, including eating too much, being sick or not taking enough glucose-lowering medication.", "Check your blood sugar level as directed by your doctor, and watch for signs and symptoms of high blood sugar — frequent urination, increased thirst, dry mouth, blurred vision, fatigue and nausea.", "If you have hyperglycemia, you'll need to adjust your meal plan, medications or both.", "Increased ketones in your urine (diabetic ketoacidosis).", "If your cells are starved for energy, your body may begin to break down fat.", "This produces toxic acids known as ketones.", "Watch for loss of appetite, weakness, vomiting, fever, stomach pain and a sweet, fruity breath.", "You can check your urine for excess ketones with an over-the-counter ketones test kit.", "If you have excess ketones in your urine, consult your doctor right away or seek emergency care.", "This condition is more common in people with type 1 diabetes.", "Hyperglycemic hyperosmolar nonketotic syndrome.", "Signs and symptoms of this life-threatening condition include a blood sugar reading over 600 mg/d L (33.3 mmol/L), dry mouth, extreme thirst, fever, drowsiness, confusion, vision loss and hallucinations.", "Hyperosmolar syndrome is caused by sky-high blood sugar that turns blood thick and syrupy.", "It tends to be more common in people with type 2 diabetes, and it's often preceded by an illness.", "Call your doctor or seek immediate medical care if you have signs or symptoms of this condition.", "Low blood sugar (hypoglycemia).", "If your blood sugar level drops below your target range, it's known as low blood sugar (hypoglycemia).", "Your blood sugar level can drop for many reasons, including skipping a meal and getting more physical activity than normal.", "However, low blood sugar is most likely if you take glucose-lowering medications that promote the secretion of insulin by your pancreas or if you're receiving insulin therapy.", "Check your blood sugar level regularly, and watch for signs and symptoms of low blood sugar — sweating, shakiness, weakness, hunger, dizziness, headache, blurred vision, heart palpitations, irritability, slurred speech, drowsiness, confusion, fainting and seizures.", "Low blood sugar is treated with quickly absorbed carbohydrates, such as fruit juice or glucose tablets.", "Request an Appointment at Mayo Clinic Clinical trials Explore Mayo Clinic studies testing new treatments, interventions and tests as a means to prevent, detect, treat or manage this disease.", "Lifestyle and home remedies Diabetes is a serious disease.", "Following your diabetes treatment plan takes round-the-clock commitment.", "Careful management of diabetes can reduce your risk of serious — even life-threatening — complications.", "No matter what type of diabetes you have: Make a commitment to managing your diabetes.", "Learn all you can about diabetes.", "Establish a relationship with a diabetes educator, and ask your diabetes treatment team for help when you need it.", "Choose healthy foods and maintain a healthy weight.", "Losing just 7 percent of your body weight if you're overweight can make a significant difference in your blood sugar control.", "A healthy diet is one with plenty of fruits, vegetables, whole grains and legumes, with a limited amount of saturated fat.", "Make physical activity part of your daily routine.", "Regular exercise can help prevent prediabetes and type 2 diabetes, and it can help those who already have diabetes to maintain better blood sugar control.", "Thirty minutes of moderate exercise — such as brisk walking — most days of the week is recommended.", "A combination of exercises — aerobic exercises, such as walking or dancing on most days, combined with resistance training, such as weightlifting or yoga twice a week — often helps control blood sugar more effectively than does either type of exercise alone.", "Lifestyle for type 1 and type 2 diabetes In addition, if you have type 1 or type 2 diabetes: Identify yourself.", "Wear a tag or bracelet that says you have diabetes.", "Keep a glucagon kit nearby in case of a low blood sugar emergency — and make sure your friends and loved ones know how to use it.", "Schedule a yearly physical and regular eye exams.", "Your regular diabetes checkups aren't meant to replace yearly physicals or routine eye exams.", "During the physical, your doctor will look for any diabetes-related complications and screen for other medical problems.", "Your eye care specialist will check for signs of retinal damage, cataracts and glaucoma.", "Keep your vaccinations up to date.", "High blood sugar can weaken your immune system.", "Get a flu shot every year, and your doctor may recommend the pneumonia vaccine, as well.", "The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) also currently recommends hepatitis B vaccination if you haven't previously been vaccinated against hepatitis B and you're an adult ages 19 to 59 with type 1 or type 2 diabetes.", "The most recent CDC guidelines advise vaccination as soon as possible after diagnosis with type 1 or type 2 diabetes.", "If you are age 60 or older, have diabetes, and haven't previously received the vaccine, talk to your doctor about whether it's right for you.", "Pay attention to your feet.", "Wash your feet daily in lukewarm water.", "Dry them gently, especially between the toes.", "Moisturize with lotion, but not between the toes.", "Check your feet every day for blisters, cuts, sores, redness or swelling.", "Consult your doctor if you have a sore or other foot problem that doesn't heal promptly on its own.", "Keep your blood pressure and cholesterol under control.", "Eating healthy foods and exercising regularly can go a long way toward controlling high blood pressure and cholesterol.", "Medication may be needed, too.", "Take care of your teeth.", "Diabetes may leave you prone to more-serious gum infections.", "Brush and floss your teeth at least twice a day.", "And if you have type 1 or type 2 diabetes, schedule regular dental exams.", "Consult your dentist right away if your gums bleed or look red or swollen.", "If you smoke or use other types of tobacco, ask your doctor to help you quit.", "Smoking increases your risk of various diabetes complications.", "Smokers who have diabetes are more likely to die of cardiovascular disease than are nonsmokers who have diabetes, according to the American Diabetes Association.", "Talk to your doctor about ways to stop smoking or to stop using other types of tobacco.", "If you drink alcohol, do so responsibly.", "Alcohol can cause either high or low blood sugar, depending on how much you drink and if you eat at the same time.", "If you choose to drink, do so only in moderation — one drink a day for women of all ages and men older than 65, and up to two drinks a day for men age 65 and younger — and always with food.", "Remember to include the carbohydrates from any alcohol you drink in your daily carbohydrate count.", "And check your blood sugar levels before going to bed.", "Take stress seriously.", "The hormones your body may produce in response to prolonged stress may prevent insulin from working properly, which will raise your blood sugar and stress you even more.", "Set limits for yourself and prioritize your tasks.", "Learn relaxation techniques.", "And get plenty of sleep.", "Alternative medicine Numerous substances have been shown to improve insulin sensitivity in some studies, while other studies fail to find any benefit for blood sugar control or in lowering A1C levels.", "Because of the conflicting findings, there aren't any alternative therapies that are currently recommended to help with blood sugar management.", "If you decide to try an alternative therapy, don't stop taking the medications that your doctor has prescribed.", "Be sure to discuss the use of any of these therapies with your doctor to make sure that they won't cause adverse reactions or interact with your current therapy.", "Additionally, there are no treatments — alternative or conventional — that can cure diabetes, so it's critical that people who are receiving insulin therapy for diabetes don't stop using insulin unless directed to do so by their physicians.", "Coping and support Living with diabetes can be difficult and frustrating.", "Sometimes, even when you've done everything right, your blood sugar levels may rise.", "But stick with your diabetes management plan, and you'll likely see a positive difference in your A1C when you visit your doctor.", "Because good diabetes management can be time-consuming, and sometimes overwhelming, some people find it helps to talk to someone.", "Your doctor can probably recommend a mental health professional for you to speak with, or you may want to try a support group.", "Sharing your frustrations and your triumphs with people who understand what you're going through can be very helpful.", "And you may find that others have great tips to share about diabetes management.", "Your doctor may know of a local support group, or you can call the American Diabetes Association at 800-DIABETES (800-342-2383) or the Juvenile Diabetes Research Foundation at 800-533-CURE (800-533-2873).", "Preparing for your appointment You're likely to start by seeing your primary care doctor if you're having diabetes symptoms.", "If your child is having diabetes symptoms, you might see your child's pediatrician.", "If blood sugar levels are extremely high, you'll likely be sent to the emergency room.", "If blood sugar levels aren't high enough to put you or your child immediately at risk, you may be referred to a doctor who specializes in diabetes, among other disorders (endocrinologist).", "Soon after diagnosis, you'll also likely meet with a diabetes educator and a dietitian to get more information on managing your diabetes.", "Here's some information to help you get ready for your appointment and to know what to expect.", "What you can do Be aware of any pre-appointment restrictions.", "When you make the appointment, ask if you need to do anything in advance.", "This will likely include restricting your diet, such as for a fasting blood sugar test.", "Write down any symptoms you're experiencing, including any that may seem unrelated.", "Write down key personal information, including major stresses or recent life changes.", "If you're monitoring your glucose values at home, bring a record of the glucose results, detailing the dates and times of testing.", "Make a list of any allergies you have and all medications, vitamins and supplements you're taking.", "Record your family medical history.", "In particular, note any relatives who have had diabetes, heart attacks or strokes.", "Take a family member or friend, if possible.", "Someone who accompanies you can help you remember information you need.", "Write down questions to ask your doctor.", "Ask about aspects of your diabetes management you're unclear about.", "Be aware if you need any prescription refills.", "Your doctor can renew your prescriptions while you're there.", "Preparing a list of questions can help you make the most of your time with your doctor.", "For diabetes, some questions to ask include: Are the symptoms I'm having related to diabetes or something else?", "Do I need any tests?", "What else can I do to protect my health?", "What are other options to manage my diabetes?", "I have other health conditions.", "How can I best manage these conditions together?", "Are there restrictions I need to follow?", "Should I see another specialist, such as a dietitian or diabetes educator?", "Is there a generic alternative to the medicine you're prescribing?", "Are there brochures or other printed material I can take with me?", "What websites do you recommend?", "What to expect from your doctor Your doctor is likely to ask you a number of questions, such as: Can you describe your symptoms?", "Do you have symptoms all the time, or do they come and go?", "How severe are your symptoms?", "Do you have a family history of preeclampsia or diabetes?", "Tell me about your diet.", "Do you exercise?", "What type and how much?", "By Mayo Clinic Staff" ]
D4362
http://www.eatbydate.com/hard-boiled-eggs-shelf-life-expiration-date/
How Long Do Hard Boiled Eggs Last?
How Long Do Hard Boiled Eggs Last? How long do hard boiled eggs last? Hard boiled eggs last about 7 days in the fridge, but can spoil quicker if not handled properly. Hard boiled eggs are fresh whole eggs that have been boiled for about 10 minutes. Chicken eggs are the most commonly used choice for hard boiling. Because of their relatively low-cost, high protein, versatility and portability hard boiled eggs are a popular protein choice. The shelf life of hard boiled eggs depends on a variety of factors; such as when they were boiled and how they were stored. All of these factors influence and determine how long hard boiled eggs are good in the fridge. When properly stored, the shelf life of hard boiled eggs is…Hard Boiled Eggs Expiration Date Refrigerator (Shells On) Past Boiled Date Hard Boiled Eggs last for 7 Days (Peeled) Past Boiled Date Hard Boiled Eggs last for 5 Days Of course, questions of how long do hard boiled eggs last in the fridge and how long are boiled eggs good for depend upon proper storage. But remember, eggs, like a lot of other dairy products (actually eggs are technically classified as animal products… but, since they are purchased in the dairy section of stores we listed them under dairy), usually have a sell by date and not a use by date. Because of this date distinction, hard boiled eggs are good for and may safely be used to complement your favorite meals even after a best by or sell by date has lapsed. How to tell if Hard Boiled Eggs are bad, rotten or spoiled? Practicing proper hygiene and food safety techniques will help prevent foodborne illness. The shelf life of hard boiled eggs is shorter than fresh eggs because egg shells are porous, which means air and bacteria can enter. In nature, as hens lay eggs a special natural coating is applied which helps to seal and protect the egg. However, the government mandates that eggs be sanitized and washed before they are sold to consumers, eliminating this protective coating. To counter this, egg processing plants spray an odorless natural mineral oil to “reseal” the egg, this thin layer makes the egg air tight again and thus the shelf life longer. Consequently, when you boil an egg, this protective coating is washed off and again makes a porous egg shell which becomes open and vulnerable to bacteria, odors and other contaminants – all things you do not want! Therefore, the boiling process makes hard boiled eggs last for a shorter amount of time than fresh eggs. There are, of course, certain health risks associated with spoiled eggs so always remember to practice food safety and enjoy them before their shelf life has expired!How to store Hard Boiled Eggs to extend their shelf life? Hard boiled eggs must be refrigerated at all times. Once prepared, hard boiled eggs should be stored in a tightly closed container in the fridge to keep out moisture and other contaminants. Freezing hard boiled eggs is NOT recommended, as this destroys their cellular structure and thus reduces their shelf life. Freezing eggs, whether or not they have been boiled, is not recommended because the whites become very rubbery and discolored after the freezing and thawing process. Some benefits of proper food storage include eating healthier, cutting food costs and helping the environment by avoiding waste. Interesting Facts about Hard Boiled Egg Shelf Life: The term hard boiled eggs is actually misleading because eggs should never be subjected to a hard rigorous boil, it should be a soft gentle boil. A more proper term for hard boiled eggs is hard cooked eggs, although that is less common. Salmonella is killed by the heat of cooking (once the yolk and white are both firm). Boiling removes the protective coating on the egg shell. Rinsing hard boiled eggs with cold water right after boiling and then rolling them with gentle pressure on the counter right before peeling will make the hard boiled eggs easier to peel. For complete instructions on how to make hard boiled eggs please visit our blog page on how long to boil eggs. See our post on refrigeration of hard boiled eggs for more safety information regarding storage. For some variation in serving hard boiled eggs, try making deviled eggs. How long are Hard Boiled Eggs good for when prepared in a dish? How long are hard boiled eggs good for? How long do hard boiled eggs last? These answers depend upon what other foods are included in the recipe. For example, how long does cheese last? In general, hard boiled eggs are good for as long as the quickest expiring ingredient in the dish. To find out how long foods are good for, please visit the Dairy, Drinks, Fruits, Grains, Proteins, Vegetables and Other sections of Eat By Date or use the search function below. SEARCH Eat By Date What are our shelf life resources? In determining how long Hard Boiled Eggs last, our content incorporates research from multiple resources, including the United States Department of Agriculture and the United States Food & Drug Administration. In addition, we scoured the web for informative articles and reports related to food safety, food storage and the shelf life of Hard Boiled Eggs. *An important note about expiration dates…Although the Hard Boiled Eggs shelf life information on Eat By Date is generally reliable, please remember that individual cases will vary and that our advice should only be taken as an opinion and not a replacement for your health care professional. Please eat responsibly!
[ "How Long Do Hard Boiled Eggs Last?", "How long do hard boiled eggs last?", "Hard boiled eggs last about 7 days in the fridge, but can spoil quicker if not handled properly.", "Hard boiled eggs are fresh whole eggs that have been boiled for about 10 minutes.", "Chicken eggs are the most commonly used choice for hard boiling.", "Because of their relatively low-cost, high protein, versatility and portability hard boiled eggs are a popular protein choice.", "The shelf life of hard boiled eggs depends on a variety of factors; such as when they were boiled and how they were stored.", "All of these factors influence and determine how long hard boiled eggs are good in the fridge.", "When properly stored, the shelf life of hard boiled eggs is…Hard Boiled Eggs Expiration Date Refrigerator (Shells On) Past Boiled Date Hard Boiled Eggs last for 7 Days (Peeled) Past Boiled Date Hard Boiled Eggs last for 5 Days Of course, questions of how long do hard boiled eggs last in the fridge and how long are boiled eggs good for depend upon proper storage.", "But remember, eggs, like a lot of other dairy products (actually eggs are technically classified as animal products… but, since they are purchased in the dairy section of stores we listed them under dairy), usually have a sell by date and not a use by date.", "Because of this date distinction, hard boiled eggs are good for and may safely be used to complement your favorite meals even after a best by or sell by date has lapsed.", "How to tell if Hard Boiled Eggs are bad, rotten or spoiled?", "Practicing proper hygiene and food safety techniques will help prevent foodborne illness.", "The shelf life of hard boiled eggs is shorter than fresh eggs because egg shells are porous, which means air and bacteria can enter.", "In nature, as hens lay eggs a special natural coating is applied which helps to seal and protect the egg.", "However, the government mandates that eggs be sanitized and washed before they are sold to consumers, eliminating this protective coating.", "To counter this, egg processing plants spray an odorless natural mineral oil to “reseal” the egg, this thin layer makes the egg air tight again and thus the shelf life longer.", "Consequently, when you boil an egg, this protective coating is washed off and again makes a porous egg shell which becomes open and vulnerable to bacteria, odors and other contaminants – all things you do not want!", "Therefore, the boiling process makes hard boiled eggs last for a shorter amount of time than fresh eggs.", "There are, of course, certain health risks associated with spoiled eggs so always remember to practice food safety and enjoy them before their shelf life has expired!How to store Hard Boiled Eggs to extend their shelf life?", "Hard boiled eggs must be refrigerated at all times.", "Once prepared, hard boiled eggs should be stored in a tightly closed container in the fridge to keep out moisture and other contaminants.", "Freezing hard boiled eggs is NOT recommended, as this destroys their cellular structure and thus reduces their shelf life.", "Freezing eggs, whether or not they have been boiled, is not recommended because the whites become very rubbery and discolored after the freezing and thawing process.", "Some benefits of proper food storage include eating healthier, cutting food costs and helping the environment by avoiding waste.", "Interesting Facts about Hard Boiled Egg Shelf Life: The term hard boiled eggs is actually misleading because eggs should never be subjected to a hard rigorous boil, it should be a soft gentle boil.", "A more proper term for hard boiled eggs is hard cooked eggs, although that is less common.", "Salmonella is killed by the heat of cooking (once the yolk and white are both firm).", "Boiling removes the protective coating on the egg shell.", "Rinsing hard boiled eggs with cold water right after boiling and then rolling them with gentle pressure on the counter right before peeling will make the hard boiled eggs easier to peel.", "For complete instructions on how to make hard boiled eggs please visit our blog page on how long to boil eggs.", "See our post on refrigeration of hard boiled eggs for more safety information regarding storage.", "For some variation in serving hard boiled eggs, try making deviled eggs.", "How long are Hard Boiled Eggs good for when prepared in a dish?", "How long are hard boiled eggs good for?", "How long do hard boiled eggs last?", "These answers depend upon what other foods are included in the recipe.", "For example, how long does cheese last?", "In general, hard boiled eggs are good for as long as the quickest expiring ingredient in the dish.", "To find out how long foods are good for, please visit the Dairy, Drinks, Fruits, Grains, Proteins, Vegetables and Other sections of Eat By Date or use the search function below.", "SEARCH Eat By Date What are our shelf life resources?", "In determining how long Hard Boiled Eggs last, our content incorporates research from multiple resources, including the United States Department of Agriculture and the United States Food & Drug Administration.", "In addition, we scoured the web for informative articles and reports related to food safety, food storage and the shelf life of Hard Boiled Eggs.", "*An important note about expiration dates…Although the Hard Boiled Eggs shelf life information on Eat By Date is generally reliable, please remember that individual cases will vary and that our advice should only be taken as an opinion and not a replacement for your health care professional.", "Please eat responsibly!" ]
D130142
http://www.netwellness.org/healthtopics/poison/hardboiledeggs.cfm
.
To Our Net Wellness Visitors: The Net Wellness consumer health website will be offline for an indefinite period. Partner universities Case Western Reserve University, The Ohio State University and the University of Cincinnati are grateful to have offered this public service since 1995. As one of the first consumer health websites, Net Wellness faculty experts have contributed diverse expertise from their specialties in a non-profit advertising-free environment. The Net Wellness team and our universities remain committed to this mission as a vital part of our inherent university service to the public. We hope to restore this service at some point in the future. We are grateful for our Net Wellness audience across the country and around the world. Please direct your comments and feedback to [email protected]. The Net Wellness Team LOGIN
[ "To Our Net Wellness Visitors: The Net Wellness consumer health website will be offline for an indefinite period.", "Partner universities Case Western Reserve University, The Ohio State University and the University of Cincinnati are grateful to have offered this public service since 1995.", "As one of the first consumer health websites, Net Wellness faculty experts have contributed diverse expertise from their specialties in a non-profit advertising-free environment.", "The Net Wellness team and our universities remain committed to this mission as a vital part of our inherent university service to the public.", "We hope to restore this service at some point in the future.", "We are grateful for our Net Wellness audience across the country and around the world.", "Please direct your comments and feedback to [email protected].", "The Net Wellness Team LOGIN" ]
D114007
http://repairpal.com/estimator/brake-pad-and-rotor-replacement-cost
Brake Rotor Replacement Cost
Estimator / Brake Rotor Replacement Cost The average cost for a Brake Rotor Replacement is between $406 and $559. Labor costs are estimated between $158 and $200 while parts are priced between $248 and $359. Estimate does not include taxes and fees. View repair cost for my car Get a repair estimate for your car Submit Common Symptoms Worn brake pads can result in a loud squeaking or grinding noise while driving, especially at low speeds. Replacing your brake pads early may prevent the brake rotors from being worn or damaged beyond repair. Best Practices We recommend braking gently for the first 40 to 50 miles of driving on new pads. This will allow them to adjust to the rotors and help prevent squeaking. While it's a safe practice to use rotors worn or machined to the manufacture's minimum specification, brake pedal pulsation is more likely to occur with thinner rotors. If your vehicle is prone to brake pedal pulsation issues, you may be better off replacing worn rotors than re-machining them. Brake repairs are commonly offered at promotional prices that may be lower than the Repair Pal price estimate. Make sure you understand exactly which services are included/excluded in the advertised price. Find a Certified Mechanic Find a high quality auto repair shop or dealer near youx Costs for Related Repairs ABS Wheel Speed Sensor Replacement $333 - $382ABS Control Module Replacement $324 - $1,102Brake Hose Replacement $144 - $193Brake Master Cylinder Replacement $323 - $498Brake Pad Replacement $190 - $249Brake Shoe Replacement $155 - $240Brake Wheel Cylinder Replacement $217 - $283Brake Caliper Replacement - Front $316 - $668Brake Caliper Replacement - Rear $268 - $639Brake Pad Replacement, Resurface Rotors $235 - $329Brake Rotor Replacement Cost Estimates The average cost for a Brake Rotor Replacement is between $406 and $559 but can vary from car to car.$292 - $485Honda Accord$309 - $490Toyota Camry$311 - $507Honda Civic$460 - $641Ford F-150$296 - $471Toyota Corolla$314 - $563Nissan Altima$311 - $507Honda CR-V$430 - $647BMW 335d Get it repaired in a city near you Repair shops in Pleasanton, CA >Repair shops in San Ramon, CA >Repair shops in Livermore, CA >Repair shops in Sunol, CA >Repair shops in Diablo, CA >Find more cities19,509 people trusted Repair Pal with their estimates this week!
[ "Estimator / Brake Rotor Replacement Cost The average cost for a Brake Rotor Replacement is between $406 and $559.", "Labor costs are estimated between $158 and $200 while parts are priced between $248 and $359.", "Estimate does not include taxes and fees.", "View repair cost for my car Get a repair estimate for your car Submit Common Symptoms Worn brake pads can result in a loud squeaking or grinding noise while driving, especially at low speeds.", "Replacing your brake pads early may prevent the brake rotors from being worn or damaged beyond repair.", "Best Practices We recommend braking gently for the first 40 to 50 miles of driving on new pads.", "This will allow them to adjust to the rotors and help prevent squeaking.", "While it's a safe practice to use rotors worn or machined to the manufacture's minimum specification, brake pedal pulsation is more likely to occur with thinner rotors.", "If your vehicle is prone to brake pedal pulsation issues, you may be better off replacing worn rotors than re-machining them.", "Brake repairs are commonly offered at promotional prices that may be lower than the Repair Pal price estimate.", "Make sure you understand exactly which services are included/excluded in the advertised price.", "Find a Certified Mechanic Find a high quality auto repair shop or dealer near youx Costs for Related Repairs ABS Wheel Speed Sensor Replacement $333 - $382ABS Control Module Replacement $324 - $1,102Brake Hose Replacement $144 - $193Brake Master Cylinder Replacement $323 - $498Brake Pad Replacement $190 - $249Brake Shoe Replacement $155 - $240Brake Wheel Cylinder Replacement $217 - $283Brake Caliper Replacement - Front $316 - $668Brake Caliper Replacement - Rear $268 - $639Brake Pad Replacement, Resurface Rotors $235 - $329Brake Rotor Replacement Cost Estimates The average cost for a Brake Rotor Replacement is between $406 and $559 but can vary from car to car.$292 - $485Honda Accord$309 - $490Toyota Camry$311 - $507Honda Civic$460 - $641Ford F-150$296 - $471Toyota Corolla$314 - $563Nissan Altima$311 - $507Honda CR-V$430 - $647BMW 335d Get it repaired in a city near you Repair shops in Pleasanton, CA >Repair shops in San Ramon, CA >Repair shops in Livermore, CA >Repair shops in Sunol, CA >Repair shops in Diablo, CA >Find more cities19,509 people trusted Repair Pal with their estimates this week!" ]
D50730
http://www.us-passport-service-guide.com/how-much-does-a-passport-cost.html
How Much Does a Passport Cost?
How Much Does a Passport Cost?© Mikedesign on Dreamstime The cost of a passport can vary depending on the type of service you require, how quickly you need to get the application processed and any additional services you might need. When someone thinks of the price he or she will pay to get a passport, they usually consider only the required fees. However, there are many others expenses that an applicant might have to pay that are often overlooked. This article seeks to elaborate all possible expenses involved in obtaining a U. S. passport. There is an application fee for most services ranging from only $15 for a passport card for a minor to $110 for a new passport or renewal. An execution fee of $35 is mandatory when submitting Form DS-11. This is paid to the agent that adjudicates the application. The fees for some of the optional services are $60 for expedited service, $15.89 for overnight delivery of your new passport and $150 for a file search . A file search can be requested in writing if you want passport services to locate in their files the document you submitted as evidence of U. S. citizenship for a previous application. Click here for complete passport fee schedule . Other expenses that can be incurred during the application process but are often overlooked and not factored in to the total cost of a passport include passport photos, postage and handling, transportation, parking, food and, even, lodging. If you need to travel a long distance to apply at a regional agency and are required to stay overnight, the total cost you spend on a passport can be quite high. Another aspect of the application process that should be factored into the cost of a passport is the time you spend preparing and submitting the application. Completing the application form and gathering the supporting documents that are required should not take more than 30 minutes if the documents are readily available. It should not take more than another 30 minutes to an hour to submit the application if you live relatively close to an application acceptance facility. However, the application process can turn into a marathon if you have to take passport photos, get a certified copy of your birth certificate, obtain a valid identification document or travel to a regional agency . What should take an hour to an hour and a half could end up taking an entire day or more to get done. If you have to miss a day of work to get this done, the cost increases significantly. Even if you don't have to miss work, how much is your time worth? Determine an amount, figure out how long it will take you to apply and calculate the cost. An alternative to personally submitting the application form at a regional agency is to employ the services of a registered expediting service. Current passport fee for expediting at Fastport Passport ranges from $129 for processing in 8 to 14 business days to $429 for same day passports . By applying early, you can avoid these extra expenses. When you need your passport in 2 weeks or less, you need to compare the cost of visiting the regional agency yourself compared to the fees for applying through a registered expediter . How much does a passport cost? Again, it depends on the many variables we have listed above. The lowest possible price would be about $50 for the renewal of a passport card for an adult. This would include the application fee, passport photo and postage. The highest amount an applicant might spend to get a passport can reach $750 or more. That's a pretty high price to pay for a passport and probably only worth the cost in emergency situations. Hopefully, this article will help you better understand all the expenses involved in getting a passport. Click for expedited passport courier service in 24 to 48 hours! . Comments: Have Your Say Leave us a comment in the box below. Please do not include phone numbers or e-mail addresses. Share this page: Facebook Twitter Enjoy this page? Please pay it forward. Here's how...
[ "How Much Does a Passport Cost?© Mikedesign on Dreamstime The cost of a passport can vary depending on the type of service you require, how quickly you need to get the application processed and any additional services you might need.", "When someone thinks of the price he or she will pay to get a passport, they usually consider only the required fees.", "However, there are many others expenses that an applicant might have to pay that are often overlooked.", "This article seeks to elaborate all possible expenses involved in obtaining a U. S. passport.", "There is an application fee for most services ranging from only $15 for a passport card for a minor to $110 for a new passport or renewal.", "An execution fee of $35 is mandatory when submitting Form DS-11.", "This is paid to the agent that adjudicates the application.", "The fees for some of the optional services are $60 for expedited service, $15.89 for overnight delivery of your new passport and $150 for a file search .", "A file search can be requested in writing if you want passport services to locate in their files the document you submitted as evidence of U. S. citizenship for a previous application.", "Click here for complete passport fee schedule .", "Other expenses that can be incurred during the application process but are often overlooked and not factored in to the total cost of a passport include passport photos, postage and handling, transportation, parking, food and, even, lodging.", "If you need to travel a long distance to apply at a regional agency and are required to stay overnight, the total cost you spend on a passport can be quite high.", "Another aspect of the application process that should be factored into the cost of a passport is the time you spend preparing and submitting the application.", "Completing the application form and gathering the supporting documents that are required should not take more than 30 minutes if the documents are readily available.", "It should not take more than another 30 minutes to an hour to submit the application if you live relatively close to an application acceptance facility.", "However, the application process can turn into a marathon if you have to take passport photos, get a certified copy of your birth certificate, obtain a valid identification document or travel to a regional agency .", "What should take an hour to an hour and a half could end up taking an entire day or more to get done.", "If you have to miss a day of work to get this done, the cost increases significantly.", "Even if you don't have to miss work, how much is your time worth?", "Determine an amount, figure out how long it will take you to apply and calculate the cost.", "An alternative to personally submitting the application form at a regional agency is to employ the services of a registered expediting service.", "Current passport fee for expediting at Fastport Passport ranges from $129 for processing in 8 to 14 business days to $429 for same day passports .", "By applying early, you can avoid these extra expenses.", "When you need your passport in 2 weeks or less, you need to compare the cost of visiting the regional agency yourself compared to the fees for applying through a registered expediter .", "How much does a passport cost?", "Again, it depends on the many variables we have listed above.", "The lowest possible price would be about $50 for the renewal of a passport card for an adult.", "This would include the application fee, passport photo and postage.", "The highest amount an applicant might spend to get a passport can reach $750 or more.", "That's a pretty high price to pay for a passport and probably only worth the cost in emergency situations.", "Hopefully, this article will help you better understand all the expenses involved in getting a passport.", "Click for expedited passport courier service in 24 to 48 hours!", ".", "Comments: Have Your Say Leave us a comment in the box below.", "Please do not include phone numbers or e-mail addresses.", "Share this page: Facebook Twitter Enjoy this page?", "Please pay it forward.", "Here's how..." ]
D54046
http://www.thekitchn.com/how-to-bake-a-potato-in-the-oven-165615
How To Bake a Potato in the Oven
(Image credit: Emma Christensen)Open Slideshow The perfect baked potato is crispy on the outside and pillowy in the middle. Cracked open and still steaming, it's ready to receive anything from a sprinkle of cheese to last night's stew. Here's how to make one. Baking a potato in the oven does require a little more time than zapping it in the microwave, but it's mostly hands-off time. You can walk in the door, throw a few potatoes in oven while it's still warming up, and carry on with your after-work routine until they're ready to eat. Just don't forget to set a timer! (Image credit: Kitchn)Russets are the best for baking like this. The skins are thicker and the starchy interior has a sweet flavor and fluffy texture when baked. Russets are also typically fairly large. One of them per person makes a good side dish or meal on its own. Russets are the best for baking like this. The skins are thicker and the starchy interior has a sweet flavor and fluffy texture when baked. How To Bake a Potato What You Need Ingredients1russet potato per person Olive oil Salt Pepper Equipment A fork A baking sheet covered in foil Instructions Heat the oven to 425°F: Turn on the oven while you're preparing the potatoes. Scrub the potatoes clean: Scrub the potatoes thoroughly under running water and pat them dry. You don't have to remove the eyes, but trim away any blemishes with a paring knife. Rub the potatoes with olive oil: Rub the potatoes all over with a little olive oil. It's easiest to use your hands, but a pastry brush also works fine. Sprinkle the potatoes with salt and pepper: Generously sprinkle the potatoes on all sides with salt and pepper. Prick all over with a fork: Prick the potatoes in a few places with the tines of a fork. This allows steam to escape from the baking potato. Bake the potatoes: You can bake the potatoes directly on the oven rack, or you can place them a few inches apart on a foil-lined baking sheet. Bake the potatoes for 50 to 60 minutes. Flip them over every 20 minutes or so and check them for doneness by piercing them with a fork. Potatoes are done when the skins are dry and the insides feel completely soft when pierced. Recipe Notes To cut down the baking time, microwave the potatoes for 3 to 4 minutes in the microwave before baking. For softer skins, wrap the potatoes in foil before baking. Print Recipe Show Nutrition
[ " (Image credit: Emma Christensen)Open Slideshow The perfect baked potato is crispy on the outside and pillowy in the middle.", "Cracked open and still steaming, it's ready to receive anything from a sprinkle of cheese to last night's stew.", "Here's how to make one.", "Baking a potato in the oven does require a little more time than zapping it in the microwave, but it's mostly hands-off time.", "You can walk in the door, throw a few potatoes in oven while it's still warming up, and carry on with your after-work routine until they're ready to eat.", "Just don't forget to set a timer!", "(Image credit: Kitchn)Russets are the best for baking like this.", "The skins are thicker and the starchy interior has a sweet flavor and fluffy texture when baked.", "Russets are also typically fairly large.", "One of them per person makes a good side dish or meal on its own.", "Russets are the best for baking like this.", "The skins are thicker and the starchy interior has a sweet flavor and fluffy texture when baked.", "How To Bake a Potato What You Need Ingredients1russet potato per person Olive oil Salt Pepper Equipment A fork A baking sheet covered in foil Instructions Heat the oven to 425°F: Turn on the oven while you're preparing the potatoes.", "Scrub the potatoes clean: Scrub the potatoes thoroughly under running water and pat them dry.", "You don't have to remove the eyes, but trim away any blemishes with a paring knife.", "Rub the potatoes with olive oil: Rub the potatoes all over with a little olive oil.", "It's easiest to use your hands, but a pastry brush also works fine.", "Sprinkle the potatoes with salt and pepper: Generously sprinkle the potatoes on all sides with salt and pepper.", "Prick all over with a fork: Prick the potatoes in a few places with the tines of a fork.", "This allows steam to escape from the baking potato.", "Bake the potatoes: You can bake the potatoes directly on the oven rack, or you can place them a few inches apart on a foil-lined baking sheet.", "Bake the potatoes for 50 to 60 minutes.", "Flip them over every 20 minutes or so and check them for doneness by piercing them with a fork.", "Potatoes are done when the skins are dry and the insides feel completely soft when pierced.", "Recipe Notes To cut down the baking time, microwave the potatoes for 3 to 4 minutes in the microwave before baking.", "For softer skins, wrap the potatoes in foil before baking.", "Print Recipe Show Nutrition" ]
D23971
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DNA_replication
DNA replication
"From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedianavigation search DNA replication: The double helix is un'zipped' and unwound, then each separated strand (turquoise) acts as a template for replicating a new partner strand (green). Nucleotides (bases) are matched to synthesize the new partner strands into two new double helices. In molecular biology, DNA replication is the biological process of producing two identical replicas of DNA from one original DNA molecule. This process occurs in all living organisms and is the basis for biological inheritance. The cell possesses the distinctive property of division, which makes replication of DNA essential. DNA is made up of a double helix of two complementary strands. During replication, these strands are separated. Each strand of the original DNA molecule then serves as a template for the production of its counterpart, a process referred to as semiconservative replication. Cellular proofreading and error-checking mechanisms ensure near perfect fidelity for DNA replication. [1] [2]In a cell, DNA replication begins at specific locations, or origins of replication, in the genome. [3] Unwinding of DNA at the origin and synthesis of new strands, accommodated by an enzyme known as ligase, results in replication forks growing bi-directionally from the origin. A number of proteins are associated with the replication fork to help in the initiation and continuation of DNA synthesis. Most prominently, DNA polymerase synthesizes the new strands by adding nucleotides that complement each (template) strand. DNA replication occurs during the S-stage of interphase. DNA replication can also be performed in vitro (artificially, outside a cell). DNA polymerases isolated from cells and artificial DNA primers can be used to initiate DNA synthesis at known sequences in a template DNA molecule. The polymerase chain reaction (PCR), a common laboratory technique, cyclically applies such artificial synthesis to amplify a specific target DNA fragment from a pool of DNA. Contents [ hide ]1 DNA structure2 DNA polymerase3 Replication process3.1 Initiation3.2 Elongation3.3 Replication fork3.3.1 Leading strand3.3.2 Lagging strand3.3.3 Dynamics at the replication fork3.4 DNA replication proteins3.5 Replication machinery3.6 Termination4 Regulation4.1 Eukaryotes4.1.1 Replication focus4.2 Bacteria5 Polymerase chain reaction6 See also7 Notes8 References DNA structure [ edit]DNA exists as a double-stranded structure, with both strands coiled together to form the characteristic double-helix. Each single strand of DNA is a chain of four types of nucleotides. Nucleotides in DNA contain a deoxyribose sugar, a phosphate, and a nucleobase. The four types of nucleotide correspond to the four nucleobases adenine, cytosine, guanine, and thymine, commonly abbreviated as A, C, G and T. Adenine and guanine are purine bases, while cytosine and thymine are pyrimidines. These nucleotides form phosphodiester bonds, creating the phosphate-deoxyribose backbone of the DNA double helix with the nucleobases pointing inward (i.e., toward the opposing strand). Nucleobases are matched between strands through hydrogen bonds to form base pairs. Adenine pairs with thymine (two hydrogen bonds), and guanine pairs with cytosine (three hydrogen bonds). DNA strands have a directionality, and the different ends of a single strand are called the ""3' (three-prime) end"" and the ""5' (five-prime) end"". By convention, if the base sequence of a single strand of DNA is given, the left end of the sequence is the 5' end, while the right end of the sequence is the 3' end. The strands of the double helix are anti-parallel with one being 5' to 3', and the opposite strand 3' to 5'. These terms refer to the carbon atom in deoxyribose to which the next phosphate in the chain attaches. Directionality has consequences in DNA synthesis, because DNA polymerase can synthesize DNA in only one direction by adding nucleotides to the 3' end of a DNA strand. The pairing of complementary bases in DNA (through hydrogen bonding) means that the information contained within each strand is useless. phosphoodiester (intra-strand) bonds are stronger than hydrogen (inter-strand) bonds. This allows the strands to be separated from one another. The nucleotides on a single strand can therefore be used to reconstruct nucleotides on a newly synthesized partner strand. [4]DNA polymerase [ edit]Main article: DNA polymerase DNA polymerases adds nucleotides to the 3' end of a strand of DNA. [5] If a mismatch is accidentally incorporated, the polymerase is inhibited from further extension. Proofreading removes the mismatched nucleotide and extension continues. DNA polymerases are a family of enzymes that carry out all forms of DNA replication. [6] DNA polymerases in general cannot initiate synthesis of new strands, but can only extend an existing DNA or RNA strand paired with a template strand. To begin synthesis, a short fragment of RNA, called a primer, must be created and paired with the template DNA strand. DNA polymerase adds a new strand of DNA by extending the 3' end of an existing nucleotide chain, adding new nucleotides matched to the template strand one at a time via the creation of phosphodiester bonds. The energy for this process of DNA polymerization comes from hydrolysis of the high-energy phosphate (phosphoanhydride) bonds between the three phosphates attached to each unincorporated base. Free bases with their attached phosphate groups are called nucleotides; in particular, bases with three attached phosphate groups are called nucleoside triphosphates. When a nucleotide is being added to a growing DNA strand, the formation of a phosphodiester bond between the proximal phosphate of the nucleotide to the growing chain is accompanied by hydrolysis of a high-energy phosphate bond with release of the two distal phosphates as a pyrophosphate. Enzymatic hydrolysis of the resulting pyrophosphate into inorganic phosphate consumes a second high-energy phosphate bond and renders the reaction effectively irreversible. [Note 1]In general, DNA polymerases are highly accurate, with an intrinsic error rate of less than one mistake for every 10 7 nucleotides added. [7] In addition, some DNA polymerases also have proofreading ability; they can remove nucleotides from the end of a growing strand in order to correct mismatched bases. Finally, post-replication mismatch repair mechanisms monitor the DNA for errors, being capable of distinguishing mismatches in the newly synthesized DNA strand from the original strand sequence. Together, these three discrimination steps enable replication fidelity of less than one mistake for every 10 9 nucleotides added. [7]The rate of DNA replication in a living cell was first measured as the rate of phage T4 DNA elongation in phage-infected E. coli. [8] During the period of exponential DNA increase at 37 °C, the rate was 749 nucleotides per second. The mutation rate per base pair per replication during phage T4 DNA synthesis is 1.7 per 10 8. [9]Replication process [ edit]Main articles: Prokaryotic DNA replication and Eukaryotic DNA replication DNA replication, like all biological polymerization processes, proceeds in three enzymatically catalyzed and coordinated steps: initiation, elongation and termination. Initiation [ edit]Role of initiators for initiation of DNA replication. Formation of pre-replication complex. For a cell to divide, it must first replicate its DNA. [10] This process is initiated at particular points in the DNA, known as "" origins "", which are targeted by initiator proteins. [3] In E. coli this protein is Dna A; in yeast, this is the origin recognition complex. [11] Sequences used by initiator proteins tend to be ""AT-rich"" (rich in adenine and thymine bases), because A-T base pairs have two hydrogen bonds (rather than the three formed in a C-G pair) and thus are easier to strand-separate. [12] Once the origin has been located, these initiators recruit other proteins and form the pre-replication complex, which unwinds the double-stranded DNA. Elongation [ edit]DNA polymerase has 5′–3′ activity. All known DNA replication systems require a free 3' hydroxyl group before synthesis can be initiated (note: the DNA template is read in 3′ to 5′ direction whereas a new strand is synthesized in the 5′ to 3′ direction—this is often confused). Four distinct mechanisms for DNA synthesis are recognized: All cellular life forms and many DNA viruses, phages and plasmids use a primase to synthesize a short RNA primer with a free 3′ OH group which is subsequently elongated by a DNA polymerase. The retroelements (including retroviruses) employ a transfer RNA that primes DNA replication by providing a free 3′ OH that is used for elongation by the reverse transcriptase. In the adenoviruses and the φ29 family of bacteriophages, the 3' OH group is provided by the side chain of an amino acid of the genome attached protein (the terminal protein) to which nucleotides are added by the DNA polymerase to form a new strand. In the single stranded DNA viruses—a group that includes the circoviruses, the geminiviruses, the parvoviruses and others—and also the many phages and plasmids that use the rolling circle replication (RCR) mechanism, the RCR endonuclease creates a nick in the genome strand (single stranded viruses) or one of the DNA strands (plasmids). The 5′ end of the nicked strand is transferred to a tyrosine residue on the nuclease and the free 3′ OH group is then used by the DNA polymerase to synthesize the new strand. The first is the best known of these mechanisms and is used by the cellular organisms. In this mechanism, once the two strands are separated, primase adds RNA primers to the template strands. The leading strand receives one RNA primer while the lagging strand receives several. The leading strand is continuously extended from the primer by a DNA polymerase with high processivity, while the lagging strand is extended discontinuously from each primer forming Okazaki fragments. RNase removes the primer RNA fragments, and a low processivity DNA polymerase distinct from the replicative polymerase enters to fill the gaps. When this is complete, a single nick on the leading strand and several nicks on the lagging strand can be found. Ligase works to fill these nicks in, thus completing the newly replicated DNA molecule. The primase used in this process differs significantly between bacteria and archaea / eukaryotes. Bacteria use a primase belonging to the Dna G protein superfamily which contains a catalytic domain of the TOPRIM fold type. [13] The TOPRIM fold contains an α/β core with four conserved strands in a Rossmann-like topology. This structure is also found in the catalytic domains of topoisomerase Ia, topoisomerase II, the OLD-family nucleases and DNA repair proteins related to the Rec R protein. The primase used by archaea and eukaryotes, in contrast, contains a highly derived version of the RNA recognition motif (RRM). This primase is structurally similar to many viral RNA-dependent RNA polymerases, reverse transcriptases, cyclic nucleotide generating cyclases and DNA polymerases of the A/B/Y families that are involved in DNA replication and repair. In eukaryotic replication, the primase forms a complex with Pol α. [14]Multiple DNA polymerases take on different roles in the DNA replication process. In E. coli, DNA Pol III is the polymerase enzyme primarily responsible for DNA replication. It assembles into a replication complex at the replication fork that exhibits extremely high processivity, remaining intact for the entire replication cycle. In contrast, DNA Pol I is the enzyme responsible for replacing RNA primers with DNA. DNA Pol I has a 5′ to 3′ exonuclease activity in addition to its polymerase activity, and uses its exonuclease activity to degrade the RNA primers ahead of it as it extends the DNA strand behind it, in a process called nick translation. Pol I is much less processive than Pol III because its primary function in DNA replication is to create many short DNA regions rather than a few very long regions. In eukaryotes, the low-processivity enzyme, Pol α, helps to initiate replication because it forms a complex with primase. [15] In eukaryotes, leading strand synthesis is thought to be conducted by Pol ε; however, this view has recently been challenged, suggesting a role for Pol δ. [16] Primer removal is completed Pol δ [17] while repair of DNA during replication is completed by Pol ε. As DNA synthesis continues, the original DNA strands continue to unwind on each side of the bubble, forming a replication fork with two prongs. In bacteria, which have a single origin of replication on their circular chromosome, this process creates a "" theta structure "" (resembling the Greek letter theta: θ). In contrast, eukaryotes have longer linear chromosomes and initiate replication at multiple origins within these. [18]Replication fork [ edit]Scheme of the replication fork. a: template, b: leading strand, c: lagging strand, d: replication fork, e: primer, f: Okazaki fragments Many enzymes are involved in the DNA replication fork. The replication fork is a structure that forms within the nucleus during DNA replication. It is created by helicases, which break the hydrogen bonds holding the two DNA strands together. The resulting structure has two branching ""prongs"", each one made up of a single strand of DNA. These two strands serve as the template for the leading and lagging strands, which will be created as DNA polymerase matches complementary nucleotides to the templates; the templates may be properly referred to as the leading strand template and the lagging strand template. DNA is always synthesized in the 5' to 3' direction. Since the leading and lagging strand templates are oriented in opposite directions at the replication fork, a major issue is how to achieve synthesis of nascent (new) lagging strand DNA, whose direction of synthesis is opposite to the direction of the growing replication fork. Leading strand [ edit]The leading strand is the strand of nascent DNA which is being synthesized in the same direction as the growing replication fork. A polymerase ""reads"" the leading strand template and adds complementary nucleotides to the nascent leading strand on a continuous basis. Lagging strand [ edit]The lagging strand is the strand of nascent DNA whose direction of synthesis is opposite to the direction of the growing replication fork. Because of its orientation, replication of the lagging strand is more complicated as compared to that of the leading strand. As a consequence, the DNA polymerase on this strand is seen to ""lag behind"" the other strand. The lagging strand is synthesized in short, separated segments. On the lagging strand template, a primase ""reads"" the template DNA and initiates synthesis of a short complementary RNA primer. A DNA polymerase extends the primed segments, forming Okazaki fragments. The RNA primers are then removed and replaced with DNA, and the fragments of DNA are joined together by DNA ligase. Dynamics at the replication fork [ edit]The assembled human DNA clamp, a trimer of the protein PCNA. As helicase unwinds DNA at the replication fork, the DNA ahead is forced to rotate. This process results in a build-up of twists in the DNA ahead. [19] This build-up forms a torsional resistance that would eventually halt the progress of the replication fork. Topoisomerases are enzymes that temporarily break the strands of DNA, relieving the tension caused by unwinding the two strands of the DNA helix; topoisomerases (including DNA gyrase) achieve this by adding negative supercoils to the DNA helix. [20]Bare single-stranded DNA tends to fold back on itself forming secondary structures; these structures can interfere with the movement of DNA polymerase. To prevent this, single-strand binding proteins bind to the DNA until a second strand is synthesized, preventing secondary structure formation. [21]Clamp proteins form a sliding clamp around DNA, helping the DNA polymerase maintain contact with its template, thereby assisting with processivity. The inner face of the clamp enables DNA to be threaded through it. Once the polymerase reaches the end of the template or detects double-stranded DNA, the sliding clamp undergoes a conformational change that releases the DNA polymerase. Clamp-loading proteins are used to initially load the clamp, recognizing the junction between template and RNA primers. [2] :274-5DNA replication proteins [ edit]At the replication fork, many replication enzymes assemble on the DNA into a complex molecular machine called the replisome. The following is a list of major DNA replication enzymes that participate in the replisome: [22]Enzyme Function in DNA replication DNA Helicase Also known as helix destabilizing enzyme. Helicase separates the two strands of DNA at the Replication Fork behind the topoisomerase. DNA Polymerase The enzyme responsible for catalyzing the addition of nucleotide substrates to DNA in the 5' to 3' direction during DNA replication. Also performs proof-reading and error correction. There exist many different types of DNA Polymerase, each of which perform different functions in different types of cells. DNA clamp A protein which prevents elongating DNA polymerases from dissociating from the DNA parent strand. Single-Strand Binding (SSB) Proteins Bind to ss DNA and prevent the DNA double helix from re-annealing after DNA helicase unwinds it, thus maintaining the strand separation, and facilitating the synthesis of the nascent strand. Topoisomerase Relaxes the DNA from its super-coiled nature. DNA Gyrase Relieves strain of unwinding by DNA helicase; this is a specific type of topoisomerase DNA Ligase Re-anneals the semi-conservative strands and joins Okazaki Fragments of the lagging strand. Primase Provides a starting point of RNA (or DNA) for DNA polymerase to begin synthesis of the new DNA strand. Telomerase Lengthens telomeric DNA by adding repetitive nucleotide sequences to the ends of eukaryotic chromosomes. This allows germ cells and stem cells to avoid the Hayflick limit on cell division. [23]Replication machinery [ edit]Replication machineries consist of factors involved in DNA replication and appearing on template ss DNAs. Replication machineries include primosotors are replication enzymes; DNA polymerase, DNA helicases, DNA clamps and DNA topoisomerases, and replication proteins; e.g. single-stranded DNA binding proteins (SSB). In the replication machineries these components coordinate. In most of the bacteria, all of the factors involved in DNA replication are located on replication forks and the complexes stay on the forks during DNA replication. These replication machineries are called replisomes or DNA replicase systems. These terms are generic terms for proteins located on replication forks. In eukaryotic and some bacterial cells the replisomes are not formed. Since replication machineries do not move relatively to template DNAs such as factories, they are called a replication factory. [24] In an alternative figure, DNA factories are similar to projectors and DNAs are like as cinematic films passing constantly into the projectors. In the replication factory model, after both DNA helicases for leading strands and lagging strands are loaded on the template DNAs, the helicases run along the DNAs into each other. The helicases remain associated for the remainder of replication process. Peter Meister et al. observed directly replication sites in budding yeast by monitoring green fluorescent protein (GFP)-tagged DNA polymerases α. They detected DNA replication of pairs of the tagged loci spaced apart symmetrically from a replication origin and found that the distance between the pairs decreased markedly by time. [25] This finding suggests that the mechanism of DNA replication goes with DNA factories. That is, couples of replication factories are loaded on replication origins and the factories associated with each other. Also, template DNAs move into the factories, which bring extrusion of the template ss DNAs and nascent DNAs. Meister’s finding is the first direct evidence of replication factory model. Subsequent research has shown that DNA helicases form dimers in many eukaryotic cells and bacterial replication machineries stay in single intranuclear location during DNA synthesis. [24]The replication factories perform disentanglement of sister chromatids. The disentanglement is essential for distributing the chromatids into daughter cells after DNA replication. Because sister chromatids after DNA replication hold each other by Cohesin rings, there is the only chance for the disentanglement in DNA replication. Fixing of replication machineries as replication factories can improve the success rate of DNA replication. If replication forks move freely in chromosomes, catenation of nuclei is aggravated and impedes mitotic segregation. [25]Termination [ edit]Eukaryotes initiate DNA replication at multiple points in the chromosome, so replication forks meet and terminate at many points in the chromosome. Because eukaryotes have linear chromosomes, DNA replication is unable to reach the very end of the chromosomes. Due to this problem, DNA is lost each replication cycle from the end of the chromosome. Telomeres are regions of repetitive DNA close to the ends and help prevent loss of genes due to this shortening. Shortening of the telomeres is a normal process in somatic cells. This shortens the telomeres of the daughter DNA chromosome. As a result, cells can only divide a certain number of times before the DNA loss prevents further division. (This is known as the Hayflick limit .) Within the germ cell line, which passes DNA to the next generation, telomerase extends the repetitive sequences of the telomere region to prevent degradation. Telomerase can become mistakenly active in somatic cells, sometimes leading to cancer formation. Increased telomerase activity is one of the hallmarks of cancer. Termination requires that the progress of the DNA replication fork must stop or be blocked. Termination at a specific locus, when it occurs, involves the interaction between two components: (1) a termination site sequence in the DNA, and (2) a protein which binds to this sequence to physically stop DNA replication. In various bacterial species, this is named the DNA replication terminus site-binding protein, or Ter protein. Because bacteria have circular chromosomes, termination of replication occurs when the two replication forks meet each other on the opposite end of the parental chromosome. E. coli regulates this process through the use of termination sequences that, when bound by the Tus protein, enable only one direction of replication fork to pass through. As a result, the replication forks are constrained to always meet within the termination region of the chromosome. [26]Regulation [ edit]Main articles: Cell division and Cell cycle The cell cycle of eukaryotic cells. Eukaryotes [ edit]Within eukaryotes, DNA replication is controlled within the context of the cell cycle. As the cell grows and divides, it progresses through stages in the cell cycle; DNA replication takes place during the S phase (synthesis phase). The progress of the eukaryotic cell through the cycle is controlled by cell cycle checkpoints. Progression through checkpoints is controlled through complex interactions between various proteins, including cyclins and cyclin-dependent kinases. [27] Unlike bacteria, eukaryotic DNA replicates in the confines of the nucleus. [28]The G1/S checkpoint (or restriction checkpoint) regulates whether eukaryotic cells enter the process of DNA replication and subsequent division. Cells that do not proceed through this checkpoint remain in the G0 stage and do not replicate their DNA. Replication of chloroplast and mitochondrial genomes occurs independently of the cell cycle, through the process of D-loop replication. Replication focus [ edit]In vertebrate cells, replication sites concentrate into positions called replication foci. [25] Replication sites can be detected by immunostaining daughter strands and replication enzymes and monitoring GFP-tagged replication factors. By these methods it is found that replication foci of varying size and positions appear in S phase of cell division and their number per nucleus is far smaller than the number of genomic replication forks. P. Heun et al. (2001) tracked GFP-tagged replication foci in budding yeast cells and revealed that replication origins move constantly in G1 and S phase and the dynamics decreased significantly in S phase. [25] Traditionally, replication sites were fixed on spatial structure of chromosomes by nuclear matrix or lamins. The Heun’s results denied the traditional concepts, budding yeasts don't have lamins, and support that replication origins self-assemble and form replication foci. By firing of replication origins, controlled spatially and temporally, the formation of replication foci is regulated. D. A. Jackson et al. (1998) revealed that neighboring origins fire simultaneously in mammalian cells. [25] Spatial juxtaposition of replication sites brings clustering of replication forks. The clustering do rescue of stalled replication forks and favors normal progress of replication forks. Progress of replication forks is inhibited by many factors; collision with proteins or with complexes binding strongly on DNA, deficiency of d NTPs, nicks on template DNAs and so on. If replication forks stall and the remaining sequences from the stalled forks are not replicated, the daughter strands have nick obtained un-replicated sites. The un-replicated sites on one parent's strand hold the other strand together but not daughter strands. Therefore, the resulting sister chromatids cannot separate from each other and cannot divide into 2 daughter cells. When neighboring origins fire and a fork from one origin is stalled, fork from other origin access on an opposite direction of the stalled fork and duplicate the un-replicated sites. As other mechanism of the rescue there is application of dormant replication origins that excess origins don't fire in normal DNA replication. Bacteria [ edit]Dam methylates adenine of GATC sites after replication. Most bacteria do not go through a well-defined cell cycle but instead continuously copy their DNA; during rapid growth, this can result in the concurrent occurrence of multiple rounds of replication. [29] In E. coli, the best-characterized bacteria, DNA replication is regulated through several mechanisms, including: the hemimethylation and sequestering of the origin sequence, the ratio of adenosine triphosphate (ATP) to adenosine diphosphate (ADP), and the levels of protein Dna A. All these control the binding of initiator proteins to the origin sequences. Because E. coli methylates GATC DNA sequences, DNA synthesis results in hemimethylated sequences. This hemimethylated DNA is recognized by the protein Seq A, which binds and sequesters the origin sequence; in addition, Dna A (required for initiation of replication) binds less well to hemimethylated DNA. As a result, newly replicated origins are prevented from immediately initiating another round of DNA replication. [30]ATP builds up when the cell is in a rich medium, triggering DNA replication once the cell has reached a specific size. ATP competes with ADP to bind to Dna A, and the Dna A-ATP complex is able to initiate replication. A certain number of Dna A proteins are also required for DNA replication — each time the origin is copied, the number of binding sites for Dna A doubles, requiring the synthesis of more Dna A to enable another initiation of replication. See also: Plasmid, Plasmid copy number, and Plasmid partition system Polymerase chain reaction [ edit]Main article: Polymerase chain reaction Researchers commonly replicate DNA in vitro using the polymerase chain reaction (PCR). PCR uses a pair of primers to span a target region in template DNA, and then polymerizes partner strands in each direction from these primers using a thermostable DNA polymerase. Repeating this process through multiple cycles amplifies the targeted DNA region. At the start of each cycle, the mixture of template and primers is heated, separating the newly synthesized molecule and template. Then, as the mixture cools, both of these become templates for annealing of new primers, and the polymerase extends from these. As a result, the number of copies of the target region doubles each round, increasing exponentially. [31]See also [ edit]Wikimedia Commons has media related to DNA replication. Wikiversity has learning resources about DNA#DNA_Replication Autopoiesis Data storage device Self-replication Notes [ edit]^ The energetics of this process may also help explain the directionality of synthesis—if DNA were synthesized in the 3' to 5' direction, the energy for the process would come from the 5' end of the growing strand rather than from free nucleotides. The problem is that if the high energy triphosphates were on the growing strand and not on the free nucleotides, proof-reading by removing a mismatched terminal nucleotide would be problematic: Once a nucleotide is added, the triphosphate is lost and a single phosphate remains on the backbone between the new nucleotide and the rest of the strand. If the added nucleotide were mismatched, removal would result in a DNA strand terminated by a monophosphate at the end of the ""growing strand"" rather than a high energy triphosphate. So strand would be stuck and wouldn't be able to grow anymore. In actuality, the high energy triphosphates hydrolyzed at each step originate from the free nucleotides, not the polymerized strand, so this issue does not exist. References [ edit]^ Imperfect DNA replication results in mutations. Berg JM, Tymoczko JL, Stryer L, Clarke ND (2002). "" Chapter 27: DNA Replication, Recombination, and Repair "". Biochemistry. W. H. Freeman and Company. ISBN 0-7167-3051-0. External link in |chapter= ( help)^ a b Alberts B, Johnson A, Lewis J, Raff M, Roberts K, Walter P (2002). "" 5DNA Replication, Repair, and Recombination "". Molecular Biology of the Cell. Garland Science. ISBN 0-8153-3218-1. External link in |chapter= ( help)^ a b Berg JM, Tymoczko JL, Stryer L, Clarke ND (2002). "" Chapter 27, Section 4: DNA Replication of Both Strands Proceeds Rapidly from Specific Start Sites "". Biochemistry. W. H. Freeman and Company. ISBN 0-7167-3051-0. External link in |chapter= ( help)^ Alberts, B., et al., Molecular Biology of the Cell, Garland Science, 4th ed., 2002, pp. 238–240 ISBN 0-8153-3218-1^ Allison, Lizabeth A. Fundamental Molecular Biology. Blackwell Publishing. 2007. p.112 ISBN 978-1-4051-0379-4^ Berg JM, Tymoczko JL, Stryer L, Clarke ND (2002). Biochemistry. W. H. Freeman and Company. ISBN 0-7167-3051-0. Chapter 27, Section 2: DNA Polymerases Require a Template and a Primer^ a b Mc Culloch, Scott D; Kunkel, Thomas A (January 2008). ""The fidelity of DNA synthesis by eukaryotic replicative and translesion synthesis polymerases"". Cell Research. 18 (1): 148–161. doi: 10.1038/cr.2008.4. PMC 3639319. PMID 18166979.^ Mc Carthy, David; Minner, Charles; Bernstein, Harris; Bernstein, Carol (October 1976). ""DNA elongation rates and growing point distributions of wild-type phage T4 and a DNA-delay amber mutant"". Journal of Molecular Biology. 106 (4): 963–981. doi: 10.1016/0022-2836 (76)90346-6. PMID 789903.^ Drake JW (1970) The Molecular Basis of Mutation. Holden-Day, San Francisco ISBN 0816224501 ISBN 978-0816224500^ Alberts B, Johnson A, Lewis J, Raff M, Roberts K, Walter P (2002). Molecular Biology of the Cell. Garland Science. ISBN 0-8153-3218-1. Chapter 5: DNA Replication Mechanisms^ Weigel C, Schmidt A, Rückert B, Lurz R, Messer W (November 1997). ""Dna A protein binding to individual Dna A boxes in the Escherichia coli replication origin, ori C"". The EMBO Journal. 16 (21): 6574–83. doi: 10.1093/emboj/16.21.6574. PMC 1170261. PMID 9351837.^ Lodish H, Berk A, Zipursky LS, Matsudaira P, Baltimore D, Darnell J (2000). Molecular Cell Biology. W. H. Freeman and Company. ISBN 0-7167-3136-3.12.1. General Features of Chromosomal Replication: Three Common Features of Replication Origins^ Aravind, L.; Leipe, D. D.; Koonin, E. V. (1998). ""Toprim—a conserved catalytic domain in type IA and II topoisomerases, Dna G-type primases, OLD family nucleases and Rec R proteins"". Nucleic Acids Research. 26 (18): 4205–4213. doi: 10.1093/nar/26.18.4205. PMC 147817. PMID 9722641.^ Frick, David; Richardson, Charles (July 2001). ""DNA Primases"". Annual Review of Biochemistry. 70: 39–80. doi: 10.1146/annurev.biochem.70.1.39. PMID 11395402.^ Barry, Elizabeth R.; Bell, Stephen D. (8 December 2006). ""DNA Replication in the Archaea"". Microbiology and Molecular Biology Reviews. 70 (4): 876–887. doi: 10.1128/MMBR.00029-06. PMC 1698513. PMID 17158702.^ Stillman, Bruce (July 2015). ""Reconsidering DNA Polymerases at the Replication Fork in Eukaryotes"". Molecular Cell. 59 (2): 139–141. doi: 10.1016/j.molcel.2015.07.004. PMC 4636199. PMID 26186286.^ Distinguishing the pathways of primer removal during Eukaryotic Okazaki fragment maturation Contributor Author Rossi, Marie Louise. Date Accessioned: 2009-02-23T17:05:09Z. Date Available: 2009-02-23T17:05:09Z. Date Issued: 2009-02-23T17:05:09Z. Identifier Uri: http://hdl.handle.net/1802/6537. Description: Dr. Robert A. Bambara, Faculty Advisor. Thesis (Ph D) – School of Medicine and Dentistry, University of Rochester. UR only until January 2010. UR only until January 2010.^ Huberman, Joel A.; Riggs, Arthur D. (March 1968). ""On the mechanism of DNA replication in mammalian chromosomes"". Journal of Molecular Biology. 32 (2): 327–341. doi: 10.1016/0022-2836 (68)90013-2. PMID 5689363.^ Alberts B, Johnson A, Lewis J, Raff M, Roberts K, Walter P (2002). Molecular Biology of the Cell. Garland Science. ISBN 0-8153-3218-1. DNA Replication Mechanisms: DNA Topoisomerases Prevent DNA Tangling During Replication^ Reece, Richard J.; Maxwell, Anthony; Wang, James C. (26 September 2008). ""DNA Gyrase: Structure and Function"". Critical Reviews in Biochemistry and Molecular Biology. 26 (3-4): 335–375. doi: 10.3109/10409239109114072. PMID 1657531.^ Alberts B, Johnson A, Lewis J, Raff M, Roberts K, Walter P (2002). Molecular Biology of the Cell. Garland Science. ISBN 0-8153-3218-1. DNA Replication Mechanisms: Special Proteins Help to Open Up the DNA Double Helix in Front of the Replication Fork^ Griffiths A. J. F.; Wessler S. R.; Lewontin R. C.; Carroll S. B. (2008). Introduction to Genetic Analysis. W. H. Freeman and Company. ISBN 0-7167-6887-9. [Chapter 7: DNA: Structure and Replication. pg 283–290]^ ""Will the Hayflick limit keep us from living forever?"". Howstuffworks. Retrieved January 20, 2015.^ a b James D. Watson et al. (2008), ""Molecular Biology of the gene"", Pearson Education: 237^ a b c d e Peter Meister, Angela Taddei1, Susan M. Gasser (June 2006), ""In and out of the Replication Factory"", Cell 125 (7): 1233–1235^ TA Brown (2002). Genomes. BIOS Scientific Publishers. ISBN 1-85996-228-9. 13.2.3. Termination of replication^ Alberts B, Johnson A, Lewis J, Raff M, Roberts K, Walter P (2002). Molecular Biology of the Cell. Garland Science. ISBN 0-8153-3218-1. Intracellular Control of Cell-Cycle Events: S-Phase Cyclin-Cdk Complexes (S-Cdks) Initiate DNA Replication Once Per Cycle^ Brown, TA (2002). ""13"". Genomes (2nd ed.). Oxford: Wiley-Liss.^ Tobiason DM, Seifert HS (2006). ""The Obligate Human Pathogen, Neisseria gonorrhoeae, Is Polyploid"". PLo S Biology. 4 (6): e185. doi: 10.1371/journal.pbio.0040185. PMC 1470461. 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[ hide]v t e DNA replication (comparing Prokaryotic to Eukaryotic)Initiation Prokaryotic ( initiation)Pre-replication complexdna CCdc6Helicasedna A dna B T7Primasedna GEukaryotic ( preparation in G1 phase)Pre-replication complex Origin recognition complex ORC1 ORC2 ORC3 ORC4 ORC5 ORC6Cdc6Cdt1Minichromosome maintenance MCM2 MCM3 MCM4 MCM5 MCM6 MCM7Licensing factor Autonomously replicating sequence Single-strand binding protein SSBP2 SSBP3 SSBP4RNase HRNASEH1 RNASEH2AHelicase: HFM1Primase: PRIM1 PRIM2Both Origin of replication / Ori / Replicon Replication fork Lagging and leading strands Okazaki fragments Primer Replication Prokaryotic ( elongation)DNA polymerase III holoenzymedna C dna E dna H dna N dna Q dna T dna X hol A hol B hol Chol D hol EReplisome DNA ligase DNA clamp Topoisomerase DNA gyrase Prokaryotic DNA polymerase: DNA polymerase IKlenow fragment Eukaryotic ( synthesis in S phase)Replication factor CRFC1Flap endonuclease FEN1Topoisomerase Replication protein ARPA1Eukaryotic DNA polymerase: alpha POLA1 POLA2 PRIM1 PRIM2delta POLD1 POLD2 POLD3POLD4epsilon POLE POLE2 POLE3 POLE4DNA clamp PCNAControl of chromosome duplication Both Movement: Processivity DNA ligase Termination Telomere: Telomerase TERT TERC DKC1Molecular and cellular biology portal Authority control GND: 4153174-7Categories: DNA replication Senescence "
[ "\"From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedianavigation search DNA replication: The double helix is un'zipped' and unwound, then each separated strand (turquoise) acts as a template for replicating a new partner strand (green).", "Nucleotides (bases) are matched to synthesize the new partner strands into two new double helices.", "In molecular biology, DNA replication is the biological process of producing two identical replicas of DNA from one original DNA molecule.", "This process occurs in all living organisms and is the basis for biological inheritance.", "The cell possesses the distinctive property of division, which makes replication of DNA essential.", "DNA is made up of a double helix of two complementary strands.", "During replication, these strands are separated.", "Each strand of the original DNA molecule then serves as a template for the production of its counterpart, a process referred to as semiconservative replication.", "Cellular proofreading and error-checking mechanisms ensure near perfect fidelity for DNA replication.", "[1] [2]In a cell, DNA replication begins at specific locations, or origins of replication, in the genome.", "[3] Unwinding of DNA at the origin and synthesis of new strands, accommodated by an enzyme known as ligase, results in replication forks growing bi-directionally from the origin.", "A number of proteins are associated with the replication fork to help in the initiation and continuation of DNA synthesis.", "Most prominently, DNA polymerase synthesizes the new strands by adding nucleotides that complement each (template) strand.", "DNA replication occurs during the S-stage of interphase.", "DNA replication can also be performed in vitro (artificially, outside a cell).", "DNA polymerases isolated from cells and artificial DNA primers can be used to initiate DNA synthesis at known sequences in a template DNA molecule.", "The polymerase chain reaction (PCR), a common laboratory technique, cyclically applies such artificial synthesis to amplify a specific target DNA fragment from a pool of DNA.", "Contents [ hide ]1 DNA structure2 DNA polymerase3 Replication process3.1 Initiation3.2 Elongation3.3 Replication fork3.3.1 Leading strand3.3.2 Lagging strand3.3.3 Dynamics at the replication fork3.4 DNA replication proteins3.5 Replication machinery3.6 Termination4 Regulation4.1 Eukaryotes4.1.1 Replication focus4.2 Bacteria5 Polymerase chain reaction6 See also7 Notes8 References DNA structure [ edit]DNA exists as a double-stranded structure, with both strands coiled together to form the characteristic double-helix.", "Each single strand of DNA is a chain of four types of nucleotides.", "Nucleotides in DNA contain a deoxyribose sugar, a phosphate, and a nucleobase.", "The four types of nucleotide correspond to the four nucleobases adenine, cytosine, guanine, and thymine, commonly abbreviated as A, C, G and T. Adenine and guanine are purine bases, while cytosine and thymine are pyrimidines.", "These nucleotides form phosphodiester bonds, creating the phosphate-deoxyribose backbone of the DNA double helix with the nucleobases pointing inward (i.e., toward the opposing strand).", "Nucleobases are matched between strands through hydrogen bonds to form base pairs.", "Adenine pairs with thymine (two hydrogen bonds), and guanine pairs with cytosine (three hydrogen bonds).", "DNA strands have a directionality, and the different ends of a single strand are called the \"\"3' (three-prime) end\"\" and the \"\"5' (five-prime) end\"\".", "By convention, if the base sequence of a single strand of DNA is given, the left end of the sequence is the 5' end, while the right end of the sequence is the 3' end.", "The strands of the double helix are anti-parallel with one being 5' to 3', and the opposite strand 3' to 5'.", "These terms refer to the carbon atom in deoxyribose to which the next phosphate in the chain attaches.", "Directionality has consequences in DNA synthesis, because DNA polymerase can synthesize DNA in only one direction by adding nucleotides to the 3' end of a DNA strand.", "The pairing of complementary bases in DNA (through hydrogen bonding) means that the information contained within each strand is useless.", "phosphoodiester (intra-strand) bonds are stronger than hydrogen (inter-strand) bonds.", "This allows the strands to be separated from one another.", "The nucleotides on a single strand can therefore be used to reconstruct nucleotides on a newly synthesized partner strand.", "[4]DNA polymerase [ edit]Main article: DNA polymerase DNA polymerases adds nucleotides to the 3' end of a strand of DNA.", "[5] If a mismatch is accidentally incorporated, the polymerase is inhibited from further extension.", "Proofreading removes the mismatched nucleotide and extension continues.", "DNA polymerases are a family of enzymes that carry out all forms of DNA replication.", "[6] DNA polymerases in general cannot initiate synthesis of new strands, but can only extend an existing DNA or RNA strand paired with a template strand.", "To begin synthesis, a short fragment of RNA, called a primer, must be created and paired with the template DNA strand.", "DNA polymerase adds a new strand of DNA by extending the 3' end of an existing nucleotide chain, adding new nucleotides matched to the template strand one at a time via the creation of phosphodiester bonds.", "The energy for this process of DNA polymerization comes from hydrolysis of the high-energy phosphate (phosphoanhydride) bonds between the three phosphates attached to each unincorporated base.", "Free bases with their attached phosphate groups are called nucleotides; in particular, bases with three attached phosphate groups are called nucleoside triphosphates.", "When a nucleotide is being added to a growing DNA strand, the formation of a phosphodiester bond between the proximal phosphate of the nucleotide to the growing chain is accompanied by hydrolysis of a high-energy phosphate bond with release of the two distal phosphates as a pyrophosphate.", "Enzymatic hydrolysis of the resulting pyrophosphate into inorganic phosphate consumes a second high-energy phosphate bond and renders the reaction effectively irreversible.", "[Note 1]In general, DNA polymerases are highly accurate, with an intrinsic error rate of less than one mistake for every 10 7 nucleotides added.", "[7] In addition, some DNA polymerases also have proofreading ability; they can remove nucleotides from the end of a growing strand in order to correct mismatched bases.", "Finally, post-replication mismatch repair mechanisms monitor the DNA for errors, being capable of distinguishing mismatches in the newly synthesized DNA strand from the original strand sequence.", "Together, these three discrimination steps enable replication fidelity of less than one mistake for every 10 9 nucleotides added.", "[7]The rate of DNA replication in a living cell was first measured as the rate of phage T4 DNA elongation in phage-infected E. coli.", "[8] During the period of exponential DNA increase at 37 °C, the rate was 749 nucleotides per second.", "The mutation rate per base pair per replication during phage T4 DNA synthesis is 1.7 per 10 8.", "[9]Replication process [ edit]Main articles: Prokaryotic DNA replication and Eukaryotic DNA replication DNA replication, like all biological polymerization processes, proceeds in three enzymatically catalyzed and coordinated steps: initiation, elongation and termination.", "Initiation [ edit]Role of initiators for initiation of DNA replication.", "Formation of pre-replication complex.", "For a cell to divide, it must first replicate its DNA.", "[10] This process is initiated at particular points in the DNA, known as \"\" origins \"\", which are targeted by initiator proteins.", "[3] In E. coli this protein is Dna A; in yeast, this is the origin recognition complex.", "[11] Sequences used by initiator proteins tend to be \"\"AT-rich\"\" (rich in adenine and thymine bases), because A-T base pairs have two hydrogen bonds (rather than the three formed in a C-G pair) and thus are easier to strand-separate.", "[12] Once the origin has been located, these initiators recruit other proteins and form the pre-replication complex, which unwinds the double-stranded DNA.", "Elongation [ edit]DNA polymerase has 5′–3′ activity.", "All known DNA replication systems require a free 3' hydroxyl group before synthesis can be initiated (note: the DNA template is read in 3′ to 5′ direction whereas a new strand is synthesized in the 5′ to 3′ direction—this is often confused).", "Four distinct mechanisms for DNA synthesis are recognized: All cellular life forms and many DNA viruses, phages and plasmids use a primase to synthesize a short RNA primer with a free 3′ OH group which is subsequently elongated by a DNA polymerase.", "The retroelements (including retroviruses) employ a transfer RNA that primes DNA replication by providing a free 3′ OH that is used for elongation by the reverse transcriptase.", "In the adenoviruses and the φ29 family of bacteriophages, the 3' OH group is provided by the side chain of an amino acid of the genome attached protein (the terminal protein) to which nucleotides are added by the DNA polymerase to form a new strand.", "In the single stranded DNA viruses—a group that includes the circoviruses, the geminiviruses, the parvoviruses and others—and also the many phages and plasmids that use the rolling circle replication (RCR) mechanism, the RCR endonuclease creates a nick in the genome strand (single stranded viruses) or one of the DNA strands (plasmids).", "The 5′ end of the nicked strand is transferred to a tyrosine residue on the nuclease and the free 3′ OH group is then used by the DNA polymerase to synthesize the new strand.", "The first is the best known of these mechanisms and is used by the cellular organisms.", "In this mechanism, once the two strands are separated, primase adds RNA primers to the template strands.", "The leading strand receives one RNA primer while the lagging strand receives several.", "The leading strand is continuously extended from the primer by a DNA polymerase with high processivity, while the lagging strand is extended discontinuously from each primer forming Okazaki fragments.", "RNase removes the primer RNA fragments, and a low processivity DNA polymerase distinct from the replicative polymerase enters to fill the gaps.", "When this is complete, a single nick on the leading strand and several nicks on the lagging strand can be found.", "Ligase works to fill these nicks in, thus completing the newly replicated DNA molecule.", "The primase used in this process differs significantly between bacteria and archaea / eukaryotes.", "Bacteria use a primase belonging to the Dna G protein superfamily which contains a catalytic domain of the TOPRIM fold type.", "[13] The TOPRIM fold contains an α/β core with four conserved strands in a Rossmann-like topology.", "This structure is also found in the catalytic domains of topoisomerase Ia, topoisomerase II, the OLD-family nucleases and DNA repair proteins related to the Rec R protein.", "The primase used by archaea and eukaryotes, in contrast, contains a highly derived version of the RNA recognition motif (RRM).", "This primase is structurally similar to many viral RNA-dependent RNA polymerases, reverse transcriptases, cyclic nucleotide generating cyclases and DNA polymerases of the A/B/Y families that are involved in DNA replication and repair.", "In eukaryotic replication, the primase forms a complex with Pol α.", "[14]Multiple DNA polymerases take on different roles in the DNA replication process.", "In E. coli, DNA Pol III is the polymerase enzyme primarily responsible for DNA replication.", "It assembles into a replication complex at the replication fork that exhibits extremely high processivity, remaining intact for the entire replication cycle.", "In contrast, DNA Pol I is the enzyme responsible for replacing RNA primers with DNA.", "DNA Pol I has a 5′ to 3′ exonuclease activity in addition to its polymerase activity, and uses its exonuclease activity to degrade the RNA primers ahead of it as it extends the DNA strand behind it, in a process called nick translation.", "Pol I is much less processive than Pol III because its primary function in DNA replication is to create many short DNA regions rather than a few very long regions.", "In eukaryotes, the low-processivity enzyme, Pol α, helps to initiate replication because it forms a complex with primase.", "[15] In eukaryotes, leading strand synthesis is thought to be conducted by Pol ε; however, this view has recently been challenged, suggesting a role for Pol δ.", "[16] Primer removal is completed Pol δ [17] while repair of DNA during replication is completed by Pol ε.", "As DNA synthesis continues, the original DNA strands continue to unwind on each side of the bubble, forming a replication fork with two prongs.", "In bacteria, which have a single origin of replication on their circular chromosome, this process creates a \"\" theta structure \"\" (resembling the Greek letter theta: θ).", "In contrast, eukaryotes have longer linear chromosomes and initiate replication at multiple origins within these.", "[18]Replication fork [ edit]Scheme of the replication fork.", "a: template, b: leading strand, c: lagging strand, d: replication fork, e: primer, f: Okazaki fragments Many enzymes are involved in the DNA replication fork.", "The replication fork is a structure that forms within the nucleus during DNA replication.", "It is created by helicases, which break the hydrogen bonds holding the two DNA strands together.", "The resulting structure has two branching \"\"prongs\"\", each one made up of a single strand of DNA.", "These two strands serve as the template for the leading and lagging strands, which will be created as DNA polymerase matches complementary nucleotides to the templates; the templates may be properly referred to as the leading strand template and the lagging strand template.", "DNA is always synthesized in the 5' to 3' direction.", "Since the leading and lagging strand templates are oriented in opposite directions at the replication fork, a major issue is how to achieve synthesis of nascent (new) lagging strand DNA, whose direction of synthesis is opposite to the direction of the growing replication fork.", "Leading strand [ edit]The leading strand is the strand of nascent DNA which is being synthesized in the same direction as the growing replication fork.", "A polymerase \"\"reads\"\" the leading strand template and adds complementary nucleotides to the nascent leading strand on a continuous basis.", "Lagging strand [ edit]The lagging strand is the strand of nascent DNA whose direction of synthesis is opposite to the direction of the growing replication fork.", "Because of its orientation, replication of the lagging strand is more complicated as compared to that of the leading strand.", "As a consequence, the DNA polymerase on this strand is seen to \"\"lag behind\"\" the other strand.", "The lagging strand is synthesized in short, separated segments.", "On the lagging strand template, a primase \"\"reads\"\" the template DNA and initiates synthesis of a short complementary RNA primer.", "A DNA polymerase extends the primed segments, forming Okazaki fragments.", "The RNA primers are then removed and replaced with DNA, and the fragments of DNA are joined together by DNA ligase.", "Dynamics at the replication fork [ edit]The assembled human DNA clamp, a trimer of the protein PCNA.", "As helicase unwinds DNA at the replication fork, the DNA ahead is forced to rotate.", "This process results in a build-up of twists in the DNA ahead.", "[19] This build-up forms a torsional resistance that would eventually halt the progress of the replication fork.", "Topoisomerases are enzymes that temporarily break the strands of DNA, relieving the tension caused by unwinding the two strands of the DNA helix; topoisomerases (including DNA gyrase) achieve this by adding negative supercoils to the DNA helix.", "[20]Bare single-stranded DNA tends to fold back on itself forming secondary structures; these structures can interfere with the movement of DNA polymerase.", "To prevent this, single-strand binding proteins bind to the DNA until a second strand is synthesized, preventing secondary structure formation.", "[21]Clamp proteins form a sliding clamp around DNA, helping the DNA polymerase maintain contact with its template, thereby assisting with processivity.", "The inner face of the clamp enables DNA to be threaded through it.", "Once the polymerase reaches the end of the template or detects double-stranded DNA, the sliding clamp undergoes a conformational change that releases the DNA polymerase.", "Clamp-loading proteins are used to initially load the clamp, recognizing the junction between template and RNA primers.", "[2] :274-5DNA replication proteins [ edit]At the replication fork, many replication enzymes assemble on the DNA into a complex molecular machine called the replisome.", "The following is a list of major DNA replication enzymes that participate in the replisome: [22]Enzyme Function in DNA replication DNA Helicase Also known as helix destabilizing enzyme.", "Helicase separates the two strands of DNA at the Replication Fork behind the topoisomerase.", "DNA Polymerase The enzyme responsible for catalyzing the addition of nucleotide substrates to DNA in the 5' to 3' direction during DNA replication.", "Also performs proof-reading and error correction.", "There exist many different types of DNA Polymerase, each of which perform different functions in different types of cells.", "DNA clamp A protein which prevents elongating DNA polymerases from dissociating from the DNA parent strand.", "Single-Strand Binding (SSB) Proteins Bind to ss DNA and prevent the DNA double helix from re-annealing after DNA helicase unwinds it, thus maintaining the strand separation, and facilitating the synthesis of the nascent strand.", "Topoisomerase Relaxes the DNA from its super-coiled nature.", "DNA Gyrase Relieves strain of unwinding by DNA helicase; this is a specific type of topoisomerase DNA Ligase Re-anneals the semi-conservative strands and joins Okazaki Fragments of the lagging strand.", "Primase Provides a starting point of RNA (or DNA) for DNA polymerase to begin synthesis of the new DNA strand.", "Telomerase Lengthens telomeric DNA by adding repetitive nucleotide sequences to the ends of eukaryotic chromosomes.", "This allows germ cells and stem cells to avoid the Hayflick limit on cell division.", "[23]Replication machinery [ edit]Replication machineries consist of factors involved in DNA replication and appearing on template ss DNAs.", "Replication machineries include primosotors are replication enzymes; DNA polymerase, DNA helicases, DNA clamps and DNA topoisomerases, and replication proteins; e.g.", "single-stranded DNA binding proteins (SSB).", "In the replication machineries these components coordinate.", "In most of the bacteria, all of the factors involved in DNA replication are located on replication forks and the complexes stay on the forks during DNA replication.", "These replication machineries are called replisomes or DNA replicase systems.", "These terms are generic terms for proteins located on replication forks.", "In eukaryotic and some bacterial cells the replisomes are not formed.", "Since replication machineries do not move relatively to template DNAs such as factories, they are called a replication factory.", "[24] In an alternative figure, DNA factories are similar to projectors and DNAs are like as cinematic films passing constantly into the projectors.", "In the replication factory model, after both DNA helicases for leading strands and lagging strands are loaded on the template DNAs, the helicases run along the DNAs into each other.", "The helicases remain associated for the remainder of replication process.", "Peter Meister et al.", "observed directly replication sites in budding yeast by monitoring green fluorescent protein (GFP)-tagged DNA polymerases α.", "They detected DNA replication of pairs of the tagged loci spaced apart symmetrically from a replication origin and found that the distance between the pairs decreased markedly by time.", "[25] This finding suggests that the mechanism of DNA replication goes with DNA factories.", "That is, couples of replication factories are loaded on replication origins and the factories associated with each other.", "Also, template DNAs move into the factories, which bring extrusion of the template ss DNAs and nascent DNAs.", "Meister’s finding is the first direct evidence of replication factory model.", "Subsequent research has shown that DNA helicases form dimers in many eukaryotic cells and bacterial replication machineries stay in single intranuclear location during DNA synthesis.", "[24]The replication factories perform disentanglement of sister chromatids.", "The disentanglement is essential for distributing the chromatids into daughter cells after DNA replication.", "Because sister chromatids after DNA replication hold each other by Cohesin rings, there is the only chance for the disentanglement in DNA replication.", "Fixing of replication machineries as replication factories can improve the success rate of DNA replication.", "If replication forks move freely in chromosomes, catenation of nuclei is aggravated and impedes mitotic segregation.", "[25]Termination [ edit]Eukaryotes initiate DNA replication at multiple points in the chromosome, so replication forks meet and terminate at many points in the chromosome.", "Because eukaryotes have linear chromosomes, DNA replication is unable to reach the very end of the chromosomes.", "Due to this problem, DNA is lost each replication cycle from the end of the chromosome.", "Telomeres are regions of repetitive DNA close to the ends and help prevent loss of genes due to this shortening.", "Shortening of the telomeres is a normal process in somatic cells.", "This shortens the telomeres of the daughter DNA chromosome.", "As a result, cells can only divide a certain number of times before the DNA loss prevents further division.", "(This is known as the Hayflick limit .)", "Within the germ cell line, which passes DNA to the next generation, telomerase extends the repetitive sequences of the telomere region to prevent degradation.", "Telomerase can become mistakenly active in somatic cells, sometimes leading to cancer formation.", "Increased telomerase activity is one of the hallmarks of cancer.", "Termination requires that the progress of the DNA replication fork must stop or be blocked.", "Termination at a specific locus, when it occurs, involves the interaction between two components: (1) a termination site sequence in the DNA, and (2) a protein which binds to this sequence to physically stop DNA replication.", "In various bacterial species, this is named the DNA replication terminus site-binding protein, or Ter protein.", "Because bacteria have circular chromosomes, termination of replication occurs when the two replication forks meet each other on the opposite end of the parental chromosome.", "E. coli regulates this process through the use of termination sequences that, when bound by the Tus protein, enable only one direction of replication fork to pass through.", "As a result, the replication forks are constrained to always meet within the termination region of the chromosome.", "[26]Regulation [ edit]Main articles: Cell division and Cell cycle The cell cycle of eukaryotic cells.", "Eukaryotes [ edit]Within eukaryotes, DNA replication is controlled within the context of the cell cycle.", "As the cell grows and divides, it progresses through stages in the cell cycle; DNA replication takes place during the S phase (synthesis phase).", "The progress of the eukaryotic cell through the cycle is controlled by cell cycle checkpoints.", "Progression through checkpoints is controlled through complex interactions between various proteins, including cyclins and cyclin-dependent kinases.", "[27] Unlike bacteria, eukaryotic DNA replicates in the confines of the nucleus.", "[28]The G1/S checkpoint (or restriction checkpoint) regulates whether eukaryotic cells enter the process of DNA replication and subsequent division.", "Cells that do not proceed through this checkpoint remain in the G0 stage and do not replicate their DNA.", "Replication of chloroplast and mitochondrial genomes occurs independently of the cell cycle, through the process of D-loop replication.", "Replication focus [ edit]In vertebrate cells, replication sites concentrate into positions called replication foci.", "[25] Replication sites can be detected by immunostaining daughter strands and replication enzymes and monitoring GFP-tagged replication factors.", "By these methods it is found that replication foci of varying size and positions appear in S phase of cell division and their number per nucleus is far smaller than the number of genomic replication forks.", "P. Heun et al.", "(2001) tracked GFP-tagged replication foci in budding yeast cells and revealed that replication origins move constantly in G1 and S phase and the dynamics decreased significantly in S phase.", "[25] Traditionally, replication sites were fixed on spatial structure of chromosomes by nuclear matrix or lamins.", "The Heun’s results denied the traditional concepts, budding yeasts don't have lamins, and support that replication origins self-assemble and form replication foci.", "By firing of replication origins, controlled spatially and temporally, the formation of replication foci is regulated.", "D. A. Jackson et al.", "(1998) revealed that neighboring origins fire simultaneously in mammalian cells.", "[25] Spatial juxtaposition of replication sites brings clustering of replication forks.", "The clustering do rescue of stalled replication forks and favors normal progress of replication forks.", "Progress of replication forks is inhibited by many factors; collision with proteins or with complexes binding strongly on DNA, deficiency of d NTPs, nicks on template DNAs and so on.", "If replication forks stall and the remaining sequences from the stalled forks are not replicated, the daughter strands have nick obtained un-replicated sites.", "The un-replicated sites on one parent's strand hold the other strand together but not daughter strands.", "Therefore, the resulting sister chromatids cannot separate from each other and cannot divide into 2 daughter cells.", "When neighboring origins fire and a fork from one origin is stalled, fork from other origin access on an opposite direction of the stalled fork and duplicate the un-replicated sites.", "As other mechanism of the rescue there is application of dormant replication origins that excess origins don't fire in normal DNA replication.", "Bacteria [ edit]Dam methylates adenine of GATC sites after replication.", "Most bacteria do not go through a well-defined cell cycle but instead continuously copy their DNA; during rapid growth, this can result in the concurrent occurrence of multiple rounds of replication.", "[29] In E. coli, the best-characterized bacteria, DNA replication is regulated through several mechanisms, including: the hemimethylation and sequestering of the origin sequence, the ratio of adenosine triphosphate (ATP) to adenosine diphosphate (ADP), and the levels of protein Dna A.", "All these control the binding of initiator proteins to the origin sequences.", "Because E. coli methylates GATC DNA sequences, DNA synthesis results in hemimethylated sequences.", "This hemimethylated DNA is recognized by the protein Seq A, which binds and sequesters the origin sequence; in addition, Dna A (required for initiation of replication) binds less well to hemimethylated DNA.", "As a result, newly replicated origins are prevented from immediately initiating another round of DNA replication.", "[30]ATP builds up when the cell is in a rich medium, triggering DNA replication once the cell has reached a specific size.", "ATP competes with ADP to bind to Dna A, and the Dna A-ATP complex is able to initiate replication.", "A certain number of Dna A proteins are also required for DNA replication — each time the origin is copied, the number of binding sites for Dna A doubles, requiring the synthesis of more Dna A to enable another initiation of replication.", "See also: Plasmid, Plasmid copy number, and Plasmid partition system Polymerase chain reaction [ edit]Main article: Polymerase chain reaction Researchers commonly replicate DNA in vitro using the polymerase chain reaction (PCR).", "PCR uses a pair of primers to span a target region in template DNA, and then polymerizes partner strands in each direction from these primers using a thermostable DNA polymerase.", "Repeating this process through multiple cycles amplifies the targeted DNA region.", "At the start of each cycle, the mixture of template and primers is heated, separating the newly synthesized molecule and template.", "Then, as the mixture cools, both of these become templates for annealing of new primers, and the polymerase extends from these.", "As a result, the number of copies of the target region doubles each round, increasing exponentially.", "[31]See also [ edit]Wikimedia Commons has media related to DNA replication.", "Wikiversity has learning resources about DNA#DNA_Replication Autopoiesis Data storage device Self-replication Notes [ edit]^ The energetics of this process may also help explain the directionality of synthesis—if DNA were synthesized in the 3' to 5' direction, the energy for the process would come from the 5' end of the growing strand rather than from free nucleotides.", "The problem is that if the high energy triphosphates were on the growing strand and not on the free nucleotides, proof-reading by removing a mismatched terminal nucleotide would be problematic: Once a nucleotide is added, the triphosphate is lost and a single phosphate remains on the backbone between the new nucleotide and the rest of the strand.", "If the added nucleotide were mismatched, removal would result in a DNA strand terminated by a monophosphate at the end of the \"\"growing strand\"\" rather than a high energy triphosphate.", "So strand would be stuck and wouldn't be able to grow anymore.", "In actuality, the high energy triphosphates hydrolyzed at each step originate from the free nucleotides, not the polymerized strand, so this issue does not exist.", "References [ edit]^ Imperfect DNA replication results in mutations.", "Berg JM, Tymoczko JL, Stryer L, Clarke ND (2002). \"\"", "Chapter 27: DNA Replication, Recombination, and Repair \"\".", "Biochemistry.", "W. H. Freeman and Company.", "ISBN 0-7167-3051-0.", "External link in |chapter= ( help)^ a b Alberts B, Johnson A, Lewis J, Raff M, Roberts K, Walter P (2002). \"\"", "5DNA Replication, Repair, and Recombination \"\".", "Molecular Biology of the Cell.", "Garland Science.", "ISBN 0-8153-3218-1.", "External link in |chapter= ( help)^ a b Berg JM, Tymoczko JL, Stryer L, Clarke ND (2002). \"\"", "Chapter 27, Section 4: DNA Replication of Both Strands Proceeds Rapidly from Specific Start Sites \"\".", "Biochemistry.", "W. H. Freeman and Company.", "ISBN 0-7167-3051-0.", "External link in |chapter= ( help)^ Alberts, B., et al., Molecular Biology of the Cell, Garland Science, 4th ed., 2002, pp.", "238–240 ISBN 0-8153-3218-1^ Allison, Lizabeth A.", "Fundamental Molecular Biology.", "Blackwell Publishing.", "2007. p.112 ISBN 978-1-4051-0379-4^ Berg JM, Tymoczko JL, Stryer L, Clarke ND (2002).", "Biochemistry.", "W. H. Freeman and Company.", "ISBN 0-7167-3051-0.", "Chapter 27, Section 2: DNA Polymerases Require a Template and a Primer^ a b Mc Culloch, Scott D; Kunkel, Thomas A (January 2008).", "\"\"The fidelity of DNA synthesis by eukaryotic replicative and translesion synthesis polymerases\"\".", "Cell Research.", "18 (1): 148–161.", "doi: 10.1038/cr.2008.4.", "PMC 3639319.", "PMID 18166979.^ Mc Carthy, David; Minner, Charles; Bernstein, Harris; Bernstein, Carol (October 1976).", "\"\"DNA elongation rates and growing point distributions of wild-type phage T4 and a DNA-delay amber mutant\"\".", "Journal of Molecular Biology.", "106 (4): 963–981.", "doi: 10.1016/0022-2836 (76)90346-6.", "PMID 789903.^ Drake JW (1970) The Molecular Basis of Mutation.", "Holden-Day, San Francisco ISBN 0816224501 ISBN 978-0816224500^ Alberts B, Johnson A, Lewis J, Raff M, Roberts K, Walter P (2002).", "Molecular Biology of the Cell.", "Garland Science.", "ISBN 0-8153-3218-1.", "Chapter 5: DNA Replication Mechanisms^ Weigel C, Schmidt A, Rückert B, Lurz R, Messer W (November 1997).", "\"\"Dna A protein binding to individual Dna A boxes in the Escherichia coli replication origin, ori C\"\".", "The EMBO Journal.", "16 (21): 6574–83.", "doi: 10.1093/emboj/16.21.6574.", "PMC 1170261.", "PMID 9351837.^ Lodish H, Berk A, Zipursky LS, Matsudaira P, Baltimore D, Darnell J (2000).", "Molecular Cell Biology.", "W. H. Freeman and Company.", "ISBN 0-7167-3136-3.12.1.", "General Features of Chromosomal Replication: Three Common Features of Replication Origins^ Aravind, L.; Leipe, D. D.; Koonin, E. V. (1998).", "\"\"Toprim—a conserved catalytic domain in type IA and II topoisomerases, Dna G-type primases, OLD family nucleases and Rec R proteins\"\".", "Nucleic Acids Research.", "26 (18): 4205–4213.", "doi: 10.1093/nar/26.18.4205.", "PMC 147817.", "PMID 9722641.^ Frick, David; Richardson, Charles (July 2001).", "\"\"DNA Primases\"\".", "Annual Review of Biochemistry.", "70: 39–80.", "doi: 10.1146/annurev.biochem.70.1.39.", "PMID 11395402.^ Barry, Elizabeth R.; Bell, Stephen D. (8 December 2006).", "\"\"DNA Replication in the Archaea\"\".", "Microbiology and Molecular Biology Reviews.", "70 (4): 876–887.", "doi: 10.1128/MMBR.00029-06.", "PMC 1698513.", "PMID 17158702.^ Stillman, Bruce (July 2015).", "\"\"Reconsidering DNA Polymerases at the Replication Fork in Eukaryotes\"\".", "Molecular Cell.", "59 (2): 139–141.", "doi: 10.1016/j.molcel.2015.07.004.", "PMC 4636199.", "PMID 26186286.^ Distinguishing the pathways of primer removal during Eukaryotic Okazaki fragment maturation Contributor Author Rossi, Marie Louise.", "Date Accessioned: 2009-02-23T17:05:09Z.", "Date Available: 2009-02-23T17:05:09Z.", "Date Issued: 2009-02-23T17:05:09Z.", "Identifier Uri: http://hdl.handle.net/1802/6537.", "Description: Dr. Robert A. Bambara, Faculty Advisor.", "Thesis (Ph D) – School of Medicine and Dentistry, University of Rochester.", "UR only until January 2010.", "UR only until January 2010.^ Huberman, Joel A.; Riggs, Arthur D. (March 1968).", "\"\"On the mechanism of DNA replication in mammalian chromosomes\"\".", "Journal of Molecular Biology.", "32 (2): 327–341.", "doi: 10.1016/0022-2836 (68)90013-2.", "PMID 5689363.^ Alberts B, Johnson A, Lewis J, Raff M, Roberts K, Walter P (2002).", "Molecular Biology of the Cell.", "Garland Science.", "ISBN 0-8153-3218-1.", "DNA Replication Mechanisms: DNA Topoisomerases Prevent DNA Tangling During Replication^ Reece, Richard J.; Maxwell, Anthony; Wang, James C. (26 September 2008).", "\"\"DNA Gyrase: Structure and Function\"\".", "Critical Reviews in Biochemistry and Molecular Biology.", "26 (3-4): 335–375.", "doi: 10.3109/10409239109114072.", "PMID 1657531.^ Alberts B, Johnson A, Lewis J, Raff M, Roberts K, Walter P (2002).", "Molecular Biology of the Cell.", "Garland Science.", "ISBN 0-8153-3218-1.", "DNA Replication Mechanisms: Special Proteins Help to Open Up the DNA Double Helix in Front of the Replication Fork^ Griffiths A. J. F.; Wessler S. R.; Lewontin R. C.; Carroll S. B.", "(2008).", "Introduction to Genetic Analysis.", "W. H. Freeman and Company.", "ISBN 0-7167-6887-9.", "[Chapter 7: DNA: Structure and Replication.", "pg 283–290]^ \"\"Will the Hayflick limit keep us from living forever?\"\".", "Howstuffworks.", "Retrieved January 20, 2015.^ a b James D. Watson et al.", "(2008), \"\"Molecular Biology of the gene\"\", Pearson Education: 237^ a b c d e Peter Meister, Angela Taddei1, Susan M. Gasser (June 2006), \"\"In and out of the Replication Factory\"\", Cell 125 (7): 1233–1235^ TA Brown (2002).", "Genomes.", "BIOS Scientific Publishers.", "ISBN 1-85996-228-9.", "13.2.3.", "Termination of replication^ Alberts B, Johnson A, Lewis J, Raff M, Roberts K, Walter P (2002).", "Molecular Biology of the Cell.", "Garland Science.", "ISBN 0-8153-3218-1.", "Intracellular Control of Cell-Cycle Events: S-Phase Cyclin-Cdk Complexes (S-Cdks) Initiate DNA Replication Once Per Cycle^ Brown, TA (2002).", "\"\"13\"\".", "Genomes (2nd ed.).", "Oxford: Wiley-Liss.^ Tobiason DM, Seifert HS (2006).", "\"\"The Obligate Human Pathogen, Neisseria gonorrhoeae, Is Polyploid\"\".", "PLo S Biology.", "4 (6): e185.", "doi: 10.1371/journal.pbio.0040185.", "PMC 1470461.", "PMID 16719561.^ Slater, Steven; Wold, Sture; Lu, Min; Boye, Erik; Skarstad, Kirsten; Kleckner, Nancy (September 1995).", "\"\"E. coli Seq A protein binds ori C in two different methyl-modulated reactions appropriate to its roles in DNA replication initiation and origin sequestration\"\".", "Cell.", "82 (6): 927–936.", "doi: 10.1016/0092-8674 (95)90272-4.", "PMID 7553853.^ Saiki, Randall; Gelfand, David H.; Stoffel, Susanne; Scharf, Stephen J.; Higuchi, Russell; Horn, Glenn T.; Mullis, Kary B.; Erlich, Henry A.", "(29 January 1988).", "\"\"Primer-directed enzymatic amplification of DNA with a thermostable DNA polymerase\"\".", "Science.", "239 (4839): 487–491.", "Bibcode: 1988Sci...239..487S.", "doi: 10.1126/science.2448875.", "PMID 2448875.", "Retrieved 7 April 2016.", "[ hide]v t e DNA replication (comparing Prokaryotic to Eukaryotic)Initiation Prokaryotic ( initiation)Pre-replication complexdna CCdc6Helicasedna A dna B T7Primasedna GEukaryotic ( preparation in G1 phase)Pre-replication complex Origin recognition complex ORC1 ORC2 ORC3 ORC4 ORC5 ORC6Cdc6Cdt1Minichromosome maintenance MCM2 MCM3 MCM4 MCM5 MCM6 MCM7Licensing factor Autonomously replicating sequence Single-strand binding protein SSBP2 SSBP3 SSBP4RNase HRNASEH1 RNASEH2AHelicase: HFM1Primase: PRIM1 PRIM2Both Origin of replication / Ori / Replicon Replication fork Lagging and leading strands Okazaki fragments Primer Replication Prokaryotic ( elongation)DNA polymerase III holoenzymedna C dna E dna H dna N dna Q dna T dna X hol A hol B hol Chol D hol EReplisome DNA ligase DNA clamp Topoisomerase DNA gyrase Prokaryotic DNA polymerase: DNA polymerase IKlenow fragment Eukaryotic ( synthesis in S phase)Replication factor CRFC1Flap endonuclease FEN1Topoisomerase Replication protein ARPA1Eukaryotic DNA polymerase: alpha POLA1 POLA2 PRIM1 PRIM2delta POLD1 POLD2 POLD3POLD4epsilon POLE POLE2 POLE3 POLE4DNA clamp PCNAControl of chromosome duplication Both Movement: Processivity DNA ligase Termination Telomere: Telomerase TERT TERC DKC1Molecular and cellular biology portal Authority control GND: 4153174-7Categories: DNA replication Senescence \"" ]
D37492
http://homeguides.sfgate.com/average-cost-hardwood-floor-installation-sanding-finishing-67958.html
The Average Cost of Hardwood Floor Installation, Sanding and Finishing
Related Articles How to Install Unfinished Oak Hardwood Flooring Tips on Connecting an Existing Hardwood Floor With a New Hardwood Floor How to Replace a Carpet Cheaply The Average Cost of Carpet Laying Because a well-finished hardwood floor requires careful craftsmanship and a relatively large amount of labor, the overall cost of a flooring project is divided almost equally between labor and material costs. If you want to save money on your flooring project, you'll have to choose less expensive flooring products or find ways to make the job easier and faster for your installer. Typical Costs The cost for installation of a hardwood floor is usually quoted on a per-square-foot basis. The total cost of a given floor can vary greatly depending on the cost of the flooring material you choose and your location, but you can expect the range to be between $5 and $10 per square foot. Of that cost, about $3 per square foot will cover labor, including the installation and finishing of the flooring. Flooring material ranges in cost from about $3 per square foot for a low-grade wood such as ash to about $5 per square foot for a high-grade wood such as oak. Prefinished Flooring Installation of prefinished flooring is easier and faster than installation of traditional flooring products because there's no post-installation sanding or varnishing required. Consequently, installation costs for prefinished products are lower. However, you shouldn't expect to pay less for a prefinished floor overall; prefinished flooring costs about two-thirds more than unfinished flooring, a price difference that offsets the savings in installation costs. Refinishing Refinishing an existing hardwood floor obviously removes the cost of new flooring material from the overall price of the project. The labor cost can be nearly the same, though, because the installer will still have to sand and finish the floor in much the same way that's required with new flooring. Flooring that's in good condition will be easier to refinish than excessively worn or damaged flooring, so expect the labor cost to be between $1 and $3 per square foot depending on the state of your current floor. Additional Cost The typical cost of a flooring project doesn't include extra tasks that can significantly add to the total price of the project. Installers will charge you more if they have to remove and dispose of existing flooring, and they will also likely add charges if they have to move furniture or do any other unusual preparation. If your subfloor needs repair or replacement, the cost for that part of the project will also be beyond the basic cost of the hardwood installation, as well. References (6)Consumer Reports: Flooring Types Hardwoodinstaller.com: Floor Installation Costs Carson's Custom Hardwood: Restoration and Repair Armstrong: What You Need to Know About Hardwood Flooring Cost Estimates Consumer Reports: Flooring Buying Guide WFCA: Hardwood Flooring Installation About the Author Evan Gillespie grew up working in his family's hardware and home-improvement business and is an experienced gardener. He has been writing on home, garden and design topics since 1996. His work has appeared in the South Bend Tribune, the Fort Wayne Journal-Gazette, Arts Everywhere magazine and many other publications. Photo Credits Jupiterimages/Creatas/Getty Images Cite this Article
[ "Related Articles How to Install Unfinished Oak Hardwood Flooring Tips on Connecting an Existing Hardwood Floor With a New Hardwood Floor How to Replace a Carpet Cheaply The Average Cost of Carpet Laying Because a well-finished hardwood floor requires careful craftsmanship and a relatively large amount of labor, the overall cost of a flooring project is divided almost equally between labor and material costs.", "If you want to save money on your flooring project, you'll have to choose less expensive flooring products or find ways to make the job easier and faster for your installer.", "Typical Costs The cost for installation of a hardwood floor is usually quoted on a per-square-foot basis.", "The total cost of a given floor can vary greatly depending on the cost of the flooring material you choose and your location, but you can expect the range to be between $5 and $10 per square foot.", "Of that cost, about $3 per square foot will cover labor, including the installation and finishing of the flooring.", "Flooring material ranges in cost from about $3 per square foot for a low-grade wood such as ash to about $5 per square foot for a high-grade wood such as oak.", "Prefinished Flooring Installation of prefinished flooring is easier and faster than installation of traditional flooring products because there's no post-installation sanding or varnishing required.", "Consequently, installation costs for prefinished products are lower.", "However, you shouldn't expect to pay less for a prefinished floor overall; prefinished flooring costs about two-thirds more than unfinished flooring, a price difference that offsets the savings in installation costs.", "Refinishing Refinishing an existing hardwood floor obviously removes the cost of new flooring material from the overall price of the project.", "The labor cost can be nearly the same, though, because the installer will still have to sand and finish the floor in much the same way that's required with new flooring.", "Flooring that's in good condition will be easier to refinish than excessively worn or damaged flooring, so expect the labor cost to be between $1 and $3 per square foot depending on the state of your current floor.", "Additional Cost The typical cost of a flooring project doesn't include extra tasks that can significantly add to the total price of the project.", "Installers will charge you more if they have to remove and dispose of existing flooring, and they will also likely add charges if they have to move furniture or do any other unusual preparation.", "If your subfloor needs repair or replacement, the cost for that part of the project will also be beyond the basic cost of the hardwood installation, as well.", "References (6)Consumer Reports: Flooring Types Hardwoodinstaller.com: Floor Installation Costs Carson's Custom Hardwood: Restoration and Repair Armstrong: What You Need to Know About Hardwood Flooring Cost Estimates Consumer Reports: Flooring Buying Guide WFCA: Hardwood Flooring Installation About the Author Evan Gillespie grew up working in his family's hardware and home-improvement business and is an experienced gardener.", "He has been writing on home, garden and design topics since 1996.", "His work has appeared in the South Bend Tribune, the Fort Wayne Journal-Gazette, Arts Everywhere magazine and many other publications.", "Photo Credits Jupiterimages/Creatas/Getty Images Cite this Article" ]
D56567
http://home.costhelper.com/painting-interior.html
Painting an Interior Cost
"Cost Helper > Home and Garden > Flooring, Painting & Remodeling > Painting an Interior Painting an Interior Cost How Much Does Painting an Interior Cost? Medium: $200-$300 per room High: $300-$700 per room E-mail Post Tweet Comments (112)Fresh paint can take a room from looking dreary and out-of-date to a sense of sparkling newness for a relatively low price compared to other remodeling projects. Typical costs: Interior paint itself costs anywhere from $12-$50 or more a gallon, depending on the quality. Painting a 12x12-foot room, both walls and ceiling, can require $25-$100 worth of paint, plus $10-$50 for primer, brushes, rollers, drop clothes and other supplies. For a 1,500-square-foot home, supplies run $200-$300 for average paint, and $400-$600 for higher quality. Expect to pay $200-$400 to have a 12x12-foot room painted by a licensed contractor with brand-name paints; a 15x20-foot room or larger runs $300-$700 or more; and a 1,200-1,500 square foot home is $1,100-$2,000 or more. Having the ceiling painted bumps the cost to the high end of the scale. Related articles: Painting a House, Wallpaper, Wallpaper Removal, Lead Paint Abatement, Drywall, Interior Decorator What should be included: Whether doing it yourself or hiring someone, buy the best quality paint you can afford; it lasts longer and in some situations requires only one coat of paint instead of two. Painting a room usually involves prep work, primer and latex or alkyd paints with a range of finishes. HGTV.com gives a quick overview [ 1] as well as a list of painting dos and don'ts [ 2] . This Old House.com provides tips for picking interior colors [ 3] and step-by-step instructions for painting a room [ 4] . A painting contractor's estimate usually includes all prep work (including taping and moving small items, primer and two or more coats of paint. Additional costs: Cheap paint roller covers leave fuzz on the wall while inexpensive brushes leave streaky marks; pay a few extra cents or dollars to get better results. It takes more coats of paint and costs more to cover a dark color with a light one, or vice versa. Removing heavy furniture is often not included in painters' estimates; if you can't do it yourself or hire someone, ask if there will be an extra charge. Having to paint crown molding, baseboards, wainscoting or other detailed can add to a contractor's estimated price, as can walls taller than the average of 8 feet. The exact extra expense will varies depending on the amount of extra labor required. Discounts: If a painter is setting up to do a single room in a home, additional rooms may cost less than the first--it's possible to save money overall by painting everything at once. Painters' quotes can be lower in winter, early spring or late fall--the off-season--than in peak summer months when there's lot of work available. Ask if there's a discount if the project is done on a fill-in basis, in-between other projects. Shopping for painting an interior: Explore color and style ideas from major paint manufacturers Behr [ 5] and Sherwin-Williams [ 6] . Easy2DIY.com provides a paint calculator [ 7] to determine how many gallons will be needed. Lowes [ 8] sells paint and provides do-it-yourself tips. The Painting and Decorating Contractors of America [ 9] gives tips for hiring a pro and links to its members. Get estimates from several contractors, request and contact references, search for complaints at the Better Business Bureau [ 10] and check that the company is properly bonded and insured, as well as licensed in your state [ 11] . E-mail Post Tweet Comments (112)Cost Helper News7 Ways to Stretch Your Reduced Food Budget End of the year budgets are tight for everyone, especially in this economy. It's especially hard for the millions of Americans who depend on government programs like food stamps to help make ends meet. || Posted November 11 20137 Lesser-Known Discounts for the 50+ Crowd As they age, members of the Baby Boomer generation don't like to admit that they're senior citizens, but they love getting discounts. It's kind of a quandary, because some of the best deals available are reduced prices for older folks.|| Posted October 21 2013‣ All Cost Helper Blog Posts What People Are Paying - Recent Comments Page 4 of 4 - << Previous 1 2 3 4Paint Color Change Charges Amount: $0.00Posted by: Ce Ce in Minnetonka, MN. Posted: January 16th, 2016 01:01PMNumber of Rooms: 4 Painter: A friend of mine is having her main floor of her home remodeled and we had picked out several colors that commented one another and created a great flow to the rooms. Her contractor told her that there was a $300 charge for having to change the colors. Is this the norm? I have never heard of such a thing. Was this post helpful to you? yes no Report prohibited or spam Interior wall painting only, cutting in ceiling and all trim Amount: $4,746.15Posted by: Nick Connors in Powder Springs, GA. Posted: October 7th, 2015 02:10AMNumber of Rooms: 22 Painter: Handyman/Contractor It was a two story,7250 sq.ft. of wall space, 16 windows and four doors. 22 ft foyor. No trim was painted, only cut in. Was this a fair price for Atlanta, Game.? Was this post helpful to you? yes no Report prohibited or spam5000 ft surface painted 1640 popcorn ceiling scraped textured and painted Amount: $14,700.00Posted by: Kab405 in Oklahoma city, OK. Posted: August 18th, 2015 09:08AMNumber of Rooms: 11 Painter: 2house was fully furnished, vaulted 16 ft living room ceiling. I think I recieved a fair deal, was curious if I really did or not. Was this post helpful to you? yes no Report prohibited or spam Carl in Provo, Utah Amount: $50.00Posted by: Pro Painter in Midwest, IL. Posted: July 29th, 2015 11:07AMNumber of Rooms: Painter: Pro Carl, I think you're a little low. Doors themselves are typically at least $25 per side and trim $1.00 a linear foot. This is the bare minimum I would charge and that would be a low-end estimate. So at a minimum you should be charging $1000 for the doors alone, and at least $400 for the 400 feet of trim you'll be doing. This doesn't even include the door casing, You could be making $2000 for this job EASILY. If your client was getting bids from painting companies, most would be well over that price. Was this post helpful to you? yes no Report prohibited or spam Average Professsional Painting Costs Amount: $1.75Posted by: Pro Painter in Midwest, IL. Posted: July 29th, 2015 11:07AMPricing by the square foot for painting walls is typically between $1.75-$2.00 based on the floor plan, which equates to about $.55-.75/sq ft of overall wall space. So a 10x10 bedroom would typically cost between $175-$225 for the walls alone. Ceilings are generally between $.75-$1 a square foot, so another $75-$100, and trim should cost at least $1 a linear foot, but prices up to $3 a linear foot are pretty common, so trim for that 10x10 room would add between $75-$200. And doors should cost between $20-$50 per side. So a typical bedroom should generally cost between $175-$300 for the walls, depending on the size, & between $275-400 if ceilings are also being done, another $75-200 for trim, and $100-$200 or so for 2-3 doors (entry & closet) Total for everything $450-$800 This is the typical price range. Anything more than this is gouging, imo, & for anything less you'll probably be dealing with a contractor who pays his employees or subs minimum wage &/or they'll butcher it. Was this post helpful to you? yes no Report prohibited or spam In need of help. Amount: $1,000.00Posted by: Carl's in Provo, UT. Posted: July 2nd, 2015 12:07PMNumber of Rooms: Painter: Handyman I am a Handyman and I do pretty much all types of fixing, including painting. On this month I had a lady called me for a bid. 19 interior doors with cases included both sides, one exterior door (just one side) and, about 400 sqf of baseboard. My bid was for 1000.00 custumer will buy the paint. My question is, was I too expensive or way cheap?. Considering that she lives in that house and I have to cover up all the things she has in it. Plus I will use my sprayless. Thank you for your help folks#!Was this post helpful to you? yes no Report prohibited or spam Painting an Entire Interior house Amount: $230.00Posted by: a user in Rincon, GA. Posted: June 5th, 2015 04:06AMNumber of Rooms: 7 Painter: Myself I was a professional painter way way back for a company. Now I am dabbling in working around the neighborhood here and there and needed to know how much I should charge. I recently painted an entire home including woodwork / doors / windows/ baseboards and the paint costs $230 ish and I did it free for my best friend . It took me 4 days to do . 7am-9pm . It turned out absolutely beautiful , and every room was a different color . Was this post helpful to you? yes no Report prohibited or spaminterior - foyer/stairway/upstairs hallway plus all trim Amount: $1,880.00Posted by: brucecooks in colebrook, CT. Posted: June 4th, 2015 05:06AMNumber of Rooms: 2 Painter:this was the estimate i received and well - hard to describe area - double hight ceiling entry foyer plus stairway up to hallway. painted hallway as well with 2 coats plus did a coat of white over all trim/molding/door frames - 6 of them - and repaired some minor molding cracks. we are supplying the paint. at first i thought this was high but then, well, it was better than doing it myself and the painter was highly recommended and he's very nice. Was this post helpful to you? yes no Report prohibited or spam Contracts bid Amount: $0.00Posted by: Chudy in Livonia, MI. Posted: May 29th, 2015 08:05AMNumber of Rooms: 14 Painter: waiting Got two bids so far to paint the interior of a new home. 2,600 sq ft. Was painted with flat cheap paint the first time. The first bid was $17,000. The second bid was $7000. Two coats of paint on ceilings and walls. All doors and closets to be painted too. Still waiting on third painter estimate. I'm wondering if $7000 is too high. This painter has a crew of 5, told me it would take a week. Seems a long time with 5 professionals painting. Was this post helpful to you? yes no Report prohibited or spam Interior and exterior paint Amount: $11,000.00Posted by: Dave W in dripping springs, TX. Posted: February 12th, 2015 05:02AMNumber of Rooms: 2800 ft2 Painter: Pro Hired a pro to paint interior and exterior of my house. It was new construction. Outside is approx. 50% board and batten, also had cedar beams inside and out on porches. Outside was 3000 and inside was 8000. this included prime and paint all base, doors, closets and cabinets. All paint and stain was Sherwin Williams, high quality stuff. I highly recommend getting pros you dont have to bird dog and punch over and over! May cost a little more initially, but you'll be alot happier with the results! !Was this post helpful to you? yes no Report prohibited or spam Painting Interior Amount: $2,000.00Posted by: Adeline Stewart in Corona, CA. Posted: January 5th, 2015 04:01PMNumber of Rooms: 6 Painter: Writing on walls (graffiti)paint to remove writing on walls. Was this post helpful to you? yes no Report prohibited or spam How much to charge Amount: $0.00Posted by: Sandy jo in Manistique, MI. Posted: December 30th, 2014 06:12PMNumber of Rooms: 2 Painter:restaurant dining area an behind front counter area. Fixed cracks in wall, taped off flooring, several windows (7 large windows,4 small windows) 2 doors, had to cover camera's, ceiling, fans, lights, tables-chairs, had to move plants , paper racks, clocks, etc. things to another room, took all blinds down, dusted everything off from top to bottom then wash walls first, then primer then paint walls an ceiling, used 3 colors of paint for trim an walls, used my own paint sprayer, i also cleaned behind the counter area before i could paint, an when all done I put everything back the way it was oh an also had to work around pushed together tables an chairs, also plastic everything. owner paint for paint an supplies. Me an another person put in a total of 55 hours in in 2 days we had (combined hours) we did excellent work but could use a few numbers to charge without over charging Im a very fair person. Il say the place was the size of about a Mc Donalds behind counter an dining area Was this post helpful to you? yes no Report prohibited or spam Confused Amount: $0.00Posted by: Lori0420 in Carrollton, TX. Posted: October 23rd, 2014 10:10PMNumber of Rooms: 12 Painter: Local painter I have a house that I only need the ceilings painted. They have been textured & primed so it is strictly paint . One room has vaulted ceiling but the rest of the hone has normal or standard height ceilings. I have. Rcvd 3 VERY different bids so I am at a loss as to what is standard labor cost for something like that Was this post helpful to you? yes no Report prohibited or spam Higher prices usually buy you peace-of-mind Amount: $0.02Posted by: being fair in Lowell, MA. Posted: October 23rd, 2014 11:10AMI was a professional painter for about 6 years. Now I am a facilities manager that does small jobs on the side. I like to work, and painting for me is easy and does not present many unforseen surprises. All my work is word-of-mouth, and I have high personal standards (always surpassing my customer's standards). I have no workman's comp or liability insuerance, so I charge a little less than the going rate (but not too much less). I an limited to working weekends and nights because of my day job. But otherwise, I try to be very flexible with all my customers. I also explain everything that I can to them about the process, and why certain steps should be taken. For the most part people want to feel like they are not being taken advantage of. That said... the lower price that people get from me does not include the assurances that accompany an insured professional. These people take a risk everytime they let me into their home, because if I trip down the stairs and break my back, it is they homeowners insurance that is on the line. If I stupidly step onto a granite countertop overhange and snap it, I have not liability insurance to sue. The type of job needs to be considered when hiring anyone to come into your home. Painting a bathroom is pretty safe even without insurance. But staging a 2-story foyer should be reserved for someone with the proper insurance. Was this post helpful to you? yes no Report prohibited or spam Interior Paint w/Baseboards, Caulking, Doors Amount: $1,400.00Posted by: Paintfool in Plano, TX. Posted: September 6th, 2014 07:09PMNumber of Rooms: 1 Painter: Professional??? Hired a paint contractor w/good recommendations, this room was 12x12 tops. Caulking, sanding and caulking 2 window sills, painted ceilings and walls 1 coat but 2 different colors, plain 1/4"" x3"" baseboards & 4 doors oil-based trim, w/2 doors only 1 side. We provided paint at $180, he ended up hiring day laborers & had to redo. Took 14 days, looks good now but need to paint more and I'm scared b/c we had a contract & he tried to extort more very very threatening & I have to now work by sq. ft. in other areas, don't want to be nickel & dimmed for every time repair (he charged $50 because our dog's nose touched a wet wall but they let him in)! Any ideas from others in my area? Actually done in 2014, doesn't allow for it. Was this post helpful to you? yes no Report prohibited or spam Dont listen to this guy Amount: $9,000.00Posted by: painter88 in naples, FL. Posted: September 23rd, 2013 08:09AMNumber of Rooms: 10 Painter: Professional Interior painting cost in real time environment Amount: $9,960.00 Posted by: JCF C&T Ltd in Bonita Springs,, FL First off the concept of not hiring someone who charges by total sq foot, it a bit ridiculous. You can charge many different ways, and total sq foot (floor space) is just one of those ways. I would love to know the total sq footage of that 10 room house that you charged $9000+ to paint. Yes the wall sq footage was 5900, but $1.80 per square foot of wall space is a bit high for a residential repaint IMO. Take for example, I charge 1.75 sq foot for 10x10 room with 8 foot ceilings. By my calculations this would cost $175 with floor space sq foot, but with you method, it would cost $576.00 That is outrageous. Of course I didn't subtract the windows and doors, which is another thing that makes no sense. Cutting in around those windows takes more time, then just rolling a wall. Was this post helpful to you? yes no Report prohibited or spam1700 sq ft house interior Amount: $3,800.00Posted by: John Savage in Pleasanton, CA. Posted: September 22nd, 2013 05:09PMNumber of Rooms: 7 Painter: Francisco Ayala Three bedroom 2 bath 11' vaulted ceiling in living room. Crown molding throughout. six panel doors throughout. All woodwork prepped and and sprayed. Everything primed and painted. excellent job. Did all work with my wife and I living in house. Protected our furniture. very professional. Was this post helpful to you? yes no Report prohibited or spam Indoor painting Amount: $1,500.00Posted by: Pogi in Wellington, FL. Posted: July 27th, 2013 01:07PMNumber of Rooms: 3/2 plus LR, DR, Kit Painter: Eduardo Never prepped walls. Painter had to return five times to sand walls, clean walls and repaint. Did not sand enamel surfaces on door so paint started to peel shortly after. Could not do ourselves as in the past due to illness. Awful experience. Was this post helpful to you? yes no Report prohibited or spam Interior painting cost in real time environment Amount: $9,960.00Posted by: JCF C&T Ltd in Bonita Springs,, FL. Posted: February 14th, 2013 07:02AMNumber of Rooms: 10 Painter: 35 year professional5383 actual square footage of walls. Do not estimate or accept estimates based on square footage of floor. I use a laser device to ACCURATELY measure. I take out for windows and doors. Unless a job is new construction (empty), understand that furniture,artwork, carpet, appliances, etc. will affect time and labor. Also understand that ceiling height is a game changer. A rate of no less than $1.80/sf including materials is realistic, acceptable and more than fair for a qualified professional to paint rooms with 9' ceilings. Expect to pay $1 extra per square foot for 9'- 15' and $2.50 extra for 15' +. Some additional costs for extreme conditions will raise that amount. Trying to base the amount on days worked by number of workers is both unfair to the professional and undue to your senses. This job is based on 15 days work by two workers, one painter and one grunt to tarp, move furniture, clean up and book paint. That nets to approx $663/day. As you can see, not great wages. Was this post helpful to you? yes no Report prohibited or spam15\' walls plus ceilings about 2489 sq ft of wall space, one coat over similar color Amount: $1,150.00Posted by: indyrealo in Indianapolis, IN. Posted: December 13th, 2012 08:12AMNumber of Rooms: 4 Painter: selfthis is what I quoted the owner, he thinks because the actual sq ft of the room is about 584 I am charging too high...rnrn Includes prep, some wipe down and cutting all around mouldings and install of scaffold and coverings of owners furniture in the space... Is this reasonable at .40/sf ? Was this post helpful to you? yes no Report prohibited or spam PB Painting BC Canada Amount: $1.00Posted by: Peter painter in Abbotsford Bc Canada, Other. Posted: October 23rd, 2012 11:10PMNumber of Rooms: 3500 sq ft home Painter: I paint in Canada and prices are like that of the State Side. I I I take pride in my work and charge reasonable rates ($1.00 sq.ft.) for an average home interior and price changes a little as heights of walls change, but there are those who so undercut those prices like .30 sq. ft. and that includes paint and we can't compete with those prices. I can compete if I don't prep walls, use the cheapest paint on the market that looks good at first, 2 thin coats no primer but after 1year it looses it's luster and durability, I don't move any furniture, and concern myself with quanity not quality. I understand people are looking for bargains because money is a little tighter but people need to understand we need to be also wise in who we get. Wisdom shop around, don't just go for cheap prices, check these people out, ask what services include. 30% of my business is redo cheap painters work. Advice if you don't want to pay, try painting yourself you might find it fun. Hope this helped. Thanks Was this post helpful to you? yes no Report prohibited or spam Go hire some Meskins Amount: $0.02Posted by: Loco Lobo in Longview, TX. Posted: August 26th, 2012 06:08PMNumber of Rooms: 666 Painter: dirtywerk Many actually do very good work at very reasonable rates. They know that to survive during downturns one must lower prices. Too many others jack theirs' up to compensate for less work. I've been contracting painting and remodeling for 35 years and think it's time for me to learn Spanish. These guys are better employees than whites and blacks. Was this post helpful to you? yes no Report prohibited or spam Quote for a 1,500 sq ft house Interior painting Amount: $7,000.00Posted by: Cape Cod in Cape Cod, MA. Posted: July 19th, 2012 03:07PMNumber of Rooms: 8 Painter: I am looking at painting the interior of my house. Everything except doors. 3 bedrooms, 2 baths, kitchen, living room and stairway upstairs. Quote was for $7,000-$8,000 including materials. Is that high to anyone?? Please let me know ASAP!Was this post helpful to you? yes no Report prohibited or spam Interior Painting Amount: $400.00Posted by: Professional Painter in Eastern Pennsylvania, PA. Posted: April 9th, 2012 06:04AMNumber of Rooms: 0-20 Painter: Professional Painter 15yrs People need to realize that if you want a licensed, insured professional painter in your home that is reputable, trustworthy & skilled, that it will cost them an average of $400.00 a day. If you want a nice paint job then it is all about prep work. There is tarping, plastic, furniture moving, caulking, spackling, sanding, priming, sealing, before you even paint. I have repainted interiors that were painted less than a year because the last contractor came in with a cheap price, did zero prep work, & painted with watered down paint. My point, A house is usually the most valuable asset a person will purchase, so why would you let just anyone with a cheap quote work on it? “The bitterness of poor quality remains long after the sweetness of low price is forgotten” – Benjamin Franklin Was this post helpful to you? yes no Report prohibited or spam Need help calculating Amount: $0.00Posted by: Richards Painting services in asheville, NC. Posted: January 30th, 2012 04:01AMI am new to painting on my own and want to charge fair prices. I have a customer who wants me to give a price per square foot. lets say an interior room is 10x10 with 8 foot ceilings. would the square footage be 10 times 10 = 100 sq feet ? or is it 10 times 8 times 4 walls = 320 sq feet ? As you can see, calculating one way I have just 100 sq ft and the other way I have 320. which sq footage number do I use to multiply with the going rate in my area to paint per sq ft? I have been told that the average cost to paint per sq ft in western north carolina (asheville and waynsville area) is $1.75 pr sq ft (does that sound right? )Was this post helpful to you? yes no Report prohibited or spam New Construction Amount: $11,465.00Posted by: sunsport in Huntsville, AL. Posted: December 2nd, 2011 07:12PMNumber of Rooms: 2,000 square foot house Painter: Contractorabout 9,000 square foot of drywall, primed, and painted two coats. all trim, Doors, casing, professional Job. Did I pay to Much at $1.25 per square foot? Was this post helpful to you? yes no Report prohibited or spam Not sure what to charge Amount: $0.00Posted by: Laura M. in Chicago, IL. Posted: November 14th, 2011 06:11PMNumber of Rooms: 5++ Painter: Semi-Professional Painters I have been painting for 7 summers as a side job with a school district. I have been asked to paint a friend's house and I don't want to over charge but it will be a lot of work. She is paying for all of the paint and supplies-----5 average sized rooms plus ceilings, ceilings in 3 additional small rooms, and all window and door frames. I need some advice!! !Was this post helpful to you? yes no Report prohibited or spam Home owners painting Amount: $130.00Posted by: NNN in Staten Island, NY. Posted: October 1st, 2011 01:10PMNumber of Rooms: 1 Painter: Hubby and me I have the time since I work from home and work has been slow, so I volunteered to paint our kitchen..10 X 16. My hubby changed his mind midway through the painting, so I had to change color. Took 3 days. I did most of the painting and he painted and did some touch up work. We spent $126 in paint and supplies which included primer, ceiling paint, primer, three colors, semi gloss for trim and chair rail, assorted brushes, roller covers, and drop cloths. After all was said and done, it looks really good. Was this post helpful to you? yes no Report prohibited or spaminterior and exterior Amount: $0.00Posted by: al1980s in northern, NJ. Posted: May 14th, 2011 06:05AMNumber of Rooms: any Painter: any Regarding cost - Keep in mind some older homes may cost more due to the EPA RRP lead paint rule that was placed in effect. I'm not saying price will be doubled, but it will add some more labor and material cost. After all, the EPA is fining non compliant contractors nearly $38,000 per non compliant violation. I see many posts about illegal contractors. We do pay insurances, we have business costs, I price jobs to where I am comfortable with paying labor, expenses for my business, and not making $250k per year as some do. I have gone into homes where someone thought they were getting a great deal and ended up calling me to fix mistakes or sloppy jobs. Paint will vary in cost, yes. Was this post helpful to you? yes no Report prohibited or spamexterior commercial paint Amount: $0.00Posted by: dobrien507 in pettus, TX. Posted: May 5th, 2011 09:05PMNumber of Rooms: 104ft x 72ft x 20ft tall Painter:what is a reasonable price per sq ft for painting one prime coat, two finish coats. two color will be used. Stomped on how to bid helpful adviced will be useful. Was this post helpful to you? yes no Report prohibited or spam Interior Painting Amount: $600.00Posted by: Maggie Rose in Cambridge, MA. Posted: February 22nd, 2011 05:02AMNumber of Rooms: Living room and Hall Painter: March Remodeling The living room was 20 by 20 with 10'ceilings. Also had the hall wall leading to the upstairs painted; this was another 30'wall. I had a custom color done. I asked for the job at noon since I needed it to help sell my house and my Realtor wanted it for the next morning. The contractor delivered a perfect job over night for $600 (Dollars) and the cost of the custom paint. I was very impressed with this company: March Remodeling out of Belmont. Was this post helpful to you? yes no Report prohibited or spam Page 4 of 4 - << Previous 1 2 3 4Comment On Your Experience With Painting an Interior Subject: *Amount Spent: *Number of Rooms: Painter: Comments: Purchased: Year: City: * State: *Information about you: Email: * Email addresses are not displayed. Name: This is the name we'll display with your post. Remember me on this computer*=required field. External Resources:www.hgtv.com/decorating/primers-paints-and-top-coats/index.htmlwww.hgtv.com/painting/painting-dos-and-donts/index.htmlwww.thisoldhouse.com/toh/article/0,,1125002,00.htmwww.thisoldhouse.com/toh/how-to/intro/0,,217133,00.htmlwww.behr.com/Behr/home#www.sherwin-williams.com/homeowners/color/www.easy2diy.com/cm/easy/diy_ht_calc_index.asp?page_id=35720769www.lowes.com/cd_Paint+an+Interior+Room_20639882_www.findapainter.com/search.bbb.org/www.contractors-license.org/More Home and Garden Topics Check Out All Costs for Home and Garden How Much Does Painting a House Cost? How Much Does a Fence Cost? How Much Does a Furnace Cost? Search Thousands of Topics on Cost Helper.com How much does cost? Today's Featured Cost Articles Mother's Day is coming up. We cover the cost of massages and other spa treatments. Spring has sprung. Are you thinking about allergy shots? April is craft month. We have the cost of scrapbooking and other crafts. 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[more]-Stitches Cost Urinalysis was asked of me Paid: 3920.00 This was supposed to cost $250. Total!$3,675. for a urinalysis. Not mentioned anywhere on ANY search was this required to get a card... [more]-Nellie28Medical Marijuana Card Cost "
[ "\"Cost Helper > Home and Garden > Flooring, Painting & Remodeling > Painting an Interior Painting an Interior Cost How Much Does Painting an Interior Cost?", "Medium: $200-$300 per room High: $300-$700 per room E-mail Post Tweet Comments (112)Fresh paint can take a room from looking dreary and out-of-date to a sense of sparkling newness for a relatively low price compared to other remodeling projects.", "Typical costs: Interior paint itself costs anywhere from $12-$50 or more a gallon, depending on the quality.", "Painting a 12x12-foot room, both walls and ceiling, can require $25-$100 worth of paint, plus $10-$50 for primer, brushes, rollers, drop clothes and other supplies.", "For a 1,500-square-foot home, supplies run $200-$300 for average paint, and $400-$600 for higher quality.", "Expect to pay $200-$400 to have a 12x12-foot room painted by a licensed contractor with brand-name paints; a 15x20-foot room or larger runs $300-$700 or more; and a 1,200-1,500 square foot home is $1,100-$2,000 or more.", "Having the ceiling painted bumps the cost to the high end of the scale.", "Related articles: Painting a House, Wallpaper, Wallpaper Removal, Lead Paint Abatement, Drywall, Interior Decorator What should be included: Whether doing it yourself or hiring someone, buy the best quality paint you can afford; it lasts longer and in some situations requires only one coat of paint instead of two.", "Painting a room usually involves prep work, primer and latex or alkyd paints with a range of finishes.", "HGTV.com gives a quick overview [ 1] as well as a list of painting dos and don'ts [ 2] .", "This Old House.com provides tips for picking interior colors [ 3] and step-by-step instructions for painting a room [ 4] .", "A painting contractor's estimate usually includes all prep work (including taping and moving small items, primer and two or more coats of paint.", "Additional costs: Cheap paint roller covers leave fuzz on the wall while inexpensive brushes leave streaky marks; pay a few extra cents or dollars to get better results.", "It takes more coats of paint and costs more to cover a dark color with a light one, or vice versa.", "Removing heavy furniture is often not included in painters' estimates; if you can't do it yourself or hire someone, ask if there will be an extra charge.", "Having to paint crown molding, baseboards, wainscoting or other detailed can add to a contractor's estimated price, as can walls taller than the average of 8 feet.", "The exact extra expense will varies depending on the amount of extra labor required.", "Discounts: If a painter is setting up to do a single room in a home, additional rooms may cost less than the first--it's possible to save money overall by painting everything at once.", "Painters' quotes can be lower in winter, early spring or late fall--the off-season--than in peak summer months when there's lot of work available.", "Ask if there's a discount if the project is done on a fill-in basis, in-between other projects.", "Shopping for painting an interior: Explore color and style ideas from major paint manufacturers Behr [ 5] and Sherwin-Williams [ 6] .", "Easy2DIY.com provides a paint calculator [ 7] to determine how many gallons will be needed.", "Lowes [ 8] sells paint and provides do-it-yourself tips.", "The Painting and Decorating Contractors of America [ 9] gives tips for hiring a pro and links to its members.", "Get estimates from several contractors, request and contact references, search for complaints at the Better Business Bureau [ 10] and check that the company is properly bonded and insured, as well as licensed in your state [ 11] .", "E-mail Post Tweet Comments (112)Cost Helper News7 Ways to Stretch Your Reduced Food Budget End of the year budgets are tight for everyone, especially in this economy.", "It's especially hard for the millions of Americans who depend on government programs like food stamps to help make ends meet.", "|| Posted November 11 20137 Lesser-Known Discounts for the 50+ Crowd As they age, members of the Baby Boomer generation don't like to admit that they're senior citizens, but they love getting discounts.", "It's kind of a quandary, because some of the best deals available are reduced prices for older folks.|| Posted October 21 2013‣ All Cost Helper Blog Posts What People Are Paying - Recent Comments Page 4 of 4 - << Previous 1 2 3 4Paint Color Change Charges Amount: $0.00Posted by: Ce Ce in Minnetonka, MN.", "Posted: January 16th, 2016 01:01PMNumber of Rooms: 4 Painter: A friend of mine is having her main floor of her home remodeled and we had picked out several colors that commented one another and created a great flow to the rooms.", "Her contractor told her that there was a $300 charge for having to change the colors.", "Is this the norm?", "I have never heard of such a thing.", "Was this post helpful to you?", "yes no Report prohibited or spam Interior wall painting only, cutting in ceiling and all trim Amount: $4,746.15Posted by: Nick Connors in Powder Springs, GA. Posted: October 7th, 2015 02:10AMNumber of Rooms: 22 Painter: Handyman/Contractor It was a two story,7250 sq.ft.", "of wall space, 16 windows and four doors.", "22 ft foyor.", "No trim was painted, only cut in.", "Was this a fair price for Atlanta, Game.?", "Was this post helpful to you?", "yes no Report prohibited or spam5000 ft surface painted 1640 popcorn ceiling scraped textured and painted Amount: $14,700.00Posted by: Kab405 in Oklahoma city, OK. Posted: August 18th, 2015 09:08AMNumber of Rooms: 11 Painter: 2house was fully furnished, vaulted 16 ft living room ceiling.", "I think I recieved a fair deal, was curious if I really did or not.", "Was this post helpful to you?", "yes no Report prohibited or spam Carl in Provo, Utah Amount: $50.00Posted by: Pro Painter in Midwest, IL.", "Posted: July 29th, 2015 11:07AMNumber of Rooms: Painter: Pro Carl, I think you're a little low.", "Doors themselves are typically at least $25 per side and trim $1.00 a linear foot.", "This is the bare minimum I would charge and that would be a low-end estimate.", "So at a minimum you should be charging $1000 for the doors alone, and at least $400 for the 400 feet of trim you'll be doing.", "This doesn't even include the door casing, You could be making $2000 for this job EASILY.", "If your client was getting bids from painting companies, most would be well over that price.", "Was this post helpful to you?", "yes no Report prohibited or spam Average Professsional Painting Costs Amount: $1.75Posted by: Pro Painter in Midwest, IL.", "Posted: July 29th, 2015 11:07AMPricing by the square foot for painting walls is typically between $1.75-$2.00 based on the floor plan, which equates to about $.55-.75/sq ft of overall wall space.", "So a 10x10 bedroom would typically cost between $175-$225 for the walls alone.", "Ceilings are generally between $.75-$1 a square foot, so another $75-$100, and trim should cost at least $1 a linear foot, but prices up to $3 a linear foot are pretty common, so trim for that 10x10 room would add between $75-$200.", "And doors should cost between $20-$50 per side.", "So a typical bedroom should generally cost between $175-$300 for the walls, depending on the size, & between $275-400 if ceilings are also being done, another $75-200 for trim, and $100-$200 or so for 2-3 doors (entry & closet) Total for everything $450-$800 This is the typical price range.", "Anything more than this is gouging, imo, & for anything less you'll probably be dealing with a contractor who pays his employees or subs minimum wage &/or they'll butcher it.", "Was this post helpful to you?", "yes no Report prohibited or spam In need of help.", "Amount: $1,000.00Posted by: Carl's in Provo, UT.", "Posted: July 2nd, 2015 12:07PMNumber of Rooms: Painter: Handyman I am a Handyman and I do pretty much all types of fixing, including painting.", "On this month I had a lady called me for a bid.", "19 interior doors with cases included both sides, one exterior door (just one side) and, about 400 sqf of baseboard.", "My bid was for 1000.00 custumer will buy the paint.", "My question is, was I too expensive or way cheap?.", "Considering that she lives in that house and I have to cover up all the things she has in it.", "Plus I will use my sprayless.", "Thank you for your help folks#!Was this post helpful to you?", "yes no Report prohibited or spam Painting an Entire Interior house Amount: $230.00Posted by: a user in Rincon, GA. Posted: June 5th, 2015 04:06AMNumber of Rooms: 7 Painter: Myself I was a professional painter way way back for a company.", "Now I am dabbling in working around the neighborhood here and there and needed to know how much I should charge.", "I recently painted an entire home including woodwork / doors / windows/ baseboards and the paint costs $230 ish and I did it free for my best friend .", "It took me 4 days to do .", "7am-9pm .", "It turned out absolutely beautiful , and every room was a different color .", "Was this post helpful to you?", "yes no Report prohibited or spaminterior - foyer/stairway/upstairs hallway plus all trim Amount: $1,880.00Posted by: brucecooks in colebrook, CT. Posted: June 4th, 2015 05:06AMNumber of Rooms: 2 Painter:this was the estimate i received and well - hard to describe area - double hight ceiling entry foyer plus stairway up to hallway.", "painted hallway as well with 2 coats plus did a coat of white over all trim/molding/door frames - 6 of them - and repaired some minor molding cracks.", "we are supplying the paint.", "at first i thought this was high but then, well, it was better than doing it myself and the painter was highly recommended and he's very nice.", "Was this post helpful to you?", "yes no Report prohibited or spam Contracts bid Amount: $0.00Posted by: Chudy in Livonia, MI.", "Posted: May 29th, 2015 08:05AMNumber of Rooms: 14 Painter: waiting Got two bids so far to paint the interior of a new home.", "2,600 sq ft. Was painted with flat cheap paint the first time.", "The first bid was $17,000.", "The second bid was $7000.", "Two coats of paint on ceilings and walls.", "All doors and closets to be painted too.", "Still waiting on third painter estimate.", "I'm wondering if $7000 is too high.", "This painter has a crew of 5, told me it would take a week.", "Seems a long time with 5 professionals painting.", "Was this post helpful to you?", "yes no Report prohibited or spam Interior and exterior paint Amount: $11,000.00Posted by: Dave W in dripping springs, TX.", "Posted: February 12th, 2015 05:02AMNumber of Rooms: 2800 ft2 Painter: Pro Hired a pro to paint interior and exterior of my house.", "It was new construction.", "Outside is approx.", "50% board and batten, also had cedar beams inside and out on porches.", "Outside was 3000 and inside was 8000. this included prime and paint all base, doors, closets and cabinets.", "All paint and stain was Sherwin Williams, high quality stuff.", "I highly recommend getting pros you dont have to bird dog and punch over and over!", "May cost a little more initially, but you'll be alot happier with the results!", "!Was this post helpful to you?", "yes no Report prohibited or spam Painting Interior Amount: $2,000.00Posted by: Adeline Stewart in Corona, CA.", "Posted: January 5th, 2015 04:01PMNumber of Rooms: 6 Painter: Writing on walls (graffiti)paint to remove writing on walls.", "Was this post helpful to you?", "yes no Report prohibited or spam How much to charge Amount: $0.00Posted by: Sandy jo in Manistique, MI.", "Posted: December 30th, 2014 06:12PMNumber of Rooms: 2 Painter:restaurant dining area an behind front counter area.", "Fixed cracks in wall, taped off flooring, several windows (7 large windows,4 small windows) 2 doors, had to cover camera's, ceiling, fans, lights, tables-chairs, had to move plants , paper racks, clocks, etc.", "things to another room, took all blinds down, dusted everything off from top to bottom then wash walls first, then primer then paint walls an ceiling, used 3 colors of paint for trim an walls, used my own paint sprayer, i also cleaned behind the counter area before i could paint, an when all done I put everything back the way it was oh an also had to work around pushed together tables an chairs, also plastic everything.", "owner paint for paint an supplies.", "Me an another person put in a total of 55 hours in in 2 days we had (combined hours) we did excellent work but could use a few numbers to charge without over charging Im a very fair person.", "Il say the place was the size of about a Mc Donalds behind counter an dining area Was this post helpful to you?", "yes no Report prohibited or spam Confused Amount: $0.00Posted by: Lori0420 in Carrollton, TX.", "Posted: October 23rd, 2014 10:10PMNumber of Rooms: 12 Painter: Local painter I have a house that I only need the ceilings painted.", "They have been textured & primed so it is strictly paint .", "One room has vaulted ceiling but the rest of the hone has normal or standard height ceilings.", "I have.", "Rcvd 3 VERY different bids so I am at a loss as to what is standard labor cost for something like that Was this post helpful to you?", "yes no Report prohibited or spam Higher prices usually buy you peace-of-mind Amount: $0.02Posted by: being fair in Lowell, MA.", "Posted: October 23rd, 2014 11:10AMI was a professional painter for about 6 years.", "Now I am a facilities manager that does small jobs on the side.", "I like to work, and painting for me is easy and does not present many unforseen surprises.", "All my work is word-of-mouth, and I have high personal standards (always surpassing my customer's standards).", "I have no workman's comp or liability insuerance, so I charge a little less than the going rate (but not too much less).", "I an limited to working weekends and nights because of my day job.", "But otherwise, I try to be very flexible with all my customers.", "I also explain everything that I can to them about the process, and why certain steps should be taken.", "For the most part people want to feel like they are not being taken advantage of.", "That said... the lower price that people get from me does not include the assurances that accompany an insured professional.", "These people take a risk everytime they let me into their home, because if I trip down the stairs and break my back, it is they homeowners insurance that is on the line.", "If I stupidly step onto a granite countertop overhange and snap it, I have not liability insurance to sue.", "The type of job needs to be considered when hiring anyone to come into your home.", "Painting a bathroom is pretty safe even without insurance.", "But staging a 2-story foyer should be reserved for someone with the proper insurance.", "Was this post helpful to you?", "yes no Report prohibited or spam Interior Paint w/Baseboards, Caulking, Doors Amount: $1,400.00Posted by: Paintfool in Plano, TX.", "Posted: September 6th, 2014 07:09PMNumber of Rooms: 1 Painter: Professional???", "Hired a paint contractor w/good recommendations, this room was 12x12 tops.", "Caulking, sanding and caulking 2 window sills, painted ceilings and walls 1 coat but 2 different colors, plain 1/4\"\" x3\"\" baseboards & 4 doors oil-based trim, w/2 doors only 1 side.", "We provided paint at $180, he ended up hiring day laborers & had to redo.", "Took 14 days, looks good now but need to paint more and I'm scared b/c we had a contract & he tried to extort more very very threatening & I have to now work by sq.", "ft. in other areas, don't want to be nickel & dimmed for every time repair (he charged $50 because our dog's nose touched a wet wall but they let him in)!", "Any ideas from others in my area?", "Actually done in 2014, doesn't allow for it.", "Was this post helpful to you?", "yes no Report prohibited or spam Dont listen to this guy Amount: $9,000.00Posted by: painter88 in naples, FL.", "Posted: September 23rd, 2013 08:09AMNumber of Rooms: 10 Painter: Professional Interior painting cost in real time environment Amount: $9,960.00 Posted by: JCF C&T Ltd in Bonita Springs,, FL First off the concept of not hiring someone who charges by total sq foot, it a bit ridiculous.", "You can charge many different ways, and total sq foot (floor space) is just one of those ways.", "I would love to know the total sq footage of that 10 room house that you charged $9000+ to paint.", "Yes the wall sq footage was 5900, but $1.80 per square foot of wall space is a bit high for a residential repaint IMO.", "Take for example, I charge 1.75 sq foot for 10x10 room with 8 foot ceilings.", "By my calculations this would cost $175 with floor space sq foot, but with you method, it would cost $576.00 That is outrageous.", "Of course I didn't subtract the windows and doors, which is another thing that makes no sense.", "Cutting in around those windows takes more time, then just rolling a wall.", "Was this post helpful to you?", "yes no Report prohibited or spam1700 sq ft house interior Amount: $3,800.00Posted by: John Savage in Pleasanton, CA.", "Posted: September 22nd, 2013 05:09PMNumber of Rooms: 7 Painter: Francisco Ayala Three bedroom 2 bath 11' vaulted ceiling in living room.", "Crown molding throughout.", "six panel doors throughout.", "All woodwork prepped and and sprayed.", "Everything primed and painted.", "excellent job.", "Did all work with my wife and I living in house.", "Protected our furniture.", "very professional.", "Was this post helpful to you?", "yes no Report prohibited or spam Indoor painting Amount: $1,500.00Posted by: Pogi in Wellington, FL.", "Posted: July 27th, 2013 01:07PMNumber of Rooms: 3/2 plus LR, DR, Kit Painter: Eduardo Never prepped walls.", "Painter had to return five times to sand walls, clean walls and repaint.", "Did not sand enamel surfaces on door so paint started to peel shortly after.", "Could not do ourselves as in the past due to illness.", "Awful experience.", "Was this post helpful to you?", "yes no Report prohibited or spam Interior painting cost in real time environment Amount: $9,960.00Posted by: JCF C&T Ltd in Bonita Springs,, FL.", "Posted: February 14th, 2013 07:02AMNumber of Rooms: 10 Painter: 35 year professional5383 actual square footage of walls.", "Do not estimate or accept estimates based on square footage of floor.", "I use a laser device to ACCURATELY measure.", "I take out for windows and doors.", "Unless a job is new construction (empty), understand that furniture,artwork, carpet, appliances, etc.", "will affect time and labor.", "Also understand that ceiling height is a game changer.", "A rate of no less than $1.80/sf including materials is realistic, acceptable and more than fair for a qualified professional to paint rooms with 9' ceilings.", "Expect to pay $1 extra per square foot for 9'- 15' and $2.50 extra for 15' +.", "Some additional costs for extreme conditions will raise that amount.", "Trying to base the amount on days worked by number of workers is both unfair to the professional and undue to your senses.", "This job is based on 15 days work by two workers, one painter and one grunt to tarp, move furniture, clean up and book paint.", "That nets to approx $663/day.", "As you can see, not great wages.", "Was this post helpful to you?", "yes no Report prohibited or spam15\\' walls plus ceilings about 2489 sq ft of wall space, one coat over similar color Amount: $1,150.00Posted by: indyrealo in Indianapolis, IN.", "Posted: December 13th, 2012 08:12AMNumber of Rooms: 4 Painter: selfthis is what I quoted the owner, he thinks because the actual sq ft of the room is about 584 I am charging too high...rnrn Includes prep, some wipe down and cutting all around mouldings and install of scaffold and coverings of owners furniture in the space... Is this reasonable at .40/sf ?", "Was this post helpful to you?", "yes no Report prohibited or spam PB Painting BC Canada Amount: $1.00Posted by: Peter painter in Abbotsford Bc Canada, Other.", "Posted: October 23rd, 2012 11:10PMNumber of Rooms: 3500 sq ft home Painter: I paint in Canada and prices are like that of the State Side.", "I I I take pride in my work and charge reasonable rates ($1.00 sq.ft.)", "for an average home interior and price changes a little as heights of walls change, but there are those who so undercut those prices like .30 sq.", "ft. and that includes paint and we can't compete with those prices.", "I can compete if I don't prep walls, use the cheapest paint on the market that looks good at first, 2 thin coats no primer but after 1year it looses it's luster and durability, I don't move any furniture, and concern myself with quanity not quality.", "I understand people are looking for bargains because money is a little tighter but people need to understand we need to be also wise in who we get.", "Wisdom shop around, don't just go for cheap prices, check these people out, ask what services include.", "30% of my business is redo cheap painters work.", "Advice if you don't want to pay, try painting yourself you might find it fun.", "Hope this helped.", "Thanks Was this post helpful to you?", "yes no Report prohibited or spam Go hire some Meskins Amount: $0.02Posted by: Loco Lobo in Longview, TX.", "Posted: August 26th, 2012 06:08PMNumber of Rooms: 666 Painter: dirtywerk Many actually do very good work at very reasonable rates.", "They know that to survive during downturns one must lower prices.", "Too many others jack theirs' up to compensate for less work.", "I've been contracting painting and remodeling for 35 years and think it's time for me to learn Spanish.", "These guys are better employees than whites and blacks.", "Was this post helpful to you?", "yes no Report prohibited or spam Quote for a 1,500 sq ft house Interior painting Amount: $7,000.00Posted by: Cape Cod in Cape Cod, MA.", "Posted: July 19th, 2012 03:07PMNumber of Rooms: 8 Painter: I am looking at painting the interior of my house.", "Everything except doors.", "3 bedrooms, 2 baths, kitchen, living room and stairway upstairs.", "Quote was for $7,000-$8,000 including materials.", "Is that high to anyone??", "Please let me know ASAP!Was this post helpful to you?", "yes no Report prohibited or spam Interior Painting Amount: $400.00Posted by: Professional Painter in Eastern Pennsylvania, PA. Posted: April 9th, 2012 06:04AMNumber of Rooms: 0-20 Painter: Professional Painter 15yrs People need to realize that if you want a licensed, insured professional painter in your home that is reputable, trustworthy & skilled, that it will cost them an average of $400.00 a day.", "If you want a nice paint job then it is all about prep work.", "There is tarping, plastic, furniture moving, caulking, spackling, sanding, priming, sealing, before you even paint.", "I have repainted interiors that were painted less than a year because the last contractor came in with a cheap price, did zero prep work, & painted with watered down paint.", "My point, A house is usually the most valuable asset a person will purchase, so why would you let just anyone with a cheap quote work on it?", "“The bitterness of poor quality remains long after the sweetness of low price is forgotten” – Benjamin Franklin Was this post helpful to you?", "yes no Report prohibited or spam Need help calculating Amount: $0.00Posted by: Richards Painting services in asheville, NC.", "Posted: January 30th, 2012 04:01AMI am new to painting on my own and want to charge fair prices.", "I have a customer who wants me to give a price per square foot.", "lets say an interior room is 10x10 with 8 foot ceilings.", "would the square footage be 10 times 10 = 100 sq feet ?", "or is it 10 times 8 times 4 walls = 320 sq feet ?", "As you can see, calculating one way I have just 100 sq ft and the other way I have 320. which sq footage number do I use to multiply with the going rate in my area to paint per sq ft?", "I have been told that the average cost to paint per sq ft in western north carolina (asheville and waynsville area) is $1.75 pr sq ft (does that sound right?", ")Was this post helpful to you?", "yes no Report prohibited or spam New Construction Amount: $11,465.00Posted by: sunsport in Huntsville, AL.", "Posted: December 2nd, 2011 07:12PMNumber of Rooms: 2,000 square foot house Painter: Contractorabout 9,000 square foot of drywall, primed, and painted two coats.", "all trim, Doors, casing, professional Job.", "Did I pay to Much at $1.25 per square foot?", "Was this post helpful to you?", "yes no Report prohibited or spam Not sure what to charge Amount: $0.00Posted by: Laura M. in Chicago, IL.", "Posted: November 14th, 2011 06:11PMNumber of Rooms: 5++ Painter: Semi-Professional Painters I have been painting for 7 summers as a side job with a school district.", "I have been asked to paint a friend's house and I don't want to over charge but it will be a lot of work.", "She is paying for all of the paint and supplies-----5 average sized rooms plus ceilings, ceilings in 3 additional small rooms, and all window and door frames.", "I need some advice!!", "!Was this post helpful to you?", "yes no Report prohibited or spam Home owners painting Amount: $130.00Posted by: NNN in Staten Island, NY.", "Posted: October 1st, 2011 01:10PMNumber of Rooms: 1 Painter: Hubby and me I have the time since I work from home and work has been slow, so I volunteered to paint our kitchen..10 X 16.", "My hubby changed his mind midway through the painting, so I had to change color.", "Took 3 days.", "I did most of the painting and he painted and did some touch up work.", "We spent $126 in paint and supplies which included primer, ceiling paint, primer, three colors, semi gloss for trim and chair rail, assorted brushes, roller covers, and drop cloths.", "After all was said and done, it looks really good.", "Was this post helpful to you?", "yes no Report prohibited or spaminterior and exterior Amount: $0.00Posted by: al1980s in northern, NJ.", "Posted: May 14th, 2011 06:05AMNumber of Rooms: any Painter: any Regarding cost - Keep in mind some older homes may cost more due to the EPA RRP lead paint rule that was placed in effect.", "I'm not saying price will be doubled, but it will add some more labor and material cost.", "After all, the EPA is fining non compliant contractors nearly $38,000 per non compliant violation.", "I see many posts about illegal contractors.", "We do pay insurances, we have business costs, I price jobs to where I am comfortable with paying labor, expenses for my business, and not making $250k per year as some do.", "I have gone into homes where someone thought they were getting a great deal and ended up calling me to fix mistakes or sloppy jobs.", "Paint will vary in cost, yes.", "Was this post helpful to you?", "yes no Report prohibited or spamexterior commercial paint Amount: $0.00Posted by: dobrien507 in pettus, TX.", "Posted: May 5th, 2011 09:05PMNumber of Rooms: 104ft x 72ft x 20ft tall Painter:what is a reasonable price per sq ft for painting one prime coat, two finish coats.", "two color will be used.", "Stomped on how to bid helpful adviced will be useful.", "Was this post helpful to you?", "yes no Report prohibited or spam Interior Painting Amount: $600.00Posted by: Maggie Rose in Cambridge, MA.", "Posted: February 22nd, 2011 05:02AMNumber of Rooms: Living room and Hall Painter: March Remodeling The living room was 20 by 20 with 10'ceilings.", "Also had the hall wall leading to the upstairs painted; this was another 30'wall.", "I had a custom color done.", "I asked for the job at noon since I needed it to help sell my house and my Realtor wanted it for the next morning.", "The contractor delivered a perfect job over night for $600 (Dollars) and the cost of the custom paint.", "I was very impressed with this company: March Remodeling out of Belmont.", "Was this post helpful to you?", "yes no Report prohibited or spam Page 4 of 4 - << Previous 1 2 3 4Comment On Your Experience With Painting an Interior Subject: *Amount Spent: *Number of Rooms: Painter: Comments: Purchased: Year: City: * State: *Information about you: Email: * Email addresses are not displayed.", "Name: This is the name we'll display with your post.", "Remember me on this computer*=required field.", "External Resources:www.hgtv.com/decorating/primers-paints-and-top-coats/index.htmlwww.hgtv.com/painting/painting-dos-and-donts/index.htmlwww.thisoldhouse.com/toh/article/0,,1125002,00.htmwww.thisoldhouse.com/toh/how-to/intro/0,,217133,00.htmlwww.behr.com/Behr/home#www.sherwin-williams.com/homeowners/color/www.easy2diy.com/cm/easy/diy_ht_calc_index.asp?page_id=35720769www.lowes.com/cd_Paint+an+Interior+Room_20639882_www.findapainter.com/search.bbb.org/www.contractors-license.org/More Home and Garden Topics Check Out All Costs for Home and Garden How Much Does Painting a House Cost?", "How Much Does a Fence Cost?", "How Much Does a Furnace Cost?", "Search Thousands of Topics on Cost Helper.com How much does cost?", "Today's Featured Cost Articles Mother's Day is coming up.", "We cover the cost of massages and other spa treatments.", "Spring has sprung.", "Are you thinking about allergy shots?", "April is craft month.", "We have the cost of scrapbooking and other crafts.", "The price of a \"\"Forever\"\" stamp increases to 50 cents on January 21, 2018.", "What would a personal trainer cost to reach those New Year's resolutions?", "About Cost Helper Cost Helper is based in Silicon Valley and provides consumers with unbiased price information about thousands of goods and services.", "Our writers are experienced journalists who adhere to our strict editorial ethics policy.", "Cost Helper Community Sinus Infections - Steroid shot and sent home Paid: 2753.00 I woke up having breathing problems.", "I went to nearby non-hospital THH office.", "Nurse took blood pressure and temperature.", "Dr came in the room and spent less than 10 minutes and stated I had sinus infection... [more]-Bill Moore Emergency Room Visit Cost Mold Testing Pacific Palisades, CAPaid: 800.00 It cost us 800.", "We were pleased with Knight Environmental consulting who we hired.", "They were very thorough.", "Friendly and respectful of our home.", "They checked everywhere in our 7000ft home and tested the air... [more]-AMY SCHWARTZMold Inspection Costextraction Paid: 739.00 Had 3 extractions yesterday.", "The cost was 304.00 each extraction but with some kind of insurance plan you could get 30% off.", "The plan was 75.00 annually and came at a huge savings on the work as my final cost with the plan was 814... [more]-Dental mess Tooth Extraction Cost Mc Henry MD - Suburban Propane Paid: 3300.00 Just got my bill and in 5 weeks we supposedly used 356 gals.", "Hard to do when you are not there the entire time and you turned the thermostat to 60.", "They charged $.35 more per gallon then from 5 weeks ago.", "$3.42 per gallon... [more]-Check your bill with Suburban Propane Tank Cost Laceration from stick Paid: 25.00 Slipped and fell on a stick while running around on a hill, and recieved 2 lacerations on my right leg, one about an inch long and one about 2 inches long.", "Called my insurance asap (Kaiser) and they directed me to one of their Urgent Cares... [more]-Stitches Cost Urinalysis was asked of me Paid: 3920.00 This was supposed to cost $250.", "Total!$3,675.", "for a urinalysis.", "Not mentioned anywhere on ANY search was this required to get a card... [more]-Nellie28Medical Marijuana Card Cost \"" ]
D95802
http://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/dizziness/basics/causes/CON-20023004
Overview
Print Overview Dizziness is a term used to describe a range of sensations, such as feeling faint, woozy, weak or unsteady. Dizziness that creates the false sense that you or your surroundings are spinning or moving is called vertigo. Dizziness is one of the more common reasons adults visit their doctors. Frequent dizzy spells or constant dizziness can significantly affect your life. But dizziness rarely signals a life-threatening condition. Treatment of dizziness depends on the cause and your symptoms. It's usually effective, but the problem may recur. Symptoms People experiencing dizziness may describe it as any of a number of sensations, such as: A false sense of motion or spinning (vertigo)Lightheadedness or feeling faint Unsteadiness or a loss of balance A feeling of floating, wooziness or heavy-headedness These feelings may be triggered or worsened by walking, standing up or moving your head. Your dizziness may accompanied by nausea or be so sudden or severe that you need to sit or lie down. The episode may last seconds or days and may recur. When to see a doctor Call 911 or seek emergency medical help if you experience dizziness with: A sudden or severe headache Ongoing vomiting A sudden change in speech, vision or hearing Stumbling or difficulty walking Fainting Chest pain or an irregular heart rate Numbness or weakness Shortness of breath A high fever A very stiff neck A head injury Seizures Consult with your doctor if you experience recurrent, sudden, severe dizziness or prolonged episodes of dizziness, faintness, lightheadedness or vertigo. Request an Appointment at Mayo Clinic Causes Inner ear and balance Dizziness has many possible causes, including inner ear disturbance, motion sickness and medication effects. Sometimes it's caused by an underlying health condition, such as poor circulation, infection or injury. The way dizziness makes you feel and your triggers provide clues for possible causes. How long the dizziness lasts and any other symptoms you have also help pinpoint the cause. Inner ear problems that cause dizziness (vertigo)Your sense of balance depends on the combined input from the various parts of your sensory system. These include your: Eyes, which help you determine where your body is in space and how it's moving Sensory nerves, which send messages to your brain about body movements and positions Inner ear, which houses sensors that help detect gravity and back-and-forth motion Vertigo is the false sense that your surroundings are spinning or moving. With inner ear disorders, your brain receives signals from the inner ear that aren't consistent with what your eyes and sensory nerves are receiving. Vertigo is what results as your brain works to sort out the confusion. Benign paroxysmal positional vertigo (BPPV). This condition causes an intense and brief but false sense that you're spinning or moving. These episodes are triggered by a rapid change in head movement, such as when you turn over in bed, sit up or experience a blow to the head. BPPV is the most common cause of vertigo. Infection. A viral infection of the vestibular nerve, called vestibular neuritis, can cause intense, constant vertigo. If you also have sudden hearing loss, you may have labyrinthitis. Meniere's disease. This disease involves the excessive buildup of fluid in your inner ear. It's characterized by sudden episodes of vertigo lasting as long as several hours. You may also experience fluctuating hearing loss, ringing in the ear and the feeling of a plugged ear. Migraine. People who experience migraines may have episodes of vertigo or other types of dizziness even when they're not having a severe headache. Such vertigo episodes can last minutes to hours and may be associated with headache as well as light and noise sensitivity. Circulation problems that cause dizziness You may feel dizzy, faint or off balance if your heart isn't pumping enough blood to your brain. Causes include: Drop in blood pressure. A dramatic drop in your systolic blood pressure — the higher number in your blood pressure reading — may result in brief lightheadedness or a feeling of faintness. It can occur after sitting up or standing too quickly. This condition is also called orthostatic hypotension. Poor blood circulation. Conditions such as cardiomyopathy, heart attack, heart arrhythmia and transient ischemic attack could cause dizziness. And a decrease in blood volume may cause inadequate blood flow to your brain or inner ear. Other causes of dizziness Neurological conditions. Some neurological disorders — such as Parkinson's disease and multiple sclerosis — can lead to progressive loss of balance. Medications. Dizziness can be a side effect of certain medications — such as anti-seizure drugs, antidepressants, sedatives and tranquilizers. In particular, blood pressure lowering medications may cause faintness if they lower your blood pressure too much. Anxiety disorders. Certain anxiety disorders may cause lightheadedness or a woozy feeling often referred to as dizziness. These include panic attacks and a fear of leaving home or being in large, open spaces (agoraphobia). Low iron levels (anemia). Other signs and symptoms that may occur along with dizziness if you have anemia include fatigue, weakness and pale skin. Low blood sugar (hypoglycemia). This condition generally occurs in people with diabetes who use insulin. Dizziness (lightheadedness) may be accompanied by sweating and anxiety. Overheating and dehydration. If you're active in hot weather, or if you don't drink enough fluids, you may feel dizzy from overheating (hyperthermia) or from dehydration. This is especially true if you take certain heart medications. Risk factors Factors that may increase your risk of getting dizzy include: Age. Older adults are more likely to have medical conditions that cause dizziness, especially a sense of imbalance. They're also more likely to take medications that can cause dizziness. A past episode of dizziness. If you've experienced dizziness before, you're more likely to get dizzy in the future. Complications Dizziness can increase your risk of falling and injuring yourself. Experiencing dizziness while driving a car or operating heavy machinery can increase the likelihood of an accident. You may also experience long-term consequences if an existing health condition that may be causing your dizziness goes untreated. By Mayo Clinic Staff Request an Appointment at Mayo Clinic Diagnosis & treatment March 08, 2018Print Share on: Facebook Twitter References Related Cane tips Dizziness Symptoms & causes Diagnosis & treatment Advertisement Mayo Clinic does not endorse companies or products. Advertising revenue supports our not-for-profit mission. Advertising & Sponsorship Policy Opportunities Ad Choices Mayo Clinic Marketplace Check out these best-sellers and special offers on books and newsletters from Mayo Clinic. FREE TRIAL – Mayo Clinic Health Letter Stop Osteoporosis in Its Tracks Improve Your Hearing and Balance Best Treatment Strategies for Arthritis The Mayo Clinic Diet Online CON-20371771Patient Care & Health Information Diseases & Conditions Dizziness
[ "Print Overview Dizziness is a term used to describe a range of sensations, such as feeling faint, woozy, weak or unsteady.", "Dizziness that creates the false sense that you or your surroundings are spinning or moving is called vertigo.", "Dizziness is one of the more common reasons adults visit their doctors.", "Frequent dizzy spells or constant dizziness can significantly affect your life.", "But dizziness rarely signals a life-threatening condition.", "Treatment of dizziness depends on the cause and your symptoms.", "It's usually effective, but the problem may recur.", "Symptoms People experiencing dizziness may describe it as any of a number of sensations, such as: A false sense of motion or spinning (vertigo)Lightheadedness or feeling faint Unsteadiness or a loss of balance A feeling of floating, wooziness or heavy-headedness These feelings may be triggered or worsened by walking, standing up or moving your head.", "Your dizziness may accompanied by nausea or be so sudden or severe that you need to sit or lie down.", "The episode may last seconds or days and may recur.", "When to see a doctor Call 911 or seek emergency medical help if you experience dizziness with: A sudden or severe headache Ongoing vomiting A sudden change in speech, vision or hearing Stumbling or difficulty walking Fainting Chest pain or an irregular heart rate Numbness or weakness Shortness of breath A high fever A very stiff neck A head injury Seizures Consult with your doctor if you experience recurrent, sudden, severe dizziness or prolonged episodes of dizziness, faintness, lightheadedness or vertigo.", "Request an Appointment at Mayo Clinic Causes Inner ear and balance Dizziness has many possible causes, including inner ear disturbance, motion sickness and medication effects.", "Sometimes it's caused by an underlying health condition, such as poor circulation, infection or injury.", "The way dizziness makes you feel and your triggers provide clues for possible causes.", "How long the dizziness lasts and any other symptoms you have also help pinpoint the cause.", "Inner ear problems that cause dizziness (vertigo)Your sense of balance depends on the combined input from the various parts of your sensory system.", "These include your: Eyes, which help you determine where your body is in space and how it's moving Sensory nerves, which send messages to your brain about body movements and positions Inner ear, which houses sensors that help detect gravity and back-and-forth motion Vertigo is the false sense that your surroundings are spinning or moving.", "With inner ear disorders, your brain receives signals from the inner ear that aren't consistent with what your eyes and sensory nerves are receiving.", "Vertigo is what results as your brain works to sort out the confusion.", "Benign paroxysmal positional vertigo (BPPV).", "This condition causes an intense and brief but false sense that you're spinning or moving.", "These episodes are triggered by a rapid change in head movement, such as when you turn over in bed, sit up or experience a blow to the head.", "BPPV is the most common cause of vertigo.", "Infection.", "A viral infection of the vestibular nerve, called vestibular neuritis, can cause intense, constant vertigo.", "If you also have sudden hearing loss, you may have labyrinthitis.", "Meniere's disease.", "This disease involves the excessive buildup of fluid in your inner ear.", "It's characterized by sudden episodes of vertigo lasting as long as several hours.", "You may also experience fluctuating hearing loss, ringing in the ear and the feeling of a plugged ear.", "Migraine.", "People who experience migraines may have episodes of vertigo or other types of dizziness even when they're not having a severe headache.", "Such vertigo episodes can last minutes to hours and may be associated with headache as well as light and noise sensitivity.", "Circulation problems that cause dizziness You may feel dizzy, faint or off balance if your heart isn't pumping enough blood to your brain.", "Causes include: Drop in blood pressure.", "A dramatic drop in your systolic blood pressure — the higher number in your blood pressure reading — may result in brief lightheadedness or a feeling of faintness.", "It can occur after sitting up or standing too quickly.", "This condition is also called orthostatic hypotension.", "Poor blood circulation.", "Conditions such as cardiomyopathy, heart attack, heart arrhythmia and transient ischemic attack could cause dizziness.", "And a decrease in blood volume may cause inadequate blood flow to your brain or inner ear.", "Other causes of dizziness Neurological conditions.", "Some neurological disorders — such as Parkinson's disease and multiple sclerosis — can lead to progressive loss of balance.", "Medications.", "Dizziness can be a side effect of certain medications — such as anti-seizure drugs, antidepressants, sedatives and tranquilizers.", "In particular, blood pressure lowering medications may cause faintness if they lower your blood pressure too much.", "Anxiety disorders.", "Certain anxiety disorders may cause lightheadedness or a woozy feeling often referred to as dizziness.", "These include panic attacks and a fear of leaving home or being in large, open spaces (agoraphobia).", "Low iron levels (anemia).", "Other signs and symptoms that may occur along with dizziness if you have anemia include fatigue, weakness and pale skin.", "Low blood sugar (hypoglycemia).", "This condition generally occurs in people with diabetes who use insulin.", "Dizziness (lightheadedness) may be accompanied by sweating and anxiety.", "Overheating and dehydration.", "If you're active in hot weather, or if you don't drink enough fluids, you may feel dizzy from overheating (hyperthermia) or from dehydration.", "This is especially true if you take certain heart medications.", "Risk factors Factors that may increase your risk of getting dizzy include: Age.", "Older adults are more likely to have medical conditions that cause dizziness, especially a sense of imbalance.", "They're also more likely to take medications that can cause dizziness.", "A past episode of dizziness.", "If you've experienced dizziness before, you're more likely to get dizzy in the future.", "Complications Dizziness can increase your risk of falling and injuring yourself.", "Experiencing dizziness while driving a car or operating heavy machinery can increase the likelihood of an accident.", "You may also experience long-term consequences if an existing health condition that may be causing your dizziness goes untreated.", "By Mayo Clinic Staff Request an Appointment at Mayo Clinic Diagnosis & treatment March 08, 2018Print Share on: Facebook Twitter References Related Cane tips Dizziness Symptoms & causes Diagnosis & treatment Advertisement Mayo Clinic does not endorse companies or products.", "Advertising revenue supports our not-for-profit mission.", "Advertising & Sponsorship Policy Opportunities Ad Choices Mayo Clinic Marketplace Check out these best-sellers and special offers on books and newsletters from Mayo Clinic.", "FREE TRIAL – Mayo Clinic Health Letter Stop Osteoporosis in Its Tracks Improve Your Hearing and Balance Best Treatment Strategies for Arthritis The Mayo Clinic Diet Online CON-20371771Patient Care & Health Information Diseases & Conditions Dizziness" ]
D5248
http://www.costofwedding.com/
Start your wedding budget with the Wedding Cost Estimator
Enter your US zip code: Get Wedding Cost Create a Wedding Cost Estimate Wedding Cost Search Sign In Register Average Wedding Cost The average wedding cost in the United States is $25,764. Couples, on average, spend between $19,323 and $32,205 but, most couples spend less than $10,000 . This does not include cost for a honeymoon. Understanding wedding cost now can help you with your wedding budget later. Enter your US zip code to find out how much other couples spent on their wedding in your area by the number of guests. Get Wedding Cost Start your wedding budget with the Wedding Cost Estimator Better than a wedding budget calculator, use the wedding cost estimator to create a budget starting point or a wedding budget checklist Create a Wedding Cost Estimate Budget vs Real Cost What's the story? Many times couples have a specific wedding budget in mind and while some stick to their budget, the reality is that things add up quickly and often exceed the original budget. Cost of Wedding was created to help couples understand real wedding costs. We provide several tools to help you map real wedding cost or spending to your wedding budget. The numbers provided on this site are simply a guide to help you better prepare for real wedding cost to wedding budget expectations. Averages are based on spending of other couples not wedding vendor prices. Spending and prices can vary widely. You should expect to pay, on average, 50% to 100%+ more when choosing well-experienced professionals, designer labels, popular event locations, unique or custom products and services. Investigate all options and choose products and services that best meet your needs. Browse Locations About Wedding Cost Terms of Use Privacy Policy Add To Your Website© 2018 The Wedding Report, Inc., All rights reserved.
[ "Enter your US zip code: Get Wedding Cost Create a Wedding Cost Estimate Wedding Cost Search Sign In Register Average Wedding Cost The average wedding cost in the United States is $25,764.", "Couples, on average, spend between $19,323 and $32,205 but, most couples spend less than $10,000 .", "This does not include cost for a honeymoon.", "Understanding wedding cost now can help you with your wedding budget later.", "Enter your US zip code to find out how much other couples spent on their wedding in your area by the number of guests.", "Get Wedding Cost Start your wedding budget with the Wedding Cost Estimator Better than a wedding budget calculator, use the wedding cost estimator to create a budget starting point or a wedding budget checklist Create a Wedding Cost Estimate Budget vs Real Cost What's the story?", "Many times couples have a specific wedding budget in mind and while some stick to their budget, the reality is that things add up quickly and often exceed the original budget.", "Cost of Wedding was created to help couples understand real wedding costs.", "We provide several tools to help you map real wedding cost or spending to your wedding budget.", "The numbers provided on this site are simply a guide to help you better prepare for real wedding cost to wedding budget expectations.", "Averages are based on spending of other couples not wedding vendor prices.", "Spending and prices can vary widely.", "You should expect to pay, on average, 50% to 100%+ more when choosing well-experienced professionals, designer labels, popular event locations, unique or custom products and services.", "Investigate all options and choose products and services that best meet your needs.", "Browse Locations About Wedding Cost Terms of Use Privacy Policy Add To Your Website© 2018 The Wedding Report, Inc., All rights reserved." ]
D142620
http://home.costhelper.com/remodel-kitchen.html
Kitchen Remodeling Cost
"Average: $17,000-$19,400 High: $50,000-$100,000+E-mail Post Tweet Comments (15)Typical costs: The cost of remodeling a kitchen depends on the current layout, size and condition of the room, as well as the quality of replacement products chosen. According to an annual construction cost survey by Remodeling Magazine [ 1] , a minor remodel of a 200-square-foot (10x20) kitchen averages $20,077-$23,210 nationwide; a mid-range major remodel including an island and other upgrades runs $52,405-$63,803; and an upscale remodel for the same size kitchen can be $105,621-$120,379. These are averages; actual costs may be higher or lower. In contrast, Do It Yourself.com [ 2] estimates that the cost of a typical kitchen remodel can start around $5,000 with some do-it-yourself work included, and averages $15,000-$26,000. Related articles: Kitchen Cabinets, Bathroom Remodeling, Architect, Home Addition, Kitchen Sink, Kitchen Countertops What should be included: The National Association of the Remodeling Industry [ 3] gives a detailed overview of what can be included in a kitchen remodel. Better Homes And Gardens.com provides kitchen design guidelines [ 4] and basic kitchen floor plans [ 5] . Discounts: This Old House.com [ 6] outlines ways to save money on remodeling projects. Shopping for a kitchen remodeling: Collect a wide variety of photos of appealing kitchen designs; Kitchens.com hosts a photo gallery [ 7] of different styles and Better Homes and Gardens offers a quiz [ 8] to see what kitchen style is best for a particular lifestyle. Design. HGTV.com lists detailed steps for hiring a certified kitchen contractor, from checking references to what should be in a written contract. Visit the Contractor's License Reference Site [ 9] to see if the company is licensed in your state; also check with the Better Business Bureau [ 10] . The National Association of the Remodeling Industry [ 11] gives contractor referrals. E-mail Post Tweet Comments (15)Cost Helper News7 Ways to Stretch Your Reduced Food Budget End of the year budgets are tight for everyone, especially in this economy. It's especially hard for the millions of Americans who depend on government programs like food stamps to help make ends meet. || Posted November 11 20137 Lesser-Known Discounts for the 50+ Crowd As they age, members of the Baby Boomer generation don't like to admit that they're senior citizens, but they love getting discounts. It's kind of a quandary, because some of the best deals available are reduced prices for older folks.|| Posted October 21 2013‣ All Cost Helper Blog Posts What People Are Paying - Recent Comments REMODELAmount: $200,000.00Posted by: TAHOE VILLA in NORTH LAKE TAHOE, CA. Posted: June 27th, 2016 05:06PMSq Ft of Kitchen: 600 Items Remodeled: KITCHEN, 3 FIREPLACES, CONVERT LAUNDRYCONVERTED LARGE LAUNDRY ROOM INTO SMALL BEDROOM AND SMALL LAUNDRY ROOM. TOTAL KITCHEN REMODEL WITH HIGH END WOLF APPLIANCES, 3 FIREPLACES REPLACED AND NEW LARGE STONE INSTALLED I SEE PEOPLE SAYING COMPLETE REMODEL AND THEN $3K FOR APPLIANCES... AVERAGE NICE REFRIG ALONE IS 3K...12 FOR HIGH END SO I DON'T KNOW WHAT THEY ARE PUTTING IN. WE REUSED OUR $4K REFRIG AND PUT IN A WOLF RANGE, HIGH END DISHWASHER, BUILT IN MICROWAVE AND FLUSH MOUNT RANGE HOOD FOR 13K. OUR SINK WAS $600 AND FAUCET $700. QUARTZITE WAS $15K FOR 5 SLABS AND 12 TO INSTALL IT. CABINETS WERE HIGH END HICKORY CABINETS WITH CUSTOM MADE CLEAR SAP WOOD FREE 5"" HICKORY WOOD FLOORS. STONE ENTRY WAY AND NEW LIGHTING WITH UNDER COUNTER LIGHTING. ALL NEW INTERIOR DOORS AND 12OO FEET OF TRIM AROUND DOORS AND BASEBOARD. NEW WINDOWS. Was this post helpful to you? yes no Report prohibited or spam Kichen remodel Amount: $4,800.00Posted by: Kriss in Bay Area, CA. Posted: September 22nd, 2015 07:09PMSq Ft of Kitchen: 100 Items Remodeled: floor, counters, upper and lower cabinet To complete the job, will probably be $5000. Was this post helpful to you? yes no Report prohibited or spamremodeling Amount: $2,000.00Posted by: esined in san fransico, CA. Posted: May 14th, 2015 08:05PMSq Ft of Kitchen: 10 Items Remodeled: Was this post helpful to you? yes no Report prohibited or spamkitchen Amount: $150.00Posted by: skyler hunt in walton, NY. Posted: February 26th, 2015 03:02PMSq Ft of Kitchen: 194 Items Remodeled: Description: painti painted my cabinets and walls. Was this post helpful to you? yes no Report prohibited or spam Complete Kitchen Gut, New Everything Amount: $14,860.00Posted by: gandude in SF Bay Area, CA. Posted: August 26th, 2013 08:08PMSq Ft of Kitchen: 181 Items Remodeled: 1Description: mid quality stuffno labor, did it myself. 14' 6"" x 12' 8"" strip room to the studs. clean everything. treat wood w/boracare. new insulation r-13 and r-38, drywall, electrical, DWV, freshwater, 42"" cabinets no MDF soft close, .75"" x 2.25"" T&G hardwood floor nailed and glued, 3 granite countertops 22 LF, GE 24"" electric double oven, SMEG 5 burner gas cooktop, Kenmore refer, Bosch dishwasher, computer desk, breakfast bar, stained wood trim, LED lighting, ceiling fan, Broan cooktop vent, city permit. Was this post helpful to you? yes no Report prohibited or spam Cabinet Re-Facing Project, that turned into a minor remodel. Amount: $6,500.00Posted by: John Wethington in Kaneohe, HI. Posted: July 18th, 2012 12:07AMSq Ft of Kitchen: 8x12 Items Remodeled: 65% of Kitchen Description: Cabinet Re-face, Counter Top & P&S Tile I hired CRU KUSTOM WORKZ on the Island of Oahu, they came in and viewed the project. They are Re-Facing my 1970's Cabinets, that are pressed wood, with 1x2s, 3s, 4s & 6s pine wood stats. Changing the Sink Counter Top, removing and replacing the vinyl tile with new vinyl tile. The doors are being KUSTOMED with 1/2"" Birch Plywood, Stained and trimmed with, White Tiburon molding. Also they done the Lower floor Bathroom Vanity, with the same concept, just painted White. This project is coming out so beautiful, and Knowing that I am getting a good deal on Labor, I will let people know about CRU KUSTOM WORKZ. They are very Professional and Friendly, also giving great discounts. We are an elderly couple and my husband has had a stroke, can't do very much, they have helped us so much, not only by doing a great job, also helping us move boxes of stuff to our storage locker. God Bless Them. Was this post helpful to you? yes no Report prohibited or spam Kitchen Remodel Amount: $50,000.00Posted by: Patrick SF in San Francisco, CA. Posted: July 16th, 2012 11:07AMSq Ft of Kitchen: 170 Items Remodeled: Everything Description: Complete to the studs kitchen remodel1894 Buildingrn Stripped everything to the studs, 10' ceiling height. I designed everything, General contractor did all the work.rn Kraftmaid Cabinets (approx 20 linear feet, with an additional row of cabinets at the top to meet the ceiling) - $15K, $3K Installrn Thermador Appliances - $12Krn Soapstone Countertop - $6Krn Electrical & Lighting - $3Krn Plumbing - $2Krn Walls - $2Krn Windows (Replace 1, added skylight) - $1.5Krn Floor - Oak, triple stained - $1.5Krn Miscellaneous - $1.5KWas this post helpful to you? yes no Report prohibited or spam Kitchen Remodel Amount: $5,500.00Posted by: Stevenatl in Atlanta, GA. Posted: September 6th, 2011 07:09AMSq Ft of Kitchen: 360 Items Remodeled: 50%Description: refinnish of existing layout Completed the following doing all work DIY to complement existing granite and cabinets: Re-dry walled and reinsulated 3 walls, Installed ~60ft crown, Installed 360 sq of tile, Painted ceiling, walls and cabinets, Replaced refrigerator, dishwasher, & hood all stainless Replaced 2 exterior doors and 1 interior door, New tile backsplash ~20sf, New outlets and switches, knobs, door handles, 1 new mid-grade ceiling fixture, My experience� a living hell for the last few weekends! I think the project added a lot of value to the home and I am very happy with the results. Was this post helpful to you? yes no Report prohibited or spam Kitchen Remodel Amount: $10,000.00Posted by: William Barry in oklahoma city, OK. Posted: August 23rd, 2011 10:08PMSq Ft of Kitchen: 235 Items Remodeled: Everything Description: Complete remodelwith brand new appliances my wife spent around $6,500 on our budget was half gone never the less i thought i was pretty good with my hands and a decent wood worker i layed the new wood floors my self and after a $160 vo tech cabnitry class mad most of the cabnets there had quarts counter tops put in painted and had enough money left over to even put new lights in now on to the master bath!Was this post helpful to you? yes no Report prohibited or spamkitchen remodel Amount: $18,000.00Posted by: remodelingnonstop in san jose, CA. Posted: June 27th, 2011 06:06PMSq Ft of Kitchen: 225 Items Remodeled: counter tops and cabinents Description: San Jose Kitchen I remodeled my kitchen for $16,000. It is about 225sqft. Has a 4x8 island and about 20' of wall counter space - 2 sinks. it has hardwood floors - oak with 5 coats of finish, maple cabinets and quartz countertops. I got a budgetary quote from teh calculator at www.remodelormove.com and then subtracted the cost of appliances which i did not replace. The calculator was nice because i did some of the work myself Was this post helpful to you? yes no Report prohibited or spam Kitchen Remodel Amount: $17,000.00Posted by: Dr Roob Nerdheimer in Jamestown, NY. Posted: May 17th, 2011 02:05AMSq Ft of Kitchen: 144 Items Remodeled: complete gut out Description: complete remodel We hired Lighthouse Construction ( [email protected] )to remodel our kitchen because of their experiance in working with older homes. We relied heavily on their reccomendations and were amazed every day with the commitmentment to the quality of the work and the attention to planning details. They were very knowlegable in the products available. Was this post helpful to you? yes no Report prohibited or spam Green Kitchen Remodel Amount: $32,000.00Posted by: Holly Donahue in Los Angeles, CA. Posted: December 15th, 2010 12:12PMSq Ft of Kitchen: 200 Items Remodeled: Everything Description: Complete Remodel We remodeled our Kitchen about a year ago with Green Planet Building located in Los Angeles, CA. They were truly an amazing company to work with. Their attention to detail helped me create a kitchen I love. We put new eco-friendly everything into our kitchen from the beautiful ice-stone counter tops to the no voc paints. It was great to be able to track the entire process of my project online. I knew what what happening everyday because they have a client log in that gave me a calendar of events taking place like the plumber will be there on Friday or the cabinets are being installed on Monday. It was such a great experience we are now having them do our bathrooms. Was this post helpful to you? yes no Report prohibited or spam Kitchen Remodel Amount: $11,500.00Posted by: David Howland in Houston, TX. Posted: November 16th, 2010 09:11PMSq Ft of Kitchen: 138 Items Remodeled: Everything except appliances Description: Complete renovation We recently renovated our kitchen similar to Phillip in Columbus. We gutted it all but left the ceiling, added can lights, new window, and moved a door (new door), removed the furrdowns from the ceiling. Some minor plumbing work and new wiring and outlets, undercounter wiring. Cabinets from Ikea (with soft hinges and door glides, granite countertops (on sale for $36/sf)and travertine floor and backsplash. Total cost was S11,400 for all materials only including tile labor and plumbing labor. If quality contractor was included might cost about $22K. It is a lot of work but looks and feels fantastic. 30-60K increase in value. We already had the appliances, so price is bare kitchen. Was this post helpful to you? yes no Report prohibited or spam Kitchen Remodel Amount: $13,000.00Posted by: Phillip Canfield in Columbus, OH. Posted: October 31st, 2009 08:10PMSq Ft of Kitchen: 124 Items Remodeled: Everything Description: Completely Gutted I recently gutted my 1940 cape cod kitchen. I replaced the ceiling, rewired all outlets, purchased and installed all GE profile stainless steel appliances. (wall mount oven, cooktop, dishwasher, side by side fridge with lower freezer and microwave. I installed brand new cabinets from IKEA (has a 25 year warranty) with soft closers and SS hardware to match appliances. i installed porcelain tile flooring, glass tile backsplash, and chose to have a recycled glass countertop installed by Lowes. Its pricey at $102/ sf installed, but looks amazing and is affordable when you figure the cabinets were only $3,300 to replace. The kitchen is TOTALLY new, looks very sleek and contemporary, and came in under $13,000 total! Installing the material yourself can really pay off, when you figure a kitchen remodel of this stature can add 30-60K in resale. Was this post helpful to you? yes no Report prohibited or spam Estate Kitchen Amount: $226,000.00Posted by: BOB OYYLANDA in Saint George, UT. Posted: May 22nd, 2009 08:05PMSq Ft of Kitchen: 4600 Items Remodeled: All Appliances, Cabinets, Electrical,Description: Estate Kitchen I did a full remodel when I Purchased my Estate Mansion, It cost me just about $230,000 for the full remodel. It was done with qualified contracters. Appliances are just about as up scale as you can get. All appliances are Wolf and Sub Zero. It includes 4 Fridges 6 4 Burner Gas range stoves and 3 sinks. The cabinets are cherry and some oak. Counter tops are Granite all the knobs and levers are made out of 24k Gold. My Estate Kitchen is beautiful I recommend using the materials listed below to make your dream kitchen classy. I LOVE all the room it has. Was this post helpful to you? yes no Report prohibited or spam Comment On Your Experience With a Kitchen Remodeling Subject: *Amount Spent: *Sq Ft of Kitchen: Items Remodeled: Description: Comments: Purchased: Year: City: * State: *Information about you: Email: * Email addresses are not displayed. Name: This is the name we'll display with your post. Remember me on this computer*=required field. External Resources:www.remodeling.hw.net/2009/costvsvalue/national.aspxwww.doityourself.com/stry/kitchenbathfaqwww.nari.org/homeowners/tips/www.bhg.com/kitchen/remodeling/planning/kitchen-design-guidelines/www.bhg.com/home-improvement/kitchen/planning/kitchen-floor-plan-basic-configurations/www.thisoldhouse.com/toh/article/0,,1186851,00.htmlwww.kitchens.com/photos.aspxwww.bhg.com/bhg/quiz.jsp?quiz Id=/templatedata/bhg/quiz/data/Kitchen Style Quiz_02172004.xmlwww.contractors-license.org/search.bbb.org/www.nari.org More Home and Garden Topics Check Out All Costs for Home and Garden How Much Does Garden Service Cost? How Much Does a Kitchen Remodeling Cost? How Much Does a Propane Tank Cost? Search Thousands of Topics on Cost Helper.com How much does cost? "
[ "\"Average: $17,000-$19,400 High: $50,000-$100,000+E-mail Post Tweet Comments (15)Typical costs: The cost of remodeling a kitchen depends on the current layout, size and condition of the room, as well as the quality of replacement products chosen.", "According to an annual construction cost survey by Remodeling Magazine [ 1] , a minor remodel of a 200-square-foot (10x20) kitchen averages $20,077-$23,210 nationwide; a mid-range major remodel including an island and other upgrades runs $52,405-$63,803; and an upscale remodel for the same size kitchen can be $105,621-$120,379.", "These are averages; actual costs may be higher or lower.", "In contrast, Do It Yourself.com [ 2] estimates that the cost of a typical kitchen remodel can start around $5,000 with some do-it-yourself work included, and averages $15,000-$26,000.", "Related articles: Kitchen Cabinets, Bathroom Remodeling, Architect, Home Addition, Kitchen Sink, Kitchen Countertops What should be included: The National Association of the Remodeling Industry [ 3] gives a detailed overview of what can be included in a kitchen remodel.", "Better Homes And Gardens.com provides kitchen design guidelines [ 4] and basic kitchen floor plans [ 5] .", "Discounts: This Old House.com [ 6] outlines ways to save money on remodeling projects.", "Shopping for a kitchen remodeling: Collect a wide variety of photos of appealing kitchen designs; Kitchens.com hosts a photo gallery [ 7] of different styles and Better Homes and Gardens offers a quiz [ 8] to see what kitchen style is best for a particular lifestyle.", "Design.", "HGTV.com lists detailed steps for hiring a certified kitchen contractor, from checking references to what should be in a written contract.", "Visit the Contractor's License Reference Site [ 9] to see if the company is licensed in your state; also check with the Better Business Bureau [ 10] .", "The National Association of the Remodeling Industry [ 11] gives contractor referrals.", "E-mail Post Tweet Comments (15)Cost Helper News7 Ways to Stretch Your Reduced Food Budget End of the year budgets are tight for everyone, especially in this economy.", "It's especially hard for the millions of Americans who depend on government programs like food stamps to help make ends meet.", "|| Posted November 11 20137 Lesser-Known Discounts for the 50+ Crowd As they age, members of the Baby Boomer generation don't like to admit that they're senior citizens, but they love getting discounts.", "It's kind of a quandary, because some of the best deals available are reduced prices for older folks.|| Posted October 21 2013‣ All Cost Helper Blog Posts What People Are Paying - Recent Comments REMODELAmount: $200,000.00Posted by: TAHOE VILLA in NORTH LAKE TAHOE, CA.", "Posted: June 27th, 2016 05:06PMSq Ft of Kitchen: 600 Items Remodeled: KITCHEN, 3 FIREPLACES, CONVERT LAUNDRYCONVERTED LARGE LAUNDRY ROOM INTO SMALL BEDROOM AND SMALL LAUNDRY ROOM.", "TOTAL KITCHEN REMODEL WITH HIGH END WOLF APPLIANCES, 3 FIREPLACES REPLACED AND NEW LARGE STONE INSTALLED I SEE PEOPLE SAYING COMPLETE REMODEL AND THEN $3K FOR APPLIANCES... AVERAGE NICE REFRIG ALONE IS 3K...12 FOR HIGH END SO I DON'T KNOW WHAT THEY ARE PUTTING IN.", "WE REUSED OUR $4K REFRIG AND PUT IN A WOLF RANGE, HIGH END DISHWASHER, BUILT IN MICROWAVE AND FLUSH MOUNT RANGE HOOD FOR 13K.", "OUR SINK WAS $600 AND FAUCET $700.", "QUARTZITE WAS $15K FOR 5 SLABS AND 12 TO INSTALL IT.", "CABINETS WERE HIGH END HICKORY CABINETS WITH CUSTOM MADE CLEAR SAP WOOD FREE 5\"\" HICKORY WOOD FLOORS.", "STONE ENTRY WAY AND NEW LIGHTING WITH UNDER COUNTER LIGHTING.", "ALL NEW INTERIOR DOORS AND 12OO FEET OF TRIM AROUND DOORS AND BASEBOARD.", "NEW WINDOWS.", "Was this post helpful to you?", "yes no Report prohibited or spam Kichen remodel Amount: $4,800.00Posted by: Kriss in Bay Area, CA.", "Posted: September 22nd, 2015 07:09PMSq Ft of Kitchen: 100 Items Remodeled: floor, counters, upper and lower cabinet To complete the job, will probably be $5000.", "Was this post helpful to you?", "yes no Report prohibited or spamremodeling Amount: $2,000.00Posted by: esined in san fransico, CA.", "Posted: May 14th, 2015 08:05PMSq Ft of Kitchen: 10 Items Remodeled: Was this post helpful to you?", "yes no Report prohibited or spamkitchen Amount: $150.00Posted by: skyler hunt in walton, NY.", "Posted: February 26th, 2015 03:02PMSq Ft of Kitchen: 194 Items Remodeled: Description: painti painted my cabinets and walls.", "Was this post helpful to you?", "yes no Report prohibited or spam Complete Kitchen Gut, New Everything Amount: $14,860.00Posted by: gandude in SF Bay Area, CA.", "Posted: August 26th, 2013 08:08PMSq Ft of Kitchen: 181 Items Remodeled: 1Description: mid quality stuffno labor, did it myself.", "14' 6\"\" x 12' 8\"\" strip room to the studs.", "clean everything.", "treat wood w/boracare.", "new insulation r-13 and r-38, drywall, electrical, DWV, freshwater, 42\"\" cabinets no MDF soft close, .75\"\" x 2.25\"\" T&G hardwood floor nailed and glued, 3 granite countertops 22 LF, GE 24\"\" electric double oven, SMEG 5 burner gas cooktop, Kenmore refer, Bosch dishwasher, computer desk, breakfast bar, stained wood trim, LED lighting, ceiling fan, Broan cooktop vent, city permit.", "Was this post helpful to you?", "yes no Report prohibited or spam Cabinet Re-Facing Project, that turned into a minor remodel.", "Amount: $6,500.00Posted by: John Wethington in Kaneohe, HI.", "Posted: July 18th, 2012 12:07AMSq Ft of Kitchen: 8x12 Items Remodeled: 65% of Kitchen Description: Cabinet Re-face, Counter Top & P&S Tile I hired CRU KUSTOM WORKZ on the Island of Oahu, they came in and viewed the project.", "They are Re-Facing my 1970's Cabinets, that are pressed wood, with 1x2s, 3s, 4s & 6s pine wood stats.", "Changing the Sink Counter Top, removing and replacing the vinyl tile with new vinyl tile.", "The doors are being KUSTOMED with 1/2\"\" Birch Plywood, Stained and trimmed with, White Tiburon molding.", "Also they done the Lower floor Bathroom Vanity, with the same concept, just painted White.", "This project is coming out so beautiful, and Knowing that I am getting a good deal on Labor, I will let people know about CRU KUSTOM WORKZ.", "They are very Professional and Friendly, also giving great discounts.", "We are an elderly couple and my husband has had a stroke, can't do very much, they have helped us so much, not only by doing a great job, also helping us move boxes of stuff to our storage locker.", "God Bless Them.", "Was this post helpful to you?", "yes no Report prohibited or spam Kitchen Remodel Amount: $50,000.00Posted by: Patrick SF in San Francisco, CA.", "Posted: July 16th, 2012 11:07AMSq Ft of Kitchen: 170 Items Remodeled: Everything Description: Complete to the studs kitchen remodel1894 Buildingrn Stripped everything to the studs, 10' ceiling height.", "I designed everything, General contractor did all the work.rn Kraftmaid Cabinets (approx 20 linear feet, with an additional row of cabinets at the top to meet the ceiling) - $15K, $3K Installrn Thermador Appliances - $12Krn Soapstone Countertop - $6Krn Electrical & Lighting - $3Krn Plumbing - $2Krn Walls - $2Krn Windows (Replace 1, added skylight) - $1.5Krn Floor - Oak, triple stained - $1.5Krn Miscellaneous - $1.5KWas this post helpful to you?", "yes no Report prohibited or spam Kitchen Remodel Amount: $5,500.00Posted by: Stevenatl in Atlanta, GA. Posted: September 6th, 2011 07:09AMSq Ft of Kitchen: 360 Items Remodeled: 50%Description: refinnish of existing layout Completed the following doing all work DIY to complement existing granite and cabinets: Re-dry walled and reinsulated 3 walls, Installed ~60ft crown, Installed 360 sq of tile, Painted ceiling, walls and cabinets, Replaced refrigerator, dishwasher, & hood all stainless Replaced 2 exterior doors and 1 interior door, New tile backsplash ~20sf, New outlets and switches, knobs, door handles, 1 new mid-grade ceiling fixture, My experience� a living hell for the last few weekends!", "I think the project added a lot of value to the home and I am very happy with the results.", "Was this post helpful to you?", "yes no Report prohibited or spam Kitchen Remodel Amount: $10,000.00Posted by: William Barry in oklahoma city, OK. Posted: August 23rd, 2011 10:08PMSq Ft of Kitchen: 235 Items Remodeled: Everything Description: Complete remodelwith brand new appliances my wife spent around $6,500 on our budget was half gone never the less i thought i was pretty good with my hands and a decent wood worker i layed the new wood floors my self and after a $160 vo tech cabnitry class mad most of the cabnets there had quarts counter tops put in painted and had enough money left over to even put new lights in now on to the master bath!Was this post helpful to you?", "yes no Report prohibited or spamkitchen remodel Amount: $18,000.00Posted by: remodelingnonstop in san jose, CA.", "Posted: June 27th, 2011 06:06PMSq Ft of Kitchen: 225 Items Remodeled: counter tops and cabinents Description: San Jose Kitchen I remodeled my kitchen for $16,000.", "It is about 225sqft.", "Has a 4x8 island and about 20' of wall counter space - 2 sinks.", "it has hardwood floors - oak with 5 coats of finish, maple cabinets and quartz countertops.", "I got a budgetary quote from teh calculator at www.remodelormove.com and then subtracted the cost of appliances which i did not replace.", "The calculator was nice because i did some of the work myself Was this post helpful to you?", "yes no Report prohibited or spam Kitchen Remodel Amount: $17,000.00Posted by: Dr Roob Nerdheimer in Jamestown, NY.", "Posted: May 17th, 2011 02:05AMSq Ft of Kitchen: 144 Items Remodeled: complete gut out Description: complete remodel We hired Lighthouse Construction ( [email protected] )to remodel our kitchen because of their experiance in working with older homes.", "We relied heavily on their reccomendations and were amazed every day with the commitmentment to the quality of the work and the attention to planning details.", "They were very knowlegable in the products available.", "Was this post helpful to you?", "yes no Report prohibited or spam Green Kitchen Remodel Amount: $32,000.00Posted by: Holly Donahue in Los Angeles, CA.", "Posted: December 15th, 2010 12:12PMSq Ft of Kitchen: 200 Items Remodeled: Everything Description: Complete Remodel We remodeled our Kitchen about a year ago with Green Planet Building located in Los Angeles, CA.", "They were truly an amazing company to work with.", "Their attention to detail helped me create a kitchen I love.", "We put new eco-friendly everything into our kitchen from the beautiful ice-stone counter tops to the no voc paints.", "It was great to be able to track the entire process of my project online.", "I knew what what happening everyday because they have a client log in that gave me a calendar of events taking place like the plumber will be there on Friday or the cabinets are being installed on Monday.", "It was such a great experience we are now having them do our bathrooms.", "Was this post helpful to you?", "yes no Report prohibited or spam Kitchen Remodel Amount: $11,500.00Posted by: David Howland in Houston, TX.", "Posted: November 16th, 2010 09:11PMSq Ft of Kitchen: 138 Items Remodeled: Everything except appliances Description: Complete renovation We recently renovated our kitchen similar to Phillip in Columbus.", "We gutted it all but left the ceiling, added can lights, new window, and moved a door (new door), removed the furrdowns from the ceiling.", "Some minor plumbing work and new wiring and outlets, undercounter wiring.", "Cabinets from Ikea (with soft hinges and door glides, granite countertops (on sale for $36/sf)and travertine floor and backsplash.", "Total cost was S11,400 for all materials only including tile labor and plumbing labor.", "If quality contractor was included might cost about $22K.", "It is a lot of work but looks and feels fantastic.", "30-60K increase in value.", "We already had the appliances, so price is bare kitchen.", "Was this post helpful to you?", "yes no Report prohibited or spam Kitchen Remodel Amount: $13,000.00Posted by: Phillip Canfield in Columbus, OH.", "Posted: October 31st, 2009 08:10PMSq Ft of Kitchen: 124 Items Remodeled: Everything Description: Completely Gutted I recently gutted my 1940 cape cod kitchen.", "I replaced the ceiling, rewired all outlets, purchased and installed all GE profile stainless steel appliances.", "(wall mount oven, cooktop, dishwasher, side by side fridge with lower freezer and microwave.", "I installed brand new cabinets from IKEA (has a 25 year warranty) with soft closers and SS hardware to match appliances.", "i installed porcelain tile flooring, glass tile backsplash, and chose to have a recycled glass countertop installed by Lowes.", "Its pricey at $102/ sf installed, but looks amazing and is affordable when you figure the cabinets were only $3,300 to replace.", "The kitchen is TOTALLY new, looks very sleek and contemporary, and came in under $13,000 total!", "Installing the material yourself can really pay off, when you figure a kitchen remodel of this stature can add 30-60K in resale.", "Was this post helpful to you?", "yes no Report prohibited or spam Estate Kitchen Amount: $226,000.00Posted by: BOB OYYLANDA in Saint George, UT.", "Posted: May 22nd, 2009 08:05PMSq Ft of Kitchen: 4600 Items Remodeled: All Appliances, Cabinets, Electrical,Description: Estate Kitchen I did a full remodel when I Purchased my Estate Mansion, It cost me just about $230,000 for the full remodel.", "It was done with qualified contracters.", "Appliances are just about as up scale as you can get.", "All appliances are Wolf and Sub Zero.", "It includes 4 Fridges 6 4 Burner Gas range stoves and 3 sinks.", "The cabinets are cherry and some oak.", "Counter tops are Granite all the knobs and levers are made out of 24k Gold.", "My Estate Kitchen is beautiful I recommend using the materials listed below to make your dream kitchen classy.", "I LOVE all the room it has.", "Was this post helpful to you?", "yes no Report prohibited or spam Comment On Your Experience With a Kitchen Remodeling Subject: *Amount Spent: *Sq Ft of Kitchen: Items Remodeled: Description: Comments: Purchased: Year: City: * State: *Information about you: Email: * Email addresses are not displayed.", "Name: This is the name we'll display with your post.", "Remember me on this computer*=required field.", "External Resources:www.remodeling.hw.net/2009/costvsvalue/national.aspxwww.doityourself.com/stry/kitchenbathfaqwww.nari.org/homeowners/tips/www.bhg.com/kitchen/remodeling/planning/kitchen-design-guidelines/www.bhg.com/home-improvement/kitchen/planning/kitchen-floor-plan-basic-configurations/www.thisoldhouse.com/toh/article/0,,1186851,00.htmlwww.kitchens.com/photos.aspxwww.bhg.com/bhg/quiz.jsp?quiz Id=/templatedata/bhg/quiz/data/Kitchen Style Quiz_02172004.xmlwww.contractors-license.org/search.bbb.org/www.nari.org More Home and Garden Topics Check Out All Costs for Home and Garden How Much Does Garden Service Cost?", "How Much Does a Kitchen Remodeling Cost?", "How Much Does a Propane Tank Cost?", "Search Thousands of Topics on Cost Helper.com How much does cost? \"" ]
D106116
http://smallbusiness.chron.com/long-pre-employment-background-checks-come-back-1226.html
How Long Do Pre Employment Background Checks Take to Come Back?
"Related Articles1What Is the Time Frame for a Background Check?2How Far Back on a Background Check Can an Employer Go?3How Long Do Items Stay on a Criminal Background Check?4Mortgage Pre-Employment Testing Prudent employers screen new hires carefully, often conducting a criminal record check -- either in-house, or through a third party agency -- as part of the hiring process. Turnaround time for the background check's results can range from one or two days to one or two months, depending on a number of factors. Some of these factors are in the potential employer's control, others are not. Average Time Most background checks can be completed between three days to one week. FBI checks usually take around 30 days. Although some instant background checks are available, these rely on databases that can be incomplete or inaccurate. Instant criminal records databases, in particular, often contain many errors. Most reputable agencies will tell employers that they are better off waiting a bit longer and having a more thorough and accurate report. Common Reasons for Delay The two most common reasons for delay are both under the employer's control. One is inaccurate or incomplete check request forms, and the other is failure to have the necessary authorization and release forms signed by the job applicant. Release forms are required by federal law, and all job applicants must also be notified in a separate letter that the background check is going to take place. Agencies cannot begin the checking process until they are given copies of these signed forms. Delays in Record Checks Most reputable agencies contact prior schools and employers using contact information they have gathered themselves, rather than rely on the applicants information. This ensures they are contacting a legitimate source, but can also slow down the process. Another common reason for delay is that some schools and former employers may not have fully computerized records, and are not under any time limit in providing the information. State and government departments usually have set turnaround times. For example, the Integrity Center reports that it takes 48 hours to get a Texas driving license report or a state wide criminal report. Reviewing Records Background checks can also be slowed down by confusion over names. Agencies often need to search through large databases for every variant of a name, for example Steve, Steven, Stephen. If the applicant has a common name, the agency will have to review and cross check the records to ensure they have the right person. Speeding Up Checks The best way to speed up the process of background checking is to provide the agency with all of the required information and documentation, and to make sure the information is complete. For example, that addresses are given for all former employers and references. Employers can also speed up the process by using an agency that makes the information available online. References (3)Resources (2)About the Author Since graduating with a degree in biology, Lisa Magloff has worked in many countries. Accordingly, she specializes in writing about science and travel and has written for publications as diverse as the ""Snowmass Sun"" and ""Caterer Middle East."" With numerous published books and newspaper and magazine articles to her credit, Magloff has an eclectic knowledge of everything from cooking to nuclear reactor maintenance. Photo Creditssignature image by kuhar from Fotolia.com Cite this Article "
[ "\"Related Articles1What Is the Time Frame for a Background Check?2How Far Back on a Background Check Can an Employer Go?3How Long Do Items Stay on a Criminal Background Check?4Mortgage Pre-Employment Testing Prudent employers screen new hires carefully, often conducting a criminal record check -- either in-house, or through a third party agency -- as part of the hiring process.", "Turnaround time for the background check's results can range from one or two days to one or two months, depending on a number of factors.", "Some of these factors are in the potential employer's control, others are not.", "Average Time Most background checks can be completed between three days to one week.", "FBI checks usually take around 30 days.", "Although some instant background checks are available, these rely on databases that can be incomplete or inaccurate.", "Instant criminal records databases, in particular, often contain many errors.", "Most reputable agencies will tell employers that they are better off waiting a bit longer and having a more thorough and accurate report.", "Common Reasons for Delay The two most common reasons for delay are both under the employer's control.", "One is inaccurate or incomplete check request forms, and the other is failure to have the necessary authorization and release forms signed by the job applicant.", "Release forms are required by federal law, and all job applicants must also be notified in a separate letter that the background check is going to take place.", "Agencies cannot begin the checking process until they are given copies of these signed forms.", "Delays in Record Checks Most reputable agencies contact prior schools and employers using contact information they have gathered themselves, rather than rely on the applicants information.", "This ensures they are contacting a legitimate source, but can also slow down the process.", "Another common reason for delay is that some schools and former employers may not have fully computerized records, and are not under any time limit in providing the information.", "State and government departments usually have set turnaround times.", "For example, the Integrity Center reports that it takes 48 hours to get a Texas driving license report or a state wide criminal report.", "Reviewing Records Background checks can also be slowed down by confusion over names.", "Agencies often need to search through large databases for every variant of a name, for example Steve, Steven, Stephen.", "If the applicant has a common name, the agency will have to review and cross check the records to ensure they have the right person.", "Speeding Up Checks The best way to speed up the process of background checking is to provide the agency with all of the required information and documentation, and to make sure the information is complete.", "For example, that addresses are given for all former employers and references.", "Employers can also speed up the process by using an agency that makes the information available online.", "References (3)Resources (2)About the Author Since graduating with a degree in biology, Lisa Magloff has worked in many countries.", "Accordingly, she specializes in writing about science and travel and has written for publications as diverse as the \"\"Snowmass Sun\"\" and \"\"Caterer Middle East.\"\"", "With numerous published books and newspaper and magazine articles to her credit, Magloff has an eclectic knowledge of everything from cooking to nuclear reactor maintenance.", "Photo Creditssignature image by kuhar from Fotolia.com Cite this Article \"" ]
D7989
http://www.bankrate.com/finance/personal-finance/how-long-to-keep-financial-records.aspx
How long to keep financial records
How long to keep financial records Bankrate.com April 10, 2015 in Smart Money You can’t take everything with you, but you should safely store or electronically scan and save certain essential documents. The following are suggestions about how long you should keep personal finance and investment records on file: Financial records timeline Type of record Length of time to keep, and why: Taxes Returns Canceled checks/receipts (alimony, charitable contributions, mortgage interest and retirement plan contributions)Records for tax deductions taken Seven years The IRS has three years from your filing date to audit your return if it suspects good-faith errors. The three-year deadline also applies if you discover a mistake in your return and decide to file an amended return to claim a refund. The IRS has six years to challenge your return if it thinks you underreported your gross income by 25 percent or more. There is no time limit if you failed to file your return or filed a fraudulent return. IRA contribution records Permanently If you made a nondeductible contribution to an IRA, keep the records indefinitely to prove that you already paid tax on this money when the time comes to withdraw. Retirement/savings plan statements From one year to permanently Keep the quarterly statements from your 401 (k) or other plans until you receive the annual summary; if everything matches up, then shred the quarterlies. Keep the annual summaries until you retire or close the account. Bank records From one year to permanently Go through your checks each year and keep those related to your taxes, business expenses, home improvements and mortgage payments. Shred those that have no long-term importance. Brokerage statements Until you sell the securities You need the purchase or sales slips from your brokerage or mutual fund to prove whether you have capital gains or losses at tax time. Bills From one year to permanently Go through your bills once a year. In most cases, when the canceled check from a paid bill has been returned, you can shred the bill. However, bills for big purchases — such as jewelry, rugs, appliances, antiques, cars, collectibles, furniture, computers, etc. — should be kept in an insurance file for proof of their value in the event of loss or damage. Credit card receipts and statements From 45 days to seven years Keep your original receipts until you get your monthly statement; shred the receipts if the two match up. Keep the statements for seven years if tax-related expenses are documented. Paycheck stubs One year When you receive your annual W-2 form from your employer, make sure the information on your stubs matches. If it does, shred the stubs. If it doesn’t, demand a corrected form, known as a W-2c. House/condominium records From six years to permanently Keep all records documenting the purchase price and the cost of all permanent improvements — such as remodeling, additions and installations. Keep records of expenses incurred in selling and buying the property, such as legal fees and your real estate agent’s commission, for six years after you sell your home. Holding on to these records is important because any improvements you make on your house, as well as expenses in selling it, are added to the original purchase price or cost basis. This adds up to a greater profit (also known as capital gains) when you sell your house. Therefore, you lower your capital gains tax. Source: Marquette National Bank, IRS and Consumer Credit Counseling Services of Greater Chicago For tips on creating an organization system that works, see the main story, “ How to organize your financial paperwork .”Related Links:5 ways to exercise on the cheap Savings challenge: Keep a weekly ‘spend’ journal How to save money at restaurants Related Articles: Save on groceries7 ways to save when moving Pay a bill by taking pic Recommended Recommendations by You may also like Equifax data breach victim? The fight for your identity will last years7 ways to improve your credit score7 legal ways to make money with your body5 ways thieves steal credit card information I tried to freeze my credit. Here’s what happened Should you cancel an unused credit card? Related Articles Help your teen form good financial habits Financial starter kit: 4 accounts every saver needs Is financial infidelity worse than cheating?63% of smartphone users have at least one financial app6 financial goals to achieve before you die Recommended Recommendations by
[ "How long to keep financial records Bankrate.com April 10, 2015 in Smart Money You can’t take everything with you, but you should safely store or electronically scan and save certain essential documents.", "The following are suggestions about how long you should keep personal finance and investment records on file: Financial records timeline Type of record Length of time to keep, and why: Taxes Returns Canceled checks/receipts (alimony, charitable contributions, mortgage interest and retirement plan contributions)Records for tax deductions taken Seven years The IRS has three years from your filing date to audit your return if it suspects good-faith errors.", "The three-year deadline also applies if you discover a mistake in your return and decide to file an amended return to claim a refund.", "The IRS has six years to challenge your return if it thinks you underreported your gross income by 25 percent or more.", "There is no time limit if you failed to file your return or filed a fraudulent return.", "IRA contribution records Permanently If you made a nondeductible contribution to an IRA, keep the records indefinitely to prove that you already paid tax on this money when the time comes to withdraw.", "Retirement/savings plan statements From one year to permanently Keep the quarterly statements from your 401 (k) or other plans until you receive the annual summary; if everything matches up, then shred the quarterlies.", "Keep the annual summaries until you retire or close the account.", "Bank records From one year to permanently Go through your checks each year and keep those related to your taxes, business expenses, home improvements and mortgage payments.", "Shred those that have no long-term importance.", "Brokerage statements Until you sell the securities You need the purchase or sales slips from your brokerage or mutual fund to prove whether you have capital gains or losses at tax time.", "Bills From one year to permanently Go through your bills once a year.", "In most cases, when the canceled check from a paid bill has been returned, you can shred the bill.", "However, bills for big purchases — such as jewelry, rugs, appliances, antiques, cars, collectibles, furniture, computers, etc.", "— should be kept in an insurance file for proof of their value in the event of loss or damage.", "Credit card receipts and statements From 45 days to seven years Keep your original receipts until you get your monthly statement; shred the receipts if the two match up.", "Keep the statements for seven years if tax-related expenses are documented.", "Paycheck stubs One year When you receive your annual W-2 form from your employer, make sure the information on your stubs matches.", "If it does, shred the stubs.", "If it doesn’t, demand a corrected form, known as a W-2c.", "House/condominium records From six years to permanently Keep all records documenting the purchase price and the cost of all permanent improvements — such as remodeling, additions and installations.", "Keep records of expenses incurred in selling and buying the property, such as legal fees and your real estate agent’s commission, for six years after you sell your home.", "Holding on to these records is important because any improvements you make on your house, as well as expenses in selling it, are added to the original purchase price or cost basis.", "This adds up to a greater profit (also known as capital gains) when you sell your house.", "Therefore, you lower your capital gains tax.", "Source: Marquette National Bank, IRS and Consumer Credit Counseling Services of Greater Chicago For tips on creating an organization system that works, see the main story, “ How to organize your financial paperwork .”Related Links:5 ways to exercise on the cheap Savings challenge: Keep a weekly ‘spend’ journal How to save money at restaurants Related Articles: Save on groceries7 ways to save when moving Pay a bill by taking pic Recommended Recommendations by You may also like Equifax data breach victim?", "The fight for your identity will last years7 ways to improve your credit score7 legal ways to make money with your body5 ways thieves steal credit card information I tried to freeze my credit.", "Here’s what happened Should you cancel an unused credit card?", "Related Articles Help your teen form good financial habits Financial starter kit: 4 accounts every saver needs Is financial infidelity worse than cheating?63% of smartphone users have at least one financial app6 financial goals to achieve before you die Recommended Recommendations by" ]
D84505
http://travel.costhelper.com/passport.html
Passport Cost
"Low: Passport Card $25-$50 Medium: Passport $75-$115 High: Expedited $135-$425+E-mail Post Tweet Comments (1)Travelers must have a current government-issued United States passport booklet (the small multipage blue book) to travel anywhere outside the borders of the US by air. These passport booklets also work for land and sea travel, but land or sea visitors to Mexico, Canada, the Caribbean, and Bermuda, visitors can get a less expensive passport card. Passport cards cannot be used for any international air travel. Both passport booklets and passport cards work as photo ID both inside and outside the United States. Typical costs: The total cost to get photos and apply for a passport can run $50-$175. The Department of State Passport Fees website breaks down all the standard government fees. Breaking down the specific costs, the application fee for a passport booklet is $75 for adults (16+) and $60 for children. Applying for a passport card costs $20 for adults and $10 for children. Applicants must also submit two 2-inch by 2-inch color photos with the passport application. Passport photos cost about $15, and can be taken at certain branches of the US Post Office, Fed Ex and UPS stores and photography studios. Read the photo section of the Department of State website to get information about passport photos. To submit a passport application directly (in person rather than by mail) to a passport processing center or post office adds a $25 processing fee directly to that center or office. Applications must be conducted in person if applying for a first passport as an adult. See the State Department's information for first-time applicants [ 1] . Related articles: Around-the-World Airline Ticket, Travel Insurance What should be included: A blue vinyl-covered passport booklet. AND/OR a passport card, the size and shape of a credit card. For renewals, the expired passport booklet will be returned. Additional costs: Getting a passport in about 2-3 weeks, adds a $60 expedite fee. Independent passport and visa processing services can help applicants get a passport in as few as 48 hours without standing in long lines. These services charge additional fees from $45-$250 for their assistance, depending on how soon the passport is needed. These fees usually do not include shipping or government processing fees, which must be paid separately. Visas for certain types of travel to certain countries cost extra, from $50-$300 and up. Contact the Embassy or Consulate of the destination country as far in advance as possible for prices, forms, phone numbers, and other information. Find a list of embassies at the State Department's Travel website. If running out of visa/stamp pages in the passport booklet, new pages can be added for free. (Note that ""long"" passports are no longer available.) Apply for pages using the online form. Shipping for a passport renewal application costs from about $1 up to $60. It costs $1-$20 to send an application via US mail. Fed Ex overnight priority shipping costs about $15-$30 each way. Discounts: Plan far in advance to save money. Waiting a minimum of 8 weeks to receive passports by mail can reduce the possible fees. Shopping for a passport: Applicants need passport photos, a copy of their birth certificate, a government-issued photo ID, and completed forms to apply for any kind of passport. The travel.state.gov [ 2] website lists the needed documents. Many US Post Offices can take passport photos, provide application forms, and accept completed application packets. Check the USPS Locator page [ 3] for the nearest post office that accepts passports.. To apply for a passport booklet using online forms, visit the Department of State Form 847 [ 4] website. The Department of State provides a way to apply online [ 5] . If using a passport processing/expediting service either locally or online, check the firm with the Better Business Bureau [ 6] to find a service with a good reputation. Most passport expedite companies work with clients online. E-mail Post Tweet Comments (1)Cost Helper News7 Ways to Stretch Your Reduced Food Budget End of the year budgets are tight for everyone, especially in this economy. It's especially hard for the millions of Americans who depend on government programs like food stamps to help make ends meet. || Posted November 11 20137 Lesser-Known Discounts for the 50+ Crowd As they age, members of the Baby Boomer generation don't like to admit that they're senior citizens, but they love getting discounts. It's kind of a quandary, because some of the best deals available are reduced prices for older folks.|| Posted October 21 2013‣ All Cost Helper Blog Posts What People Are Paying - Recent Comments Passport Costs Amount: $5.31Posted by: kitster in Waterbury, CT. Posted: June 6th, 2017 10:06AMThe actual passport costs for adults & children listed in this article are not correct. Best place to get photos: Costco. You get 4-5 pictures, correctly sized, in about 15 minutes for $5 (+ tax). Great deal!Was this post helpful to you? yes no Report prohibited or spam Comment On Your Experience With a Passport Subject: *Amount Spent: *Comments: Purchased: Year: City: * State: *Information about you: Email: * Email addresses are not displayed. Name: This is the name we'll display with your post. Remember me on this computer*=required field. External Resources:www.travel.state.gov/passport/get/first/first_830.htmltravel.state.gov/passport/get/first/first_830.htmlusps.whitepages.com/passporttravel.state.gov/passport/forms/forms_847.htmltravel.state.gov/passport/ppt_card/ppt_card_3926.htmlwww.bbb.org/us/Find-Business-Reviews More Travel Topics Check Out All Costs for Travel How Much Does Theme Park Admission Cost? How Much Does Attending the Kentucky Derby Cost? How Much Does an Around-the-World Airline Ticket Cost? Search Thousands of Topics on Cost Helper.com How much does cost? "
[ "\"Low: Passport Card $25-$50 Medium: Passport $75-$115 High: Expedited $135-$425+E-mail Post Tweet Comments (1)Travelers must have a current government-issued United States passport booklet (the small multipage blue book) to travel anywhere outside the borders of the US by air.", "These passport booklets also work for land and sea travel, but land or sea visitors to Mexico, Canada, the Caribbean, and Bermuda, visitors can get a less expensive passport card.", "Passport cards cannot be used for any international air travel.", "Both passport booklets and passport cards work as photo ID both inside and outside the United States.", "Typical costs: The total cost to get photos and apply for a passport can run $50-$175.", "The Department of State Passport Fees website breaks down all the standard government fees.", "Breaking down the specific costs, the application fee for a passport booklet is $75 for adults (16+) and $60 for children.", "Applying for a passport card costs $20 for adults and $10 for children.", "Applicants must also submit two 2-inch by 2-inch color photos with the passport application.", "Passport photos cost about $15, and can be taken at certain branches of the US Post Office, Fed Ex and UPS stores and photography studios.", "Read the photo section of the Department of State website to get information about passport photos.", "To submit a passport application directly (in person rather than by mail) to a passport processing center or post office adds a $25 processing fee directly to that center or office.", "Applications must be conducted in person if applying for a first passport as an adult.", "See the State Department's information for first-time applicants [ 1] .", "Related articles: Around-the-World Airline Ticket, Travel Insurance What should be included: A blue vinyl-covered passport booklet.", "AND/OR a passport card, the size and shape of a credit card.", "For renewals, the expired passport booklet will be returned.", "Additional costs: Getting a passport in about 2-3 weeks, adds a $60 expedite fee.", "Independent passport and visa processing services can help applicants get a passport in as few as 48 hours without standing in long lines.", "These services charge additional fees from $45-$250 for their assistance, depending on how soon the passport is needed.", "These fees usually do not include shipping or government processing fees, which must be paid separately.", "Visas for certain types of travel to certain countries cost extra, from $50-$300 and up.", "Contact the Embassy or Consulate of the destination country as far in advance as possible for prices, forms, phone numbers, and other information.", "Find a list of embassies at the State Department's Travel website.", "If running out of visa/stamp pages in the passport booklet, new pages can be added for free.", "(Note that \"\"long\"\" passports are no longer available.)", "Apply for pages using the online form.", "Shipping for a passport renewal application costs from about $1 up to $60.", "It costs $1-$20 to send an application via US mail.", "Fed Ex overnight priority shipping costs about $15-$30 each way.", "Discounts: Plan far in advance to save money.", "Waiting a minimum of 8 weeks to receive passports by mail can reduce the possible fees.", "Shopping for a passport: Applicants need passport photos, a copy of their birth certificate, a government-issued photo ID, and completed forms to apply for any kind of passport.", "The travel.state.gov [ 2] website lists the needed documents.", "Many US Post Offices can take passport photos, provide application forms, and accept completed application packets.", "Check the USPS Locator page [ 3] for the nearest post office that accepts passports.. To apply for a passport booklet using online forms, visit the Department of State Form 847 [ 4] website.", "The Department of State provides a way to apply online [ 5] .", "If using a passport processing/expediting service either locally or online, check the firm with the Better Business Bureau [ 6] to find a service with a good reputation.", "Most passport expedite companies work with clients online.", "E-mail Post Tweet Comments (1)Cost Helper News7 Ways to Stretch Your Reduced Food Budget End of the year budgets are tight for everyone, especially in this economy.", "It's especially hard for the millions of Americans who depend on government programs like food stamps to help make ends meet.", "|| Posted November 11 20137 Lesser-Known Discounts for the 50+ Crowd As they age, members of the Baby Boomer generation don't like to admit that they're senior citizens, but they love getting discounts.", "It's kind of a quandary, because some of the best deals available are reduced prices for older folks.|| Posted October 21 2013‣ All Cost Helper Blog Posts What People Are Paying - Recent Comments Passport Costs Amount: $5.31Posted by: kitster in Waterbury, CT. Posted: June 6th, 2017 10:06AMThe actual passport costs for adults & children listed in this article are not correct.", "Best place to get photos: Costco.", "You get 4-5 pictures, correctly sized, in about 15 minutes for $5 (+ tax).", "Great deal!Was this post helpful to you?", "yes no Report prohibited or spam Comment On Your Experience With a Passport Subject: *Amount Spent: *Comments: Purchased: Year: City: * State: *Information about you: Email: * Email addresses are not displayed.", "Name: This is the name we'll display with your post.", "Remember me on this computer*=required field.", "External Resources:www.travel.state.gov/passport/get/first/first_830.htmltravel.state.gov/passport/get/first/first_830.htmlusps.whitepages.com/passporttravel.state.gov/passport/forms/forms_847.htmltravel.state.gov/passport/ppt_card/ppt_card_3926.htmlwww.bbb.org/us/Find-Business-Reviews More Travel Topics Check Out All Costs for Travel How Much Does Theme Park Admission Cost?", "How Much Does Attending the Kentucky Derby Cost?", "How Much Does an Around-the-World Airline Ticket Cost?", "Search Thousands of Topics on Cost Helper.com How much does cost? \"" ]
D34307
http://www.bhg.com/recipes/how-to/cooking-basics/how-to-cook-brisket/
How to Cook Brisket
"BHG.com Recipes How to Cook Cooking Basics How to Cook Brisket Beef brisket is a relatively inexpensive cut of meat, but yields delicious results. It requires a long cooking time at a low temperature, but the wait is worth it for this tender, boldly flavored beef. Here's how to cook brisket for the best results, plus a few of our favorite beef brisket recipes. Lisa Holderness Brown1 did it Pin Facebook Twitter Google Plus Email Printb 00:00 00:00oki What is a Brisket? Beef brisket is a cut from the breast section of the animal. It is usually sold boneless. Because brisket is a tough cut of meat, it's best when braised (that is, simmered in a small amount of liquid), either in the oven, the slow cooker, or on the stove top. Two different cuts of brisket are available. Unless the recipe specifies one or the other, either may be used in recipes calling for boneless beef brisket: Beef Brisket Flat Half (also called thin cut, flat cut, first cut, or center cut): With its minimal fat, this cut is generally the pricier of the two. Beef Brisket Point Half (also called front cut, point cut, thick cut, or nose cut): This cut is the less expensive of the two. It has more fat, and actually more flavor. Buying Brisket Get the Tomato and Onion Brisket recipe. Look for beef brisket that has a good color and appears moist but not wet. Avoid packages with tears or liquid in the bottom of the tray. Plan on 3 to 4 ounces for each person you serve. Brisket comes in 3- to 3-1/2-pound sizes or larger. Unless you're serving a crowd, you'll probably have plenty of leftovers for sandwiches or future meals. Tip: Corned beef brisket is made from beef brisket that has been cured in seasoned brine. Often, fresh beef brisket is specified in a recipe to differentiate a regular beef brisket from a corned beef brisket. Be sure to use whichever style of brisket is called for in your recipe. Get the recipe for Tomato and Onion Brisket. How to Prep a Brisket Get the Beer Brisket recipe Most briskets you buy will have a layer of fat on the surface. Before preparing brisket, trim this away using a sharp slicing knife. If needed, slice the brisket into two pieces to fit into your Dutch oven or slow cooker. Unless otherwise specified, you do not need to brown the brisket before cooking. Get the recipe for Beer Brisket. How to Smoke Brisket Get the Texas-Style Beef Brisket recipe It might take a little extra time to prepare, but there's no occasion that isn't improved by smoked brisket. This recipe produces brisket sandwiches, but you can serve smoked brisket any way you like.1. Place 1 to 2 cups wood chips and enough water to cover them in a container; let soak for at least 1 hour before grilling. Soaking the wood in apple juice, beer, or even wine will add another layer of flavor, if desired. Drain before using. Sprinkle dry rub evenly over both sides of brisket; rub in with your fingers. To make the brisket rub, combine 1/2 cup paprika, 1/3 cup ground black pepper, 1/4 cup salt, 1/4 cup chili powder, 1/4 cup ground cumin, 1/4 cup packed brown sugar, 3 tablespoons granulated sugar, and 2 tablespoons cayenne pepper.2. For a charcoal grill, arrange medium-hot coals around a drip pan. Fill pan with 1 inch of hot water. Add wood chunks to coals. Test for medium-low heat above drip pan. Place brisket, fat-side down, on grill rack over pan. Cover and smoke for 4 to 5 hours or until brisket reaches 185 degrees F or 190 degrees F and is tender, turning once halfway through smoking. Add additional coals and water as needed to maintain temperature and moisture. Do not add more wood after the first 2 hours of smoking.3. For a gas grill, preheat grill. Reduce heat to medium. Adjust for indirect cooking. Add wood chunks according to manufacturer's directions. Place brisket on a rack in a roasting pan; place pan on a grill rack over burner that is turned off. Add 1 inch of water to a drip pan; set pan on grill rack directly over heat. Cover and smoke as directed.4. Remove brisket from grill. Cover with foil and let stand for 20 minutes.5. Meanwhile, prepare brisket barbecue sauce. In a large saucepan cook 1 cup chopped onion in 1 tablespoon hot oil over medium heat about 8 minutes or until golden brown, stirring frequently. Stir in one 14.5-ounce can whole tomatoes, undrained and cut up; 2/3 cup white vinegar; 1/4 cup orange juice; 2 tablespoons Dijon-style mustard; 1 tablespoon granulated sugar; 1 tablespoon packed brown sugar; 1 tablespoon molasses; 2 teaspoons salt; 1 teaspoon liquid smoke; 1/2 teaspoon paprika; 1/2 teaspoon ground black pepper; and 1/4 teaspoon crushed red pepper. Bring to boiling; reduce heat. Simmer, uncovered, for 30 to 40 minutes or until sauce is slightly thickened, stirring occasionally; cool slightly. Transfer sauce, half at a time, to a blender. Cover and blend until smooth.6. To serve, thinly slice brisket across the grain. Serve brisket on rolls with sauce. Get the recipe for Texas-Style Beef Brisket. How to Cook Brisket in a Slow Cooker Get the Slow Cooked Wine-Braised Beef Brisket recipe Slow cooker brisket is ideal for serving tender, juicy slices of meat. In this preparation, the cooking liquid becomes a smoky barbecue sauce to serve alongside the brisket.1. Prep the Veggies and Sauce Cut 2 stalks celery into 1/2-inch-thick slices. Combine the celery slices with one 16-ounce package of peeled fresh baby carrots in the bottom of a 5- to 6-quart slow cooker. For the sauce, crush 2 tablespoons quick-cooking tapioca using a mortar and pestle (or place the tapioca in a resealable plastic bag, and crush with a rolling pin). In a small bowl combine the crushed tapioca, 1-1/2-cups smoke-flavor barbecue sauce, 2 tablespoons Dijon-style mustard, and 1 tablespoon Worcestershire sauce.2. Slow-Cook the Brisket Place the fat-trimmed brisket on top of the vegetables in the slow cooker. Note that you may need to cut the brisket in half to fit into the slow cooker. Season the brisket with ground black pepper. Pour the sauce over the brisket. Cover the slow cooker and cook on the low-heat setting for 12 to 14 hours. Or cook on the high-heat setting for 6 to 7 hours. Serve the sliced brisket with the cooking liquid. Get the recipe for Slow Cooked Wine-Braised Beef Brisket. How to Cook Brisket in the Oven Get the Beef Brisket with Roasted Grapes recipe In this oven-barbecued beef brisket, the meat braises in a chili-spiced liquid in the oven. No special equipment is needed—all you need is a baking pan.1. Prep the Cooking Liquid In a small bowl stir together 3/4 cup water, 1/2 cup chopped onion, 3 tablespoons Worcestershire sauce, 2 tablespoons cider vinegar or white wine vinegar, 1 tablespoon chili powder, 1 teaspoon instant beef bouillon granules, 1/8 teaspoon cayenne pepper, and 2 minced garlic cloves.2. Bake the Brisket Place a fat-trimmed 3- to 3-1/2-pound fresh beef brisket in a 13x9x2-inch baking pan. Pour the cooking liquid over the meat. Cover the pan with foil. Bake in a 325 degrees F oven about 3 hours or until tender, turning once halfway through cooking time. Discard the cooking liquid and, if desired, serve the sliced brisket with bottled barbecue sauce. Get the full recipe for this Oven-Barbecued Beef Brisket. For another oven-roasted beef brisket recipe, try Beef Brisket with Roasted Grapes. How to Cook Brisket on the Stove Top Get the recipe for Martini Brisket This skillet-braised, company-ready recipe is flavored with vodka, vermouth, and a quick brisket rub, and garnished with green olives. No wonder it's called ""Martini Brisket."" If you wish to make an alcohol-free version, the spirits may be omitted.1. Prep the Brisket and Cooking Liquid Slice 2 medium onions; set aside. Coarsely crush 1 tablespoon mixed peppercorns. Sprinkle a fat-trimmed 3- to 4-pound brisket with salt and crushed peppercorns. Heat 1 tablespoon cooking oil in a large heavy skillet with a tight-fitting lid. Brown the brisket on both sides in hot oil. Remove brisket from the pan. Add onions to the skillet. Cook and stir onions until they are tender but not brown. Return brisket to the skillet. Add one 28-ounce can crushed tomatoes, 1 cup lower-sodium beef broth, 1 tablespoon Worcestershire sauce, and 1 tablespoon crushed fines herbes.2. Cook Brisket on the Stove Top Bring onion mixture in the pan to boiling. Reduce the heat. Spoon some of the onion mixture over brisket. Simmer brisket, tightly covered, for 3 hours or until brisket is tender.3. Finish the Sauce Remove brisket from the pan and let stand for 10 minutes before slicing. Meanwhile, use a soup spoon to skim the fat from the top of the sauce in the skillet. Stir 1/2 cup whipping cream and, if desired, 2 tablespoons dry vermouth and 1 tablespoon vodka into the cooking liquid. Bring the mixture just to boiling, then immediately remove the pan from the heat. Top the sliced brisket with 1/2 cup pimiento-stuffed green olives and pass the sauce at the table. See the Recipe for Martini Brisket How to Slice and Serve Brisket Get the Blueberry-Braised Brisket Sandwiches Transfer cooked brisket to a cutting board. Let stand if specified in the recipe. Using a slicing knife, thinly slice the brisket across the grain, as shown. If serving the cooking juices alongside your brisket, use a tablespoon to skim fat from the cooking liquid. Pass the cooking liquid alongside the brisket. How to Store Leftover Brisket Divide leftover cooked brisket into small portions and place in shallow airtight containers. Refrigerate for up to 3 days or freeze (in freezer containers) for up to 2 months. Get the recipe for Blueberry-Braised Brisket Sandwiches Our Best Beef Brisket Recipes Get the recipe for Brisket with Ginger Orange Peel and Tomato Grab your fork and knife, it's time to taste-test our best beef brisket recipe! Try out these favorite brisket recipes, then decide for yourself which one can't be beat. Brisket with Ginger Orange Peel and Tomato Beef Brisket with Dried Fruit Wine-Braised Brisket with Onions Beer-Braised Brisket Burritos Brisket in Onion-Ale BBQ Sauce Pin Facebook Twitter Google Plus Email Print "
[ "\"BHG.com Recipes How to Cook Cooking Basics How to Cook Brisket Beef brisket is a relatively inexpensive cut of meat, but yields delicious results.", "It requires a long cooking time at a low temperature, but the wait is worth it for this tender, boldly flavored beef.", "Here's how to cook brisket for the best results, plus a few of our favorite beef brisket recipes.", "Lisa Holderness Brown1 did it Pin Facebook Twitter Google Plus Email Printb 00:00 00:00oki What is a Brisket?", "Beef brisket is a cut from the breast section of the animal.", "It is usually sold boneless.", "Because brisket is a tough cut of meat, it's best when braised (that is, simmered in a small amount of liquid), either in the oven, the slow cooker, or on the stove top.", "Two different cuts of brisket are available.", "Unless the recipe specifies one or the other, either may be used in recipes calling for boneless beef brisket: Beef Brisket Flat Half (also called thin cut, flat cut, first cut, or center cut): With its minimal fat, this cut is generally the pricier of the two.", "Beef Brisket Point Half (also called front cut, point cut, thick cut, or nose cut): This cut is the less expensive of the two.", "It has more fat, and actually more flavor.", "Buying Brisket Get the Tomato and Onion Brisket recipe.", "Look for beef brisket that has a good color and appears moist but not wet.", "Avoid packages with tears or liquid in the bottom of the tray.", "Plan on 3 to 4 ounces for each person you serve.", "Brisket comes in 3- to 3-1/2-pound sizes or larger.", "Unless you're serving a crowd, you'll probably have plenty of leftovers for sandwiches or future meals.", "Tip: Corned beef brisket is made from beef brisket that has been cured in seasoned brine.", "Often, fresh beef brisket is specified in a recipe to differentiate a regular beef brisket from a corned beef brisket.", "Be sure to use whichever style of brisket is called for in your recipe.", "Get the recipe for Tomato and Onion Brisket.", "How to Prep a Brisket Get the Beer Brisket recipe Most briskets you buy will have a layer of fat on the surface.", "Before preparing brisket, trim this away using a sharp slicing knife.", "If needed, slice the brisket into two pieces to fit into your Dutch oven or slow cooker.", "Unless otherwise specified, you do not need to brown the brisket before cooking.", "Get the recipe for Beer Brisket.", "How to Smoke Brisket Get the Texas-Style Beef Brisket recipe It might take a little extra time to prepare, but there's no occasion that isn't improved by smoked brisket.", "This recipe produces brisket sandwiches, but you can serve smoked brisket any way you like.1.", "Place 1 to 2 cups wood chips and enough water to cover them in a container; let soak for at least 1 hour before grilling.", "Soaking the wood in apple juice, beer, or even wine will add another layer of flavor, if desired.", "Drain before using.", "Sprinkle dry rub evenly over both sides of brisket; rub in with your fingers.", "To make the brisket rub, combine 1/2 cup paprika, 1/3 cup ground black pepper, 1/4 cup salt, 1/4 cup chili powder, 1/4 cup ground cumin, 1/4 cup packed brown sugar, 3 tablespoons granulated sugar, and 2 tablespoons cayenne pepper.2.", "For a charcoal grill, arrange medium-hot coals around a drip pan.", "Fill pan with 1 inch of hot water.", "Add wood chunks to coals.", "Test for medium-low heat above drip pan.", "Place brisket, fat-side down, on grill rack over pan.", "Cover and smoke for 4 to 5 hours or until brisket reaches 185 degrees F or 190 degrees F and is tender, turning once halfway through smoking.", "Add additional coals and water as needed to maintain temperature and moisture.", "Do not add more wood after the first 2 hours of smoking.3.", "For a gas grill, preheat grill.", "Reduce heat to medium.", "Adjust for indirect cooking.", "Add wood chunks according to manufacturer's directions.", "Place brisket on a rack in a roasting pan; place pan on a grill rack over burner that is turned off.", "Add 1 inch of water to a drip pan; set pan on grill rack directly over heat.", "Cover and smoke as directed.4.", "Remove brisket from grill.", "Cover with foil and let stand for 20 minutes.5.", "Meanwhile, prepare brisket barbecue sauce.", "In a large saucepan cook 1 cup chopped onion in 1 tablespoon hot oil over medium heat about 8 minutes or until golden brown, stirring frequently.", "Stir in one 14.5-ounce can whole tomatoes, undrained and cut up; 2/3 cup white vinegar; 1/4 cup orange juice; 2 tablespoons Dijon-style mustard; 1 tablespoon granulated sugar; 1 tablespoon packed brown sugar; 1 tablespoon molasses; 2 teaspoons salt; 1 teaspoon liquid smoke; 1/2 teaspoon paprika; 1/2 teaspoon ground black pepper; and 1/4 teaspoon crushed red pepper.", "Bring to boiling; reduce heat.", "Simmer, uncovered, for 30 to 40 minutes or until sauce is slightly thickened, stirring occasionally; cool slightly.", "Transfer sauce, half at a time, to a blender.", "Cover and blend until smooth.6.", "To serve, thinly slice brisket across the grain.", "Serve brisket on rolls with sauce.", "Get the recipe for Texas-Style Beef Brisket.", "How to Cook Brisket in a Slow Cooker Get the Slow Cooked Wine-Braised Beef Brisket recipe Slow cooker brisket is ideal for serving tender, juicy slices of meat.", "In this preparation, the cooking liquid becomes a smoky barbecue sauce to serve alongside the brisket.1.", "Prep the Veggies and Sauce Cut 2 stalks celery into 1/2-inch-thick slices.", "Combine the celery slices with one 16-ounce package of peeled fresh baby carrots in the bottom of a 5- to 6-quart slow cooker.", "For the sauce, crush 2 tablespoons quick-cooking tapioca using a mortar and pestle (or place the tapioca in a resealable plastic bag, and crush with a rolling pin).", "In a small bowl combine the crushed tapioca, 1-1/2-cups smoke-flavor barbecue sauce, 2 tablespoons Dijon-style mustard, and 1 tablespoon Worcestershire sauce.2.", "Slow-Cook the Brisket Place the fat-trimmed brisket on top of the vegetables in the slow cooker.", "Note that you may need to cut the brisket in half to fit into the slow cooker.", "Season the brisket with ground black pepper.", "Pour the sauce over the brisket.", "Cover the slow cooker and cook on the low-heat setting for 12 to 14 hours.", "Or cook on the high-heat setting for 6 to 7 hours.", "Serve the sliced brisket with the cooking liquid.", "Get the recipe for Slow Cooked Wine-Braised Beef Brisket.", "How to Cook Brisket in the Oven Get the Beef Brisket with Roasted Grapes recipe In this oven-barbecued beef brisket, the meat braises in a chili-spiced liquid in the oven.", "No special equipment is needed—all you need is a baking pan.1.", "Prep the Cooking Liquid In a small bowl stir together 3/4 cup water, 1/2 cup chopped onion, 3 tablespoons Worcestershire sauce, 2 tablespoons cider vinegar or white wine vinegar, 1 tablespoon chili powder, 1 teaspoon instant beef bouillon granules, 1/8 teaspoon cayenne pepper, and 2 minced garlic cloves.2.", "Bake the Brisket Place a fat-trimmed 3- to 3-1/2-pound fresh beef brisket in a 13x9x2-inch baking pan.", "Pour the cooking liquid over the meat.", "Cover the pan with foil.", "Bake in a 325 degrees F oven about 3 hours or until tender, turning once halfway through cooking time.", "Discard the cooking liquid and, if desired, serve the sliced brisket with bottled barbecue sauce.", "Get the full recipe for this Oven-Barbecued Beef Brisket.", "For another oven-roasted beef brisket recipe, try Beef Brisket with Roasted Grapes.", "How to Cook Brisket on the Stove Top Get the recipe for Martini Brisket This skillet-braised, company-ready recipe is flavored with vodka, vermouth, and a quick brisket rub, and garnished with green olives.", "No wonder it's called \"\"Martini Brisket.\"\"", "If you wish to make an alcohol-free version, the spirits may be omitted.1.", "Prep the Brisket and Cooking Liquid Slice 2 medium onions; set aside.", "Coarsely crush 1 tablespoon mixed peppercorns.", "Sprinkle a fat-trimmed 3- to 4-pound brisket with salt and crushed peppercorns.", "Heat 1 tablespoon cooking oil in a large heavy skillet with a tight-fitting lid.", "Brown the brisket on both sides in hot oil.", "Remove brisket from the pan.", "Add onions to the skillet.", "Cook and stir onions until they are tender but not brown.", "Return brisket to the skillet.", "Add one 28-ounce can crushed tomatoes, 1 cup lower-sodium beef broth, 1 tablespoon Worcestershire sauce, and 1 tablespoon crushed fines herbes.2.", "Cook Brisket on the Stove Top Bring onion mixture in the pan to boiling.", "Reduce the heat.", "Spoon some of the onion mixture over brisket.", "Simmer brisket, tightly covered, for 3 hours or until brisket is tender.3.", "Finish the Sauce Remove brisket from the pan and let stand for 10 minutes before slicing.", "Meanwhile, use a soup spoon to skim the fat from the top of the sauce in the skillet.", "Stir 1/2 cup whipping cream and, if desired, 2 tablespoons dry vermouth and 1 tablespoon vodka into the cooking liquid.", "Bring the mixture just to boiling, then immediately remove the pan from the heat.", "Top the sliced brisket with 1/2 cup pimiento-stuffed green olives and pass the sauce at the table.", "See the Recipe for Martini Brisket How to Slice and Serve Brisket Get the Blueberry-Braised Brisket Sandwiches Transfer cooked brisket to a cutting board.", "Let stand if specified in the recipe.", "Using a slicing knife, thinly slice the brisket across the grain, as shown.", "If serving the cooking juices alongside your brisket, use a tablespoon to skim fat from the cooking liquid.", "Pass the cooking liquid alongside the brisket.", "How to Store Leftover Brisket Divide leftover cooked brisket into small portions and place in shallow airtight containers.", "Refrigerate for up to 3 days or freeze (in freezer containers) for up to 2 months.", "Get the recipe for Blueberry-Braised Brisket Sandwiches Our Best Beef Brisket Recipes Get the recipe for Brisket with Ginger Orange Peel and Tomato Grab your fork and knife, it's time to taste-test our best beef brisket recipe!", "Try out these favorite brisket recipes, then decide for yourself which one can't be beat.", "Brisket with Ginger Orange Peel and Tomato Beef Brisket with Dried Fruit Wine-Braised Brisket with Onions Beer-Braised Brisket Burritos Brisket in Onion-Ale BBQ Sauce Pin Facebook Twitter Google Plus Email Print \"" ]
D428624
https://www.foodsafety.gov/blog/meatinrefrig.html
Meat in the Refrigerator: How Long Does It Last?
Home > Blog > Meat in the Refrigerator: How Long Does It Last? Text Size: A A AMeat in the Refrigerator: How Long Does It Last? Mar 10, 2010By Diane Van, USDA’s Food Safety and Inspection Service On behalf of everyone in government who works to keep your food safe, welcome to the Food Safety.gov blog!By way of introduction, I’m the manager of the USDA’s Meat and Poultry Hotline. The Hotline is a toll-free telephone service that is available year round, Monday through Friday, to answer your questions about meat, poultry, and egg products. We receive over 80,000 calls a year from people like you who want to know how to prepare and store these foods safely. We also answer questions online at Ask Karen.gov. As you might imagine, there are some questions that we get on a regular basis. In fact, the most frequently asked question that we hear on the Hotline is: How long can I keep meat in the refrigerator? What would we do without our refrigerators! When it comes to appliances that keep our foods safe, the refrigerator may be the most important because it slows down the growth of bacteria that cause food poisoning. At temperatures between 40 and 140 °F, bacteria grows most rapidly. That’s why we call this temperature range “the Danger Zone.”A refrigerator set to 40 °F or below will protect most foods – but not forever. The cool temperatures slow down bacterial growth but they don’t stop the growth completely. So, it’s important to use food in a timely fashion to help maintain freshness and quality. Over time, even chilled foods will spoil. Here are some basic guidelines for storing meat in the refrigerator. Raw ground meats, all poultry, seafood, and variety meats: Refrigerate 1 to 2 days. Raw roasts, steaks, and chops (beef, veal, lamb, and pork): Refrigerate 3 to 5 days. Cooked meat, poultry, and seafood: Store in the refrigerator 3 to 4 days. Because we get so many questions about storing food safely in the refrigerator, we put together this chart, which lists storage times for all sorts of meats and meat products: Storage Times for the Refrigerator and Freezer It’s a great resource, and we recommend that you bookmark this page or print it out for future reference. If you’re looking for more details on refrigeration, from the history of refrigeration to removing odors from refrigerators, check out Refrigeration and Food Safety on USDA’s Food Safety and Inspection Service Web site. We look forward to answering your questions and helping you keep food safe. If you have questions or comments about this topic, add a comment here and let us know. And don’t forget that you can always reach the Hotline at 1-888-674-6854 toll-free or online at Ask Karen.gov. Questions and Answers Posted April 1, 2010Q. Are retailers supposed follow the guidelines in this blog? What happens if they don't? A. The guidelines that we provide on Food Safety.gov are intended for individuals who buy and prepare food for themselves and their families. When it comes to retail stores, restaurants, and other businesses that deal with food, the government is responsible for setting standards, conducting inspections, and enforcing the law when businesses don't comply with the standards. If you'd like more information, take a look at the Inspections & Compliance section of our site. Q. How does the use of a home vacuum sealer change the time frames in this blog? A. Our storage guidelines are the same for home vacuum packaged meats and poultry. Q. The Danger Zone recommended by Serv Safe is different from the one you specified here. Why? A. The Serv Safe recommendations are based on the FDA Food Code, which is intended for retail and food service establishments, such as grocery stores, restaurants, and other institutions that serve food. Those guidelines are for trained cooks in these businesses who are using professional cooking equipment. By contrast, our recommendations on Food Safety.gov are intended for home cooks. Q. If poultry can be in the refrigerator one day, how do you thaw out a turkey when the label says to leave it in the refrigerator 2-3 days? A. Once the turkey is fully thawed, it is like a fresh turkey and it can be refrigerated 1-2 additional days. Take a look at our Turkey Thawing Chart to see how long it takes to thaw a turkey in the refrigerator or in cold water. Posted in: Kitchen Safety Tagged: Meat | Raw | Refrigerator | Freezer | Poultry
[ "Home > Blog > Meat in the Refrigerator: How Long Does It Last?", "Text Size: A A AMeat in the Refrigerator: How Long Does It Last?", "Mar 10, 2010By Diane Van, USDA’s Food Safety and Inspection Service On behalf of everyone in government who works to keep your food safe, welcome to the Food Safety.gov blog!By way of introduction, I’m the manager of the USDA’s Meat and Poultry Hotline.", "The Hotline is a toll-free telephone service that is available year round, Monday through Friday, to answer your questions about meat, poultry, and egg products.", "We receive over 80,000 calls a year from people like you who want to know how to prepare and store these foods safely.", "We also answer questions online at Ask Karen.gov.", "As you might imagine, there are some questions that we get on a regular basis.", "In fact, the most frequently asked question that we hear on the Hotline is: How long can I keep meat in the refrigerator?", "What would we do without our refrigerators!", "When it comes to appliances that keep our foods safe, the refrigerator may be the most important because it slows down the growth of bacteria that cause food poisoning.", "At temperatures between 40 and 140 °F, bacteria grows most rapidly.", "That’s why we call this temperature range “the Danger Zone.”A refrigerator set to 40 °F or below will protect most foods – but not forever.", "The cool temperatures slow down bacterial growth but they don’t stop the growth completely.", "So, it’s important to use food in a timely fashion to help maintain freshness and quality.", "Over time, even chilled foods will spoil.", "Here are some basic guidelines for storing meat in the refrigerator.", "Raw ground meats, all poultry, seafood, and variety meats: Refrigerate 1 to 2 days.", "Raw roasts, steaks, and chops (beef, veal, lamb, and pork): Refrigerate 3 to 5 days.", "Cooked meat, poultry, and seafood: Store in the refrigerator 3 to 4 days.", "Because we get so many questions about storing food safely in the refrigerator, we put together this chart, which lists storage times for all sorts of meats and meat products: Storage Times for the Refrigerator and Freezer It’s a great resource, and we recommend that you bookmark this page or print it out for future reference.", "If you’re looking for more details on refrigeration, from the history of refrigeration to removing odors from refrigerators, check out Refrigeration and Food Safety on USDA’s Food Safety and Inspection Service Web site.", "We look forward to answering your questions and helping you keep food safe.", "If you have questions or comments about this topic, add a comment here and let us know.", "And don’t forget that you can always reach the Hotline at 1-888-674-6854 toll-free or online at Ask Karen.gov.", "Questions and Answers Posted April 1, 2010Q.", "Are retailers supposed follow the guidelines in this blog?", "What happens if they don't?", "A.", "The guidelines that we provide on Food Safety.gov are intended for individuals who buy and prepare food for themselves and their families.", "When it comes to retail stores, restaurants, and other businesses that deal with food, the government is responsible for setting standards, conducting inspections, and enforcing the law when businesses don't comply with the standards.", "If you'd like more information, take a look at the Inspections & Compliance section of our site.", "Q.", "How does the use of a home vacuum sealer change the time frames in this blog?", "A.", "Our storage guidelines are the same for home vacuum packaged meats and poultry.", "Q.", "The Danger Zone recommended by Serv Safe is different from the one you specified here.", "Why?", "A.", "The Serv Safe recommendations are based on the FDA Food Code, which is intended for retail and food service establishments, such as grocery stores, restaurants, and other institutions that serve food.", "Those guidelines are for trained cooks in these businesses who are using professional cooking equipment.", "By contrast, our recommendations on Food Safety.gov are intended for home cooks.", "Q.", "If poultry can be in the refrigerator one day, how do you thaw out a turkey when the label says to leave it in the refrigerator 2-3 days?", "A.", "Once the turkey is fully thawed, it is like a fresh turkey and it can be refrigerated 1-2 additional days.", "Take a look at our Turkey Thawing Chart to see how long it takes to thaw a turkey in the refrigerator or in cold water.", "Posted in: Kitchen Safety Tagged: Meat | Raw | Refrigerator | Freezer | Poultry" ]
D270941
http://www.moneycrashers.com/how-long-take-get-tax-refund-status/
How Long Does It Take to Get My IRS Tax Refund? â Status & Tracking
How Long Does It Take to Get My IRS Tax Refund? – Status & Tracking By Joshua Caucutt Posted in: Taxes Share Tweet 6 Pin Comments 42There are times even better than Christmas – like the day that you get your tax refund check. But unlike Christmas, you never know when that exact day will come. The good news is that the speed of getting one’s tax refund has increased exponentially since the early 1990’s. Back when I was in college, I remember filing my taxes in March or April and then not seeing my paper check refund until as late as June. Plus, there was no real indication of the status of that refund. Information from the IRS was difficult to get in the days before the Internet. Thankfully, filing taxes has changed quite a bit since 1990. Most significantly, we now have tax preparation software that walks taxpayers through the maze of income streams, tax credits, and overlooked tax deductions. Moreover, with the advent of technological advances, the turnaround time on tax refunds is as efficient as ever. In 2011, you can get your refund in as little as eight business days after filing. So when will you get your tax refund? Let’s look at the two best options for tracking your refund and getting an approximate idea of when it will arrive. And then we’ll delve into five areas that can help ensure you will get your refund as quickly as possible. Tax Refund Status & Tracking Taxpayers who have a tax deficit or who owe taxes will usually wait until the tax filing deadline to send the required payment, but those of us who are expecting a refund want it now. The IRS has anticipated this strong desire and created two tools to help those of us who are compulsively checking our mailboxes twice a day to see if the refund has arrived.1. IRS2Go IRS2Go is a smartphone app created by the IRS that is made to work with both the Android and i Phone software – it can be downloaded from i Tunes or the Android Marketplace. The IRS website explains how the app works and has additional tax information benefits that are provided by the app. Personally, I think this might be a little overboard, but if you really, really need the money and want to know the second that the refund is issued…here you go.2. Where’s My Refund? The second tool is a webpage created by the IRS called, Where’s My Refund? Just enter your social security number, filing status, and amount of your refund, and the IRS will tell you the date that you will see your check or direct deposit. It is important to know that the refund arrival estimates are updated every Wednesday and you must wait at least 72 hours after filing to check on the status of your refund.5 Factors Affecting the Speed of Your Tax Refund Now that you know how to check the status of your refund, here are 5 things you can do to make sure that you get your refund as quickly as possible.1. Be Organized It all starts with how quickly and error-free you file your taxes. Keep all of your tax documents, including your W-2 forms, 1099 forms, and deduction statements, in one place so that they are easy to find when you are ready to file. There is nothing worse than filing delays caused by your own personal filing system.2. Use Online Tax Prep Software Use tax software to guide you. It is usually much faster than attempting to figure out the IRS tax booklet, and the software ensures that you are compliant with current tax law and are maximizing your deductions. The amount of time that it will take to finish your return will vary based on how many income streams, deductions, and investment income sources you have. It takes me about five hours to prepare my return using free online tax preparation software like Turbo Tax, and I estimate that the average is somewhere around three hours.3. File Electronically This factor will play the largest role in how quickly you receive your tax refund. The IRS discontinued Tele File (filing by phone) in 2005, so we are left with two filing options: paper file via snail mail and electronic filing via the Internet. If you paper file, it will take three to four weeks for the IRS to process the return and acknowledge your refund. If you e-file, you will get a notice of arrival within 24 hours and confirmation of refund within 72 hours.4. Request Direct Deposit Once your tax return is accepted and the refund approved, you can choose to have your money directly deposited in your bank account within a week. If you choose to have a paper check sent through the mail from the IRS, this option will add at least another two weeks to the process.5. File on a Sunday or Monday If you can control it, try to file on a Sunday or Monday to maximize the likelihood that you will receive your refund before the weekend. If you file on a Friday, your filing may very well not be processed until the following week. Final Word There are other factors out of your control that may affect the speed of your refund like software glitches and the filing volume around the time you submit your taxes. No matter what steps you take to ensure quick refund, we are all at the mercy of the bureaucracy. The reality is that once you hit that “e-file” button or send in your tax return by mail, there is nothing more that you can do to speed up your refund. Checking your i Phone IRS app or “Where’s My Refund” every hour may bring you peace of mind, but it will not bring you that money any faster. Remember the old adage: “a watched pot never boils”? If you are expecting a refund, file your return, relax, enjoy life, and eventually you will find a pleasant surprise in your mailbox or checking account. Have you received your tax refund yet? How long did it take from the day you filed?390K Views Facebook Tweet Pin Linked In Related Articles Why You Should Stay Far Away From Tax Refund Anticipation Loans (RALs)Clearing Up The Confusion About The Economic Stimulus Plan Refund Checks4 Reasons the IRS Can Seize Your Income Tax Refund Money for Debt7 Tax Preparation Tips to Ease the Stress of Filing Tax Slayer.com Review - Free Tax Filing & Online Return Preparation Credit Karma Tax Review - Prepare & File Your Taxes Online 100% Free Facebook Tweet Pin Linked In Google+Stumble Upon Print Email Categories: Money Management, Taxes
[ "How Long Does It Take to Get My IRS Tax Refund?", "– Status & Tracking By Joshua Caucutt Posted in: Taxes Share Tweet 6 Pin Comments 42There are times even better than Christmas – like the day that you get your tax refund check.", "But unlike Christmas, you never know when that exact day will come.", "The good news is that the speed of getting one’s tax refund has increased exponentially since the early 1990’s.", "Back when I was in college, I remember filing my taxes in March or April and then not seeing my paper check refund until as late as June.", "Plus, there was no real indication of the status of that refund.", "Information from the IRS was difficult to get in the days before the Internet.", "Thankfully, filing taxes has changed quite a bit since 1990.", "Most significantly, we now have tax preparation software that walks taxpayers through the maze of income streams, tax credits, and overlooked tax deductions.", "Moreover, with the advent of technological advances, the turnaround time on tax refunds is as efficient as ever.", "In 2011, you can get your refund in as little as eight business days after filing.", "So when will you get your tax refund?", "Let’s look at the two best options for tracking your refund and getting an approximate idea of when it will arrive.", "And then we’ll delve into five areas that can help ensure you will get your refund as quickly as possible.", "Tax Refund Status & Tracking Taxpayers who have a tax deficit or who owe taxes will usually wait until the tax filing deadline to send the required payment, but those of us who are expecting a refund want it now.", "The IRS has anticipated this strong desire and created two tools to help those of us who are compulsively checking our mailboxes twice a day to see if the refund has arrived.1.", "IRS2Go IRS2Go is a smartphone app created by the IRS that is made to work with both the Android and i Phone software – it can be downloaded from i Tunes or the Android Marketplace.", "The IRS website explains how the app works and has additional tax information benefits that are provided by the app.", "Personally, I think this might be a little overboard, but if you really, really need the money and want to know the second that the refund is issued…here you go.2.", "Where’s My Refund?", "The second tool is a webpage created by the IRS called, Where’s My Refund?", "Just enter your social security number, filing status, and amount of your refund, and the IRS will tell you the date that you will see your check or direct deposit.", "It is important to know that the refund arrival estimates are updated every Wednesday and you must wait at least 72 hours after filing to check on the status of your refund.5 Factors Affecting the Speed of Your Tax Refund Now that you know how to check the status of your refund, here are 5 things you can do to make sure that you get your refund as quickly as possible.1.", "Be Organized It all starts with how quickly and error-free you file your taxes.", "Keep all of your tax documents, including your W-2 forms, 1099 forms, and deduction statements, in one place so that they are easy to find when you are ready to file.", "There is nothing worse than filing delays caused by your own personal filing system.2.", "Use Online Tax Prep Software Use tax software to guide you.", "It is usually much faster than attempting to figure out the IRS tax booklet, and the software ensures that you are compliant with current tax law and are maximizing your deductions.", "The amount of time that it will take to finish your return will vary based on how many income streams, deductions, and investment income sources you have.", "It takes me about five hours to prepare my return using free online tax preparation software like Turbo Tax, and I estimate that the average is somewhere around three hours.3.", "File Electronically This factor will play the largest role in how quickly you receive your tax refund.", "The IRS discontinued Tele File (filing by phone) in 2005, so we are left with two filing options: paper file via snail mail and electronic filing via the Internet.", "If you paper file, it will take three to four weeks for the IRS to process the return and acknowledge your refund.", "If you e-file, you will get a notice of arrival within 24 hours and confirmation of refund within 72 hours.4.", "Request Direct Deposit Once your tax return is accepted and the refund approved, you can choose to have your money directly deposited in your bank account within a week.", "If you choose to have a paper check sent through the mail from the IRS, this option will add at least another two weeks to the process.5.", "File on a Sunday or Monday If you can control it, try to file on a Sunday or Monday to maximize the likelihood that you will receive your refund before the weekend.", "If you file on a Friday, your filing may very well not be processed until the following week.", "Final Word There are other factors out of your control that may affect the speed of your refund like software glitches and the filing volume around the time you submit your taxes.", "No matter what steps you take to ensure quick refund, we are all at the mercy of the bureaucracy.", "The reality is that once you hit that “e-file” button or send in your tax return by mail, there is nothing more that you can do to speed up your refund.", "Checking your i Phone IRS app or “Where’s My Refund” every hour may bring you peace of mind, but it will not bring you that money any faster.", "Remember the old adage: “a watched pot never boils”?", "If you are expecting a refund, file your return, relax, enjoy life, and eventually you will find a pleasant surprise in your mailbox or checking account.", "Have you received your tax refund yet?", "How long did it take from the day you filed?390K Views Facebook Tweet Pin Linked In Related Articles Why You Should Stay Far Away From Tax Refund Anticipation Loans (RALs)Clearing Up The Confusion About The Economic Stimulus Plan Refund Checks4 Reasons the IRS Can Seize Your Income Tax Refund Money for Debt7 Tax Preparation Tips to Ease the Stress of Filing Tax Slayer.com Review - Free Tax Filing & Online Return Preparation Credit Karma Tax Review - Prepare & File Your Taxes Online 100% Free Facebook Tweet Pin Linked In Google+Stumble Upon Print Email Categories: Money Management, Taxes" ]
D24286
http://www.worldometers.info/world-population/us-population/
U.S. Population (LIVE)
W Population World Northern America U. S. U. S. Population (LIVE)retrieving data... United States Population (1950 - 2018)Date U. S. A. Population1950 158,804,3951951 160,905,0351952 163,324,8511953 165,988,1901954 168,827,6131955 171,783,8421956 174,805,9411957 177,851,1561958 180,884,4581959 183,877,8731960 186,808,2281961 189,654,9051962 192,397,7411963 195,016,2111964 197,491,8441965 199,815,5401966 201,975,2221967 203,981,9281968 205,880,4181969 207,733,0041970 209,588,1501971 211,461,5981972 213,351,7731973 215,268,6871974 217,218,3931975 219,205,2961976 221,239,2151977 223,324,0421978 225,449,6571979 227,599,8781980 229,763,0521981 231,938,9631982 234,132,6321983 236,344,0041984 238,573,8611985 240,824,1201986 243,098,9351987 245,402,8641988 247,739,5821989 250,113,1871990 252,529,9501991 254,974,8191992 257,454,2731993 260,020,1861994 262,741,5661995 265,658,8491996 268,803,4241997 272,136,5511998 275,542,6031999 278,862,2772000 281,982,7782001 284,852,3912002 287,506,8472003 290,027,6242004 292,539,3242005 295,129,5012006 297,827,3562007 300,595,1752008 303,374,0672009 306,076,3622010 308,641,3912011 311,051,3732012 313,335,4232013 315,536,6762014 317,718,7792015 319,929,1622016 322,179,6052017 324,459,4632018 326,766,748Yearly Population Growth Rate (%)Date Yearly Growth Rate (%)1951 1.321952 1.51953 1.631954 1.711955 1.751956 1.761957 1.741958 1.711959 1.651960 1.591961 1.521962 1.451963 1.361964 1.271965 1.181966 1.081967 0.991968 0.931969 0.91970 0.891971 0.891972 0.891973 0.91974 0.911975 0.911976 0.931977 0.941978 0.951979 0.951980 0.951981 0.951982 0.951983 0.941984 0.941985 0.941986 0.941987 0.951988 0.951989 0.961990 0.971991 0.971992 0.971993 11994 1.051995 1.111996 1.181997 1.241998 1.251999 1.22000 1.122001 1.022002 0.932003 0.882004 0.872005 0.892006 0.912007 0.932008 0.922009 0.892010 0.842011 0.782012 0.732013 0.72014 0.692015 0.72016 0.72017 0.712018 0.71
[ "W Population World Northern America U. S. U. S. Population (LIVE)retrieving data... United States Population (1950 - 2018)Date U. S. A. Population1950 158,804,3951951 160,905,0351952 163,324,8511953 165,988,1901954 168,827,6131955 171,783,8421956 174,805,9411957 177,851,1561958 180,884,4581959 183,877,8731960 186,808,2281961 189,654,9051962 192,397,7411963 195,016,2111964 197,491,8441965 199,815,5401966 201,975,2221967 203,981,9281968 205,880,4181969 207,733,0041970 209,588,1501971 211,461,5981972 213,351,7731973 215,268,6871974 217,218,3931975 219,205,2961976 221,239,2151977 223,324,0421978 225,449,6571979 227,599,8781980 229,763,0521981 231,938,9631982 234,132,6321983 236,344,0041984 238,573,8611985 240,824,1201986 243,098,9351987 245,402,8641988 247,739,5821989 250,113,1871990 252,529,9501991 254,974,8191992 257,454,2731993 260,020,1861994 262,741,5661995 265,658,8491996 268,803,4241997 272,136,5511998 275,542,6031999 278,862,2772000 281,982,7782001 284,852,3912002 287,506,8472003 290,027,6242004 292,539,3242005 295,129,5012006 297,827,3562007 300,595,1752008 303,374,0672009 306,076,3622010 308,641,3912011 311,051,3732012 313,335,4232013 315,536,6762014 317,718,7792015 319,929,1622016 322,179,6052017 324,459,4632018 326,766,748Yearly Population Growth Rate (%)Date Yearly Growth Rate (%)1951 1.321952 1.51953 1.631954 1.711955 1.751956 1.761957 1.741958 1.711959 1.651960 1.591961 1.521962 1.451963 1.361964 1.271965 1.181966 1.081967 0.991968 0.931969 0.91970 0.891971 0.891972 0.891973 0.91974 0.911975 0.911976 0.931977 0.941978 0.951979 0.951980 0.951981 0.951982 0.951983 0.941984 0.941985 0.941986 0.941987 0.951988 0.951989 0.961990 0.971991 0.971992 0.971993 11994 1.051995 1.111996 1.181997 1.241998 1.251999 1.22000 1.122001 1.022002 0.932003 0.882004 0.872005 0.892006 0.912007 0.932008 0.922009 0.892010 0.842011 0.782012 0.732013 0.72014 0.692015 0.72016 0.72017 0.712018 0.71" ]
D17646
http://www.mayoclinic.org/healthy-lifestyle/weight-loss/in-depth/low-carb-diet/art-20045831
Low-carb diet: Can it help you lose weight?
Low-carb diet: Can it help you lose weight? Could a low-carb diet give you an edge in losing weight? Help you keep weight off permanently? Here's what you need to know about the low-carb diet. By Mayo Clinic Staff Definition A low-carb diet limits carbohydrates — such as those found in grains, starchy vegetables and fruit — and emphasizes foods high in protein and fat. Many types of low-carb diets exist. Each diet has varying restrictions on the types and amounts of carbohydrates you can eat. Purpose A low-carb diet is generally used for losing weight. Some low-carb diets may have health benefits beyond weight loss, such as reducing risk factors associated with type 2 diabetes and metabolic syndrome. Why you might follow a low-carb diet You might choose to follow a low-carb diet because you: Want a diet that restricts certain carbs to help you lose weight Want to change your overall eating habits Enjoy the types and amounts of foods featured in low-carb diets Check with your doctor before starting any weight-loss diet, especially if you have any health conditions, such as diabetes or heart disease. Diet details As the name says, a low-carb diet restricts the type and amount of carbohydrates you eat. Carbohydrates are a type of calorie-providing macronutrient found in many foods and beverages. Carbohydrates can be simple or complex. They can further be classified as simple refined (table sugar), simple natural (lactose in milk and fructose in fruit), complex refined (white flour) and complex natural (whole grains or beans). Common sources of naturally occurring carbohydrates include: Grains Fruits Vegetables Milk Nuts Seeds Legumes (beans, lentils, peas)Food manufacturers also add refined carbohydrates to processed foods in the form of sugar or white flour. Examples of foods that contain refined carbohydrates are white breads and pasta, cookies, cake, candy, and sugar-sweetened sodas and drinks. Your body uses carbohydrates as its main fuel source. Complex carbohydrates (starches) are broken down into simple sugars during digestion. They're then absorbed into your bloodstream, where they're known as blood sugar (glucose). In general, natural complex carbohydrates are digested more slowly and they have less effect on blood sugar. Natural complex carbohydrates provide bulk and serve other body functions beyond fuel. Rising levels of blood sugar trigger the body to release insulin. Insulin helps glucose enter your body's cells. Some glucose is used by your body for energy, fueling all of your activities, whether it's going for a jog or simply breathing. Extra glucose is usually stored in your liver, muscles and other cells for later use or is converted to fat. The idea behind the low-carb diet is that decreasing carbs lowers insulin levels, which causes the body to burn stored fat for energy and ultimately leads to weight loss. Typical foods for a low-carb diet In general, a low-carb diet focuses on proteins, including meat, poultry, fish and eggs, and some nonstarchy vegetables. A low-carb diet generally excludes or limits most grains, legumes, fruits, breads, sweets, pastas and starchy vegetables, and sometimes nuts and seeds. Some low-carb diet plans allow small amounts of certain fruits, vegetables and whole grains. A daily limit of 0.7 to 2 ounces (20 to 60 grams) of carbohydrates is typical with a low-carb diet. These amounts of carbohydrates provide 80 to 240 calories. Some low-carb diets greatly restrict carbs during the initial phase of the diet and then gradually increase the number of allowed carbs. In contrast, the Dietary Guidelines for Americans recommends that carbohydrates make up 45 to 65 percent of your total daily calorie intake. So if you consume 2,000 calories a day, you would need to eat between 900 and 1,300 calories a day from carbohydrates. Results Weight loss Most people can lose weight if they restrict the number of calories consumed and increase physical activity levels. To lose 1 to 1.5 pounds (0.5 to 0.7 kilogram) a week, you need to reduce your daily calories by 500 to 750 calories. Low-carb diets, especially very low-carb diets, may lead to greater short-term weight loss than do low-fat diets. But most studies have found that at 12 or 24 months, the benefits of a low-carb diet are not very large. A 2015 review found that higher protein, low-carbohydrate diets may offer a slight advantage in terms of weight loss and loss of fat mass compared with a normal protein diet. Cutting calories and carbs may not be the only reason for the weight loss. Some studies show that you may shed some weight because the extra protein and fat keeps you feeling full longer, which helps you eat less. Other health benefits Low-carb diets may help prevent or improve serious health conditions, such as metabolic syndrome, diabetes, high blood pressure and cardiovascular disease. In fact, almost any diet that helps you shed excess weight can reduce or even reverse risk factors for cardiovascular disease and diabetes. Most weight-loss diets — not just low-carb diets — may improve blood cholesterol or blood sugar levels, at least temporarily. Low-carb diets may improve high-density lipoprotein (HDL) cholesterol and triglyceride values slightly more than do moderate-carb diets. That may be due not only to how many carbs you eat but also to the quality of your other food choices. Lean protein (fish, poultry, legumes), healthy fats (monounsaturated and polyunsaturated) and unprocessed carbs — such as whole grains, legumes, vegetables, fruits and low-fat dairy products — are generally healthier choices. A report from the American Heart Association, the American College of Cardiology and the Obesity Society concluded that there isn't enough evidence to say whether most low-carbohydrate diets provide heart-healthy benefits. Risks If you suddenly and drastically cut carbs, you may experience a variety of temporary health effects, including: Headache Bad breath Weakness Muscle cramps Fatigue Skin rash Constipation or diarrhea In addition, some diets restrict carbohydrate intake so much that in the long term they can result in vitamin or mineral deficiencies, bone loss and gastrointestinal disturbances and may increase risks of various chronic diseases. Because low-carb diets may not provide necessary nutrients, these diets aren't recommended as a method of weight loss for preteens and high schoolers. Their growing bodies need the nutrients found in whole grains, fruits and vegetables. Severely restricting carbohydrates to less than 0.7 ounces (20 grams) a day can result in a process called ketosis. Ketosis occurs when you don't have enough sugar (glucose) for energy, so your body breaks down stored fat, causing ketones to build up in your body. Side effects from ketosis can include nausea, headache, mental and physical fatigue, and bad breath. It's not clear what kind of possible long-term health risks a low-carb diet may pose because most research studies have lasted less than a year. Some health experts believe that if you eat large amounts of fat and protein from animal sources, your risk of heart disease or certain cancers may actually increase. If you follow a low-carbohydrate diet that's higher in fat and possibly higher in protein, it's important to choose foods with healthy unsaturated fats and healthy proteins. Limit foods containing saturated and trans fats, such as meat, high-fat dairy products, and processed crackers and pastries. Share Tweet Aug. 29, 2017References See more In-depth Products and Services Book: The Mayo Clinic Diet The Mayo Clinic Diet Online See also Artificial sweeteners Atkins Diet Cabbage soup diet Coffee calories Liquid calories Energy density Flat Belly Diet Show More
[ "Low-carb diet: Can it help you lose weight?", "Could a low-carb diet give you an edge in losing weight?", "Help you keep weight off permanently?", "Here's what you need to know about the low-carb diet.", "By Mayo Clinic Staff Definition A low-carb diet limits carbohydrates — such as those found in grains, starchy vegetables and fruit — and emphasizes foods high in protein and fat.", "Many types of low-carb diets exist.", "Each diet has varying restrictions on the types and amounts of carbohydrates you can eat.", "Purpose A low-carb diet is generally used for losing weight.", "Some low-carb diets may have health benefits beyond weight loss, such as reducing risk factors associated with type 2 diabetes and metabolic syndrome.", "Why you might follow a low-carb diet You might choose to follow a low-carb diet because you: Want a diet that restricts certain carbs to help you lose weight Want to change your overall eating habits Enjoy the types and amounts of foods featured in low-carb diets Check with your doctor before starting any weight-loss diet, especially if you have any health conditions, such as diabetes or heart disease.", "Diet details As the name says, a low-carb diet restricts the type and amount of carbohydrates you eat.", "Carbohydrates are a type of calorie-providing macronutrient found in many foods and beverages.", "Carbohydrates can be simple or complex.", "They can further be classified as simple refined (table sugar), simple natural (lactose in milk and fructose in fruit), complex refined (white flour) and complex natural (whole grains or beans).", "Common sources of naturally occurring carbohydrates include: Grains Fruits Vegetables Milk Nuts Seeds Legumes (beans, lentils, peas)Food manufacturers also add refined carbohydrates to processed foods in the form of sugar or white flour.", "Examples of foods that contain refined carbohydrates are white breads and pasta, cookies, cake, candy, and sugar-sweetened sodas and drinks.", "Your body uses carbohydrates as its main fuel source.", "Complex carbohydrates (starches) are broken down into simple sugars during digestion.", "They're then absorbed into your bloodstream, where they're known as blood sugar (glucose).", "In general, natural complex carbohydrates are digested more slowly and they have less effect on blood sugar.", "Natural complex carbohydrates provide bulk and serve other body functions beyond fuel.", "Rising levels of blood sugar trigger the body to release insulin.", "Insulin helps glucose enter your body's cells.", "Some glucose is used by your body for energy, fueling all of your activities, whether it's going for a jog or simply breathing.", "Extra glucose is usually stored in your liver, muscles and other cells for later use or is converted to fat.", "The idea behind the low-carb diet is that decreasing carbs lowers insulin levels, which causes the body to burn stored fat for energy and ultimately leads to weight loss.", "Typical foods for a low-carb diet In general, a low-carb diet focuses on proteins, including meat, poultry, fish and eggs, and some nonstarchy vegetables.", "A low-carb diet generally excludes or limits most grains, legumes, fruits, breads, sweets, pastas and starchy vegetables, and sometimes nuts and seeds.", "Some low-carb diet plans allow small amounts of certain fruits, vegetables and whole grains.", "A daily limit of 0.7 to 2 ounces (20 to 60 grams) of carbohydrates is typical with a low-carb diet.", "These amounts of carbohydrates provide 80 to 240 calories.", "Some low-carb diets greatly restrict carbs during the initial phase of the diet and then gradually increase the number of allowed carbs.", "In contrast, the Dietary Guidelines for Americans recommends that carbohydrates make up 45 to 65 percent of your total daily calorie intake.", "So if you consume 2,000 calories a day, you would need to eat between 900 and 1,300 calories a day from carbohydrates.", "Results Weight loss Most people can lose weight if they restrict the number of calories consumed and increase physical activity levels.", "To lose 1 to 1.5 pounds (0.5 to 0.7 kilogram) a week, you need to reduce your daily calories by 500 to 750 calories.", "Low-carb diets, especially very low-carb diets, may lead to greater short-term weight loss than do low-fat diets.", "But most studies have found that at 12 or 24 months, the benefits of a low-carb diet are not very large.", "A 2015 review found that higher protein, low-carbohydrate diets may offer a slight advantage in terms of weight loss and loss of fat mass compared with a normal protein diet.", "Cutting calories and carbs may not be the only reason for the weight loss.", "Some studies show that you may shed some weight because the extra protein and fat keeps you feeling full longer, which helps you eat less.", "Other health benefits Low-carb diets may help prevent or improve serious health conditions, such as metabolic syndrome, diabetes, high blood pressure and cardiovascular disease.", "In fact, almost any diet that helps you shed excess weight can reduce or even reverse risk factors for cardiovascular disease and diabetes.", "Most weight-loss diets — not just low-carb diets — may improve blood cholesterol or blood sugar levels, at least temporarily.", "Low-carb diets may improve high-density lipoprotein (HDL) cholesterol and triglyceride values slightly more than do moderate-carb diets.", "That may be due not only to how many carbs you eat but also to the quality of your other food choices.", "Lean protein (fish, poultry, legumes), healthy fats (monounsaturated and polyunsaturated) and unprocessed carbs — such as whole grains, legumes, vegetables, fruits and low-fat dairy products — are generally healthier choices.", "A report from the American Heart Association, the American College of Cardiology and the Obesity Society concluded that there isn't enough evidence to say whether most low-carbohydrate diets provide heart-healthy benefits.", "Risks If you suddenly and drastically cut carbs, you may experience a variety of temporary health effects, including: Headache Bad breath Weakness Muscle cramps Fatigue Skin rash Constipation or diarrhea In addition, some diets restrict carbohydrate intake so much that in the long term they can result in vitamin or mineral deficiencies, bone loss and gastrointestinal disturbances and may increase risks of various chronic diseases.", "Because low-carb diets may not provide necessary nutrients, these diets aren't recommended as a method of weight loss for preteens and high schoolers.", "Their growing bodies need the nutrients found in whole grains, fruits and vegetables.", "Severely restricting carbohydrates to less than 0.7 ounces (20 grams) a day can result in a process called ketosis.", "Ketosis occurs when you don't have enough sugar (glucose) for energy, so your body breaks down stored fat, causing ketones to build up in your body.", "Side effects from ketosis can include nausea, headache, mental and physical fatigue, and bad breath.", "It's not clear what kind of possible long-term health risks a low-carb diet may pose because most research studies have lasted less than a year.", "Some health experts believe that if you eat large amounts of fat and protein from animal sources, your risk of heart disease or certain cancers may actually increase.", "If you follow a low-carbohydrate diet that's higher in fat and possibly higher in protein, it's important to choose foods with healthy unsaturated fats and healthy proteins.", "Limit foods containing saturated and trans fats, such as meat, high-fat dairy products, and processed crackers and pastries.", "Share Tweet Aug. 29, 2017References See more In-depth Products and Services Book: The Mayo Clinic Diet The Mayo Clinic Diet Online See also Artificial sweeteners Atkins Diet Cabbage soup diet Coffee calories Liquid calories Energy density Flat Belly Diet Show More" ]
D401
http://www.hopkinsmedicine.org/healthlibrary/conditions/cardiovascular_diseases/vital_signs_body_temperature_pulse_rate_respiration_rate_blood_pressure_85,P00866/
Vital Signs (Body Temperature, Pulse Rate, Respiration Rate, Blood Pressure)
"Home > Health Library Vital Signs (Body Temperature, Pulse Rate, Respiration Rate, Blood Pressure)See related health topics and resources<< Back to Cardiovascular Diseases What are vital signs? Vital signs are measurements of the body's most basic functions. The four main vital signs routinely monitored by medical professionals and health care providers include the following: Body temperature Pulse rate Respiration rate (rate of breathing)Blood pressure (Blood pressure is not considered a vital sign, but is often measured along with the vital signs. )Vital signs are useful in detecting or monitoring medical problems. Vital signs can be measured in a medical setting, at home, at the site of a medical emergency, or elsewhere. What is body temperature? The normal body temperature of a person varies depending on gender, recent activity, food and fluid consumption, time of day, and, in women, the stage of the menstrual cycle. Normal body temperature can range from 97.8 degrees F (or Fahrenheit, equivalent to 36.5 degrees C, or Celsius) to 99 degrees F (37.2 degrees C) for a healthy adult. A person's body temperature can be taken in any of the following ways: Orally. Temperature can be taken by mouth using either the classic glass thermometer, or the more modern digital thermometers that use an electronic probe to measure body temperature. Rectally. Temperatures taken rectally (using a glass or digital thermometer) tend to be 0.5 to 0.7 degrees F higher than when taken by mouth. Axillary. Temperatures can be taken under the arm using a glass or digital thermometer. Temperatures taken by this route tend to be 0.3 to 0.4 degrees F lower than those temperatures taken by mouth. By ear. A special thermometer can quickly measure the temperature of the ear drum, which reflects the body's core temperature (the temperature of the internal organs). By skin. A special thermometer can quickly measure the temperature of the skin on the forehead. Body temperature may be abnormal due to fever (high temperature) or hypothermia (low temperature). A fever is indicated when body temperature rises about one degree or more over the normal temperature of 98.6 degrees Fahrenheit, according to the American Academy of Family Physicians. Hypothermia is defined as a drop in body temperature below 95 degrees Fahrenheit. About glass thermometers containing mercury According to the Environmental Protection Agency, mercury is a toxic substance that poses a threat to the health of humans, as well as to the environment. Because of the risk of breaking, glass thermometers containing mercury should be removed from use and disposed of properly in accordance with local, state, and federal laws. Contact your local health department, waste disposal authority, or fire department for information on how to properly dispose of mercury thermometers. What is the pulse rate? The pulse rate is a measurement of the heart rate, or the number of times the heart beats per minute. As the heart pushes blood through the arteries, the arteries expand and contract with the flow of the blood. Taking a pulse not only measures the heart rate, but also can indicate the following: Heart rhythm Strength of the pulse The normal pulse for healthy adults ranges from 60 to 100 beats per minute. The pulse rate may fluctuate and increase with exercise, illness, injury, and emotions. Females ages 12 and older, in general, tend to have faster heart rates than do males. Athletes, such as runners, who do a lot of cardiovascular conditioning, may have heart rates near 40 beats per minute and experience no problems. Click Image to Enlarge How to check your pulse As the heart forces blood through the arteries, you feel the beats by firmly pressing on the arteries, which are located close to the surface of the skin at certain points of the body. The pulse can be found on the side of the neck, on the inside of the elbow, or at the wrist. For most people, it is easiest to take the pulse at the wrist. If you use the lower neck, be sure not to press too hard, and never press on the pulses on both sides of the lower neck at the same time to prevent blocking blood flow to the brain. When taking your pulse: Using the first and second fingertips, press firmly but gently on the arteries until you feel a pulse. Begin counting the pulse when the clock's second hand is on the 12. Count your pulse for 60 seconds (or for 15 seconds and then multiply by four to calculate beats per minute). When counting, do not watch the clock continuously, but concentrate on the beats of the pulse. If unsure about your results, ask another person to count for you. If your doctor has ordered you to check your own pulse and you are having difficulty finding it, consult your doctor or nurse for additional instruction. What is the respiration rate? The respiration rate is the number of breaths a person takes per minute. The rate is usually measured when a person is at rest and simply involves counting the number of breaths for one minute by counting how many times the chest rises. Respiration rates may increase with fever, illness, and with other medical conditions. When checking respiration, it is important to also note whether a person has any difficulty breathing. Normal respiration rates for an adult person at rest range from 12 to 16 breaths per minute. What is blood pressure? Blood pressure is the force of the blood pushing against the artery walls during contraction and relaxation of the heart. Each time the heart beats, it pumps blood into the arteries, resulting in the highest blood pressure as the heart contracts. When the heart relaxes, the blood pressure falls. Two numbers are recorded when measuring blood pressure. The higher number, or systolic pressure, refers to the pressure inside the artery when the heart contracts and pumps blood through the body. The lower number, or diastolic pressure, refers to the pressure inside the artery when the heart is at rest and is filling with blood. Both the systolic and diastolic pressures are recorded as ""mm Hg"" (millimeters of mercury). This recording represents how high the mercury column in an old-fashioned manual blood pressure device (called a mercury manometer or sphygmomanometer) is raised by the pressure of the blood. Today, your doctor's office is more likely to use a simple dial for this measurement. High blood pressure, or hypertension, directly increases the risk of heart attack, heart failure, and stroke. With high blood pressure, the arteries may have an increased resistance against the flow of blood, causing the heart to pump harder to circulate the blood. Blood pressure is categorized as normal, elevated, or stage 1 or stage 2 high blood pressure: Normal blood pressure is systolic of less than 120 and diastolic of less than 80 (120/80)Elevated blood pressure is systolic of 120 to 129 and diastolic less than 80Stage 1 high blood pressure is systolic is 130 to 139 or diastolic between 80 to 89Stage 2 high blood pressure is when systolic is 140 or higher or the diastolic is 90 or higher These numbers should be used as a guide only. A single blood pressure measurement that is higher than normal is not necessarily an indication of a problem. Your doctor will want to see multiple blood pressure measurements over several days or weeks before making a diagnosis of high blood pressure and starting treatment. Ask your provider when to contact him or her if your blood pressure readings are not within normal range. Why should I monitor my blood pressure at home? For people with hypertension, home monitoring allows your doctor to monitor how much your blood pressure changes during the day, and from day to day. This may also help your doctor determine how effectively your blood pressure medication is working. What special equipment is needed to measure blood pressure? Either an aneroid monitor, which has a dial gauge and is read by looking at a pointer, or a digital monitor, in which the blood pressure reading flashes on a small screen, can be used to measure blood pressure. About the aneroid monitor The aneroid monitor is less expensive than the digital monitor. The cuff is inflated by hand by squeezing a rubber bulb. Some units even have a special feature to make it easier to put the cuff on with one hand. However, the unit can be easily damaged and become less accurate. Because the person using it must listen for heartbeats with the stethoscope, it may not be appropriate for the hearing-impaired. About the digital monitor The digital monitor is automatic, with the measurements appearing on a small screen. Because the recordings are easy to read, this is the most popular blood pressure measuring device. It is also easier to use than the aneroid unit, and since there is no need to listen to heartbeats through the stethoscope, this is a good device for hearing-impaired patients. One disadvantage is that body movements or an irregular heart rate can change the accuracy. These units are also more expensive than the aneroid monitors. About finger and wrist blood pressure monitors Tests have shown that finger and/or wrist blood pressure devices are not as accurate in measuring blood pressure as other types of monitors. In addition, they are more expensive than the other monitors. Before you measure your blood pressure: The American Heart Association recommends the following guidelines for home blood pressure monitoring: Don't smoke or drink coffee for 30 minutes before taking your blood pressure. Go to the bathroom before the test. Relax for 5 minutes before taking the measurement. Sit with your back supported (don't sit on a couch or soft chair). Keep your feet on the floor uncrossed. Place your arm on a solid flat surface (like a table) with the upper part of the arm at heart level. Place the middle of the cuff directly above the bend of the elbow. Check the monitor's instruction manual for an illustration. Take multiple readings. When you measure, take 2 to 3 readings one minute apart and record all the results. Take your blood pressure at the same time every day, or as your healthcare provider recommends. Record the date, time, and blood pressure reading. Take the record with you to your next medical appointment. If your blood pressure monitor has a built-in memory, simply take the monitor with you to your next appointment. Call your provider if you have several high readings. Don't be frightened by a single high blood pressure reading, but if you get several high readings, check in with your healthcare provider. When blood pressure reaches a systolic (top number) of 180 or higher OR diastolic (bottom number) of 110 or higher, seek emergency medical treatment. Ask your doctor or another healthcare professional to teach you how to use your blood pressure monitor correctly. Have the monitor routinely checked for accuracy by taking it with you to your doctor's office. It is also important to make sure the tubing is not twisted when you store it and keep it away from heat to prevent cracks and leaks. Proper use of your blood pressure monitor will help you and your doctor in monitoring your blood pressure. Experience Our Care Find a Doctor for: Emergency Medicine Hypertension Urgent Care Find a physician at another Johns Hopkins Member Hospital: Howard County General Sibley Memorial Hospital Suburban Hospital Connect with a Treatment Center: Emergency Medicine Find Additional Treatment Centers at: Howard County General Sibley Memorial Hospital Suburban Hospital Maryland Patients Find a location near you. Traveling for Care? Whether you're crossing the country or the globe, we make it easy to access world-class care at Johns Hopkins. Outside of Maryland (toll free) 410-464-6713Request an Appointment Medical Concierge Services International Patients +1-410-502-7683Request an Appointment Medical Concierge Services Discover Our Research Study Finds The Emergency Department Can Play A Key Role In Identifying Undiagnosed Hiv Cases In Low Resource Settings Electronic Triage Tool Improves Patient Care In Emergency Departments Research Shows One Aspect Of The Affordable Care Act Has No Significant Impact On Emergency Department Patient Visits Expand Your Knowledge Sign up for an e-Newsletter Attend a Health Seminar Related Articles Spotting High Bp Sooner Experts aim to identify at-risk patients before overt symptoms... Testing Underway On Simple Stroke-diagnosing Eye Exam Researchers are actively testing a simple eye exam that could more... New Buildings Bring Advanced Care To All Generations "
[ "\"Home > Health Library Vital Signs (Body Temperature, Pulse Rate, Respiration Rate, Blood Pressure)See related health topics and resources<< Back to Cardiovascular Diseases What are vital signs?", "Vital signs are measurements of the body's most basic functions.", "The four main vital signs routinely monitored by medical professionals and health care providers include the following: Body temperature Pulse rate Respiration rate (rate of breathing)Blood pressure (Blood pressure is not considered a vital sign, but is often measured along with the vital signs.", ")Vital signs are useful in detecting or monitoring medical problems.", "Vital signs can be measured in a medical setting, at home, at the site of a medical emergency, or elsewhere.", "What is body temperature?", "The normal body temperature of a person varies depending on gender, recent activity, food and fluid consumption, time of day, and, in women, the stage of the menstrual cycle.", "Normal body temperature can range from 97.8 degrees F (or Fahrenheit, equivalent to 36.5 degrees C, or Celsius) to 99 degrees F (37.2 degrees C) for a healthy adult.", "A person's body temperature can be taken in any of the following ways: Orally.", "Temperature can be taken by mouth using either the classic glass thermometer, or the more modern digital thermometers that use an electronic probe to measure body temperature.", "Rectally.", "Temperatures taken rectally (using a glass or digital thermometer) tend to be 0.5 to 0.7 degrees F higher than when taken by mouth.", "Axillary.", "Temperatures can be taken under the arm using a glass or digital thermometer.", "Temperatures taken by this route tend to be 0.3 to 0.4 degrees F lower than those temperatures taken by mouth.", "By ear.", "A special thermometer can quickly measure the temperature of the ear drum, which reflects the body's core temperature (the temperature of the internal organs).", "By skin.", "A special thermometer can quickly measure the temperature of the skin on the forehead.", "Body temperature may be abnormal due to fever (high temperature) or hypothermia (low temperature).", "A fever is indicated when body temperature rises about one degree or more over the normal temperature of 98.6 degrees Fahrenheit, according to the American Academy of Family Physicians.", "Hypothermia is defined as a drop in body temperature below 95 degrees Fahrenheit.", "About glass thermometers containing mercury According to the Environmental Protection Agency, mercury is a toxic substance that poses a threat to the health of humans, as well as to the environment.", "Because of the risk of breaking, glass thermometers containing mercury should be removed from use and disposed of properly in accordance with local, state, and federal laws.", "Contact your local health department, waste disposal authority, or fire department for information on how to properly dispose of mercury thermometers.", "What is the pulse rate?", "The pulse rate is a measurement of the heart rate, or the number of times the heart beats per minute.", "As the heart pushes blood through the arteries, the arteries expand and contract with the flow of the blood.", "Taking a pulse not only measures the heart rate, but also can indicate the following: Heart rhythm Strength of the pulse The normal pulse for healthy adults ranges from 60 to 100 beats per minute.", "The pulse rate may fluctuate and increase with exercise, illness, injury, and emotions.", "Females ages 12 and older, in general, tend to have faster heart rates than do males.", "Athletes, such as runners, who do a lot of cardiovascular conditioning, may have heart rates near 40 beats per minute and experience no problems.", "Click Image to Enlarge How to check your pulse As the heart forces blood through the arteries, you feel the beats by firmly pressing on the arteries, which are located close to the surface of the skin at certain points of the body.", "The pulse can be found on the side of the neck, on the inside of the elbow, or at the wrist.", "For most people, it is easiest to take the pulse at the wrist.", "If you use the lower neck, be sure not to press too hard, and never press on the pulses on both sides of the lower neck at the same time to prevent blocking blood flow to the brain.", "When taking your pulse: Using the first and second fingertips, press firmly but gently on the arteries until you feel a pulse.", "Begin counting the pulse when the clock's second hand is on the 12.", "Count your pulse for 60 seconds (or for 15 seconds and then multiply by four to calculate beats per minute).", "When counting, do not watch the clock continuously, but concentrate on the beats of the pulse.", "If unsure about your results, ask another person to count for you.", "If your doctor has ordered you to check your own pulse and you are having difficulty finding it, consult your doctor or nurse for additional instruction.", "What is the respiration rate?", "The respiration rate is the number of breaths a person takes per minute.", "The rate is usually measured when a person is at rest and simply involves counting the number of breaths for one minute by counting how many times the chest rises.", "Respiration rates may increase with fever, illness, and with other medical conditions.", "When checking respiration, it is important to also note whether a person has any difficulty breathing.", "Normal respiration rates for an adult person at rest range from 12 to 16 breaths per minute.", "What is blood pressure?", "Blood pressure is the force of the blood pushing against the artery walls during contraction and relaxation of the heart.", "Each time the heart beats, it pumps blood into the arteries, resulting in the highest blood pressure as the heart contracts.", "When the heart relaxes, the blood pressure falls.", "Two numbers are recorded when measuring blood pressure.", "The higher number, or systolic pressure, refers to the pressure inside the artery when the heart contracts and pumps blood through the body.", "The lower number, or diastolic pressure, refers to the pressure inside the artery when the heart is at rest and is filling with blood.", "Both the systolic and diastolic pressures are recorded as \"\"mm Hg\"\" (millimeters of mercury).", "This recording represents how high the mercury column in an old-fashioned manual blood pressure device (called a mercury manometer or sphygmomanometer) is raised by the pressure of the blood.", "Today, your doctor's office is more likely to use a simple dial for this measurement.", "High blood pressure, or hypertension, directly increases the risk of heart attack, heart failure, and stroke.", "With high blood pressure, the arteries may have an increased resistance against the flow of blood, causing the heart to pump harder to circulate the blood.", "Blood pressure is categorized as normal, elevated, or stage 1 or stage 2 high blood pressure: Normal blood pressure is systolic of less than 120 and diastolic of less than 80 (120/80)Elevated blood pressure is systolic of 120 to 129 and diastolic less than 80Stage 1 high blood pressure is systolic is 130 to 139 or diastolic between 80 to 89Stage 2 high blood pressure is when systolic is 140 or higher or the diastolic is 90 or higher These numbers should be used as a guide only.", "A single blood pressure measurement that is higher than normal is not necessarily an indication of a problem.", "Your doctor will want to see multiple blood pressure measurements over several days or weeks before making a diagnosis of high blood pressure and starting treatment.", "Ask your provider when to contact him or her if your blood pressure readings are not within normal range.", "Why should I monitor my blood pressure at home?", "For people with hypertension, home monitoring allows your doctor to monitor how much your blood pressure changes during the day, and from day to day.", "This may also help your doctor determine how effectively your blood pressure medication is working.", "What special equipment is needed to measure blood pressure?", "Either an aneroid monitor, which has a dial gauge and is read by looking at a pointer, or a digital monitor, in which the blood pressure reading flashes on a small screen, can be used to measure blood pressure.", "About the aneroid monitor The aneroid monitor is less expensive than the digital monitor.", "The cuff is inflated by hand by squeezing a rubber bulb.", "Some units even have a special feature to make it easier to put the cuff on with one hand.", "However, the unit can be easily damaged and become less accurate.", "Because the person using it must listen for heartbeats with the stethoscope, it may not be appropriate for the hearing-impaired.", "About the digital monitor The digital monitor is automatic, with the measurements appearing on a small screen.", "Because the recordings are easy to read, this is the most popular blood pressure measuring device.", "It is also easier to use than the aneroid unit, and since there is no need to listen to heartbeats through the stethoscope, this is a good device for hearing-impaired patients.", "One disadvantage is that body movements or an irregular heart rate can change the accuracy.", "These units are also more expensive than the aneroid monitors.", "About finger and wrist blood pressure monitors Tests have shown that finger and/or wrist blood pressure devices are not as accurate in measuring blood pressure as other types of monitors.", "In addition, they are more expensive than the other monitors.", "Before you measure your blood pressure: The American Heart Association recommends the following guidelines for home blood pressure monitoring: Don't smoke or drink coffee for 30 minutes before taking your blood pressure.", "Go to the bathroom before the test.", "Relax for 5 minutes before taking the measurement.", "Sit with your back supported (don't sit on a couch or soft chair).", "Keep your feet on the floor uncrossed.", "Place your arm on a solid flat surface (like a table) with the upper part of the arm at heart level.", "Place the middle of the cuff directly above the bend of the elbow.", "Check the monitor's instruction manual for an illustration.", "Take multiple readings.", "When you measure, take 2 to 3 readings one minute apart and record all the results.", "Take your blood pressure at the same time every day, or as your healthcare provider recommends.", "Record the date, time, and blood pressure reading.", "Take the record with you to your next medical appointment.", "If your blood pressure monitor has a built-in memory, simply take the monitor with you to your next appointment.", "Call your provider if you have several high readings.", "Don't be frightened by a single high blood pressure reading, but if you get several high readings, check in with your healthcare provider.", "When blood pressure reaches a systolic (top number) of 180 or higher OR diastolic (bottom number) of 110 or higher, seek emergency medical treatment.", "Ask your doctor or another healthcare professional to teach you how to use your blood pressure monitor correctly.", "Have the monitor routinely checked for accuracy by taking it with you to your doctor's office.", "It is also important to make sure the tubing is not twisted when you store it and keep it away from heat to prevent cracks and leaks.", "Proper use of your blood pressure monitor will help you and your doctor in monitoring your blood pressure.", "Experience Our Care Find a Doctor for: Emergency Medicine Hypertension Urgent Care Find a physician at another Johns Hopkins Member Hospital: Howard County General Sibley Memorial Hospital Suburban Hospital Connect with a Treatment Center: Emergency Medicine Find Additional Treatment Centers at: Howard County General Sibley Memorial Hospital Suburban Hospital Maryland Patients Find a location near you.", "Traveling for Care?", "Whether you're crossing the country or the globe, we make it easy to access world-class care at Johns Hopkins.", "Outside of Maryland (toll free) 410-464-6713Request an Appointment Medical Concierge Services International Patients +1-410-502-7683Request an Appointment Medical Concierge Services Discover Our Research Study Finds The Emergency Department Can Play A Key Role In Identifying Undiagnosed Hiv Cases In Low Resource Settings Electronic Triage Tool Improves Patient Care In Emergency Departments Research Shows One Aspect Of The Affordable Care Act Has No Significant Impact On Emergency Department Patient Visits Expand Your Knowledge Sign up for an e-Newsletter Attend a Health Seminar Related Articles Spotting High Bp Sooner Experts aim to identify at-risk patients before overt symptoms...", "Testing Underway On Simple Stroke-diagnosing Eye Exam Researchers are actively testing a simple eye exam that could more... New Buildings Bring Advanced Care To All Generations \"" ]
D91641
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cell_(biology)
Cell (biology)
"From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedianavigation search This article is about the term in biology. For other uses, see Cell (disambiguation). Cell Onion ( Allium cepa) root cells in different phases of the cell cycle (drawn by E. B. Wilson, 1900)A eukaryotic cell (left) and prokaryotic cell (right)Identifiers Me SH D002477TH H1.00.01.0.00001FMA 68646Anatomical terminology [ edit on Wikidata]Structure of an animal cell The cell (from Latin cella, meaning ""small room"" [1]) is the basic structural, functional, and biological unit of all known living organisms. A cell is the smallest unit of life. Cells are often called the ""building blocks of life"". The study of cells is called cell biology. Cells consist of cytoplasm enclosed within a membrane, which contains many biomolecules such as proteins and nucleic acids. [2] Organisms can be classified as unicellular (consisting of a single cell; including bacteria) or multicellular (including plants and animals ). [3] While the number of cells in plants and animals varies from species to species, humans contain more than 10 trillion (10 13) cells. [4] Most plant and animal cells are visible only under a microscope, with dimensions between 1 and 100 micrometres. [5]The cell was discovered by Robert Hooke in 1665, who named the biological units for their resemblance to cells inhabited by Christian monks in a monastery. [6] [7] Cell theory, first developed in 1839 by Matthias Jakob Schleiden and Theodor Schwann, states that all organisms are composed of one or more cells, that cells are the fundamental unit of structure and function in all living organisms, that all cells come from preexisting cells, and that all cells contain the hereditary information necessary for regulating cell functions and for transmitting information to the next generation of cells. [8] Cells emerged on Earth at least 3.5 billion years ago. [9] [10] [11]Contents [ hide ]1 Anatomy1.1 Prokaryotic cells1.2 Eukaryotic cells2 Subcellular components2.1 Membrane2.2 Cytoskeleton2.3 Genetic material2.4 Organelles2.4.1 Eukaryotic2.4.2 Eukaryotic and prokaryotic3 Structures outside the cell membrane3.1 Cell wall3.2 Prokaryotic3.2.1 Capsule3.2.2 Flagella3.2.3 Fimbria4 Cellular processes4.1 Growth and metabolism4.2 Replication4.3 Protein synthesis4.4 Motility5 Multicellularity5.1 Cell specialization5.2 Origin of multicellularity6 Origins6.1 Origin of the first cell6.2 Origin of eukaryotic cells7 History of research8 See also9 References10 Bibliography11 External links11.1 Textbooks Anatomy Comparison of features of prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells Prokaryotes Eukaryotes Typical organisms bacteria, archaea protists, fungi, plants, animals Typical size ~ 1–5 µm [12] ~ 10–100 µm [12]Type of nucleusnucleoid region; no true nucleus true nucleus with double membrane DNA circular (usually) linear molecules ( chromosomes) with histone proteins RNA / protein synthesis coupled in the cytoplasm RNA synthesis in the nucleus protein synthesis in the cytoplasm Ribosomes 50S and 30S 60S and 40SCytoplasmic structure very few structures highly structured by endomembranes and a cytoskeleton Cell movement flagella made of flagellinflagella and cilia containing microtubules; lamellipodia and filopodia containing actin Mitochondria none one to several thousand Chloroplasts none in algae and plants Organization usually single cells single cells, colonies, higher multicellular organisms with specialized cells Cell divisionbinary fission (simple division) mitosis (fission or budding) meiosis Chromosomes single chromosome more than one chromosome Membranes cell membrane Cell membrane and membrane-bound organelles Cells are of two types, eukaryotic, which contain a nucleus, and prokaryotic, which do not. Prokaryotes are single-celled organisms, while eukaryotes can be either single-celled or multicellular. Prokaryotic cells Main article: Prokaryote Structure of a typical prokaryotic cell Prokaryotic cells were the first form of life on Earth, characterised by having vital biological processes including cell signaling and being self-sustaining. They are simpler and smaller than eukaryotic cells, and lack membrane-bound organelles such as the nucleus. Prokaryotes include two of the three domains of life, bacteria and archaea. The DNA of a prokaryotic cell consists of a single chromosome that is in direct contact with the cytoplasm. The nuclear region in the cytoplasm is called the nucleoid. Most prokaryotes are the smallest of all organisms ranging from 0.5 to 2.0 µm in diameter. [13]A prokaryotic cell has three architectural regions: Enclosing the cell is the cell envelope – generally consisting of a plasma membrane covered by a cell wall which, for some bacteria, may be further covered by a third layer called a capsule. Though most prokaryotes have both a cell membrane and a cell wall, there are exceptions such as Mycoplasma (bacteria) and Thermoplasma (archaea) which only possess the cell membrane layer. The envelope gives rigidity to the cell and separates the interior of the cell from its environment, serving as a protective filter. The cell wall consists of peptidoglycan in bacteria, and acts as an additional barrier against exterior forces. It also prevents the cell from expanding and bursting ( cytolysis) from osmotic pressure due to a hypotonic environment. Some eukaryotic cells ( plant cells and fungal cells) also have a cell wall. Inside the cell is the cytoplasmic region that contains the genome (DNA), ribosomes and various sorts of inclusions. [3] The genetic material is freely found in the cytoplasm. Prokaryotes can carry extrachromosomal DNA elements called plasmids, which are usually circular. Linear bacterial plasmids have been identified in several species of spirochete bacteria, including members of the genus Borrelia notably Borrelia burgdorferi, which causes Lyme disease. [14] Though not forming a nucleus, the DNA is condensed in a nucleoid. Plasmids encode additional genes, such as antibiotic resistance genes. On the outside, flagella and pili project from the cell's surface. These are structures (not present in all prokaryotes) made of proteins that facilitate movement and communication between cells. Eukaryotic cells Main article: Eukaryote Structure of a typical animal cell Structure of a typical plant cell Plants, animals, fungi, slime moulds, protozoa, and algae are all eukaryotic. These cells are about fifteen times wider than a typical prokaryote and can be as much as a thousand times greater in volume. The main distinguishing feature of eukaryotes as compared to prokaryotes is compartmentalization: the presence of membrane-bound organelles (compartments) in which specific metabolic activities take place. Most important among these is a cell nucleus, [3] an organelle that houses the cell's DNA. This nucleus gives the eukaryote its name, which means ""true kernel (nucleus)"". Other differences include: The plasma membrane resembles that of prokaryotes in function, with minor differences in the setup. Cell walls may or may not be present. The eukaryotic DNA is organized in one or more linear molecules, called chromosomes, which are associated with histone proteins. All chromosomal DNA is stored in the cell nucleus, separated from the cytoplasm by a membrane. [3] Some eukaryotic organelles such as mitochondria also contain some DNA. Many eukaryotic cells are ciliated with primary cilia. Primary cilia play important roles in chemosensation, mechanosensation, and thermosensation. Cilia may thus be ""viewed as a sensory cellular antennae that coordinates a large number of cellular signaling pathways, sometimes coupling the signaling to ciliary motility or alternatively to cell division and differentiation."" [15]Motile eukaryotes can move using motile cilia or flagella. Motile cells are absent in conifers and flowering plants. [16] Eukaryotic flagella are less complex than those of prokaryotes. Subcellular components All cells, whether prokaryotic or eukaryotic, have a membrane that envelops the cell, regulates what moves in and out (selectively permeable), and maintains the electric potential of the cell. Inside the membrane, the cytoplasm takes up most of the cell's volume. All cells (except red blood cells which lack a cell nucleus and most organelles to accommodate maximum space for hemoglobin) possess DNA, the hereditary material of genes, and RNA, containing the information necessary to build various proteins such as enzymes, the cell's primary machinery. There are also other kinds of biomolecules in cells. This article lists these primary cellular components, then briefly describes their function. Membrane Main article: Cell membrane Detailed diagram of lipid bilayer cell membrane The cell membrane, or plasma membrane, is a biological membrane that surrounds the cytoplasm of a cell. In animals, the plasma membrane is the outer boundary of the cell, while in plants and prokaryotes it is usually covered by a cell wall. This membrane serves to separate and protect a cell from its surrounding environment and is made mostly from a double layer of phospholipids, which are amphiphilic (partly hydrophobic and partly hydrophilic ). Hence, the layer is called a phospholipid bilayer, or sometimes a fluid mosaic membrane. Embedded within this membrane is a variety of protein molecules that act as channels and pumps that move different molecules into and out of the cell. [3] The membrane is semi-permeable, and selectively permeable, in that it can either let a substance ( molecule or ion) pass through freely, pass through to a limited extent or not pass through at all. Cell surface membranes also contain receptor proteins that allow cells to detect external signaling molecules such as hormones. Cytoskeleton Main article: Cytoskeleton A fluorescent image of an endothelial cell. Nuclei are stained blue, mitochondria are stained red, and microfilaments are stained green. The cytoskeleton acts to organize and maintain the cell's shape; anchors organelles in place; helps during endocytosis, the uptake of external materials by a cell, and cytokinesis, the separation of daughter cells after cell division; and moves parts of the cell in processes of growth and mobility. The eukaryotic cytoskeleton is composed of microfilaments, intermediate filaments and microtubules. There are a great number of proteins associated with them, each controlling a cell's structure by directing, bundling, and aligning filaments. [3] The prokaryotic cytoskeleton is less well-studied but is involved in the maintenance of cell shape, polarity and cytokinesis. [17] The subunit protein of microfilaments is a small, monomeric protein called actin. The subunit of microtubules is a dimeric molecule called tubulin. Intermediate filaments are heteropolymers whose subunits vary among the cell types in different tissues. But some of the subunit protein of intermediate filaments include vimentin, desmin, lamin (lamins A, B and C), keratin (multiple acidic and basic keratins), neurofilament proteins (NF–L, NF–M). Genetic material Two different kinds of genetic material exist: deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) and ribonucleic acid (RNA). Cells use DNA for their long-term information storage. The biological information contained in an organism is encoded in its DNA sequence. [3] RNA is used for information transport (e.g., m RNA) and enzymatic functions (e.g., ribosomal RNA). Transfer RNA (t RNA) molecules are used to add amino acids during protein translation. Prokaryotic genetic material is organized in a simple circular DNA molecule (the bacterial chromosome) in the nucleoid region of the cytoplasm. Eukaryotic genetic material is divided into different, [3] linear molecules called chromosomes inside a discrete nucleus, usually with additional genetic material in some organelles like mitochondria and chloroplasts (see endosymbiotic theory ). A human cell has genetic material contained in the cell nucleus (the nuclear genome) and in the mitochondria (the mitochondrial genome ). In humans the nuclear genome is divided into 46 linear DNA molecules called chromosomes, including 22 homologous chromosome pairs and a pair of sex chromosomes. The mitochondrial genome is a circular DNA molecule distinct from the nuclear DNA. Although the mitochondrial DNA is very small compared to nuclear chromosomes, [3] it codes for 13 proteins involved in mitochondrial energy production and specific t RNAs. Foreign genetic material (most commonly DNA) can also be artificially introduced into the cell by a process called transfection. This can be transient, if the DNA is not inserted into the cell's genome, or stable, if it is. Certain viruses also insert their genetic material into the genome. Organelles Main article: Organelle Organelles are parts of the cell which are adapted and/or specialized for carrying out one or more vital functions, analogous to the organs of the human body (such as the heart, lung, and kidney, with each organ performing a different function). [3] Both eukaryotic and prokaryotic cells have organelles, but prokaryotic organelles are generally simpler and are not membrane-bound. There are several types of organelles in a cell. Some (such as the nucleus and golgi apparatus) are typically solitary, while others (such as mitochondria, chloroplasts, peroxisomes and lysosomes) can be numerous (hundreds to thousands). The cytosol is the gelatinous fluid that fills the cell and surrounds the organelles. Eukaryotic Human cancer cells, specifically He La cells, with DNA stained blue. The central and rightmost cell are in interphase, so their DNA is diffuse and the entire nuclei are labelled. The cell on the left is going through mitosis and its chromosomes have condensed. Cell nucleus: A cell's information center, the cell nucleus is the most conspicuous organelle found in a eukaryotic cell. It houses the cell's chromosomes, and is the place where almost all DNA replication and RNA synthesis ( transcription) occur. The nucleus is spherical and separated from the cytoplasm by a double membrane called the nuclear envelope. The nuclear envelope isolates and protects a cell's DNA from various molecules that could accidentally damage its structure or interfere with its processing. During processing, DNA is transcribed, or copied into a special RNA, called messenger RNA (m RNA). This m RNA is then transported out of the nucleus, where it is translated into a specific protein molecule. The nucleolus is a specialized region within the nucleus where ribosome subunits are assembled. In prokaryotes, DNA processing takes place in the cytoplasm. [3]Mitochondria and Chloroplasts: generate energy for the cell. Mitochondria are self-replicating organelles that occur in various numbers, shapes, and sizes in the cytoplasm of all eukaryotic cells. [3] Respiration occurs in the cell mitochondria, which generate the cell's energy by oxidative phosphorylation, using oxygen to release energy stored in cellular nutrients (typically pertaining to glucose) to generate ATP. Mitochondria multiply by binary fission, like prokaryotes. Chloroplasts can only be found in plants and algae, and they capture the sun's energy to make carbohydrates through photosynthesis. Diagram of an endomembrane system Endoplasmic reticulum: The endoplasmic reticulum (ER) is a transport network for molecules targeted for certain modifications and specific destinations, as compared to molecules that float freely in the cytoplasm. The ER has two forms: the rough ER, which has ribosomes on its surface that secrete proteins into the ER, and the smooth ER, which lacks ribosomes. [3] The smooth ER plays a role in calcium sequestration and release. Golgi apparatus: The primary function of the Golgi apparatus is to process and package the macromolecules such as proteins and lipids that are synthesized by the cell. Lysosomes and Peroxisomes: Lysosomes contain digestive enzymes (acid hydrolases ). They digest excess or worn-out organelles, food particles, and engulfed viruses or bacteria. Peroxisomes have enzymes that rid the cell of toxic peroxides. The cell could not house these destructive enzymes if they were not contained in a membrane-bound system. [3]Centrosome: the cytoskeleton organiser: The centrosome produces the microtubules of a cell – a key component of the cytoskeleton. It directs the transport through the ER and the Golgi apparatus. Centrosomes are composed of two centrioles, which separate during cell division and help in the formation of the mitotic spindle. A single centrosome is present in the animal cells. They are also found in some fungi and algae cells. Vacuoles: Vacuoles sequester waste products and in plant cells store water. They are often described as liquid filled space and are surrounded by a membrane. Some cells, most notably Amoeba, have contractile vacuoles, which can pump water out of the cell if there is too much water. The vacuoles of plant cells and fungal cells are usually larger than those of animal cells. Eukaryotic and prokaryotic Ribosomes: The ribosome is a large complex of RNA and protein molecules. [3] They each consist of two subunits, and act as an assembly line where RNA from the nucleus is used to synthesise proteins from amino acids. Ribosomes can be found either floating freely or bound to a membrane (the rough endoplasmatic reticulum in eukaryotes, or the cell membrane in prokaryotes). [18]Structures outside the cell membrane Many cells also have structures which exist wholly or partially outside the cell membrane. These structures are notable because they are not protected from the external environment by the semipermeable cell membrane. In order to assemble these structures, their components must be carried across the cell membrane by export processes. Cell wall Many types of prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells have a cell wall. The cell wall acts to protect the cell mechanically and chemically from its environment, and is an additional layer of protection to the cell membrane. Different types of cell have cell walls made up of different materials; plant cell walls are primarily made up of cellulose, fungi cell walls are made up of chitin and bacteria cell walls are made up of peptidoglycan. Prokaryotic Capsule A gelatinous capsule is present in some bacteria outside the cell membrane and cell wall. The capsule may be polysaccharide as in pneumococci, meningococci or polypeptide as Bacillus anthracis or hyaluronic acid as in streptococci. Capsules are not marked by normal staining protocols and can be detected by India ink or methyl blue; which allows for higher contrast between the cells for observation. [19]: 87Flagella Flagella are organelles for cellular mobility. The bacterial flagellum stretches from cytoplasm through the cell membrane (s) and extrudes through the cell wall. They are long and thick thread-like appendages, protein in nature. A different type of flagellum is found in archaea and a different type is found in eukaryotes. Fimbria A fimbria also known as a pilus is a short, thin, hair-like filament found on the surface of bacteria. Fimbriae, or pili are formed of a protein called pilin ( antigenic) and are responsible for attachment of bacteria to specific receptors of human cell ( cell adhesion ). There are special types of specific pili involved in bacterial conjugation. Cellular processes Growth and metabolism Main articles: Cell growth and Metabolism Between successive cell divisions, cells grow through the functioning of cellular metabolism. Cell metabolism is the process by which individual cells process nutrient molecules. Metabolism has two distinct divisions: catabolism, in which the cell breaks down complex molecules to produce energy and reducing power, and anabolism, in which the cell uses energy and reducing power to construct complex molecules and perform other biological functions. Complex sugars consumed by the organism can be broken down into simpler sugar molecules called monosaccharides such as glucose. Once inside the cell, glucose is broken down to make adenosine triphosphate ( ATP ), [3] a molecule that possesses readily available energy, through two different pathways. Replication Bacteria divide by binary fission, while eukaryotes divide by mitosis or meiosis. Main article: Cell division Cell division involves a single cell (called a mother cell) dividing into two daughter cells. This leads to growth in multicellular organisms (the growth of tissue) and to procreation ( vegetative reproduction) in unicellular organisms. Prokaryotic cells divide by binary fission, while eukaryotic cells usually undergo a process of nuclear division, called mitosis, followed by division of the cell, called cytokinesis. A diploid cell may also undergo meiosis to produce haploid cells, usually four. Haploid cells serve as gametes in multicellular organisms, fusing to form new diploid cells. DNA replication, or the process of duplicating a cell's genome, [3] always happens when a cell divides through mitosis or binary fission. This occurs during the S phase of the cell cycle. In meiosis, the DNA is replicated only once, while the cell divides twice. DNA replication only occurs before meiosis I. DNA replication does not occur when the cells divide the second time, in meiosis II. [20] Replication, like all cellular activities, requires specialized proteins for carrying out the job. [3]Protein synthesis An overview of protein synthesis. Within the nucleus of the cell ( light blue ), genes (DNA, dark blue) are transcribed into RNA. This RNA is then subject to post-transcriptional modification and control, resulting in a mature m RNA ( red) that is then transported out of the nucleus and into the cytoplasm ( peach ), where it undergoes translation into a protein. m RNA is translated by ribosomes ( purple) that match the three-base codons of the m RNA to the three-base anti-codons of the appropriate t RNA. Newly synthesized proteins ( black) are often further modified, such as by binding to an effector molecule ( orange ), to become fully active. Main article: Protein biosynthesis Cells are capable of synthesizing new proteins, which are essential for the modulation and maintenance of cellular activities. This process involves the formation of new protein molecules from amino acid building blocks based on information encoded in DNA/RNA. Protein synthesis generally consists of two major steps: transcription and translation. Transcription is the process where genetic information in DNA is used to produce a complementary RNA strand. This RNA strand is then processed to give messenger RNA (m RNA), which is free to migrate through the cell. m RNA molecules bind to protein-RNA complexes called ribosomes located in the cytosol, where they are translated into polypeptide sequences. The ribosome mediates the formation of a polypeptide sequence based on the m RNA sequence. The m RNA sequence directly relates to the polypeptide sequence by binding to transfer RNA (t RNA) adapter molecules in binding pockets within the ribosome. The new polypeptide then folds into a functional three-dimensional protein molecule. Motility Main article: Motility Unicellular organisms can move in order to find food or escape predators. Common mechanisms of motion include flagella and cilia. In multicellular organisms, cells can move during processes such as wound healing, the immune response and cancer metastasis. For example, in wound healing in animals, white blood cells move to the wound site to kill the microorganisms that cause infection. Cell motility involves many receptors, crosslinking, bundling, binding, adhesion, motor and other proteins. [21] The process is divided into three steps – protrusion of the leading edge of the cell, adhesion of the leading edge and de-adhesion at the cell body and rear, and cytoskeletal contraction to pull the cell forward. Each step is driven by physical forces generated by unique segments of the cytoskeleton. [22] [23]Multicellularity Main article: Multicellular organism Cell specialization Staining of a Caenorhabditis elegans which highlights the nuclei of its cells. Multicellular organisms are organisms that consist of more than one cell, in contrast to single-celled organisms. [24]In complex multicellular organisms, cells specialize into different cell types that are adapted to particular functions. In mammals, major cell types include skin cells, muscle cells, neurons, blood cells, fibroblasts, stem cells, and others. Cell types differ both in appearance and function, yet are genetically identical. Cells are able to be of the same genotype but of different cell type due to the differential expression of the genes they contain. Most distinct cell types arise from a single totipotent cell, called a zygote, that differentiates into hundreds of different cell types during the course of development. Differentiation of cells is driven by different environmental cues (such as cell–cell interaction) and intrinsic differences (such as those caused by the uneven distribution of molecules during division ). Origin of multicellularity Multicellularity has evolved independently at least 25 times, [25] including in some prokaryotes, like cyanobacteria, myxobacteria, actinomycetes, Magnetoglobus multicellularis or Methanosarcina. However, complex multicellular organisms evolved only in six eukaryotic groups: animals, fungi, brown algae, red algae, green algae, and plants. [26] It evolved repeatedly for plants ( Chloroplastida ), once or twice for animals, once for brown algae, and perhaps several times for fungi, slime molds, and red algae. [27] Multicellularity may have evolved from colonies of interdependent organisms, from cellularization, or from organisms in symbiotic relationships. The first evidence of multicellularity is from cyanobacteria -like organisms that lived between 3 and 3.5 billion years ago. [25] Other early fossils of multicellular organisms include the contested Grypania spiralis and the fossils of the black shales of the Palaeoproterozoic Francevillian Group Fossil B Formation in Gabon. [28]The evolution of multicellularity from unicellular ancestors has been replicated in the laboratory, in evolution experiments using predation as the selective pressure. [25]Origins Main article: Evolutionary history of life The origin of cells has to do with the origin of life, which began the history of life on Earth. Origin of the first cell Stromatolites are left behind by cyanobacteria, also called blue-green algae. They are the oldest known fossils of life on Earth. This one-billion-year-old fossil is from Glacier National Park in the United States. Further information: Abiogenesis and Evolution of cells There are several theories about the origin of small molecules that led to life on the early Earth. They may have been carried to Earth on meteorites (see Murchison meteorite ), created at deep-sea vents, or synthesized by lightning in a reducing atmosphere (see Miller–Urey experiment ). There is little experimental data defining what the first self-replicating forms were. RNA is thought to be the earliest self-replicating molecule, as it is capable of both storing genetic information and catalyzing chemical reactions (see RNA world hypothesis ), but some other entity with the potential to self-replicate could have preceded RNA, such as clay or peptide nucleic acid. [29]Cells emerged at least 3.5 billion years ago. [9] [10] [11] The current belief is that these cells were heterotrophs. The early cell membranes were probably more simple and permeable than modern ones, with only a single fatty acid chain per lipid. Lipids are known to spontaneously form bilayered vesicles in water, and could have preceded RNA, but the first cell membranes could also have been produced by catalytic RNA, or even have required structural proteins before they could form. [30]Origin of eukaryotic cells Further information: Evolution of sexual reproduction The eukaryotic cell seems to have evolved from a symbiotic community of prokaryotic cells. DNA-bearing organelles like the mitochondria and the chloroplasts are descended from ancient symbiotic oxygen-breathing proteobacteria and cyanobacteria, respectively, which were endosymbiosed by an ancestral archaean prokaryote. There is still considerable debate about whether organelles like the hydrogenosome predated the origin of mitochondria, or vice versa: see the hydrogen hypothesis for the origin of eukaryotic cells. History of research Main article: Cell theory Hooke's drawing of cells in cork, 16651632–1723: Antonie van Leeuwenhoek teaches himself to make lenses, constructs basic optical microscopes and draws protozoa, such as Vorticella from rain water, and bacteria from his own mouth.1665: Robert Hooke discovers cells in cork, then in living plant tissue using an early compound microscope. He coins the term cell (from Latin cella, meaning ""small room"" [1]) in his book Micrographia (1665). [31]1839: Theodor Schwann and Matthias Jakob Schleiden elucidate the principle that plants and animals are made of cells, concluding that cells are a common unit of structure and development, and thus founding the cell theory.1855: Rudolf Virchow states that new cells come from pre-existing cells by cell division ( omnis cellula ex cellula ).1859: The belief that life forms can occur spontaneously ( generatio spontanea) is contradicted by Louis Pasteur (1822–1895) (although Francesco Redi had performed an experiment in 1668 that suggested the same conclusion).1931: Ernst Ruska builds the first transmission electron microscope (TEM) at the University of Berlin. By 1935, he has built an EM with twice the resolution of a light microscope, revealing previously unresolvable organelles.1953: Watson and Crick made their first announcement on the double helix structure of DNA on February 28.1981: Lynn Margulis published Symbiosis in Cell Evolution detailing the endosymbiotic theory. See also Biology portal Molecular and cellular biology portal Cell cortex Cell culture Cellular model Cytorrhysis Cytoneme Cytotoxicity Lipid raft Outline of cell biology Plasmolysis Syncytium Tunneling nanotube Vault (organelle)References^ a b ""Cell"". Online Etymology Dictionary. Retrieved 31 December 2012.^ Cell Movements and the Shaping of the Vertebrate Body in Chapter 21 of Molecular Biology of the Cell fourth edition, edited by Bruce Alberts (2002) published by Garland Science. The Alberts text discusses how the ""cellular building blocks"" move to shape developing embryos. It is also common to describe small molecules such as amino acids as "" molecular building blocks "".^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r This article incorporates public domain material from the NCBI document ""What Is a Cell?"". Retrieved on 3 May 2013. 30 March 2004.^ Alberts, p. 2.^ Campbell, Neil A.; Brad Williamson; Robin J. Heyden (2006). Biology: Exploring Life. 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PMID 20596019.^ Orgel LE (1998). ""The origin of life—a review of facts and speculations"". Trends Biochem Sci. 23 (12): 491–495. doi: 10.1016/S0968-0004 (98)01300-0. PMID 9868373.^ Griffiths G (December 2007). ""Cell evolution and the problem of membrane topology"". Nature Reviews. Molecular Cell Biology. 8 (12): 1018–1024. doi: 10.1038/nrm2287. PMID 17971839.^ Hooke, Robert (1665). Micrographia: …. London, England: Royal Society of London. p. 113. "" … I could exceedingly plainly perceive it to be all perforated and porous, much like a Honey-comb, but that the pores of it were not regular […] these pores, or cells, […] were indeed the first microscopical pores I ever saw, and perhaps, that were ever seen, for I had not met with any Writer or Person, that had made any mention of them before this … "" – Hooke describing his observations on a thin slice of cork. See also: Robert Hooke Bibliography Alberts, Bruce; Johnson, Alexander; Lewis, Julian; Morgan, David; Raff, Martin; Roberts, Keith; Walter, Peter (2015). Molecular Biology of the Cell (6th ed.). Garland Science. p. 2. ISBN 978-0815344322. External links Wikimedia Commons has media related to Cell biology. Wikiquote has quotations related to: Cell (biology)MBInfo – Descriptions on Cellular Functions and Processes MBInfo – Cellular Organization Inside the Cell – a science education booklet by National Institutes of Health, in PDF and e Pub. Cells Alive!Cell Biology in ""The Biology Project"" of University of Arizona. Centre of the Cell online The Image & Video Library of The American Society for Cell Biology, a collection of peer-reviewed still images, video clips and digital books that illustrate the structure, function and biology of the cell. High Mag Blog, still images of cells from recent research articles. New Microscope Produces Dazzling 3D Movies of Live Cells, March 4, 2011 – Howard Hughes Medical Institute. Worm Web.org: Interactive Visualization of the C. elegans Cell lineage – Visualize the entire cell lineage tree of the nematode C. elegans Cell Photomicrographs Textbooks Alberts B, Johnson A, Lewis J, Raff M, Roberts K, Walter P (2014). Molecular Biology of the Cell (6th ed.). Garland. ISBN 9780815344322.; The fourth edition is freely available from National Center for Biotechnology Information Bookshelf. Lodish H, Berk A, Matsudaira P, Kaiser CA, Krieger M, Scott MP, Zipurksy SL, Darnell J (2004). Molecular Cell Biology (5th ed.). WH Freeman: New York, NY. ISBN 978-0-7167-4366-8. Cooper GM (2000). The cell: a molecular approach (2nd ed.). Washington, D. C: ASM Press. ISBN 0-87893-102-3. [ show]v t e Structures of the cell / organelles [ show]v t e Hierarchy of life Authority control LCCN: sh85021678 GND: 4067537-3 NDL: 00569965Categories: Cell biology 1665 in science "
[ "\"From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedianavigation search This article is about the term in biology.", "For other uses, see Cell (disambiguation).", "Cell Onion ( Allium cepa) root cells in different phases of the cell cycle (drawn by E. B. Wilson, 1900)A eukaryotic cell (left) and prokaryotic cell (right)Identifiers Me SH D002477TH H1.00.01.0.00001FMA 68646Anatomical terminology [ edit on Wikidata]Structure of an animal cell The cell (from Latin cella, meaning \"\"small room\"\" [1]) is the basic structural, functional, and biological unit of all known living organisms.", "A cell is the smallest unit of life.", "Cells are often called the \"\"building blocks of life\"\".", "The study of cells is called cell biology.", "Cells consist of cytoplasm enclosed within a membrane, which contains many biomolecules such as proteins and nucleic acids.", "[2] Organisms can be classified as unicellular (consisting of a single cell; including bacteria) or multicellular (including plants and animals ).", "[3] While the number of cells in plants and animals varies from species to species, humans contain more than 10 trillion (10 13) cells.", "[4] Most plant and animal cells are visible only under a microscope, with dimensions between 1 and 100 micrometres.", "[5]The cell was discovered by Robert Hooke in 1665, who named the biological units for their resemblance to cells inhabited by Christian monks in a monastery.", "[6] [7] Cell theory, first developed in 1839 by Matthias Jakob Schleiden and Theodor Schwann, states that all organisms are composed of one or more cells, that cells are the fundamental unit of structure and function in all living organisms, that all cells come from preexisting cells, and that all cells contain the hereditary information necessary for regulating cell functions and for transmitting information to the next generation of cells.", "[8] Cells emerged on Earth at least 3.5 billion years ago.", "[9] [10] [11]Contents [ hide ]1 Anatomy1.1 Prokaryotic cells1.2 Eukaryotic cells2 Subcellular components2.1 Membrane2.2 Cytoskeleton2.3 Genetic material2.4 Organelles2.4.1 Eukaryotic2.4.2 Eukaryotic and prokaryotic3 Structures outside the cell membrane3.1 Cell wall3.2 Prokaryotic3.2.1 Capsule3.2.2 Flagella3.2.3 Fimbria4 Cellular processes4.1 Growth and metabolism4.2 Replication4.3 Protein synthesis4.4 Motility5 Multicellularity5.1 Cell specialization5.2 Origin of multicellularity6 Origins6.1 Origin of the first cell6.2 Origin of eukaryotic cells7 History of research8 See also9 References10 Bibliography11 External links11.1 Textbooks Anatomy Comparison of features of prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells Prokaryotes Eukaryotes Typical organisms bacteria, archaea protists, fungi, plants, animals Typical size ~ 1–5 µm [12] ~ 10–100 µm [12]Type of nucleusnucleoid region; no true nucleus true nucleus with double membrane DNA circular (usually) linear molecules ( chromosomes) with histone proteins RNA / protein synthesis coupled in the cytoplasm RNA synthesis in the nucleus protein synthesis in the cytoplasm Ribosomes 50S and 30S 60S and 40SCytoplasmic structure very few structures highly structured by endomembranes and a cytoskeleton Cell movement flagella made of flagellinflagella and cilia containing microtubules; lamellipodia and filopodia containing actin Mitochondria none one to several thousand Chloroplasts none in algae and plants Organization usually single cells single cells, colonies, higher multicellular organisms with specialized cells Cell divisionbinary fission (simple division) mitosis (fission or budding) meiosis Chromosomes single chromosome more than one chromosome Membranes cell membrane Cell membrane and membrane-bound organelles Cells are of two types, eukaryotic, which contain a nucleus, and prokaryotic, which do not.", "Prokaryotes are single-celled organisms, while eukaryotes can be either single-celled or multicellular.", "Prokaryotic cells Main article: Prokaryote Structure of a typical prokaryotic cell Prokaryotic cells were the first form of life on Earth, characterised by having vital biological processes including cell signaling and being self-sustaining.", "They are simpler and smaller than eukaryotic cells, and lack membrane-bound organelles such as the nucleus.", "Prokaryotes include two of the three domains of life, bacteria and archaea.", "The DNA of a prokaryotic cell consists of a single chromosome that is in direct contact with the cytoplasm.", "The nuclear region in the cytoplasm is called the nucleoid.", "Most prokaryotes are the smallest of all organisms ranging from 0.5 to 2.0 µm in diameter.", "[13]A prokaryotic cell has three architectural regions: Enclosing the cell is the cell envelope – generally consisting of a plasma membrane covered by a cell wall which, for some bacteria, may be further covered by a third layer called a capsule.", "Though most prokaryotes have both a cell membrane and a cell wall, there are exceptions such as Mycoplasma (bacteria) and Thermoplasma (archaea) which only possess the cell membrane layer.", "The envelope gives rigidity to the cell and separates the interior of the cell from its environment, serving as a protective filter.", "The cell wall consists of peptidoglycan in bacteria, and acts as an additional barrier against exterior forces.", "It also prevents the cell from expanding and bursting ( cytolysis) from osmotic pressure due to a hypotonic environment.", "Some eukaryotic cells ( plant cells and fungal cells) also have a cell wall.", "Inside the cell is the cytoplasmic region that contains the genome (DNA), ribosomes and various sorts of inclusions.", "[3] The genetic material is freely found in the cytoplasm.", "Prokaryotes can carry extrachromosomal DNA elements called plasmids, which are usually circular.", "Linear bacterial plasmids have been identified in several species of spirochete bacteria, including members of the genus Borrelia notably Borrelia burgdorferi, which causes Lyme disease.", "[14] Though not forming a nucleus, the DNA is condensed in a nucleoid.", "Plasmids encode additional genes, such as antibiotic resistance genes.", "On the outside, flagella and pili project from the cell's surface.", "These are structures (not present in all prokaryotes) made of proteins that facilitate movement and communication between cells.", "Eukaryotic cells Main article: Eukaryote Structure of a typical animal cell Structure of a typical plant cell Plants, animals, fungi, slime moulds, protozoa, and algae are all eukaryotic.", "These cells are about fifteen times wider than a typical prokaryote and can be as much as a thousand times greater in volume.", "The main distinguishing feature of eukaryotes as compared to prokaryotes is compartmentalization: the presence of membrane-bound organelles (compartments) in which specific metabolic activities take place.", "Most important among these is a cell nucleus, [3] an organelle that houses the cell's DNA.", "This nucleus gives the eukaryote its name, which means \"\"true kernel (nucleus)\"\".", "Other differences include: The plasma membrane resembles that of prokaryotes in function, with minor differences in the setup.", "Cell walls may or may not be present.", "The eukaryotic DNA is organized in one or more linear molecules, called chromosomes, which are associated with histone proteins.", "All chromosomal DNA is stored in the cell nucleus, separated from the cytoplasm by a membrane.", "[3] Some eukaryotic organelles such as mitochondria also contain some DNA.", "Many eukaryotic cells are ciliated with primary cilia.", "Primary cilia play important roles in chemosensation, mechanosensation, and thermosensation.", "Cilia may thus be \"\"viewed as a sensory cellular antennae that coordinates a large number of cellular signaling pathways, sometimes coupling the signaling to ciliary motility or alternatively to cell division and differentiation.\"\"", "[15]Motile eukaryotes can move using motile cilia or flagella.", "Motile cells are absent in conifers and flowering plants.", "[16] Eukaryotic flagella are less complex than those of prokaryotes.", "Subcellular components All cells, whether prokaryotic or eukaryotic, have a membrane that envelops the cell, regulates what moves in and out (selectively permeable), and maintains the electric potential of the cell.", "Inside the membrane, the cytoplasm takes up most of the cell's volume.", "All cells (except red blood cells which lack a cell nucleus and most organelles to accommodate maximum space for hemoglobin) possess DNA, the hereditary material of genes, and RNA, containing the information necessary to build various proteins such as enzymes, the cell's primary machinery.", "There are also other kinds of biomolecules in cells.", "This article lists these primary cellular components, then briefly describes their function.", "Membrane Main article: Cell membrane Detailed diagram of lipid bilayer cell membrane The cell membrane, or plasma membrane, is a biological membrane that surrounds the cytoplasm of a cell.", "In animals, the plasma membrane is the outer boundary of the cell, while in plants and prokaryotes it is usually covered by a cell wall.", "This membrane serves to separate and protect a cell from its surrounding environment and is made mostly from a double layer of phospholipids, which are amphiphilic (partly hydrophobic and partly hydrophilic ).", "Hence, the layer is called a phospholipid bilayer, or sometimes a fluid mosaic membrane.", "Embedded within this membrane is a variety of protein molecules that act as channels and pumps that move different molecules into and out of the cell.", "[3] The membrane is semi-permeable, and selectively permeable, in that it can either let a substance ( molecule or ion) pass through freely, pass through to a limited extent or not pass through at all.", "Cell surface membranes also contain receptor proteins that allow cells to detect external signaling molecules such as hormones.", "Cytoskeleton Main article: Cytoskeleton A fluorescent image of an endothelial cell.", "Nuclei are stained blue, mitochondria are stained red, and microfilaments are stained green.", "The cytoskeleton acts to organize and maintain the cell's shape; anchors organelles in place; helps during endocytosis, the uptake of external materials by a cell, and cytokinesis, the separation of daughter cells after cell division; and moves parts of the cell in processes of growth and mobility.", "The eukaryotic cytoskeleton is composed of microfilaments, intermediate filaments and microtubules.", "There are a great number of proteins associated with them, each controlling a cell's structure by directing, bundling, and aligning filaments.", "[3] The prokaryotic cytoskeleton is less well-studied but is involved in the maintenance of cell shape, polarity and cytokinesis.", "[17] The subunit protein of microfilaments is a small, monomeric protein called actin.", "The subunit of microtubules is a dimeric molecule called tubulin.", "Intermediate filaments are heteropolymers whose subunits vary among the cell types in different tissues.", "But some of the subunit protein of intermediate filaments include vimentin, desmin, lamin (lamins A, B and C), keratin (multiple acidic and basic keratins), neurofilament proteins (NF–L, NF–M).", "Genetic material Two different kinds of genetic material exist: deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) and ribonucleic acid (RNA).", "Cells use DNA for their long-term information storage.", "The biological information contained in an organism is encoded in its DNA sequence.", "[3] RNA is used for information transport (e.g., m RNA) and enzymatic functions (e.g., ribosomal RNA).", "Transfer RNA (t RNA) molecules are used to add amino acids during protein translation.", "Prokaryotic genetic material is organized in a simple circular DNA molecule (the bacterial chromosome) in the nucleoid region of the cytoplasm.", "Eukaryotic genetic material is divided into different, [3] linear molecules called chromosomes inside a discrete nucleus, usually with additional genetic material in some organelles like mitochondria and chloroplasts (see endosymbiotic theory ).", "A human cell has genetic material contained in the cell nucleus (the nuclear genome) and in the mitochondria (the mitochondrial genome ).", "In humans the nuclear genome is divided into 46 linear DNA molecules called chromosomes, including 22 homologous chromosome pairs and a pair of sex chromosomes.", "The mitochondrial genome is a circular DNA molecule distinct from the nuclear DNA.", "Although the mitochondrial DNA is very small compared to nuclear chromosomes, [3] it codes for 13 proteins involved in mitochondrial energy production and specific t RNAs.", "Foreign genetic material (most commonly DNA) can also be artificially introduced into the cell by a process called transfection.", "This can be transient, if the DNA is not inserted into the cell's genome, or stable, if it is.", "Certain viruses also insert their genetic material into the genome.", "Organelles Main article: Organelle Organelles are parts of the cell which are adapted and/or specialized for carrying out one or more vital functions, analogous to the organs of the human body (such as the heart, lung, and kidney, with each organ performing a different function).", "[3] Both eukaryotic and prokaryotic cells have organelles, but prokaryotic organelles are generally simpler and are not membrane-bound.", "There are several types of organelles in a cell.", "Some (such as the nucleus and golgi apparatus) are typically solitary, while others (such as mitochondria, chloroplasts, peroxisomes and lysosomes) can be numerous (hundreds to thousands).", "The cytosol is the gelatinous fluid that fills the cell and surrounds the organelles.", "Eukaryotic Human cancer cells, specifically He La cells, with DNA stained blue.", "The central and rightmost cell are in interphase, so their DNA is diffuse and the entire nuclei are labelled.", "The cell on the left is going through mitosis and its chromosomes have condensed.", "Cell nucleus: A cell's information center, the cell nucleus is the most conspicuous organelle found in a eukaryotic cell.", "It houses the cell's chromosomes, and is the place where almost all DNA replication and RNA synthesis ( transcription) occur.", "The nucleus is spherical and separated from the cytoplasm by a double membrane called the nuclear envelope.", "The nuclear envelope isolates and protects a cell's DNA from various molecules that could accidentally damage its structure or interfere with its processing.", "During processing, DNA is transcribed, or copied into a special RNA, called messenger RNA (m RNA).", "This m RNA is then transported out of the nucleus, where it is translated into a specific protein molecule.", "The nucleolus is a specialized region within the nucleus where ribosome subunits are assembled.", "In prokaryotes, DNA processing takes place in the cytoplasm.", "[3]Mitochondria and Chloroplasts: generate energy for the cell.", "Mitochondria are self-replicating organelles that occur in various numbers, shapes, and sizes in the cytoplasm of all eukaryotic cells.", "[3] Respiration occurs in the cell mitochondria, which generate the cell's energy by oxidative phosphorylation, using oxygen to release energy stored in cellular nutrients (typically pertaining to glucose) to generate ATP.", "Mitochondria multiply by binary fission, like prokaryotes.", "Chloroplasts can only be found in plants and algae, and they capture the sun's energy to make carbohydrates through photosynthesis.", "Diagram of an endomembrane system Endoplasmic reticulum: The endoplasmic reticulum (ER) is a transport network for molecules targeted for certain modifications and specific destinations, as compared to molecules that float freely in the cytoplasm.", "The ER has two forms: the rough ER, which has ribosomes on its surface that secrete proteins into the ER, and the smooth ER, which lacks ribosomes.", "[3] The smooth ER plays a role in calcium sequestration and release.", "Golgi apparatus: The primary function of the Golgi apparatus is to process and package the macromolecules such as proteins and lipids that are synthesized by the cell.", "Lysosomes and Peroxisomes: Lysosomes contain digestive enzymes (acid hydrolases ).", "They digest excess or worn-out organelles, food particles, and engulfed viruses or bacteria.", "Peroxisomes have enzymes that rid the cell of toxic peroxides.", "The cell could not house these destructive enzymes if they were not contained in a membrane-bound system.", "[3]Centrosome: the cytoskeleton organiser: The centrosome produces the microtubules of a cell – a key component of the cytoskeleton.", "It directs the transport through the ER and the Golgi apparatus.", "Centrosomes are composed of two centrioles, which separate during cell division and help in the formation of the mitotic spindle.", "A single centrosome is present in the animal cells.", "They are also found in some fungi and algae cells.", "Vacuoles: Vacuoles sequester waste products and in plant cells store water.", "They are often described as liquid filled space and are surrounded by a membrane.", "Some cells, most notably Amoeba, have contractile vacuoles, which can pump water out of the cell if there is too much water.", "The vacuoles of plant cells and fungal cells are usually larger than those of animal cells.", "Eukaryotic and prokaryotic Ribosomes: The ribosome is a large complex of RNA and protein molecules.", "[3] They each consist of two subunits, and act as an assembly line where RNA from the nucleus is used to synthesise proteins from amino acids.", "Ribosomes can be found either floating freely or bound to a membrane (the rough endoplasmatic reticulum in eukaryotes, or the cell membrane in prokaryotes).", "[18]Structures outside the cell membrane Many cells also have structures which exist wholly or partially outside the cell membrane.", "These structures are notable because they are not protected from the external environment by the semipermeable cell membrane.", "In order to assemble these structures, their components must be carried across the cell membrane by export processes.", "Cell wall Many types of prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells have a cell wall.", "The cell wall acts to protect the cell mechanically and chemically from its environment, and is an additional layer of protection to the cell membrane.", "Different types of cell have cell walls made up of different materials; plant cell walls are primarily made up of cellulose, fungi cell walls are made up of chitin and bacteria cell walls are made up of peptidoglycan.", "Prokaryotic Capsule A gelatinous capsule is present in some bacteria outside the cell membrane and cell wall.", "The capsule may be polysaccharide as in pneumococci, meningococci or polypeptide as Bacillus anthracis or hyaluronic acid as in streptococci.", "Capsules are not marked by normal staining protocols and can be detected by India ink or methyl blue; which allows for higher contrast between the cells for observation.", "[19]: 87Flagella Flagella are organelles for cellular mobility.", "The bacterial flagellum stretches from cytoplasm through the cell membrane (s) and extrudes through the cell wall.", "They are long and thick thread-like appendages, protein in nature.", "A different type of flagellum is found in archaea and a different type is found in eukaryotes.", "Fimbria A fimbria also known as a pilus is a short, thin, hair-like filament found on the surface of bacteria.", "Fimbriae, or pili are formed of a protein called pilin ( antigenic) and are responsible for attachment of bacteria to specific receptors of human cell ( cell adhesion ).", "There are special types of specific pili involved in bacterial conjugation.", "Cellular processes Growth and metabolism Main articles: Cell growth and Metabolism Between successive cell divisions, cells grow through the functioning of cellular metabolism.", "Cell metabolism is the process by which individual cells process nutrient molecules.", "Metabolism has two distinct divisions: catabolism, in which the cell breaks down complex molecules to produce energy and reducing power, and anabolism, in which the cell uses energy and reducing power to construct complex molecules and perform other biological functions.", "Complex sugars consumed by the organism can be broken down into simpler sugar molecules called monosaccharides such as glucose.", "Once inside the cell, glucose is broken down to make adenosine triphosphate ( ATP ), [3] a molecule that possesses readily available energy, through two different pathways.", "Replication Bacteria divide by binary fission, while eukaryotes divide by mitosis or meiosis.", "Main article: Cell division Cell division involves a single cell (called a mother cell) dividing into two daughter cells.", "This leads to growth in multicellular organisms (the growth of tissue) and to procreation ( vegetative reproduction) in unicellular organisms.", "Prokaryotic cells divide by binary fission, while eukaryotic cells usually undergo a process of nuclear division, called mitosis, followed by division of the cell, called cytokinesis.", "A diploid cell may also undergo meiosis to produce haploid cells, usually four.", "Haploid cells serve as gametes in multicellular organisms, fusing to form new diploid cells.", "DNA replication, or the process of duplicating a cell's genome, [3] always happens when a cell divides through mitosis or binary fission.", "This occurs during the S phase of the cell cycle.", "In meiosis, the DNA is replicated only once, while the cell divides twice.", "DNA replication only occurs before meiosis I. DNA replication does not occur when the cells divide the second time, in meiosis II.", "[20] Replication, like all cellular activities, requires specialized proteins for carrying out the job.", "[3]Protein synthesis An overview of protein synthesis.", "Within the nucleus of the cell ( light blue ), genes (DNA, dark blue) are transcribed into RNA.", "This RNA is then subject to post-transcriptional modification and control, resulting in a mature m RNA ( red) that is then transported out of the nucleus and into the cytoplasm ( peach ), where it undergoes translation into a protein.", "m RNA is translated by ribosomes ( purple) that match the three-base codons of the m RNA to the three-base anti-codons of the appropriate t RNA.", "Newly synthesized proteins ( black) are often further modified, such as by binding to an effector molecule ( orange ), to become fully active.", "Main article: Protein biosynthesis Cells are capable of synthesizing new proteins, which are essential for the modulation and maintenance of cellular activities.", "This process involves the formation of new protein molecules from amino acid building blocks based on information encoded in DNA/RNA.", "Protein synthesis generally consists of two major steps: transcription and translation.", "Transcription is the process where genetic information in DNA is used to produce a complementary RNA strand.", "This RNA strand is then processed to give messenger RNA (m RNA), which is free to migrate through the cell.", "m RNA molecules bind to protein-RNA complexes called ribosomes located in the cytosol, where they are translated into polypeptide sequences.", "The ribosome mediates the formation of a polypeptide sequence based on the m RNA sequence.", "The m RNA sequence directly relates to the polypeptide sequence by binding to transfer RNA (t RNA) adapter molecules in binding pockets within the ribosome.", "The new polypeptide then folds into a functional three-dimensional protein molecule.", "Motility Main article: Motility Unicellular organisms can move in order to find food or escape predators.", "Common mechanisms of motion include flagella and cilia.", "In multicellular organisms, cells can move during processes such as wound healing, the immune response and cancer metastasis.", "For example, in wound healing in animals, white blood cells move to the wound site to kill the microorganisms that cause infection.", "Cell motility involves many receptors, crosslinking, bundling, binding, adhesion, motor and other proteins.", "[21] The process is divided into three steps – protrusion of the leading edge of the cell, adhesion of the leading edge and de-adhesion at the cell body and rear, and cytoskeletal contraction to pull the cell forward.", "Each step is driven by physical forces generated by unique segments of the cytoskeleton.", "[22] [23]Multicellularity Main article: Multicellular organism Cell specialization Staining of a Caenorhabditis elegans which highlights the nuclei of its cells.", "Multicellular organisms are organisms that consist of more than one cell, in contrast to single-celled organisms.", "[24]In complex multicellular organisms, cells specialize into different cell types that are adapted to particular functions.", "In mammals, major cell types include skin cells, muscle cells, neurons, blood cells, fibroblasts, stem cells, and others.", "Cell types differ both in appearance and function, yet are genetically identical.", "Cells are able to be of the same genotype but of different cell type due to the differential expression of the genes they contain.", "Most distinct cell types arise from a single totipotent cell, called a zygote, that differentiates into hundreds of different cell types during the course of development.", "Differentiation of cells is driven by different environmental cues (such as cell–cell interaction) and intrinsic differences (such as those caused by the uneven distribution of molecules during division ).", "Origin of multicellularity Multicellularity has evolved independently at least 25 times, [25] including in some prokaryotes, like cyanobacteria, myxobacteria, actinomycetes, Magnetoglobus multicellularis or Methanosarcina.", "However, complex multicellular organisms evolved only in six eukaryotic groups: animals, fungi, brown algae, red algae, green algae, and plants.", "[26] It evolved repeatedly for plants ( Chloroplastida ), once or twice for animals, once for brown algae, and perhaps several times for fungi, slime molds, and red algae.", "[27] Multicellularity may have evolved from colonies of interdependent organisms, from cellularization, or from organisms in symbiotic relationships.", "The first evidence of multicellularity is from cyanobacteria -like organisms that lived between 3 and 3.5 billion years ago.", "[25] Other early fossils of multicellular organisms include the contested Grypania spiralis and the fossils of the black shales of the Palaeoproterozoic Francevillian Group Fossil B Formation in Gabon.", "[28]The evolution of multicellularity from unicellular ancestors has been replicated in the laboratory, in evolution experiments using predation as the selective pressure.", "[25]Origins Main article: Evolutionary history of life The origin of cells has to do with the origin of life, which began the history of life on Earth.", "Origin of the first cell Stromatolites are left behind by cyanobacteria, also called blue-green algae.", "They are the oldest known fossils of life on Earth.", "This one-billion-year-old fossil is from Glacier National Park in the United States.", "Further information: Abiogenesis and Evolution of cells There are several theories about the origin of small molecules that led to life on the early Earth.", "They may have been carried to Earth on meteorites (see Murchison meteorite ), created at deep-sea vents, or synthesized by lightning in a reducing atmosphere (see Miller–Urey experiment ).", "There is little experimental data defining what the first self-replicating forms were.", "RNA is thought to be the earliest self-replicating molecule, as it is capable of both storing genetic information and catalyzing chemical reactions (see RNA world hypothesis ), but some other entity with the potential to self-replicate could have preceded RNA, such as clay or peptide nucleic acid.", "[29]Cells emerged at least 3.5 billion years ago.", "[9] [10] [11] The current belief is that these cells were heterotrophs.", "The early cell membranes were probably more simple and permeable than modern ones, with only a single fatty acid chain per lipid.", "Lipids are known to spontaneously form bilayered vesicles in water, and could have preceded RNA, but the first cell membranes could also have been produced by catalytic RNA, or even have required structural proteins before they could form.", "[30]Origin of eukaryotic cells Further information: Evolution of sexual reproduction The eukaryotic cell seems to have evolved from a symbiotic community of prokaryotic cells.", "DNA-bearing organelles like the mitochondria and the chloroplasts are descended from ancient symbiotic oxygen-breathing proteobacteria and cyanobacteria, respectively, which were endosymbiosed by an ancestral archaean prokaryote.", "There is still considerable debate about whether organelles like the hydrogenosome predated the origin of mitochondria, or vice versa: see the hydrogen hypothesis for the origin of eukaryotic cells.", "History of research Main article: Cell theory Hooke's drawing of cells in cork, 16651632–1723: Antonie van Leeuwenhoek teaches himself to make lenses, constructs basic optical microscopes and draws protozoa, such as Vorticella from rain water, and bacteria from his own mouth.1665: Robert Hooke discovers cells in cork, then in living plant tissue using an early compound microscope.", "He coins the term cell (from Latin cella, meaning \"\"small room\"\" [1]) in his book Micrographia (1665).", "[31]1839: Theodor Schwann and Matthias Jakob Schleiden elucidate the principle that plants and animals are made of cells, concluding that cells are a common unit of structure and development, and thus founding the cell theory.1855: Rudolf Virchow states that new cells come from pre-existing cells by cell division ( omnis cellula ex cellula ).1859: The belief that life forms can occur spontaneously ( generatio spontanea) is contradicted by Louis Pasteur (1822–1895) (although Francesco Redi had performed an experiment in 1668 that suggested the same conclusion).1931: Ernst Ruska builds the first transmission electron microscope (TEM) at the University of Berlin.", "By 1935, he has built an EM with twice the resolution of a light microscope, revealing previously unresolvable organelles.1953: Watson and Crick made their first announcement on the double helix structure of DNA on February 28.1981: Lynn Margulis published Symbiosis in Cell Evolution detailing the endosymbiotic theory.", "See also Biology portal Molecular and cellular biology portal Cell cortex Cell culture Cellular model Cytorrhysis Cytoneme Cytotoxicity Lipid raft Outline of cell biology Plasmolysis Syncytium Tunneling nanotube Vault (organelle)References^ a b \"\"Cell\"\".", "Online Etymology Dictionary.", "Retrieved 31 December 2012.^ Cell Movements and the Shaping of the Vertebrate Body in Chapter 21 of Molecular Biology of the Cell fourth edition, edited by Bruce Alberts (2002) published by Garland Science.", "The Alberts text discusses how the \"\"cellular building blocks\"\" move to shape developing embryos.", "It is also common to describe small molecules such as amino acids as \"\" molecular building blocks \"\".^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r This article incorporates public domain material from the NCBI document \"\"What Is a Cell?\"\".", "Retrieved on 3 May 2013.", "30 March 2004.^ Alberts, p. 2.^ Campbell, Neil A.; Brad Williamson; Robin J. Heyden (2006).", "Biology: Exploring Life.", "Boston, Massachusetts: Pearson Prentice Hall.", "ISBN 0-13-250882-6.^ Karp, Gerald (19 October 2009).", "Cell and Molecular Biology: Concepts and Experiments.", "John Wiley & Sons.", "p. 2.", "ISBN 9780470483374.", "Hooke called the pores cells because they reminded him of the cells inhabited by monks living in a monastery.^ Alan Chong Tero (1990).", "Achiever's Biology.", "Allied Publishers.", "p. 36.", "ISBN 9788184243697.", "In 1665, an Englishman, Robert Hooke observed a thin slice of\"\" cork under a simple microscope.", "(A simple microscope is a microscope with only one biconvex lens, rather like a magnifying glass).", "He saw many small box like structures.", "These reminded him of small rooms called \"\"cells\"\" in which Christian monks lived and meditated.^ Maton, Anthea (1997).", "Cells Building Blocks of Life.", "New Jersey: Prentice Hall.", "ISBN 0-13-423476-6.^ a b Schopf, JW, Kudryavtsev, AB, Czaja, AD, and Tripathi, AB.", "(2007).", "\"\"Evidence of Archean life: Stromatolites and microfossils.\"\"", "Precambrian Research 158: 141–155.^ a b Schopf, JW (2006).", "\"\"Fossil evidence of Archaean life.\"\"", "Philos Trans R Soc Lond B Biol Sci 29; 361 (1470): 869–885.^ a b Peter Hamilton Raven; George Brooks Johnson (2002).", "Biology.", "Mc Graw-Hill Education.", "p. 68.", "ISBN 978-0-07-112261-0.", "Retrieved 7 July 2013.^ a b Campbell Biology—Concepts and Connections.", "Pearson Education.", "2009. p. 320.^ Microbiology : Principles and Explorations By Jacquelyn G. Black^ European Bioinformatics Institute, Karyn's Genomes: Borrelia burgdorferi, part of 2can on the EBI-EMBL database.", "Retrieved 5 August 2012^ Satir, Peter; Christensen, ST; Søren T. Christensen (2008-03-26).", "\"\"Structure and function of mammalian cilia\"\".", "Histochemistry and Cell Biology.", "Springer Berlin/Heidelberg.", "129 (6): 687–693.", "doi: 10.1007/s00418-008-0416-9.", "PMC 2386530.", "PMID 18365235.", "1432-119X.", "Retrieved 2009-09-12.^ PH Raven, Evert RF, Eichhorm SE (1999) Biology of Plants, 6th edition.", "WH Freeman, New York^ Michie K, Löwe J (2006).", "\"\"Dynamic filaments of the bacterial cytoskeleton\"\".", "Annu Rev Biochem.", "75: 467–492.", "doi: 10.1146/annurev.biochem.75.103004.142452.", "PMID 16756499.^ Ménétret JF, Schaletzky J, Clemons WM, et al.", "(December 2007).", "\"\"Ribosome binding of a single copy of the Sec Y complex: implications for protein translocation\"\".", "Mol.", "Cell.", "28 (6): 1083–1092.", "doi: 10.1016/j.molcel.2007.10.034.", "PMID 18158904.^ Prokaryotes.", "Newnes.", "Apr 11, 1996.", "ISBN 9780080984735.^ Campbell Biology—Concepts and Connections.", "Pearson Education.", "2009. p. 138.^ Revathi Ananthakrishnan; Allen Ehrlicher.", "\"\"The Forces Behind Cell Movement\"\".", "Biolsci.org.", "Retrieved 2009-04-17.^ Alberts B, Johnson A, Lewis J. et al.", "Molecular Biology of the Cell, 4e.", "Garland Science.", "2002^ Ananthakrishnan, R; Ehrlicher, A (2007).", "\"\"The Forces Behind Cell Movement\"\".", "Int J Biol Sci.", "3 (5): 303–317.", "doi: 10.7150/ijbs.3.303.", "PMC 1893118.", "PMID 17589565.^ Becker, Wayne M.; et al.", "(2009).", "The world of the cell.", "Pearson Benjamin Cummings.", "p. 480.", "ISBN 978-0-321-55418-5.^ a b c Grosberg RK, Strathmann RR.", "\"\"The evolution of multicellularity: A minor major transition?", "\"\"Annu Rev Ecol Evol Syst.", "2007; 38: 621–654.^ http://public.wsu.edu/~lange-m/Documnets/Teaching2011/Popper2011.pdf^ Bonner, John Tyler (1998).", "\"\"The Origins of Multicellularity\"\" (PDF).", "Integrative Biology: Issues, News, and Reviews.", "1 (1): 27–36.", "doi: 10.1002/ (SICI)1520-6602 (1998)1:1<27:: AID-INBI4>3.0.", "CO;2-6.", "ISSN 1093-4391.", "Archived from the original (PDF, 0.2 MB) on March 8, 2012.^ El Albani A, Bengtson S, Canfield DE, Bekker A, Macchiarelli R, Mazurier A, Hammarlund EU, Boulvais P, Dupuy JJ, Fontaine C, Fürsich FT, Gauthier-Lafaye F, Janvier P, Javaux E, Ossa FO, Pierson-Wickmann AC, Riboulleau A, Sardini P, Vachard D, Whitehouse M, Meunier A (1 July 2010).", "\"\"Large colonial organisms with coordinated growth in oxygenated environments 2.1 Gyr ago\"\".", "Nature.", "466 (7302): 100–104.", "Bibcode: 2010Natur.466..100A.", "doi: 10.1038/nature09166.", "ISSN 0028-0836.", "PMID 20596019.^ Orgel LE (1998).", "\"\"The origin of life—a review of facts and speculations\"\".", "Trends Biochem Sci.", "23 (12): 491–495.", "doi: 10.1016/S0968-0004 (98)01300-0.", "PMID 9868373.^ Griffiths G (December 2007).", "\"\"Cell evolution and the problem of membrane topology\"\".", "Nature Reviews.", "Molecular Cell Biology.", "8 (12): 1018–1024.", "doi: 10.1038/nrm2287.", "PMID 17971839.^ Hooke, Robert (1665).", "Micrographia: ….", "London, England: Royal Society of London.", "p. 113. \"\"", "… I could exceedingly plainly perceive it to be all perforated and porous, much like a Honey-comb, but that the pores of it were not regular […] these pores, or cells, […] were indeed the first microscopical pores I ever saw, and perhaps, that were ever seen, for I had not met with any Writer or Person, that had made any mention of them before this … \"\" – Hooke describing his observations on a thin slice of cork.", "See also: Robert Hooke Bibliography Alberts, Bruce; Johnson, Alexander; Lewis, Julian; Morgan, David; Raff, Martin; Roberts, Keith; Walter, Peter (2015).", "Molecular Biology of the Cell (6th ed.).", "Garland Science.", "p. 2.", "ISBN 978-0815344322.", "External links Wikimedia Commons has media related to Cell biology.", "Wikiquote has quotations related to: Cell (biology)MBInfo – Descriptions on Cellular Functions and Processes MBInfo – Cellular Organization Inside the Cell – a science education booklet by National Institutes of Health, in PDF and e Pub.", "Cells Alive!Cell Biology in \"\"The Biology Project\"\" of University of Arizona.", "Centre of the Cell online The Image & Video Library of The American Society for Cell Biology, a collection of peer-reviewed still images, video clips and digital books that illustrate the structure, function and biology of the cell.", "High Mag Blog, still images of cells from recent research articles.", "New Microscope Produces Dazzling 3D Movies of Live Cells, March 4, 2011 – Howard Hughes Medical Institute.", "Worm Web.org: Interactive Visualization of the C. elegans Cell lineage – Visualize the entire cell lineage tree of the nematode C. elegans Cell Photomicrographs Textbooks Alberts B, Johnson A, Lewis J, Raff M, Roberts K, Walter P (2014).", "Molecular Biology of the Cell (6th ed.).", "Garland.", "ISBN 9780815344322.; The fourth edition is freely available from National Center for Biotechnology Information Bookshelf.", "Lodish H, Berk A, Matsudaira P, Kaiser CA, Krieger M, Scott MP, Zipurksy SL, Darnell J (2004).", "Molecular Cell Biology (5th ed.).", "WH Freeman: New York, NY.", "ISBN 978-0-7167-4366-8. Cooper GM (2000).", "The cell: a molecular approach (2nd ed.).", "Washington, D. C: ASM Press.", "ISBN 0-87893-102-3.", "[ show]v t e Structures of the cell / organelles [ show]v t e Hierarchy of life Authority control LCCN: sh85021678 GND: 4067537-3 NDL: 00569965Categories: Cell biology 1665 in science \"" ]
D60361
http://www.webmd.com/diet/guide/fiber-how-much-do-you-need
Fiber: How Much Do You Need?
Fiber: How Much Do You Need? By Kathleen M. Zelman, MPH, RD, LDFrom the Web MD Archives You probably know that fiber is important to good health, but do you know if you are getting enough? Most Americans aren't. The average adult only eats 15 grams of fiber per day. Women need 25 grams of fiber per day, and men need 38 grams per day, according to the Institute of Medicine. Closing the Fiber Gap Eating more plant foods -- vegetables, beans, fruit, whole grains, and nuts -- is the best way and is one of the recommendations from the U. S. government's 2015 Dietary Guidelines. Continue Reading Belowyou might like These foods are all naturally rich in nutrients, including fiber, and provide all the health benefits that go along with a fiber-rich diet. Top sources of fiber are: beans (all kinds), peas, chickpeas, black-eyed peas, artichokes, whole wheat flour, barley, bulgur, bran, raspberries, blackberries, and prunes. Good sources of fiber include: lettuce, dark leafy greens, broccoli, okra, cauliflower, sweet potatoes, carrots, pumpkin, potatoes with the skin, corn, snap beans, asparagus, cabbage, whole wheat pasta, oats, popcorn, nuts, raisins, pears, strawberries, oranges, bananas, blueberries, mangoes, and apples. Avoiding refined grains -- such as white flour, white bread, white pasta, and white rice -- and replacing them with whole grains is a great way to boost the amount of fiber in your diet. The Dietary Guidelines recommend at least half your grains be whole grains, but with all of the whole grain options available now, it's easy to do even better than that. Whole foods are the preferred way to get fiber, because they also give you nutrients your body needs.1 2 3 View All Next Article Food Sources for Vitamins and Minerals Health & Diet Guide Popular Diet Plans Healthy Weight Tools and Calculators Healthy Eating & Nutrition Best & Worst Choices
[ "Fiber: How Much Do You Need?", "By Kathleen M. Zelman, MPH, RD, LDFrom the Web MD Archives You probably know that fiber is important to good health, but do you know if you are getting enough?", "Most Americans aren't.", "The average adult only eats 15 grams of fiber per day.", "Women need 25 grams of fiber per day, and men need 38 grams per day, according to the Institute of Medicine.", "Closing the Fiber Gap Eating more plant foods -- vegetables, beans, fruit, whole grains, and nuts -- is the best way and is one of the recommendations from the U. S. government's 2015 Dietary Guidelines.", "Continue Reading Belowyou might like These foods are all naturally rich in nutrients, including fiber, and provide all the health benefits that go along with a fiber-rich diet.", "Top sources of fiber are: beans (all kinds), peas, chickpeas, black-eyed peas, artichokes, whole wheat flour, barley, bulgur, bran, raspberries, blackberries, and prunes.", "Good sources of fiber include: lettuce, dark leafy greens, broccoli, okra, cauliflower, sweet potatoes, carrots, pumpkin, potatoes with the skin, corn, snap beans, asparagus, cabbage, whole wheat pasta, oats, popcorn, nuts, raisins, pears, strawberries, oranges, bananas, blueberries, mangoes, and apples.", "Avoiding refined grains -- such as white flour, white bread, white pasta, and white rice -- and replacing them with whole grains is a great way to boost the amount of fiber in your diet.", "The Dietary Guidelines recommend at least half your grains be whole grains, but with all of the whole grain options available now, it's easy to do even better than that.", "Whole foods are the preferred way to get fiber, because they also give you nutrients your body needs.1 2 3 View All Next Article Food Sources for Vitamins and Minerals Health & Diet Guide Popular Diet Plans Healthy Weight Tools and Calculators Healthy Eating & Nutrition Best & Worst Choices" ]
D9766
http://americanpregnancy.org/getting-pregnant/ovulation-faq/
Ovulation: Frequently Asked Questions
Ovulation: Frequently Asked Questions Home / Getting Pregnant / Ovulation: Frequently Asked Questions How do I calculate when I am ovulating? The timing of ovulation is complex and can take some studying of your body and cycles to figure out. By using a combination of methods such as observing your cervical fluid, taking your basal body temperature daily, and tracking your periods, you can better identify your time of ovulation. The American Pregnancy Association encourages women to learn about the fertility awareness method of tracking cycles and combine that with using ovulation predictor kits to best understand when you are ovulating. The Association estimates that ovulation occurs anywhere between 11-21 days after the first day of your last menstrual period (LMP), or 12-16 days from when you expect the next menstrual period to start. Order a Fertility Kit or Monitor If you are trying to get pregnant, you may want to download a free copy of the Essential Guide to Getting Pregnant. This e-book has information and tips for getting pregnant quicker and easier. Take your questions to the Free Forum right now!Don’t women ovulate on the 14th day after their period starts? Unfortunately, this is a myth that many, including healthcare professionals, still believe. The “14th-day” thinking appears to come from either taking the average of when all women ovulate or from just dividing the 28-day cycle in half. This is not an accurate way to calculate ovulation because many women do NOT ovulate on the 14th day of their cycle. The day of ovulation differs from woman to woman and can even be different from month to month for an individual woman. For a woman with a 28-day cycle, the window of ovulation is day 11 through day 21 of your cycle. Ovulation could occur on any one day during this window. During my ovulation time, how many days am I really fertile? During your window of ovulation, an egg is only available to be fertilized for about 12-24 hours. But since sperm can live in the body for 3-5 days after sex, and the egg is available for one day, your most fertile time is considered to be about 5-7 days. Can I ovulate during my period? The answer to this question depends on what is considered a period. Menstruation or a period is the bleeding that occurs when the endometrium is shed 12 to 16 days after ovulation. With this definition of a period, you cannot ovulate while on your period. However, some women experience mid-cycle or ovulatory bleeding (bleeding that occurs around ovulation) and may mistake it for a period. This can be seen in some women who have very irregular cycles, maybe coming once every 3 months or 2-3 times in one month, although it can occur in women with regular cycles as well. They may experience what appears to be a period, but, in reality, this is most likely ovulatory bleeding. Ovulation can occur when you experience mid-cycle or ovulatory bleeding. Keep in mind that while you cannot technically ovulate while on a period because sperm can live in the body for 3-5 days after sex, pregnancy could occur from intercourse that takes place during a period. Can I ovulate right after my period? The answer to this question is determined by how many days are in your cycle. The number of days in your cycle is calculated by counting the number of days from the beginning of one period to the beginning of the next period. If you have a short cycle, for example, 21 days, and you bleed for 7 days, then you could ovulate right after your period. This is because ovulation generally occurs 12-16 days before your next period begins, and this would estimate you ovulating at days 6-10 of your cycle. Can I get pregnant during my period? While conception cannot occur while you are on your period, pregnancy can occur from intercourse that takes place during a period. This is because sperm can live in the body for up to five days, and if a woman ovulates soon after her period, then conception could take place from intercourse that occurred during her period. Keep in mind that you can get pregnant while experiencing mid-cycle or ovulatory bleeding. (See above for clarification regarding ovulatory bleeding and menstruation). Can I ovulate without detecting the stretchy white cervical fluid? Ovulation can take place even if you do not notice the “stretchy egg-white” fluid that we assume accompanies ovulation. Every woman can experience her own type of cervical fluid. Ovulation is assumed to take place on the day a woman has the most amount of wet fluid. If a woman is not experiencing “egg white” cervical fluid, natural products are available to help increase cervical fluid production. What does it mean if I have the stretchy cervical fluid on more than one day? Many women can experience cervical fluid a few days before ovulation actually takes place and can even have it after ovulation has finished. When studying your cervical fluid to determine when you are ovulating, look for the 12-24 hour time-frame with the greatest amount of wet fluid. This generally occurs around ovulation when an egg is available for fertilization, although intercourse that happens on the few days before this can also result in pregnancy. If an ovulation predictor test kit says positive, that means that I am for sure ovulating, right? Ovulation predictor kits determine whether the luteinizing hormone (LH) is detected. The luteinizing hormone (LH) rises right before ovulation occurs. Therefore the kits are supposed to detect whether you’re going to ovulate but cannot ensure that you do ovulate. Women may have a high level of the LH if they have certain conditions such as polycystic ovaries, premature ovarian failure (POF), or for women over age 40 who are experiencing perimenopause. Also, women with Luteinized Unruptured Follicle Syndrome (LUFS) may have a surge in the LH hormone without ovulating. Any of these conditions could result in a false positive result on an ovulation predictor test. What are signs of ovulation? The signs of ovulation can be any of the following, although many women may only notice one or two of these: Change in cervical fluid Change in cervical position and cervical firmness Brief twinge of pain or dull ache that is felt on one side of the abdomen Light spotting Increase in sex drive Elevated level of the luteinizing hormone which can be detected on an ovulation test Basal body temperature chart that shows a consistent change Breast tenderness Abdominal bloating A heightened sense of vision, smell, or taste. Can a woman ovulate more than once during each cycle? A woman should not ovulate more than once during each cycle. This is due to a careful balance of hormones and their levels – it takes just the right timing and release of hormones to bring on the release of a mature egg. Therefore, she cannot get pregnant more than once during a cycle. Remember, if you are not using a tracking method such as OPKs, basal body temperature, or cervical mucus, there is no guaranteed way to pin down the day you are ovulating. Many period tracking apps will give you your “day of ovulation,” but this is only an estimation of when it might happen. Thus, two days (or more) after the predicted ovulation day may not be a “safe” day to have sex to avoid pregnancy, since it’s possible that you have not actually ovulated yet. There was a study published in 2003 by Canadian researchers claiming that it is possible for a woman to ovulate more than once in a single cycle. However, this research used a small sample size and the results have never been confirmed or replicated. Thus, it is still the general understanding that women only ovulate once per cycle. Multiple ovulation is another phenomenon that can occur and is when two or more eggs are released in a single cycle. The eggs are released during one 24 hour period and are responsible for the birth of fraternal twins. It is believed that this may occur in as many as 5-10% of all cycles but does not result in that many twins due to a type of miscarriage referred to as the “vanishing twin phenomenon.”Can I ovulate without having a period? Since a woman releases an egg 12-16 days before her expected period, it is possible for women to get pregnant without having periods. Women who are not menstruating due to a certain condition (i.e. low body weight, breastfeeding, perimenopause, etc…) risk the chance of getting pregnant because ovulation could start again at any point. If you ovulate and do not start your period a couple weeks later, you may want to take a pregnancy test. For those who want to conceive, the lack of periods could make it more difficult to know the timing of ovulation if you are not charting your basal temperature and cervical fluid changes. But if you are not having periods and wanting to prevent pregnancy, a form of contraception should be used since there is no way to know when ovulation will occur. Can I have a period and still not have ovulated? Having a period does not necessarily mean that ovulation has taken place. Some women may have what is called an anovulatory cycle , (meaning ovulation has not occurred). During an anovulatory cycle, women may experience some bleeding which may appear to be a period, although this is actually not a true period. This bleeding is caused by either a buildup in the uterine lining that can no longer sustain itself or by a drop in estrogen. The main way to decipher if ovulation is, in fact, taking place is by tracking your basal body temperature. What Resources Are Available for Helping Get Pregnant? If you are trying to get pregnant and looking for resources to support your efforts, we invite you to check out the fertility product and resource guide provided by our corporate sponsor. Review resource guide here. Related Articles Things to Know about Ovulation Track Your Ovulation How to Get Pregnant Preconception for Women Signs of Ovulation Last updated: August 10, 2017 at 12:14 pm Compiled using information from the following sources:1. Weschler, T. (2002). Taking charge of your fertility. New York, NY: Harper Collins Publishers Inc.2. Baerwald A. R., Adams G. P., Pierson R. A. A new model for ovarian follicular development during the human menstrual cycle. Fertility and Sterility. July 2003. doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0015-0282 (03)00544-2http://www.fertstert.org/article/S0015-0282 (03)00544-2/fulltext Share Pin Tweet Share168Tags: Featured, Ovulation
[ "Ovulation: Frequently Asked Questions Home / Getting Pregnant / Ovulation: Frequently Asked Questions How do I calculate when I am ovulating?", "The timing of ovulation is complex and can take some studying of your body and cycles to figure out.", "By using a combination of methods such as observing your cervical fluid, taking your basal body temperature daily, and tracking your periods, you can better identify your time of ovulation.", "The American Pregnancy Association encourages women to learn about the fertility awareness method of tracking cycles and combine that with using ovulation predictor kits to best understand when you are ovulating.", "The Association estimates that ovulation occurs anywhere between 11-21 days after the first day of your last menstrual period (LMP), or 12-16 days from when you expect the next menstrual period to start.", "Order a Fertility Kit or Monitor If you are trying to get pregnant, you may want to download a free copy of the Essential Guide to Getting Pregnant.", "This e-book has information and tips for getting pregnant quicker and easier.", "Take your questions to the Free Forum right now!Don’t women ovulate on the 14th day after their period starts?", "Unfortunately, this is a myth that many, including healthcare professionals, still believe.", "The “14th-day” thinking appears to come from either taking the average of when all women ovulate or from just dividing the 28-day cycle in half.", "This is not an accurate way to calculate ovulation because many women do NOT ovulate on the 14th day of their cycle.", "The day of ovulation differs from woman to woman and can even be different from month to month for an individual woman.", "For a woman with a 28-day cycle, the window of ovulation is day 11 through day 21 of your cycle.", "Ovulation could occur on any one day during this window.", "During my ovulation time, how many days am I really fertile?", "During your window of ovulation, an egg is only available to be fertilized for about 12-24 hours.", "But since sperm can live in the body for 3-5 days after sex, and the egg is available for one day, your most fertile time is considered to be about 5-7 days.", "Can I ovulate during my period?", "The answer to this question depends on what is considered a period.", "Menstruation or a period is the bleeding that occurs when the endometrium is shed 12 to 16 days after ovulation.", "With this definition of a period, you cannot ovulate while on your period.", "However, some women experience mid-cycle or ovulatory bleeding (bleeding that occurs around ovulation) and may mistake it for a period.", "This can be seen in some women who have very irregular cycles, maybe coming once every 3 months or 2-3 times in one month, although it can occur in women with regular cycles as well.", "They may experience what appears to be a period, but, in reality, this is most likely ovulatory bleeding.", "Ovulation can occur when you experience mid-cycle or ovulatory bleeding.", "Keep in mind that while you cannot technically ovulate while on a period because sperm can live in the body for 3-5 days after sex, pregnancy could occur from intercourse that takes place during a period.", "Can I ovulate right after my period?", "The answer to this question is determined by how many days are in your cycle.", "The number of days in your cycle is calculated by counting the number of days from the beginning of one period to the beginning of the next period.", "If you have a short cycle, for example, 21 days, and you bleed for 7 days, then you could ovulate right after your period.", "This is because ovulation generally occurs 12-16 days before your next period begins, and this would estimate you ovulating at days 6-10 of your cycle.", "Can I get pregnant during my period?", "While conception cannot occur while you are on your period, pregnancy can occur from intercourse that takes place during a period.", "This is because sperm can live in the body for up to five days, and if a woman ovulates soon after her period, then conception could take place from intercourse that occurred during her period.", "Keep in mind that you can get pregnant while experiencing mid-cycle or ovulatory bleeding.", "(See above for clarification regarding ovulatory bleeding and menstruation).", "Can I ovulate without detecting the stretchy white cervical fluid?", "Ovulation can take place even if you do not notice the “stretchy egg-white” fluid that we assume accompanies ovulation.", "Every woman can experience her own type of cervical fluid.", "Ovulation is assumed to take place on the day a woman has the most amount of wet fluid.", "If a woman is not experiencing “egg white” cervical fluid, natural products are available to help increase cervical fluid production.", "What does it mean if I have the stretchy cervical fluid on more than one day?", "Many women can experience cervical fluid a few days before ovulation actually takes place and can even have it after ovulation has finished.", "When studying your cervical fluid to determine when you are ovulating, look for the 12-24 hour time-frame with the greatest amount of wet fluid.", "This generally occurs around ovulation when an egg is available for fertilization, although intercourse that happens on the few days before this can also result in pregnancy.", "If an ovulation predictor test kit says positive, that means that I am for sure ovulating, right?", "Ovulation predictor kits determine whether the luteinizing hormone (LH) is detected.", "The luteinizing hormone (LH) rises right before ovulation occurs.", "Therefore the kits are supposed to detect whether you’re going to ovulate but cannot ensure that you do ovulate.", "Women may have a high level of the LH if they have certain conditions such as polycystic ovaries, premature ovarian failure (POF), or for women over age 40 who are experiencing perimenopause.", "Also, women with Luteinized Unruptured Follicle Syndrome (LUFS) may have a surge in the LH hormone without ovulating.", "Any of these conditions could result in a false positive result on an ovulation predictor test.", "What are signs of ovulation?", "The signs of ovulation can be any of the following, although many women may only notice one or two of these: Change in cervical fluid Change in cervical position and cervical firmness Brief twinge of pain or dull ache that is felt on one side of the abdomen Light spotting Increase in sex drive Elevated level of the luteinizing hormone which can be detected on an ovulation test Basal body temperature chart that shows a consistent change Breast tenderness Abdominal bloating A heightened sense of vision, smell, or taste.", "Can a woman ovulate more than once during each cycle?", "A woman should not ovulate more than once during each cycle.", "This is due to a careful balance of hormones and their levels – it takes just the right timing and release of hormones to bring on the release of a mature egg.", "Therefore, she cannot get pregnant more than once during a cycle.", "Remember, if you are not using a tracking method such as OPKs, basal body temperature, or cervical mucus, there is no guaranteed way to pin down the day you are ovulating.", "Many period tracking apps will give you your “day of ovulation,” but this is only an estimation of when it might happen.", "Thus, two days (or more) after the predicted ovulation day may not be a “safe” day to have sex to avoid pregnancy, since it’s possible that you have not actually ovulated yet.", "There was a study published in 2003 by Canadian researchers claiming that it is possible for a woman to ovulate more than once in a single cycle.", "However, this research used a small sample size and the results have never been confirmed or replicated.", "Thus, it is still the general understanding that women only ovulate once per cycle.", "Multiple ovulation is another phenomenon that can occur and is when two or more eggs are released in a single cycle.", "The eggs are released during one 24 hour period and are responsible for the birth of fraternal twins.", "It is believed that this may occur in as many as 5-10% of all cycles but does not result in that many twins due to a type of miscarriage referred to as the “vanishing twin phenomenon.”Can I ovulate without having a period?", "Since a woman releases an egg 12-16 days before her expected period, it is possible for women to get pregnant without having periods.", "Women who are not menstruating due to a certain condition (i.e.", "low body weight, breastfeeding, perimenopause, etc…) risk the chance of getting pregnant because ovulation could start again at any point.", "If you ovulate and do not start your period a couple weeks later, you may want to take a pregnancy test.", "For those who want to conceive, the lack of periods could make it more difficult to know the timing of ovulation if you are not charting your basal temperature and cervical fluid changes.", "But if you are not having periods and wanting to prevent pregnancy, a form of contraception should be used since there is no way to know when ovulation will occur.", "Can I have a period and still not have ovulated?", "Having a period does not necessarily mean that ovulation has taken place.", "Some women may have what is called an anovulatory cycle , (meaning ovulation has not occurred).", "During an anovulatory cycle, women may experience some bleeding which may appear to be a period, although this is actually not a true period.", "This bleeding is caused by either a buildup in the uterine lining that can no longer sustain itself or by a drop in estrogen.", "The main way to decipher if ovulation is, in fact, taking place is by tracking your basal body temperature.", "What Resources Are Available for Helping Get Pregnant?", "If you are trying to get pregnant and looking for resources to support your efforts, we invite you to check out the fertility product and resource guide provided by our corporate sponsor.", "Review resource guide here.", "Related Articles Things to Know about Ovulation Track Your Ovulation How to Get Pregnant Preconception for Women Signs of Ovulation Last updated: August 10, 2017 at 12:14 pm Compiled using information from the following sources:1.", "Weschler, T. (2002).", "Taking charge of your fertility.", "New York, NY: Harper Collins Publishers Inc.2.", "Baerwald A. R., Adams G. P., Pierson R. A.", "A new model for ovarian follicular development during the human menstrual cycle.", "Fertility and Sterility.", "July 2003. doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0015-0282 (03)00544-2http://www.fertstert.org/article/S0015-0282 (03)00544-2/fulltext Share Pin Tweet Share168Tags: Featured, Ovulation" ]
D19343
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mineral
Mineral
"From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedianavigation search For other uses, see Mineral (disambiguation). Crystals of serandite, natrolite, analcime, and aegirine: Mont Saint-Hilaire, La Vallée-du-Richelieu RCM, Montérégie, Québec, Canada A mineral is a naturally occurring chemical compound, [1] usually of crystalline form and not produced by life processes. A mineral has one specific chemical composition, whereas a rock can be an aggregate of different minerals or mineraloids. The study of minerals is called mineralogy. As of March 2018, there are more than 5,500 known mineral species; [2] 5,312 of these have been approved by the International Mineralogical Association (IMA). [3]Minerals are distinguished by various chemical and physical properties. Differences in chemical composition and crystal structure distinguish the various species, which were determined by the mineral's geological environment when formed. Changes in the temperature, pressure, or bulk composition of a rock mass cause changes in its minerals. Within a mineral species there may be variation in physical properties or minor amounts of impurities that are recognized by mineralogists or wider society as a mineral variety, [4] for example amethyst, a purple variety of the mineral species quartz. Minerals can be described by their various physical properties, which are related to their chemical structure and composition. Common distinguishing characteristics include crystal structure and habit, hardness, lustre, diaphaneity, colour, streak, tenacity, cleavage, fracture, parting, specific gravity, magnetism, taste or smell, radioactivity, and reaction to acid. Minerals are classified by key chemical constituents; the two dominant systems are the Dana classification and the Strunz classification. Silicon and oxygen constitute approximately 75% of the Earth's crust, which translates directly into the predominance of silicate minerals. The silicate minerals compose over 90% of the Earth's crust. [5] The silicate class of minerals is subdivided into six subclasses by the degree of polymerization in the chemical structure. All silicate minerals have a base unit of a [Si O 4] 4− silica tetrahedron—that is, a silicon cation coordinated by four oxygen anions, which gives the shape of a tetrahedron. These tetrahedra can be polymerized to give the subclasses: orthosilicates (no polymerization, thus single tetrahedra), disilicates (two tetrahedra bonded together), cyclosilicates (rings of tetrahedra), inosilicates (chains of tetrahedra), phyllosilicates (sheets of tetrahedra), and tectosilicates (three-dimensional network of tetrahedra). Other important mineral groups include the native elements, sulfides, oxides, halides, carbonates, sulfates, and phosphates. Contents [ hide ]1 Definition1.1 Basic definition1.2 Recent advances1.3 Rocks, ores, and gems1.4 Nomenclature and classification2 Chemistry3 Physical properties3.1 Crystal structure and habit3.2 Hardness3.3 Lustre and diaphaneity3.4 Colour and streak3.5 Cleavage, parting, fracture, and tenacity3.6 Specific gravity3.7 Other properties4 Classification4.1 Silicates4.2 Non-silicates5 Astrobiology6 See also7 Notes8 References9 General references10 Further reading11 External links Definition Basic definition One definition of a mineral encompasses the following criteria: [6]Formed by a natural process ( anthropogenic compounds are excluded). Stable or metastable at room temperature (25 °C). In the simplest sense, this means the mineral must be solid. Classical examples of exceptions to this rule include native mercury, which crystallizes at −39 °C, and water ice, which is solid only below 0 °C; because these two minerals were described before 1959, they were grandfathered by the International Mineralogical Association (IMA). [7] [8] Modern advances have included extensive study of liquid crystals, which also extensively involve mineralogy. Represented by a chemical formula. Minerals are chemical compounds, and as such they can be described by fixed or a variable formula. Many mineral groups and species are composed of a solid solution; pure substances are not usually found because of contamination or chemical substitution. For example, the olivine group is described by the variable formula (Mg, Fe) 2 Si O 4, which is a solid solution of two end-member species, magnesium-rich forsterite and iron-rich fayalite, which are described by a fixed chemical formula. Mineral species themselves could have a variable composition, such as the sulfide mackinawite, (Fe, Ni) 9 S 8, which is mostly a ferrous sulfide, but has a very significant nickel impurity that is reflected in its formula. [6] [9]Ordered atomic arrangement. This generally means crystalline; however, crystals are also periodic, so the broader criterion is used instead. [6] An ordered atomic arrangement gives rise to a variety of macroscopic physical properties, such as crystal form, hardness, and cleavage. [10] There have been several recent proposals to classify biogenic or amorphous substances as minerals. The formal definition of a mineral approved by the IMA in 1995: ""A mineral is an element or chemical compound that is normally crystalline and that has been formed as a result of geological processes."" [11]Usually abiogenic (not resulting from the activity of living organisms). Biogenic substances are explicitly excluded by the IMA: ""Biogenic substances are chemical compounds produced entirely by biological processes without a geological component (e.g., urinary calculi, oxalate crystals in plant tissues, shells of marine molluscs, etc.) and are not regarded as minerals. However, if geological processes were involved in the genesis of the compound, then the product can be accepted as a mineral."" [11]The first three general characteristics are less debated than the last two. [6]Recent advances Mineral classification schemes and their definitions are evolving to match recent advances in mineral science. Recent changes have included the addition of an organic class, in both the new Dana and the Strunz classification schemes. [12] [13] The organic class includes a very rare group of minerals with hydrocarbons. The IMA Commission on New Minerals and Mineral Names adopted in 2009 a hierarchical scheme for the naming and classification of mineral groups and group names and established seven commissions and four working groups to review and classify minerals into an official listing of their published names. [14] [15] According to these new rules, ""mineral species can be grouped in a number of different ways, on the basis of chemistry, crystal structure, occurrence, association, genetic history, or resource, for example, depending on the purpose to be served by the classification."" [14]The Nickel (1995) [ clarification needed] exclusion of biogenic substances was not universally adhered to. For example, Lowenstam (1981) stated that ""organisms are capable of forming a diverse array of minerals, some of which cannot be formed inorganically in the biosphere."" [16] The distinction is a matter of classification and less to do with the constituents of the minerals themselves. Skinner (2005) views all solids as potential minerals and includes biominerals in the mineral kingdom, which are those that are created by the metabolic activities of organisms. Skinner expanded the previous definition of a mineral to classify ""element or compound, amorphous or crystalline, formed through biogeochemical processes,"" as a mineral. [17]Recent advances in high-resolution genetics and X-ray absorption spectroscopy are providing revelations on the biogeochemical relations between microorganisms and minerals that may make Nickel's (1995) biogenic mineral exclusion obsolete and Skinner's (2005) biogenic mineral inclusion a necessity. [11] [17] For example, the IMA-commissioned ""Working Group on Environmental Mineralogy and Geochemistry "" deals with minerals in the hydrosphere, atmosphere, and biosphere. [18] The group's scope includes mineral-forming microorganisms, which exist on nearly every rock, soil, and particle surface spanning the globe to depths of at least 1600 metres below the sea floor and 70 kilometres into the stratosphere (possibly entering the mesosphere ). [19] [20] [21] Biogeochemical cycles have contributed to the formation of minerals for billions of years. Microorganisms can precipitate metals from solution, contributing to the formation of ore deposits. They can also catalyze the dissolution of minerals. [22] [23] [24]Prior to the International Mineralogical Association's listing, over 60 biominerals had been discovered, named, and published. [25] These minerals (a sub-set tabulated in Lowenstam (1981) [16]) are considered minerals proper according to the Skinner (2005) definition. [17] These biominerals are not listed in the International Mineral Association official list of mineral names, [26] however, many of these biomineral representatives are distributed amongst the 78 mineral classes listed in the Dana classification scheme. [17] Another rare class of minerals (primarily biological in origin) include the mineral liquid crystals that have properties of both liquids and crystals. To date, over 80,000 liquid crystalline compounds have been identified. [27] [28]The Skinner (2005) definition of a mineral takes this matter into account by stating that a mineral can be crystalline or amorphous, the latter group including liquid crystals. [17] Although biominerals and liquid mineral crystals, are not the most common form of minerals, [29] they help to define the limits of what constitutes a mineral proper. The formal Nickel (1995) definition explicitly mentioned crystallinity as a key to defining a substance as a mineral. A 2011 article defined icosahedrite, an aluminium-iron-copper alloy as mineral; named for its unique natural icosahedral symmetry, it is a quasicrystal. Unlike a true crystal, quasicrystals are ordered but not periodic. [30] [31]Rocks, ores, and gems Schist is a metamorphic rock characterized by an abundance of platy minerals. In this example, the rock has prominent sillimaniteporphyroblasts as large as 3 cm (1.2 in). Minerals are not equivalent to rocks. A rock is an aggregate of one or more minerals [32] or mineraloids. Some rocks, such as limestone or quartzite, are composed primarily of one mineral— calcite or aragonite in the case of limestone, and quartz in the latter case. [33] [34] Other rocks can be defined by relative abundances of key (essential) minerals; a granite is defined by proportions of quartz, alkali feldspar, and plagioclase feldspar. [35] The other minerals in the rock are termed accessory, and do not greatly affect the bulk composition of the rock. Rocks can also be composed entirely of non-mineral material; coal is a sedimentary rock composed primarily of organically derived carbon. [32] [36]In rocks, some mineral species and groups are much more abundant than others; these are termed the rock-forming minerals. The major examples of these are quartz, the feldspars, the micas, the amphiboles, the pyroxenes, the olivines, and calcite; except for the last one, all of these minerals are silicates. [37] Overall, around 150 minerals are considered particularly important, whether in terms of their abundance or aesthetic value in terms of collecting. [38]Commercially valuable minerals and rocks are referred to as industrial minerals. For example, muscovite, a white mica, can be used for windows (sometimes referred to as isinglass), as a filler, or as an insulator. [39] Ores are minerals that have a high concentration of a certain element, typically a metal. Examples are cinnabar (Hg S), an ore of mercury, sphalerite (Zn S), an ore of zinc, or cassiterite (Sn O 2 ), an ore of tin. Gems are minerals with an ornamental value, and are distinguished from non-gems by their beauty, durability, and usually, rarity. There are about 20 mineral species that qualify as gem minerals, which constitute about 35 of the most common gemstones. Gem minerals are often present in several varieties, and so one mineral can account for several different gemstones; for example, ruby and sapphire are both corundum, Al 2 O 3. [40]Nomenclature and classification Minerals are classified by variety, species, series and group, in order of increasing generality. The basic level of definition is that of mineral species, each of which is distinguished from the others by unique chemical and physical properties. For example, quartz is defined by its formula, Si O 2, and a specific crystalline structure that distinguishes it from other minerals with the same chemical formula (termed polymorphs ). When there exists a range of composition between two minerals species, a mineral series is defined. For example, the biotite series is represented by variable amounts of the endmembersphlogopite, siderophyllite, annite, and eastonite. In contrast, a mineral group is a grouping of mineral species with some common chemical properties that share a crystal structure. The pyroxene group has a common formula of XY (Si,Al) 2 O 6, where X and Y are both cations, with X typically bigger than Y; the pyroxenes are single-chain silicates that crystallize in either the orthorhombic or monoclinic crystal systems. Finally, a mineral variety is a specific type of mineral species that differs by some physical characteristic, such as colour or crystal habit. An example is amethyst, which is a purple variety of quartz. [41]Two common classifications, Dana and Strunz, are used for minerals; both rely on composition, specifically with regards to important chemical groups, and structure. James Dwight Dana, a leading geologist of his time, first published his System of Mineralogy in 1837; as of 1997, it is in its eighth edition. The Dana classification assigns a four-part number to a mineral species. Its class number is based on important compositional groups; the type gives the ratio of cations to anions in the mineral, and the last two numbers group minerals by structural similarity within a given type or class. The less commonly used Strunz classification, named for German mineralogist Karl Hugo Strunz, is based on the Dana system, but combines both chemical and structural criteria, the latter with regards to distribution of chemical bonds. [42]As of September 2017, 5,291 mineral species are approved by the IMA. [3] They are most commonly named after a person (45%), followed by discovery location (23%); names based on chemical composition (14%) and physical properties (8%) are the two other major groups of mineral name etymologies. [41] [43]The word ""species"" (from the Latin species, ""a particular sort, kind, or type with distinct look, or appearance"") [44] comes from the classification scheme in Systema Naturae by Carl Linnaeus. Linneaeus divided the natural world into three kingdoms – plants, animals, and minerals – and classified each with the same hierarchy. In descending order, these were Phylum, Class, Order, Family, Tribe, Genus, and Species. [45]Chemistry Hübnerite, the manganese-rich end-member of the wolframite series, with minor quartz in the background The abundance and diversity of minerals is controlled directly by their chemistry, in turn dependent on elemental abundances in the Earth. The majority of minerals observed are derived from the Earth's crust. Eight elements account for most of the key components of minerals, due to their abundance in the crust. These eight elements, summing to over 98% of the crust by weight, are, in order of decreasing abundance: oxygen, silicon, aluminium, iron, magnesium, calcium, sodium and potassium. Oxygen and silicon are by far the two most important – oxygen composes 47% of the crust by weight, and silicon accounts for 28%. [46]The minerals that form are directly controlled by the bulk chemistry of the parent body. For example, a magma rich in iron and magnesium will form mafic minerals, such as olivine and the pyroxenes; in contrast, a more silica-rich magma will crystallize to form minerals that incorporate more Si O 2, such as the feldspars and quartz. In a limestone, calcite or aragonite (both Ca CO 3) form because the rock is rich in calcium and carbonate. A corollary is that a mineral will not be found in a rock whose bulk chemistry does not resemble the bulk chemistry of a given mineral with the exception of trace minerals. For example, kyanite, Al 2 Si O 5 forms from the metamorphism of aluminium-rich shales; it would not likely occur in aluminium-poor rock, such as quartzite. The chemical composition may vary between end member species of a solid solution series. For example, the plagioclasefeldspars comprise a continuous series from sodium -rich end member albite (Na Al Si 3 O 8) to calcium -rich anorthite (Ca Al 2 Si 2 O 8) with four recognized intermediate varieties between them (given in order from sodium- to calcium-rich): oligoclase, andesine, labradorite, and bytownite. [47] Other examples of series include the olivine series of magnesium-rich forsterite and iron-rich fayalite, and the wolframite series of manganese -rich hübnerite and iron-rich ferberite. Chemical substitution and coordination polyhedra explain this common feature of minerals. In nature, minerals are not pure substances, and are contaminated by whatever other elements are present in the given chemical system. As a result, it is possible for one element to be substituted for another. [48] Chemical substitution will occur between ions of a similar size and charge; for example, K + will not substitute for Si 4+ because of chemical and structural incompatibilities caused by a big difference in size and charge. A common example of chemical substitution is that of Si 4+ by Al 3+, which are close in charge, size, and abundance in the crust. In the example of plagioclase, there are three cases of substitution. Feldspars are all framework silicates, which have a silicon-oxygen ratio of 2:1, and the space for other elements is given by the substitution of Si 4+ by Al 3+ to give a base unit of [Al Si 3 O 8] −; without the substitution, the formula would be charge-balanced as Si O 2, giving quartz. [49] The significance of this structural property will be explained further by coordination polyhedra. The second substitution occurs between Na + and Ca 2+; however, the difference in charge has to accounted for by making a second substitution of Si 4+ by Al 3+. [50]Coordination polyhedra are geometric representations of how a cation is surrounded by an anion. In mineralogy, coordination polyhedra are usually considered in terms of oxygen, due its abundance in the crust. The base unit of silicate minerals is the silica tetrahedron – one Si 4+ surrounded by four O 2−. An alternate way of describing the coordination of the silicate is by a number: in the case of the silica tetrahedron, the silicon is said to have a coordination number of 4. Various cations have a specific range of possible coordination numbers; for silicon, it is almost always 4, except for very high-pressure minerals where the compound is compressed such that silicon is in six-fold (octahedral) coordination with oxygen. Bigger cations have a bigger coordination numbers because of the increase in relative size as compared to oxygen (the last orbital subshell of heavier atoms is different too). Changes in coordination numbers leads to physical and mineralogical differences; for example, at high pressure, such as in the mantle, many minerals, especially silicates such as olivine and garnet, will change to a perovskite structure, where silicon is in octahedral coordination. Other examples are the aluminosilicates kyanite, andalusite, and sillimanite (polymorphs, since they share the formula Al 2 Si O 5 ), which differ by the coordination number of the Al 3+; these minerals transition from one another as a response to changes in pressure and temperature. [46] In the case of silicate materials, the substitution of Si 4+ by Al 3+ allows for a variety of minerals because of the need to balance charges. [51]When minerals react, the products will sometimes assume the shape of the reagent; the product mineral is termed a pseudomorph of (or after) the reagent. Illustrated here is a pseudomorph of kaolinite after orthoclase. Here, the pseudomorph preserved the Carlsbad twinning common in orthoclase. Changes in temperature and pressure and composition alter the mineralogy of a rock sample. Changes in composition can be caused by processes such as weathering or metasomatism ( hydrothermal alteration ). Changes in temperature and pressure occur when the host rock undergoes tectonic or magmatic movement into differing physical regimes. Changes in thermodynamic conditions make it favourable for mineral assemblages to react with each other to produce new minerals; as such, it is possible for two rocks to have an identical or a very similar bulk rock chemistry without having a similar mineralogy. This process of mineralogical alteration is related to the rock cycle. An example of a series of mineral reactions is illustrated as follows. [52]Orthoclase feldspar (KAl Si 3 O 8) is a mineral commonly found in granite, a plutonicigneous rock. When exposed to weathering, it reacts to form kaolinite (Al 2 Si 2 O 5 (OH) 4, a sedimentary mineral, and silicic acid ):2 KAl Si 3 O 8 + 5 H 2 O + 2 H + → Al 2 Si 2 O 5 (OH) 4 + 4 H 2 Si O 3 + 2 K +Under low-grade metamorphic conditions, kaolinite reacts with quartz to form pyrophyllite (Al 2 Si 4 O 10 (OH) 2 ): Al 2 Si 2 O 5 (OH) 4 + Si O 2 → Al 2 Si 4 O 10 (OH) 2 + H 2 OAs metamorphic grade increases, the pyrophyllite reacts to form kyanite and quartz: Al 2 Si 4 O 10 (OH) 2 → Al 2 Si O 5 + 3 Si O 2 + H 2 OAlternatively, a mineral may change its crystal structure as a consequence of changes in temperature and pressure without reacting. For example, quartz will change into a variety of its Si O 2 polymorphs, such as tridymite and cristobalite at high temperatures, and coesite at high pressures. [53]Physical properties Classifying minerals ranges from simple to difficult. A mineral can be identified by several physical properties, some of them being sufficient for full identification without equivocation. In other cases, minerals can only be classified by more complex optical, chemical or X-ray diffraction analysis; these methods, however, can be costly and time-consuming. Physical properties applied for classification include crystal structure and habit, hardness, lustre, diaphaneity, colour, streak, cleavage and fracture, and specific gravity. Other less general tests include fluorescence, phosphorescence, magnetism, radioactivity, tenacity (response to mechanical induced changes of shape or form), piezoelectricity and reactivity to dilute acids. [54]Crystal structure and habit Main articles: Crystal system and Crystal habit See also: Crystal twinning Topaz has a characteristic orthorhombic elongated crystal shape. Crystal structure results from the orderly geometric spatial arrangement of atoms in the internal structure of a mineral. This crystal structure is based on regular internal atomic or ionic arrangement that is often expressed in the geometric form that the crystal takes. Even when the mineral grains are too small to see or are irregularly shaped, the underlying crystal structure is always periodic and can be determined by X-ray diffraction. [6] Minerals are typically described by their symmetry content. Crystals are restricted to 32 point groups, which differ by their symmetry. These groups are classified in turn into more broad categories, the most encompassing of these being the six crystal families. [55]These families can be described by the relative lengths of the three crystallographic axes, and the angles between them; these relationships correspond to the symmetry operations that define the narrower point groups. They are summarized below; a, b, and c represent the axes, and α, β, γ represent the angle opposite the respective crystallographic axis (e.g. α is the angle opposite the a-axis, viz. the angle between the b and c axes): [55]Crystal family Lengths Angles Common examples Isometric a=b=c α=β=γ=90° Garnet, halite, pyrite Tetragonal a=b≠c α=β=γ=90° Rutile, zircon, andalusite Orthorhombic a≠b≠c α=β=γ=90° Olivine, aragonite, orthopyroxenes Hexagonal a=b≠c α=β=90°, γ=120° Quartz, calcite, tourmaline Monoclinic a≠b≠c α=γ=90°, β≠90° Clinopyroxenes, orthoclase, gypsum Triclinic a≠b≠c α≠β≠γ≠90° Anorthite, albite, kyanite The hexagonal crystal family is also split into two crystal systems – the trigonal, which has a three-fold axis of symmetry, and the hexagonal, which has a six-fold axis of symmetry. Chemistry and crystal structure together define a mineral. With a restriction to 32 point groups, minerals of different chemistry may have identical crystal structure. For example, halite (Na Cl), galena (Pb S), and periclase (Mg O) all belong to the hexaoctahedral point group (isometric family), as they have a similar stoichiometry between their different constituent elements. In contrast, polymorphs are groupings of minerals that share a chemical formula but have a different structure. For example, pyrite and marcasite, both iron sulfides, have the formula Fe S 2; however, the former is isometric while the latter is orthorhombic. This polymorphism extends to other sulfides with the generic AX 2 formula; these two groups are collectively known as the pyrite and marcasite groups. [56]Polymorphism can extend beyond pure symmetry content. The aluminosilicates are a group of three minerals – kyanite, andalusite, and sillimanite – which share the chemical formula Al 2 Si O 5. Kyanite is triclinic, while andalusite and sillimanite are both orthorhombic and belong to the dipyramidal point group. These differences arise corresponding to how aluminium is coordinated within the crystal structure. In all minerals, one aluminium ion is always in six-fold coordination with oxygen. Silicon, as a general rule, is in four-fold coordination in all minerals; an exception is a case like stishovite (Si O 2, an ultra-high pressure quartz polymorph with rutile structure). [57] In kyanite, the second aluminium is in six-fold coordination; its chemical formula can be expressed as Al [6] Al [6] Si O 5, to reflect its crystal structure. Andalusite has the second aluminium in five-fold coordination (Al [6] Al [5] Si O 5) and sillimanite has it in four-fold coordination (Al [6] Al [4] Si O 5 ). [58]Differences in crystal structure and chemistry greatly influence other physical properties of the mineral. The carbon allotropes diamond and graphite have vastly different properties; diamond is the hardest natural substance, has an adamantine lustre, and belongs to the isometric crystal family, whereas graphite is very soft, has a greasy lustre, and crystallises in the hexagonal family. This difference is accounted for by differences in bonding. In diamond, the carbons are in sp 3 hybrid orbitals, which means they form a framework where each carbon is covalently bonded to four neighbours in a tetrahedral fashion; on the other hand, graphite is composed of sheets of carbons in sp 2 hybrid orbitals, where each carbon is bonded covalently to only three others. These sheets are held together by much weaker van der Waals forces, and this discrepancy translates to large macroscopic differences. [59]Contact twins, as seen in spinel Twinning is the intergrowth of two or more crystals of a single mineral species. The geometry of the twinning is controlled by the mineral's symmetry. As a result, there are several types of twins, including contact twins, reticulated twins, geniculated twins, penetration twins, cyclic twins, and polysynthetic twins. Contact, or simple twins, consist of two crystals joined at a plane; this type of twinning is common in spinel. Reticulated twins, common in rutile, are interlocking crystals resembling netting. Geniculated twins have a bend in the middle that is caused by start of the twin. Penetration twins consist of two single crystals that have grown into each other; examples of this twinning include cross-shaped staurolite twins and Carlsbad twinning in orthoclase. Cyclic twins are caused by repeated twinning around a rotation axis. This type of twinning occurs around three, four, five, six, or eight-fold axes, and the corresponding patterns are called threelings, fourlings, fivelings, sixlings, and eightlings. Sixlings are common in aragonite. Polysynthetic twins are similar to cyclic twins through the presence of repetitive twinning; however, instead of occurring around a rotational axis, polysynthetic twinning occurs along parallel planes, usually on a microscopic scale. [60] [61]Crystal habit refers to the overall shape of crystal. Several terms are used to describe this property. Common habits include acicular, which describes needlelike crystals as in natrolite, bladed, dendritic (tree-pattern, common in native copper ), equant, which is typical of garnet, prismatic (elongated in one direction), and tabular, which differs from bladed habit in that the former is platy whereas the latter has a defined elongation. Related to crystal form, the quality of crystal faces is diagnostic of some minerals, especially with a petrographic microscope. Euhedral crystals have a defined external shape, while anhedral crystals do not; those intermediate forms are termed subhedral. [62] [63]Hardness Main article: Mohs scale of mineral hardness Diamond is the hardest natural material, and has a Mohs hardness of 10. The hardness of a mineral defines how much it can resist scratching. This physical property is controlled by the chemical composition and crystalline structure of a mineral. A mineral's hardness is not necessarily constant for all sides, which is a function of its structure; crystallographic weakness renders some directions softer than others. [64] An example of this property exists in kyanite, which has a Mohs hardness of 5½ parallel to [001] but 7 parallel to [100]. [65]The most common scale of measurement is the ordinal Mohs hardness scale. Defined by ten indicators, a mineral with a higher index scratches those below it. The scale ranges from talc, a phyllosilicate, to diamond, a carbon polymorph that is the hardest natural material. The scale is provided below: [64]Mohs hardness Mineral Chemical formula1 Talc Mg 3 Si 4 O 10 (OH) 22 Gypsum Ca SO 4 ·2H 2 O3 Calcite Ca CO 34 Fluorite Ca F 25 Apatite Ca 5 (PO 4) 3 (OH,Cl,F)6 Orthoclase KAl Si 3 O 87 Quartz Si O 28 Topaz Al 2 Si O 4 (OH,F) 29 Corundum Al 2 O 310 Diamond CLustre and diaphaneity Main article: Lustre (mineralogy)Pyrite has a metallic lustre. Lustre indicates how light reflects from the mineral's surface, with regards to its quality and intensity. There are numerous qualitative terms used to describe this property, which are split into metallic and non-metallic categories. Metallic and sub-metallic minerals have high reflectivity like metal; examples of minerals with this lustre are galena and pyrite. Non-metallic lustres include: adamantine, such as in diamond; vitreous, which is a glassy lustre very common in silicate minerals; pearly, such as in talc and apophyllite; resinous, such as members of the garnet group; silky which is common in fibrous minerals such as asbestiform chrysotile. [66]The diaphaneity of a mineral describes the ability of light to pass through it. Transparent minerals do not diminish the intensity of light passing through them. An example of a transparent mineral is muscovite (potassium mica); some varieties are sufficiently clear to have been used for windows. Translucent minerals allow some light to pass, but less than those that are transparent. Jadeite and nephrite (mineral forms of jade are examples of minerals with this property). Minerals that do not allow light to pass are called opaque. [67] [68]The diaphaneity of a mineral depends on the thickness of the sample. When a mineral is sufficiently thin (e.g., in a thin section for petrography ), it may become transparent even if that property is not seen in a hand sample. In contrast, some minerals, such as hematite or pyrite, are opaque even in thin-section. [68]Colour and streak Main article: Streak (mineralogy)Colour is typically not a diagnostic property of minerals. Shown are green uvarovite (left) and red-pink grossular (right), both garnets. The diagnostic features would include dodecahedral crystals, resinous lustre, and hardness around 7. Colour is the most obvious property of a mineral, but it is often non-diagnostic. [69] It is caused by electromagnetic radiation interacting with electrons (except in the case of incandescence, which does not apply to minerals). [70] Two broad classes of elements (idiochromatic and allochromatic) are defined with regards to their contribution to a mineral's colour: Idiochromatic elements are essential to a mineral's composition; their contribution to a mineral's colour is diagnostic. [67] [71] Examples of such minerals are malachite (green) and azurite (blue). In contrast, allochromatic elements in minerals are present in trace amounts as impurities. An example of such a mineral would be the ruby and sapphire varieties of the mineral corundum. [71] The colours of pseudochromatic minerals are the result of interference of light waves. Examples include labradorite and bornite. In addition to simple body colour, minerals can have various other distinctive optical properties, such as play of colours, asterism, chatoyancy, iridescence, tarnish, and pleochroism. Several of these properties involve variability in colour. Play of colour, such as in opal, results in the sample reflecting different colours as it is turned, while pleochroism describes the change in colour as light passes through a mineral in a different orientation. Iridescence is a variety of the play of colours where light scatters off a coating on the surface of crystal, cleavage planes, or off layers having minor gradations in chemistry. [72] In contrast, the play of colours in opal is caused by light refracting from ordered microscopic silica spheres within its physical structure. [73] Chatoyancy (""cat's eye"") is the wavy banding of colour that is observed as the sample is rotated; asterism, a variety of chatoyancy, gives the appearance of a star on the mineral grain. The latter property is particularly common in gem-quality corundum. [72] [73]The streak of a mineral refers to the colour of a mineral in powdered form, which may or may not be identical to its body colour. [71] The most common way of testing this property is done with a streak plate, which is made out of porcelain and coloured either white or black. The streak of a mineral is independent of trace elements [67] or any weathering surface. [71] A common example of this property is illustrated with hematite, which is coloured black, silver, or red in hand sample, but has a cherry-red [67] to reddish-brown streak. [71] Streak is more often distinctive for metallic minerals, in contrast to non-metallic minerals whose body colour is created by allochromatic elements. [67] Streak testing is constrained by the hardness of the mineral, as those harder than 7 powder the streak plate instead. [71]Cleavage, parting, fracture, and tenacity Main articles: Cleavage (crystal) and Fracture (mineralogy)Perfect basal cleavage as seen in biotite (black), and good cleavage seen in the matrix (pink orthoclase ). By definition, minerals have a characteristic atomic arrangement. Weakness in this crystalline structure causes planes of weakness, and the breakage of a mineral along such planes is termed cleavage. The quality of cleavage can be described based on how cleanly and easily the mineral breaks; common descriptors, in order of decreasing quality, are ""perfect"", ""good"", ""distinct"", and ""poor"". In particularly transparent minerals, or in thin-section, cleavage can be seen as a series of parallel lines marking the planar surfaces when viewed from the side. Cleavage is not a universal property among minerals; for example, quartz, consisting of extensively interconnected silica tetrahedra, does not have a crystallographic weakness which would allow it to cleave. In contrast, micas, which have perfect basal cleavage, consist of sheets of silica tetrahedra which are very weakly held together. [74] [75]As cleavage is a function of crystallography, there are a variety of cleavage types. Cleavage occurs typically in either one, two, three, four, or six directions. Basal cleavage in one direction is a distinctive property of the micas. Two-directional cleavage is described as prismatic, and occurs in minerals such as the amphiboles and pyroxenes. Minerals such as galena or halite have cubic (or isometric) cleavage in three directions, at 90°; when three directions of cleavage are present, but not at 90°, such as in calcite or rhodochrosite, it is termed rhombohedral cleavage. Octahedral cleavage (four directions) is present in fluorite and diamond, and sphalerite has six-directional dodecahedral cleavage. [74] [75]Minerals with many cleavages might not break equally well in all of the directions; for example, calcite has good cleavage in three directions, but gypsum has perfect cleavage in one direction, and poor cleavage in two other directions. Angles between cleavage planes vary between minerals. For example, as the amphiboles are double-chain silicates and the pyroxenes are single-chain silicates, the angle between their cleavage planes is different. The pyroxenes cleave in two directions at approximately 90°, whereas the amphiboles distinctively cleave in two directions separated by approximately 120° and 60°. The cleavage angles can be measured with a contact goniometer, which is similar to a protractor. [74] [75]Parting, sometimes called ""false cleavage"", is similar in appearance to cleavage but is instead produced by structural defects in the mineral, as opposed to systematic weakness. Parting varies from crystal to crystal of a mineral, whereas all crystals of a given mineral will cleave if the atomic structure allows for that property. In general, parting is caused by some stress applied to a crystal. The sources of the stresses include deformation (e.g. an increase in pressure), exsolution, or twinning. Minerals that often display parting include the pyroxenes, hematite, magnetite, and corundum. [74] [76]When a mineral is broken in a direction that does not correspond to a plane of cleavage, it is termed to have been fractured. There are several types of uneven fracture. The classic example is conchoidal fracture, like that of quartz; rounded surfaces are created, which are marked by smooth curved lines. This type of fracture occurs only in very homogeneous minerals. Other types of fracture are fibrous, splintery, and hackly. The latter describes a break along a rough, jagged surface; an example of this property is found in native copper. [77]Tenacity is related to both cleavage and fracture. Whereas fracture and cleavage describes the surfaces that are created when a mineral is broken, tenacity describes how resistant a mineral is to such breaking. Minerals can be described as brittle, ductile, malleable, sectile, flexible, or elastic. [78]Specific gravity Galena, Pb S, is a mineral with a high specific gravity. Specific gravity numerically describes the density of a mineral. The dimensions of density are mass divided by volume with units: kg/m 3 or g/cm 3. Specific gravity measures how much water a mineral sample displaces. Defined as the quotient of the mass of the sample and difference between the weight of the sample in air and its corresponding weight in water, specific gravity is a unitless ratio. Among most minerals, this property is not diagnostic. Rock forming minerals – typically silicates or occasionally carbonates – have a specific gravity of 2.5–3.5. [79]High specific gravity is a diagnostic property of a mineral. A variation in chemistry (and consequently, mineral class) correlates to a change in specific gravity. Among more common minerals, oxides and sulfides tend to have a higher specific gravity as they include elements with higher atomic mass. A generalization is that minerals with metallic or adamantine lustre tend to have higher specific gravities than those having a non-metallic to dull lustre. For example, hematite, Fe 2 O 3, has a specific gravity of 5.26 [80] while galena, Pb S, has a specific gravity of 7.2–7.6, [81] which is a result of their high iron and lead content, respectively. A very high specific gravity becomes very pronounced in native metals; kamacite, an iron-nickel alloy common in iron meteorites has a specific gravity of 7.9, [82] and gold has an observed specific gravity between 15 and 19.3. [79] [83]Other properties Carnotite (yellow) is a radioactive uranium-bearing mineral. Other properties can be used to diagnose minerals. These are less general, and apply to specific minerals. Dropping dilute acid (often 10% HCl) onto a mineral aids in distinguishing carbonates from other mineral classes. The acid reacts with the carbonate ( [CO 3] 2−) group, which causes the affected area to effervesce, giving off carbon dioxide gas. This test can be further expanded to test the mineral in its original crystal form or powdered form. An example of this test is done when distinguishing calcite from dolomite, especially within rocks (limestone and dolostone respectively). Calcite immediately effervesces in acid, whereas acid must be applied to powdered dolomite (often to a scratched surface in a rock), for it to effervesce. [84] Zeolite minerals will not effervesce in acid; instead, they become frosted after 5–10 minutes, and if left in acid for a day, they dissolve or become a silica gel. [85]When tested, magnetism is a very conspicuous property of minerals. Among common minerals, magnetite exhibits this property strongly, and magnetism is also present, albeit not as strongly, in pyrrhotite and ilmenite. [84] Some minerals exhibit electrical properties – for example, quartz is piezoelectric – but electrical properties are rarely used as diagnostic criteria for minerals because of incomplete data and natural variation. [86]Minerals can also be tested for taste or smell. Halite, Na Cl, is table salt; its potassium-bearing counterpart, sylvite, has a pronounced bitter taste. Sulfides have a characteristic smell, especially as samples are fractured, reacting, or powdered. [84]Radioactivity is a rare property; minerals may be composed of radioactive elements. They could be a defining constituent, such as uranium in uraninite, autunite, and carnotite, or as trace impurities. In the latter case, the decay of a radioactive element damages the mineral crystal; the result, termed a radioactive halo or pleochroic halo, is observable with various techniques, such as thin-section petrography. [84]Classification As the composition of the Earth's crust is dominated by silicon and oxygen, silicate elements are by far the most important class of minerals in terms of rock formation and diversity. However, non-silicate minerals are of great economic importance, especially as ores. [87] [88]Non-silicate minerals are subdivided into several other classes by their dominant chemistry, which includes native elements, sulfides, halides, oxides and hydroxides, carbonates and nitrates, borates, sulfates, phosphates, and organic compounds. Most non-silicate mineral species are rare (constituting in total 8% of the Earth's crust), although some are relatively common, such as calcite, pyrite, magnetite, and hematite. There are two major structural styles observed in non-silicates: close-packing and silicate-like linked tetrahedra. close-packed structures is a way to densely pack atoms while minimizing interstitial space. Hexagonal close-packing involves stacking layers where every other layer is the same (""ababab""), whereas cubic close-packing involves stacking groups of three layers (""abcabcabc""). Analogues to linked silica tetrahedra include SO 4 (sulfate), PO 4 (phosphate), As O 4 (arsenate), and VO 4 (vanadate). The non-silicates have great economic importance, as they concentrate elements more than the silicate minerals do. [89]The largest grouping of minerals by far are the silicates; most rocks are composed of greater than 95% silicate minerals, and over 90% of the Earth's crust is composed of these minerals. [90] The two main constituents of silicates are silicon and oxygen, which are the two most abundant elements in the Earth's crust. Other common elements in silicate minerals correspond to other common elements in the Earth's crust, such as aluminium, magnesium, iron, calcium, sodium, and potassium. [91] Some important rock-forming silicates include the feldspars, quartz, olivines, pyroxenes, amphiboles, garnets, and micas. Silicates Main article: Silicate minerals Aegirine, an iron-sodium clinopyroxene, is part of the inosilicate subclass. The base unit of a silicate mineral is the [Si O 4] 4− tetrahedron. In the vast majority of cases, silicon is in four-fold or tetrahedral coordination with oxygen. In very high-pressure situations, silicon will be in six-fold or octahedral coordination, such as in the perovskite structure or the quartz polymorph stishovite (Si O 2 ). In the latter case, the mineral no longer has a silicate structure, but that of rutile (Ti O 2 ), and its associated group, which are simple oxides. These silica tetrahedra are then polymerized to some degree to create various structures, such as one-dimensional chains, two-dimensional sheets, and three-dimensional frameworks. The basic silicate mineral where no polymerization of the tetrahedra has occurred requires other elements to balance out the base 4- charge. In other silicate structures, different combinations of elements are required to balance out the resultant negative charge. It is common for the Si 4+ to be substituted by Al 3+ because of similarity in ionic radius and charge; in those cases, the [Al O 4] 5− tetrahedra form the same structures as do the unsubstituted tetrahedra, but their charge-balancing requirements are different. [92]The degree of polymerization can be described by both the structure formed and how many tetrahedral corners (or coordinating oxygens) are shared (for aluminium and silicon in tetrahedral sites). [93] Orthosilicates (or nesosilicates) have no linking of polyhedra, thus tetrahedra share no corners. Disilicates (or sorosilicates) have two tetrahedra sharing one oxygen atom. Inosilicates are chain silicates; single-chain silicates have two shared corners, whereas double-chain silicates have two or three shared corners. In phyllosilicates, a sheet structure is formed which requires three shared oxygens; in the case of double-chain silicates, some tetrahedra must share two corners instead of three as otherwise a sheet structure would result. Framework silicates, or tectosilicates, have tetrahedra that share all four corners. The ring silicates, or cyclosilicates, only need tetrahedra to share two corners to form the cyclical structure. [94]The silicate subclasses are described below in order of decreasing polymerization. Tectosilicates Natrolite is a mineral series in the zeolite group; this sample has a very prominent acicular crystal habit. Tectosilicates, also known as framework silicates, have the highest degree of polymerization. With all corners of a tetrahedra shared, the silicon:oxygen ratio becomes 1:2. Examples are quartz, the feldspars, feldspathoids, and the zeolites. Framework silicates tend to be particularly chemically stable as a result of strong covalent bonds. [95]Forming 12% of the Earth's crust, quartz (Si O 2) is the most abundant mineral species. It is characterized by its high chemical and physical resistivity. Quartz has several polymorphs, including tridymite and cristobalite at high temperatures, high-pressure coesite, and ultra-high pressure stishovite. The latter mineral can only be formed on Earth by meteorite impacts, and its structure has been composed so much that it had changed from a silicate structure to that of rutile (Ti O 2 ). The silica polymorph that is most stable at the Earth's surface is α-quartz. Its counterpart, β-quartz, is present only at high temperatures and pressures (changes to α-quartz below 573 °C at 1 bar). These two polymorphs differ by a ""kinking"" of bonds; this change in structure gives β-quartz greater symmetry than α-quartz, and they are thus also called high quartz (β) and low quartz (α). [90] [96]Feldspars are the most abundant group in the Earth's crust, at about 50%. In the feldspars, Al 3+ substitutes for Si 4+, which creates a charge imbalance that must be accounted for by the addition of cations. The base structure becomes either [Al Si 3 O 8] − or [Al 2 Si 2 O 8] 2− There are 22 mineral species of feldspars, subdivided into two major subgroups – alkali and plagioclase – and two less common groups – celsian and banalsite. The alkali feldspars are most commonly in a series between potassium-rich orthoclase and sodium-rich albite; in the case of plagioclase, the most common series ranges from albite to calcium-rich anorthite. Crystal twinning is common in feldspars, especially polysynthetic twins in plagioclase and Carlsbad twins in alkali feldspars. If the latter subgroup cools slowly from a melt, it forms exsolution lamellae because the two components – orthoclase and albite – are unstable in solid solution. Exsolution can be on a scale from microscopic to readily observable in hand-sample; perthitic texture forms when Na-rich feldspar exsolve in a K-rich host. The opposite texture (antiperthitic), where K-rich feldspar exsolves in a Na-rich host, is very rare. [97]Feldspathoids are structurally similar to feldspar, but differ in that they form in Si-deficient conditions, which allows for further substitution by Al 3+. As a result, feldsapthoids cannot be associated with quartz. A common example of a feldsapthoid is nepheline ( (Na, K)Al Si O 4 ); compared to alkali feldspar, nepheline has an Al 2 O 3 : Si O 2 ratio of 1:2, as opposed to 1:6 in the feldspar. [98] Zeolites often have distinctive crystal habits, occurring in needles, plates, or blocky masses. They form in the presence of water at low temperatures and pressures, and have channels and voids in their structure. Zeolites have several industrial applications, especially in waste water treatment. [99]Phyllosilicates Muscovite, a mineral species in the mica group, within the phyllosilicate subclass Phyllosilicates consist of sheets of polymerized tetrahedra. They are bound at three oxygen sites, which gives a characteristic silicon:oxygen ratio of 2:5. Important examples include the mica, chlorite, and the kaolinite - serpentine groups. The sheets are weakly bound by van der Waals forces or hydrogen bonds, which causes a crystallographic weakness, in turn leading to a prominent basal cleavage among the phyllosilicates. [100] In addition to the tetrahedra, phyllosilicates have a sheet of octahedra (elements in six-fold coordination by oxygen) that balance out the basic tetrahedra, which have a negative charge (e.g. [Si 4 O 10] 4−) These tetrahedra (T) and octahedra (O) sheets are stacked in a variety of combinations to create phyllosilicate groups. Within an octahedral sheet, there are three octahedral sites in a unit structure; however, not all of the sites may be occupied. In that case, the mineral is termed dioctahedral, whereas in other case it is termed trioctahedral. [101]The kaolinite-serpentine group consists of T-O stacks (the 1:1 clay minerals); their hardness ranges from 2 to 4, as the sheets are held by hydrogen bonds. The 2:1 clay minerals (pyrophyllite-talc) consist of T-O-T stacks, but they are softer (hardness from 1 to 2), as they are instead held together by van der Waals forces. These two groups of minerals are subgrouped by octahedral occupation; specifically, kaolinite and pyrophyllite are dioctahedral whereas serpentine and talc trioctahedral. [102]Micas are also T-O-T-stacked phyllosilicates, but differ from the other T-O-T and T-O-stacked subclass members in that they incorporate aluminium into the tetrahedral sheets (clay minerals have Al 3+ in octahedral sites). Common examples of micas are muscovite, and the biotite series. The chlorite group is related to mica group, but a brucite -like (Mg (OH) 2) layer between the T-O-T stacks. [103]Because of their chemical structure, phyllosilicates typically have flexible, elastic, transparent layers that are electrical insulators and can be split into very thin flakes. Micas can be used in electronics as insulators, in construction, as optical filler, or even cosmetics. Chrysotile, a species of serpentine, is the most common mineral species in industrial asbestos, as it is less dangerous in terms of health than the amphibole asbestos. [104]Inosilicates Asbestiform tremolite, part of the amphibole group in the inosilicate subclass Inosilicates consist of tetrahedra repeatedly bonded in chains. These chains can be single, where a tetrahedron is bound to two others to form a continuous chain; alternatively, two chains can be merged to create double-chain silicates. Single-chain silicates have a silicon:oxygen ratio of 1:3 (e.g. [Si 2 O 6] 4− ), whereas the double-chain variety has a ratio of 4:11, e.g. [Si 8 O 22] 12−. Inosilicates contain two important rock-forming mineral groups; single-chain silicates are most commonly pyroxenes, while double-chain silicates are often amphiboles. [105] Higher-order chains exist (e.g. three-member, four-member, five-member chains, etc.) but they are rare. [106]The pyroxene group consists of 21 mineral species. [107] Pyroxenes have a general structure formula of XY (Si 2 O 6 ), where X is an octahedral site, while Y can vary in coordination number from six to eight. Most varieties of pyroxene consist of permutations of Ca 2+, Fe 2+ and Mg 2+ to balance the negative charge on the backbone. Pyroxenes are common in the Earth's crust (about 10%) and are a key constituent of mafic igneous rocks. [108]Amphiboles have great variability in chemistry, described variously as a ""mineralogical garbage can"" or a ""mineralogical shark swimming a sea of elements"". The backbone of the amphiboles is the [Si 8 O 22] 12−; it is balanced by cations in three possible positions, although the third position is not always used, and one element can occupy both remaining ones. Finally, the amphiboles are usually hydrated, that is, they have a hydroxyl group ( [OH] − ), although it can be replaced by a fluoride, a chloride, or an oxide ion. [109] Because of the variable chemistry, there are over 80 species of amphibole, although variations, as in the pyroxenes, most commonly involve mixtures of Ca 2+, Fe 2+ and Mg 2+. [107] Several amphibole mineral species can have an asbestiform crystal habit. These asbestos minerals form long, thin, flexible, and strong fibres, which are electrical insulators, chemically inert and heat-resistant; as such, they have several applications, especially in construction materials. However, asbestos are known carcinogens, and cause various other illnesses, such as asbestosis; amphibole asbestos ( anthophyllite, tremolite, actinolite, grunerite, and riebeckite) are considered more dangerous than chrysotile serpentine asbestos. [110]Cyclosilicates An example of elbaite, a species of tourmaline, with distinctive colour banding. Cyclosilicates, or ring silicates, have a ratio of silicon to oxygen of 1:3. Six-member rings are most common, with a base structure of [Si 6 O 18] 12−; examples include the tourmaline group and beryl. Other ring structures exist, with 3, 4, 8, 9, 12 having been described. [111] Cyclosilicates tend to be strong, with elongated, striated crystals. [112]Tourmalines have a very complex chemistry that can be described by a general formula XY 3 Z 6 (BO 3) 3 T 6 O 18 V 3 W. The T 6 O 18 is the basic ring structure, where T is usually Si 4+, but substitutable by Al 3+ or B 3+. Tourmalines can be subgrouped by the occupancy of the X site, and from there further subdivided by the chemistry of the W site. The Y and Z sites can accommodate a variety of cations, especially various transition metals; this variability in structural transition metal content gives the tourmaline group greater variability in colour. Other cyclosilicates include beryl, Al 2 Be 3 Si 6 O 18, whose varieties include the gemstones emerald (green) and aquamarine (bluish). Cordierite is structurally similar to beryl, and is a common metamorphic mineral. [113]Sorosilicates Epidote often has a distinctive pistachio-green colour. Sorosilicates, also termed disilicates, have tetrahedron-tetrahedron bonding at one oxygen, which results in a 2:7 ratio of silicon to oxygen. The resultant common structural element is the [Si 2 O 7] 6− group. The most common disilicates by far are members of the epidote group. Epidotes are found in variety of geologic settings, ranging from mid-ocean ridge to granites to metapelites. Epidotes are built around the structure [ (Si O 4 ) (Si 2 O 7 )] 10− structure; for example, the mineral species epidote has calcium, aluminium, and ferric iron to charge balance: Ca 2 Al 2 (Fe 3+, Al) (Si O 4 ) (Si 2 O 7 )O (OH). The presence of iron as Fe 3+ and Fe 2+ helps understand oxygen fugacity, which in turn is a significant factor in petrogenesis. [114]Other examples of sorosilicates include lawsonite, a metamorphic mineral forming in the blueschist facies (subduction zone setting with low temperature and high pressure), vesuvianite, which takes up a significant amount of calcium in its chemical structure. [114] [115]Orthosilicates Black andradite, an end-member of the orthosilicate garnet group. Orthosilicates consist of isolated tetrahedra that are charge-balanced by other cations. [116] Also termed nesosilicates, this type of silicate has a silicon:oxygen ratio of 1:4 (e.g. Si O 4 ). Typical orthosilicates tend to form blocky equant crystals, and are fairly hard. [117] Several rock-forming minerals are part of this subclass, such as the aluminosilicates, the olivine group, and the garnet group. The aluminosilicates –bkyanite, andalusite, and sillimanite, all Al 2 Si O 5 – are structurally composed of one [Si O 4] 4− tetrahedron, and one Al 3+ in octahedral coordination. The remaining Al 3+ can be in six-fold coordination (kyanite), five-fold (andalusite) or four-fold (sillimanite); which mineral forms in a given environment is depend on pressure and temperature conditions. In the olivine structure, the main olivine series of (Mg, Fe) 2 Si O 4 consist of magnesium-rich forsterite and iron-rich fayalite. Both iron and magnesium are in octahedral by oxygen. Other mineral species having this structure exist, such as tephroite, Mn 2 Si O 4. [118] The garnet group has a general formula of X 3 Y 2 (Si O 4) 3, where X is a large eight-fold coordinated cation, and Y is a smaller six-fold coordinated cation. There are six ideal endmembers of garnet, split into two group. The pyralspite garnets have Al 3+ in the Y position: pyrope (Mg 3 Al 2 (Si O 4) 3 ), almandine (Fe 3 Al 2 (Si O 4) 3 ), and spessartine (Mn 3 Al 2 (Si O 4) 3 ). The ugrandite garnets have Ca 2+ in the X position: uvarovite (Ca 3 Cr 2 (Si O 4) 3 ), grossular (Ca 3 Al 2 (Si O 4) 3) and andradite (Ca 3 Fe 2 (Si O 4) 3 ). While there are two subgroups of garnet, solid solutions exist between all six end-members. [116]Other orthosilicates include zircon, staurolite, and topaz. Zircon (Zr Si O 4) is useful in geochronology as the Zr 4+ can be substituted by U 6+; furthermore, because of its very resistant structure, it is difficult to reset it as a chronometer. Staurolite is a common metamorphic intermediate-grade index mineral. It has a particularly complicated crystal structure that was only fully described in 1986. Topaz (Al 2 Si O 4 (F, OH) 2, often found in granitic pegmatites associated with tourmaline, is a common gemstone mineral. [119]Non-silicates Native elements Main article: Native element minerals Native gold. Rare specimen of stout crystals growing off of a central stalk, size 3.7 x 1.1 x 0.4 cm, from Venezuela. Native elements are those that are not chemically bonded to other elements. This mineral group includes native metals, semi-metals, and non-metals, and various alloys and solid solutions. The metals are held together by metallic bonding, which confers distinctive physical properties such as their shiny metallic lustre, ductility and malleability, and electrical conductivity. Native elements are subdivided into groups by their structure or chemical attributes. The gold group, with a cubic close-packed structure, includes metals such as gold, silver, and copper. The platinum group is similar in structure to the gold group. The iron-nickel group is characterized by several iron-nickel alloy species. Two examples are kamacite and taenite, which are found in iron meteorites; these species differ by the amount of Ni in the alloy; kamacite has less than 5–7% nickel and is a variety of native iron, whereas the nickel content of taenite ranges from 7–37%. Arsenic group minerals consist of semi-metals, which have only some metallic traits; for example, they lack the malleability of metals. Native carbon occurs in two allotropes, graphite and diamond; the latter forms at very high pressure in the mantle, which gives it a much stronger structure than graphite. [120]Sulfides Main article: Sulfide minerals Red cinnabar (Hg S), a mercury ore, on dolomite. The sulfide minerals are chemical compounds of one or more metals or semimetals with a sulfur; tellurium, arsenic, or selenium can substitute for the sulfur. Sulfides tend to be soft, brittle minerals with a high specific gravity. Many powdered sulfides, such as pyrite, have a sulfurous smell when powdered. Sulfides are susceptible to weathering, and many readily dissolve in water; these dissolved minerals can be later redeposited, which creates enriched secondary ore deposits. [121] Sulfides are classified by the ratio of the metal or semimetal to the sulfur, such as M: S equal to 2:1, or 1:1. [122] Many sulfide minerals are economically important as metal ores; examples include sphalerite (Zn S), an ore of zinc, galena (Pb S), an ore of lead, cinnabar (Hg S), an ore of mercury, and molybdenite (Mo S 2, an ore of molybdenum. [123] Pyrite (Fe S 2 ), is the most commonly occurring sulfide, and can be found in most geological environments. It is not, however, an ore of iron, but can be instead oxidized to produce sulfuric acid. [124] Related to the sulfides are the rare sulfosalts, in which a metallic element is bonded to sulfur and a semimetal such as antimony, arsenic, or bismuth. Like the sulfides, sulfosalts are typically soft, heavy, and brittle minerals. [125]Oxides Main article: Oxide minerals Oxide minerals are divided into three categories: simple oxides, hydroxides, and multiple oxides. Simple oxides are characterized by O 2− as the main anion and primarily ionic bonding. They can be further subdivided by the ratio of oxygen to the cations. The periclase group consists of minerals with a 1:1 ratio. Oxides with a 2:1 ratio include cuprite (Cu 2 O) and water ice. Corundum group minerals have a 2:3 ratio, and includes minerals such as corundum (Al 2 O 3 ), and hematite (Fe 2 O 3 ). Rutile group minerals have a ratio of 1:2; the eponymous species, rutile (Ti O 2) is the chief ore of titanium; other examples include cassiterite (Sn O 2; ore of tin ), and pyrolusite (Mn O 2; ore of manganese ). [126] [127] In hydroxides, the dominant anion is the hydroxyl ion, OH −. Bauxites are the chief aluminium ore, and are a heterogeneous mixture of the hydroxide minerals diaspore, gibbsite, and bohmite; they form in areas with a very high rate of chemical weathering (mainly tropical conditions). [128] Finally, multiple oxides are compounds of two metals with oxygen. A major group within this class are the spinels, with a general formula of X 2+ Y 3+ 2 O 4. Examples of species include spinel (Mg Al 2 O 4 ), chromite (Fe Cr 2 O 4 ), and magnetite (Fe 3 O 4 ). The latter is readily distinguishable by its strong magnetism, which occurs as it has iron in two oxidation states (Fe 2+ Fe 3+ 2 O 4 ), which makes it a multiple oxide instead of a single oxide. [129]Halides Main article: Halide minerals Pink cubic halite (Na Cl; halide class) crystals on a nahcolite matrix (Na HCO 3; a carbonate, and mineral form of sodium bicarbonate, used as baking soda ). The halide minerals are compounds in which a halogen (fluorine, chlorine, iodine, or bromine) is the main anion. These minerals tend to be soft, weak, brittle, and water-soluble. Common examples of halides include halite (Na Cl, table salt), sylvite (KCl), fluorite (Ca F 2 ). Halite and sylvite commonly form as evaporites, and can be dominant minerals in chemical sedimentary rocks. Cryolite, Na 3 Al F 6, is a key mineral in the extraction of aluminium from bauxites; however, as the only significant occurrence at Ivittuut, Greenland, in a granitic pegmatite, was depleted, synthetic cryolite can be made from fluorite. [130]Carbonates Main article: Carbonate minerals The carbonate minerals are those in which the main anionic group is carbonate, [CO 3] 2−. Carbonates tend to be brittle, many have rhombohedral cleavage, and all react with acid. [131] Due to the last characteristic, field geologists often carry dilute hydrochloric acid to distinguish carbonates from non-carbonates. The reaction of acid with carbonates, most commonly found as the polymorph calcite and aragonite (Ca CO 3 ), relates to the dissolution and precipitation of the mineral, which is a key in the formation of limestone caves, features within them such as stalactite and stalagmites, and karst landforms. Carbonates are most often formed as biogenic or chemical sediments in marine environments. The carbonate group is structurally a triangle, where a central C 4+ cation is surrounded by three O 2− anions; different groups of minerals form from different arrangements of these triangles. [132] The most common carbonate mineral is calcite, which is the primary constituent of sedimentary limestone and metamorphic marble. Calcite, Ca CO 3, can have a high magnesium impurity. Under high-Mg conditions, its polymorph aragonite will form instead; the marine geochemistry in this regard can be described as an aragonite or calcite sea, depending on which mineral preferentially forms. Dolomite is a double carbonate, with the formula Ca Mg (CO 3) 2. Secondary dolomitization of limestone is common, in which calcite or aragonite are converted to dolomite; this reaction increases pore space (the unit cell volume of dolomite is 88% that of calcite), which can create a reservoir for oil and gas. These two mineral species are members of eponymous mineral groups: the calcite group includes carbonates with the general formula XCO 3, and the dolomite group constitutes minerals with the general formula XY (CO 3) 2. [133]Sulfates Main article: Sulfate minerals Gypsum desert rose The sulfate minerals all contain the sulfate anion, [SO 4] 2−. They tend to be transparent to translucent, soft, and many are fragile. [134] Sulfate minerals commonly form as evaporites, where they precipitate out of evaporating saline waters. Sulfates can also be found in hydrothermal vein systems associated with sulfides, [135] or as oxidation products of sulfides. [136] Sulfates can be subdivided into anhydrous and hydrous minerals. The most common hydrous sulfate by far is gypsum, Ca SO 4 ⋅2H 2 O. It forms as an evaporite, and is associated with other evaporites such as calcite and halite; if it incorporates sand grains as it crystallizes, gypsum can form desert roses. Gypsum has very low thermal conductivity and maintains a low temperature when heated as it loses that heat by dehydrating; as such, gypsum is used as an insulator in materials such as plaster and drywall. The anhydrous equivalent of gypsum is anhydrite; it can form directly from seawater in highly arid conditions. The barite group has the general formula XSO 4, where the X is a large 12-coordinated cation. Examples include barite (Ba SO 4 ), celestine (Sr SO 4 ), and anglesite (Pb SO 4 ); anhydrite is not part of the barite group, as the smaller Ca 2+ is only in eight-fold coordination. [137]Phosphates Main article: Phosphate minerals The phosphate minerals are characterized by the tetrahedral [PO 4] 3− unit, although the structure can be generalized, and phosphorus is replaced by antimony, arsenic, or vanadium. The most common phosphate is the apatite group; common species within this group are fluorapatite (Ca 5 (PO 4) 3 F), chlorapatite (Ca 5 (PO 4) 3 Cl) and hydroxylapatite (Ca 5 (PO 4) 3 (OH)). Minerals in this group are the main crystalline constituents of teeth and bones in vertebrates. The relatively abundant monazite group has a general structure of ATO 4, where T is phosphorus or arsenic, and A is often a rare-earth element (REE). Monazite is important in two ways: first, as a REE ""sink"", it can sufficiently concentrate these elements to become an ore; secondly, monazite group elements can incorporate relatively large amounts of uranium and thorium, which can be used in monazite geochronology to date the rock based on the decay of the U and Th to lead. [138]Organic minerals Main article: Organic mineral The Strunz classification includes a class for organic minerals. These rare compounds contain organic carbon, but can be formed by a geologic process. For example, whewellite, Ca C 2 O 4 ⋅H 2 O is an oxalate that can be deposited in hydrothermal ore veins. While hydrated calcium oxalate can be found in coal seams and other sedimentary deposits involving organic matter, the hydrothermal occurrence is not considered to be related to biological activity. [88]Astrobiology It has been suggested that biominerals could be important indicators of extraterrestrial life and thus could play an important role in the search for past or present life on the planet Mars. Furthermore, organic components ( biosignatures) that are often associated with biominerals are believed to play crucial roles in both pre-biotic and biotic reactions. [139]On January 24, 2014, NASA reported that current studies by the Curiosity and Opportunity rovers on Mars will now be searching for evidence of ancient life, including a biosphere based on autotrophic, chemotrophic and/or chemolithoautotrophic microorganisms, as well as ancient water, including fluvio-lacustrine environments ( plains related to ancient rivers or lakes) that may have been habitable. [140] [141] [142] [143] The search for evidence of habitability, taphonomy (related to fossils ), and organic carbon on the planet Mars is now a primary NASA objective. [140] [141]See also Amateur geology Dietary mineral Isomorphism (crystallography)List of minerals List of minerals (complete)Mineral collecting Polymorphism (materials science)Notes References^ Wenk, Hans-Rudolf; Bulakh, Andrei (2004). Minerals: Their Constitution and Origin. Cambridge University Press. p. 10. ISBN 9780521529587.^ ""IMA Database of Mineral Properties/ RRUFF Project"". 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""Geomicrobiology: How Molecular-Scale Interactions Underpin Biogeochemical Systems"". Science. 296 (5570): 1071–77. doi: 10.1126/science.1010716. PMID 12004119.^ Warren, L. A.; Kauffman, M. E. (2003). ""Microbial geoengineers"". Science. 299 (5609): 1027–29. doi: 10.1126/science.1072076. JSTOR 3833546. PMID 12586932.^ González-Muñoz, M. T.; Rodriguez-Navarro, C.; Martínez-Ruiz, F.; Arias, J. M.; Merroun, M. L.; Rodriguez-Gallego, M. ""Bacterial biomineralization: new insights from Myxococcus-induced mineral precipitation"". Geological Society, London, Special Publications. 336 (1): 31–50. Bibcode: 2010GSLSP.336...31G. doi: 10.1144/SP336.3.^ Veis, A. (1990). ""Biomineralization. Cell Biology and Mineral Deposition. by Kenneth Simkiss; Karl M. Wilbur On Biomineralization. by Heinz A. Lowenstam; Stephen Weiner"". Science. 247 (4946): 1129–30. Bibcode: 1990Sci...247.1129S. doi: 10.1126/science.247.4946.1129. JSTOR 2874281. PMID 17800080.^ Official IMA list of mineral names (updated from March 2009 list)Archived 2011-07-06 at the Wayback Machine .. uws.edu.au^ Bouligand, Y. (2006). ""Liquid crystals and morphogenesis."". In Bourgine, P.; Lesne, A. Morphogenesis: Origins of Patterns and Shape. Cambridge, UK: Springer Verlag. pp. 49 ff. ISBN 9783642131745.^ Gabriel, C. P.; Davidson, P. (2003). ""Mineral Liquid Crystals from Self-Assembly of Anisotropic Nanosystems"". Topics in Current Chemistry. 226: 119–72. doi: 10.1007/b10827.^ K., Hefferan; J., O'Brien (2010). Earth Materials. Wiley-Blackwell. ISBN 978-1-4443-3460-9.^ Bindi, L.; Paul J. Steinhardt; Nan Yao; Peter J. Lu (2011). ""Icosahedrite, Al 63 Cu 24 Fe 13, the first natural quasicrystal"". American Mineralogist. 96: 928–31. 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(September 26, 2006). ""Final report of the MEPAG Astrobiology Field Laboratory Science Steering Group (AFL-SSG)"". The Astrobiology Field Laboratory (.doc). Mars Exploration Program Analysis Group (MEPAG) – NASA. p. 72. Retrieved 2009-07-22.^ a b Grotzinger, John P. (January 24, 2014). ""Introduction to Special Issue – Habitability, Taphonomy, and the Search for Organic Carbon on Mars"". Science. 343 (6169): 386–87. Bibcode: 2014Sci...343..386G. doi: 10.1126/science.1249944. PMID 24458635.^ a b Various (January 24, 2014). ""Exploring Martian Habitability"". Science. 343 (6169): 345–452.^ Various (January 24, 2014). ""Special Collection – Curiosity – Exploring Martian Habitability"". Science. Retrieved January 24, 2014.^ Grotzinger, J. P.; et al. (January 24, 2014). ""A Habitable Fluvio-Lacustrine Environment at Yellowknife Bay, Gale Crater, Mars"". Science. 343 (6169): 1242777. Bibcode: 2014Sci...343A.386G. Cite Seer X 10.1.1.455.3973. doi: 10.1126/science.1242777. PMID 24324272. General references Busbey, A. B.; Coenraads, R. E.; Roots, D.; Willis, P. (2007). Rocks and Fossils. San Francisco: Fog City Press. ISBN 978-1-74089-632-0. Chesterman, C. W.; Lowe, K. E. (2008). Field guide to North American rocks and minerals. Toronto: Random House of Canada. ISBN 0-394-50269-8. Dyar, M. D.; Gunter, M. E. (2008). Mineralogy and Optical Mineralogy. Chantilly, Virginia: Mineralogical Society of America. ISBN 978-0-939950-81-2. Further reading Hazen, R. M.; Grew, Edward S.; Origlieri, Marcus J.; Downs, Robert T. (March 2017). ""On the Mineralogy of the 'Anthropocene Epoch ' "" (PDF). American Mineralogist. 102 (3). Bibcode: 2017Am Min.102..595H. doi: 10.2138/am-2017-5875. Retrieved August 14, 2017. On the creation of new minerals by human activity. External links Wikimedia Commons has media related to Minerals. The Wikibook Historical Geology has a page on the topic of: Minerals The Wikibook High School Earth Science has a page on the topic of: Earth's Minerals Mindat mineralogical database, largest mineral database on the Internet""Mineralogy Database"" by David Barthelmy (2009)""Mineral Identification Key II"" Mineralogical Society of America""American Mineralogist Crystal Structure Database""Minerals and the Origins of Life ( Robert Hazen, NASA) (video, 60m, April 2014). 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[ "\"From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedianavigation search For other uses, see Mineral (disambiguation).", "Crystals of serandite, natrolite, analcime, and aegirine: Mont Saint-Hilaire, La Vallée-du-Richelieu RCM, Montérégie, Québec, Canada A mineral is a naturally occurring chemical compound, [1] usually of crystalline form and not produced by life processes.", "A mineral has one specific chemical composition, whereas a rock can be an aggregate of different minerals or mineraloids.", "The study of minerals is called mineralogy.", "As of March 2018, there are more than 5,500 known mineral species; [2] 5,312 of these have been approved by the International Mineralogical Association (IMA).", "[3]Minerals are distinguished by various chemical and physical properties.", "Differences in chemical composition and crystal structure distinguish the various species, which were determined by the mineral's geological environment when formed.", "Changes in the temperature, pressure, or bulk composition of a rock mass cause changes in its minerals.", "Within a mineral species there may be variation in physical properties or minor amounts of impurities that are recognized by mineralogists or wider society as a mineral variety, [4] for example amethyst, a purple variety of the mineral species quartz.", "Minerals can be described by their various physical properties, which are related to their chemical structure and composition.", "Common distinguishing characteristics include crystal structure and habit, hardness, lustre, diaphaneity, colour, streak, tenacity, cleavage, fracture, parting, specific gravity, magnetism, taste or smell, radioactivity, and reaction to acid.", "Minerals are classified by key chemical constituents; the two dominant systems are the Dana classification and the Strunz classification.", "Silicon and oxygen constitute approximately 75% of the Earth's crust, which translates directly into the predominance of silicate minerals.", "The silicate minerals compose over 90% of the Earth's crust.", "[5] The silicate class of minerals is subdivided into six subclasses by the degree of polymerization in the chemical structure.", "All silicate minerals have a base unit of a [Si O 4] 4− silica tetrahedron—that is, a silicon cation coordinated by four oxygen anions, which gives the shape of a tetrahedron.", "These tetrahedra can be polymerized to give the subclasses: orthosilicates (no polymerization, thus single tetrahedra), disilicates (two tetrahedra bonded together), cyclosilicates (rings of tetrahedra), inosilicates (chains of tetrahedra), phyllosilicates (sheets of tetrahedra), and tectosilicates (three-dimensional network of tetrahedra).", "Other important mineral groups include the native elements, sulfides, oxides, halides, carbonates, sulfates, and phosphates.", "Contents [ hide ]1 Definition1.1 Basic definition1.2 Recent advances1.3 Rocks, ores, and gems1.4 Nomenclature and classification2 Chemistry3 Physical properties3.1 Crystal structure and habit3.2 Hardness3.3 Lustre and diaphaneity3.4 Colour and streak3.5 Cleavage, parting, fracture, and tenacity3.6 Specific gravity3.7 Other properties4 Classification4.1 Silicates4.2 Non-silicates5 Astrobiology6 See also7 Notes8 References9 General references10 Further reading11 External links Definition Basic definition One definition of a mineral encompasses the following criteria: [6]Formed by a natural process ( anthropogenic compounds are excluded).", "Stable or metastable at room temperature (25 °C).", "In the simplest sense, this means the mineral must be solid.", "Classical examples of exceptions to this rule include native mercury, which crystallizes at −39 °C, and water ice, which is solid only below 0 °C; because these two minerals were described before 1959, they were grandfathered by the International Mineralogical Association (IMA).", "[7] [8] Modern advances have included extensive study of liquid crystals, which also extensively involve mineralogy.", "Represented by a chemical formula.", "Minerals are chemical compounds, and as such they can be described by fixed or a variable formula.", "Many mineral groups and species are composed of a solid solution; pure substances are not usually found because of contamination or chemical substitution.", "For example, the olivine group is described by the variable formula (Mg, Fe) 2 Si O 4, which is a solid solution of two end-member species, magnesium-rich forsterite and iron-rich fayalite, which are described by a fixed chemical formula.", "Mineral species themselves could have a variable composition, such as the sulfide mackinawite, (Fe, Ni) 9 S 8, which is mostly a ferrous sulfide, but has a very significant nickel impurity that is reflected in its formula.", "[6] [9]Ordered atomic arrangement.", "This generally means crystalline; however, crystals are also periodic, so the broader criterion is used instead.", "[6] An ordered atomic arrangement gives rise to a variety of macroscopic physical properties, such as crystal form, hardness, and cleavage.", "[10] There have been several recent proposals to classify biogenic or amorphous substances as minerals.", "The formal definition of a mineral approved by the IMA in 1995: \"\"A mineral is an element or chemical compound that is normally crystalline and that has been formed as a result of geological processes.\"\"", "[11]Usually abiogenic (not resulting from the activity of living organisms).", "Biogenic substances are explicitly excluded by the IMA: \"\"Biogenic substances are chemical compounds produced entirely by biological processes without a geological component (e.g., urinary calculi, oxalate crystals in plant tissues, shells of marine molluscs, etc.)", "and are not regarded as minerals.", "However, if geological processes were involved in the genesis of the compound, then the product can be accepted as a mineral.\"\"", "[11]The first three general characteristics are less debated than the last two.", "[6]Recent advances Mineral classification schemes and their definitions are evolving to match recent advances in mineral science.", "Recent changes have included the addition of an organic class, in both the new Dana and the Strunz classification schemes.", "[12] [13] The organic class includes a very rare group of minerals with hydrocarbons.", "The IMA Commission on New Minerals and Mineral Names adopted in 2009 a hierarchical scheme for the naming and classification of mineral groups and group names and established seven commissions and four working groups to review and classify minerals into an official listing of their published names.", "[14] [15] According to these new rules, \"\"mineral species can be grouped in a number of different ways, on the basis of chemistry, crystal structure, occurrence, association, genetic history, or resource, for example, depending on the purpose to be served by the classification.\"\"", "[14]The Nickel (1995) [ clarification needed] exclusion of biogenic substances was not universally adhered to.", "For example, Lowenstam (1981) stated that \"\"organisms are capable of forming a diverse array of minerals, some of which cannot be formed inorganically in the biosphere.\"\"", "[16] The distinction is a matter of classification and less to do with the constituents of the minerals themselves.", "Skinner (2005) views all solids as potential minerals and includes biominerals in the mineral kingdom, which are those that are created by the metabolic activities of organisms.", "Skinner expanded the previous definition of a mineral to classify \"\"element or compound, amorphous or crystalline, formed through biogeochemical processes,\"\" as a mineral.", "[17]Recent advances in high-resolution genetics and X-ray absorption spectroscopy are providing revelations on the biogeochemical relations between microorganisms and minerals that may make Nickel's (1995) biogenic mineral exclusion obsolete and Skinner's (2005) biogenic mineral inclusion a necessity.", "[11] [17] For example, the IMA-commissioned \"\"Working Group on Environmental Mineralogy and Geochemistry \"\" deals with minerals in the hydrosphere, atmosphere, and biosphere.", "[18] The group's scope includes mineral-forming microorganisms, which exist on nearly every rock, soil, and particle surface spanning the globe to depths of at least 1600 metres below the sea floor and 70 kilometres into the stratosphere (possibly entering the mesosphere ).", "[19] [20] [21] Biogeochemical cycles have contributed to the formation of minerals for billions of years.", "Microorganisms can precipitate metals from solution, contributing to the formation of ore deposits.", "They can also catalyze the dissolution of minerals.", "[22] [23] [24]Prior to the International Mineralogical Association's listing, over 60 biominerals had been discovered, named, and published.", "[25] These minerals (a sub-set tabulated in Lowenstam (1981) [16]) are considered minerals proper according to the Skinner (2005) definition.", "[17] These biominerals are not listed in the International Mineral Association official list of mineral names, [26] however, many of these biomineral representatives are distributed amongst the 78 mineral classes listed in the Dana classification scheme.", "[17] Another rare class of minerals (primarily biological in origin) include the mineral liquid crystals that have properties of both liquids and crystals.", "To date, over 80,000 liquid crystalline compounds have been identified.", "[27] [28]The Skinner (2005) definition of a mineral takes this matter into account by stating that a mineral can be crystalline or amorphous, the latter group including liquid crystals.", "[17] Although biominerals and liquid mineral crystals, are not the most common form of minerals, [29] they help to define the limits of what constitutes a mineral proper.", "The formal Nickel (1995) definition explicitly mentioned crystallinity as a key to defining a substance as a mineral.", "A 2011 article defined icosahedrite, an aluminium-iron-copper alloy as mineral; named for its unique natural icosahedral symmetry, it is a quasicrystal.", "Unlike a true crystal, quasicrystals are ordered but not periodic.", "[30] [31]Rocks, ores, and gems Schist is a metamorphic rock characterized by an abundance of platy minerals.", "In this example, the rock has prominent sillimaniteporphyroblasts as large as 3 cm (1.2 in).", "Minerals are not equivalent to rocks.", "A rock is an aggregate of one or more minerals [32] or mineraloids.", "Some rocks, such as limestone or quartzite, are composed primarily of one mineral— calcite or aragonite in the case of limestone, and quartz in the latter case.", "[33] [34] Other rocks can be defined by relative abundances of key (essential) minerals; a granite is defined by proportions of quartz, alkali feldspar, and plagioclase feldspar.", "[35] The other minerals in the rock are termed accessory, and do not greatly affect the bulk composition of the rock.", "Rocks can also be composed entirely of non-mineral material; coal is a sedimentary rock composed primarily of organically derived carbon.", "[32] [36]In rocks, some mineral species and groups are much more abundant than others; these are termed the rock-forming minerals.", "The major examples of these are quartz, the feldspars, the micas, the amphiboles, the pyroxenes, the olivines, and calcite; except for the last one, all of these minerals are silicates.", "[37] Overall, around 150 minerals are considered particularly important, whether in terms of their abundance or aesthetic value in terms of collecting.", "[38]Commercially valuable minerals and rocks are referred to as industrial minerals.", "For example, muscovite, a white mica, can be used for windows (sometimes referred to as isinglass), as a filler, or as an insulator.", "[39] Ores are minerals that have a high concentration of a certain element, typically a metal.", "Examples are cinnabar (Hg S), an ore of mercury, sphalerite (Zn S), an ore of zinc, or cassiterite (Sn O 2 ), an ore of tin.", "Gems are minerals with an ornamental value, and are distinguished from non-gems by their beauty, durability, and usually, rarity.", "There are about 20 mineral species that qualify as gem minerals, which constitute about 35 of the most common gemstones.", "Gem minerals are often present in several varieties, and so one mineral can account for several different gemstones; for example, ruby and sapphire are both corundum, Al 2 O 3.", "[40]Nomenclature and classification Minerals are classified by variety, species, series and group, in order of increasing generality.", "The basic level of definition is that of mineral species, each of which is distinguished from the others by unique chemical and physical properties.", "For example, quartz is defined by its formula, Si O 2, and a specific crystalline structure that distinguishes it from other minerals with the same chemical formula (termed polymorphs ).", "When there exists a range of composition between two minerals species, a mineral series is defined.", "For example, the biotite series is represented by variable amounts of the endmembersphlogopite, siderophyllite, annite, and eastonite.", "In contrast, a mineral group is a grouping of mineral species with some common chemical properties that share a crystal structure.", "The pyroxene group has a common formula of XY (Si,Al) 2 O 6, where X and Y are both cations, with X typically bigger than Y; the pyroxenes are single-chain silicates that crystallize in either the orthorhombic or monoclinic crystal systems.", "Finally, a mineral variety is a specific type of mineral species that differs by some physical characteristic, such as colour or crystal habit.", "An example is amethyst, which is a purple variety of quartz.", "[41]Two common classifications, Dana and Strunz, are used for minerals; both rely on composition, specifically with regards to important chemical groups, and structure.", "James Dwight Dana, a leading geologist of his time, first published his System of Mineralogy in 1837; as of 1997, it is in its eighth edition.", "The Dana classification assigns a four-part number to a mineral species.", "Its class number is based on important compositional groups; the type gives the ratio of cations to anions in the mineral, and the last two numbers group minerals by structural similarity within a given type or class.", "The less commonly used Strunz classification, named for German mineralogist Karl Hugo Strunz, is based on the Dana system, but combines both chemical and structural criteria, the latter with regards to distribution of chemical bonds.", "[42]As of September 2017, 5,291 mineral species are approved by the IMA.", "[3] They are most commonly named after a person (45%), followed by discovery location (23%); names based on chemical composition (14%) and physical properties (8%) are the two other major groups of mineral name etymologies.", "[41] [43]The word \"\"species\"\" (from the Latin species, \"\"a particular sort, kind, or type with distinct look, or appearance\"\") [44] comes from the classification scheme in Systema Naturae by Carl Linnaeus.", "Linneaeus divided the natural world into three kingdoms – plants, animals, and minerals – and classified each with the same hierarchy.", "In descending order, these were Phylum, Class, Order, Family, Tribe, Genus, and Species.", "[45]Chemistry Hübnerite, the manganese-rich end-member of the wolframite series, with minor quartz in the background The abundance and diversity of minerals is controlled directly by their chemistry, in turn dependent on elemental abundances in the Earth.", "The majority of minerals observed are derived from the Earth's crust.", "Eight elements account for most of the key components of minerals, due to their abundance in the crust.", "These eight elements, summing to over 98% of the crust by weight, are, in order of decreasing abundance: oxygen, silicon, aluminium, iron, magnesium, calcium, sodium and potassium.", "Oxygen and silicon are by far the two most important – oxygen composes 47% of the crust by weight, and silicon accounts for 28%.", "[46]The minerals that form are directly controlled by the bulk chemistry of the parent body.", "For example, a magma rich in iron and magnesium will form mafic minerals, such as olivine and the pyroxenes; in contrast, a more silica-rich magma will crystallize to form minerals that incorporate more Si O 2, such as the feldspars and quartz.", "In a limestone, calcite or aragonite (both Ca CO 3) form because the rock is rich in calcium and carbonate.", "A corollary is that a mineral will not be found in a rock whose bulk chemistry does not resemble the bulk chemistry of a given mineral with the exception of trace minerals.", "For example, kyanite, Al 2 Si O 5 forms from the metamorphism of aluminium-rich shales; it would not likely occur in aluminium-poor rock, such as quartzite.", "The chemical composition may vary between end member species of a solid solution series.", "For example, the plagioclasefeldspars comprise a continuous series from sodium -rich end member albite (Na Al Si 3 O 8) to calcium -rich anorthite (Ca Al 2 Si 2 O 8) with four recognized intermediate varieties between them (given in order from sodium- to calcium-rich): oligoclase, andesine, labradorite, and bytownite.", "[47] Other examples of series include the olivine series of magnesium-rich forsterite and iron-rich fayalite, and the wolframite series of manganese -rich hübnerite and iron-rich ferberite.", "Chemical substitution and coordination polyhedra explain this common feature of minerals.", "In nature, minerals are not pure substances, and are contaminated by whatever other elements are present in the given chemical system.", "As a result, it is possible for one element to be substituted for another.", "[48] Chemical substitution will occur between ions of a similar size and charge; for example, K + will not substitute for Si 4+ because of chemical and structural incompatibilities caused by a big difference in size and charge.", "A common example of chemical substitution is that of Si 4+ by Al 3+, which are close in charge, size, and abundance in the crust.", "In the example of plagioclase, there are three cases of substitution.", "Feldspars are all framework silicates, which have a silicon-oxygen ratio of 2:1, and the space for other elements is given by the substitution of Si 4+ by Al 3+ to give a base unit of [Al Si 3 O 8] −; without the substitution, the formula would be charge-balanced as Si O 2, giving quartz.", "[49] The significance of this structural property will be explained further by coordination polyhedra.", "The second substitution occurs between Na + and Ca 2+; however, the difference in charge has to accounted for by making a second substitution of Si 4+ by Al 3+.", "[50]Coordination polyhedra are geometric representations of how a cation is surrounded by an anion.", "In mineralogy, coordination polyhedra are usually considered in terms of oxygen, due its abundance in the crust.", "The base unit of silicate minerals is the silica tetrahedron – one Si 4+ surrounded by four O 2−.", "An alternate way of describing the coordination of the silicate is by a number: in the case of the silica tetrahedron, the silicon is said to have a coordination number of 4.", "Various cations have a specific range of possible coordination numbers; for silicon, it is almost always 4, except for very high-pressure minerals where the compound is compressed such that silicon is in six-fold (octahedral) coordination with oxygen.", "Bigger cations have a bigger coordination numbers because of the increase in relative size as compared to oxygen (the last orbital subshell of heavier atoms is different too).", "Changes in coordination numbers leads to physical and mineralogical differences; for example, at high pressure, such as in the mantle, many minerals, especially silicates such as olivine and garnet, will change to a perovskite structure, where silicon is in octahedral coordination.", "Other examples are the aluminosilicates kyanite, andalusite, and sillimanite (polymorphs, since they share the formula Al 2 Si O 5 ), which differ by the coordination number of the Al 3+; these minerals transition from one another as a response to changes in pressure and temperature.", "[46] In the case of silicate materials, the substitution of Si 4+ by Al 3+ allows for a variety of minerals because of the need to balance charges.", "[51]When minerals react, the products will sometimes assume the shape of the reagent; the product mineral is termed a pseudomorph of (or after) the reagent.", "Illustrated here is a pseudomorph of kaolinite after orthoclase.", "Here, the pseudomorph preserved the Carlsbad twinning common in orthoclase.", "Changes in temperature and pressure and composition alter the mineralogy of a rock sample.", "Changes in composition can be caused by processes such as weathering or metasomatism ( hydrothermal alteration ).", "Changes in temperature and pressure occur when the host rock undergoes tectonic or magmatic movement into differing physical regimes.", "Changes in thermodynamic conditions make it favourable for mineral assemblages to react with each other to produce new minerals; as such, it is possible for two rocks to have an identical or a very similar bulk rock chemistry without having a similar mineralogy.", "This process of mineralogical alteration is related to the rock cycle.", "An example of a series of mineral reactions is illustrated as follows.", "[52]Orthoclase feldspar (KAl Si 3 O 8) is a mineral commonly found in granite, a plutonicigneous rock.", "When exposed to weathering, it reacts to form kaolinite (Al 2 Si 2 O 5 (OH) 4, a sedimentary mineral, and silicic acid ):2 KAl Si 3 O 8 + 5 H 2 O + 2 H + → Al 2 Si 2 O 5 (OH) 4 + 4 H 2 Si O 3 + 2 K +Under low-grade metamorphic conditions, kaolinite reacts with quartz to form pyrophyllite (Al 2 Si 4 O 10 (OH) 2 ): Al 2 Si 2 O 5 (OH) 4 + Si O 2 → Al 2 Si 4 O 10 (OH) 2 + H 2 OAs metamorphic grade increases, the pyrophyllite reacts to form kyanite and quartz: Al 2 Si 4 O 10 (OH) 2 → Al 2 Si O 5 + 3 Si O 2 + H 2 OAlternatively, a mineral may change its crystal structure as a consequence of changes in temperature and pressure without reacting.", "For example, quartz will change into a variety of its Si O 2 polymorphs, such as tridymite and cristobalite at high temperatures, and coesite at high pressures.", "[53]Physical properties Classifying minerals ranges from simple to difficult.", "A mineral can be identified by several physical properties, some of them being sufficient for full identification without equivocation.", "In other cases, minerals can only be classified by more complex optical, chemical or X-ray diffraction analysis; these methods, however, can be costly and time-consuming.", "Physical properties applied for classification include crystal structure and habit, hardness, lustre, diaphaneity, colour, streak, cleavage and fracture, and specific gravity.", "Other less general tests include fluorescence, phosphorescence, magnetism, radioactivity, tenacity (response to mechanical induced changes of shape or form), piezoelectricity and reactivity to dilute acids.", "[54]Crystal structure and habit Main articles: Crystal system and Crystal habit See also: Crystal twinning Topaz has a characteristic orthorhombic elongated crystal shape.", "Crystal structure results from the orderly geometric spatial arrangement of atoms in the internal structure of a mineral.", "This crystal structure is based on regular internal atomic or ionic arrangement that is often expressed in the geometric form that the crystal takes.", "Even when the mineral grains are too small to see or are irregularly shaped, the underlying crystal structure is always periodic and can be determined by X-ray diffraction.", "[6] Minerals are typically described by their symmetry content.", "Crystals are restricted to 32 point groups, which differ by their symmetry.", "These groups are classified in turn into more broad categories, the most encompassing of these being the six crystal families.", "[55]These families can be described by the relative lengths of the three crystallographic axes, and the angles between them; these relationships correspond to the symmetry operations that define the narrower point groups.", "They are summarized below; a, b, and c represent the axes, and α, β, γ represent the angle opposite the respective crystallographic axis (e.g.", "α is the angle opposite the a-axis, viz.", "the angle between the b and c axes): [55]Crystal family Lengths Angles Common examples Isometric a=b=c α=β=γ=90° Garnet, halite, pyrite Tetragonal a=b≠c α=β=γ=90° Rutile, zircon, andalusite Orthorhombic a≠b≠c α=β=γ=90° Olivine, aragonite, orthopyroxenes Hexagonal a=b≠c α=β=90°, γ=120° Quartz, calcite, tourmaline Monoclinic a≠b≠c α=γ=90°, β≠90° Clinopyroxenes, orthoclase, gypsum Triclinic a≠b≠c α≠β≠γ≠90° Anorthite, albite, kyanite The hexagonal crystal family is also split into two crystal systems – the trigonal, which has a three-fold axis of symmetry, and the hexagonal, which has a six-fold axis of symmetry.", "Chemistry and crystal structure together define a mineral.", "With a restriction to 32 point groups, minerals of different chemistry may have identical crystal structure.", "For example, halite (Na Cl), galena (Pb S), and periclase (Mg O) all belong to the hexaoctahedral point group (isometric family), as they have a similar stoichiometry between their different constituent elements.", "In contrast, polymorphs are groupings of minerals that share a chemical formula but have a different structure.", "For example, pyrite and marcasite, both iron sulfides, have the formula Fe S 2; however, the former is isometric while the latter is orthorhombic.", "This polymorphism extends to other sulfides with the generic AX 2 formula; these two groups are collectively known as the pyrite and marcasite groups.", "[56]Polymorphism can extend beyond pure symmetry content.", "The aluminosilicates are a group of three minerals – kyanite, andalusite, and sillimanite – which share the chemical formula Al 2 Si O 5.", "Kyanite is triclinic, while andalusite and sillimanite are both orthorhombic and belong to the dipyramidal point group.", "These differences arise corresponding to how aluminium is coordinated within the crystal structure.", "In all minerals, one aluminium ion is always in six-fold coordination with oxygen.", "Silicon, as a general rule, is in four-fold coordination in all minerals; an exception is a case like stishovite (Si O 2, an ultra-high pressure quartz polymorph with rutile structure).", "[57] In kyanite, the second aluminium is in six-fold coordination; its chemical formula can be expressed as Al [6] Al [6] Si O 5, to reflect its crystal structure.", "Andalusite has the second aluminium in five-fold coordination (Al [6] Al [5] Si O 5) and sillimanite has it in four-fold coordination (Al [6] Al [4] Si O 5 ).", "[58]Differences in crystal structure and chemistry greatly influence other physical properties of the mineral.", "The carbon allotropes diamond and graphite have vastly different properties; diamond is the hardest natural substance, has an adamantine lustre, and belongs to the isometric crystal family, whereas graphite is very soft, has a greasy lustre, and crystallises in the hexagonal family.", "This difference is accounted for by differences in bonding.", "In diamond, the carbons are in sp 3 hybrid orbitals, which means they form a framework where each carbon is covalently bonded to four neighbours in a tetrahedral fashion; on the other hand, graphite is composed of sheets of carbons in sp 2 hybrid orbitals, where each carbon is bonded covalently to only three others.", "These sheets are held together by much weaker van der Waals forces, and this discrepancy translates to large macroscopic differences.", "[59]Contact twins, as seen in spinel Twinning is the intergrowth of two or more crystals of a single mineral species.", "The geometry of the twinning is controlled by the mineral's symmetry.", "As a result, there are several types of twins, including contact twins, reticulated twins, geniculated twins, penetration twins, cyclic twins, and polysynthetic twins.", "Contact, or simple twins, consist of two crystals joined at a plane; this type of twinning is common in spinel.", "Reticulated twins, common in rutile, are interlocking crystals resembling netting.", "Geniculated twins have a bend in the middle that is caused by start of the twin.", "Penetration twins consist of two single crystals that have grown into each other; examples of this twinning include cross-shaped staurolite twins and Carlsbad twinning in orthoclase.", "Cyclic twins are caused by repeated twinning around a rotation axis.", "This type of twinning occurs around three, four, five, six, or eight-fold axes, and the corresponding patterns are called threelings, fourlings, fivelings, sixlings, and eightlings.", "Sixlings are common in aragonite.", "Polysynthetic twins are similar to cyclic twins through the presence of repetitive twinning; however, instead of occurring around a rotational axis, polysynthetic twinning occurs along parallel planes, usually on a microscopic scale.", "[60] [61]Crystal habit refers to the overall shape of crystal.", "Several terms are used to describe this property.", "Common habits include acicular, which describes needlelike crystals as in natrolite, bladed, dendritic (tree-pattern, common in native copper ), equant, which is typical of garnet, prismatic (elongated in one direction), and tabular, which differs from bladed habit in that the former is platy whereas the latter has a defined elongation.", "Related to crystal form, the quality of crystal faces is diagnostic of some minerals, especially with a petrographic microscope.", "Euhedral crystals have a defined external shape, while anhedral crystals do not; those intermediate forms are termed subhedral.", "[62] [63]Hardness Main article: Mohs scale of mineral hardness Diamond is the hardest natural material, and has a Mohs hardness of 10.", "The hardness of a mineral defines how much it can resist scratching.", "This physical property is controlled by the chemical composition and crystalline structure of a mineral.", "A mineral's hardness is not necessarily constant for all sides, which is a function of its structure; crystallographic weakness renders some directions softer than others.", "[64] An example of this property exists in kyanite, which has a Mohs hardness of 5½ parallel to [001] but 7 parallel to [100].", "[65]The most common scale of measurement is the ordinal Mohs hardness scale.", "Defined by ten indicators, a mineral with a higher index scratches those below it.", "The scale ranges from talc, a phyllosilicate, to diamond, a carbon polymorph that is the hardest natural material.", "The scale is provided below: [64]Mohs hardness Mineral Chemical formula1 Talc Mg 3 Si 4 O 10 (OH) 22 Gypsum Ca SO 4 ·2H 2 O3 Calcite Ca CO 34 Fluorite Ca F 25 Apatite Ca 5 (PO 4) 3 (OH,Cl,F)6 Orthoclase KAl Si 3 O 87 Quartz Si O 28 Topaz Al 2 Si O 4 (OH,F) 29 Corundum Al 2 O 310 Diamond CLustre and diaphaneity Main article: Lustre (mineralogy)Pyrite has a metallic lustre.", "Lustre indicates how light reflects from the mineral's surface, with regards to its quality and intensity.", "There are numerous qualitative terms used to describe this property, which are split into metallic and non-metallic categories.", "Metallic and sub-metallic minerals have high reflectivity like metal; examples of minerals with this lustre are galena and pyrite.", "Non-metallic lustres include: adamantine, such as in diamond; vitreous, which is a glassy lustre very common in silicate minerals; pearly, such as in talc and apophyllite; resinous, such as members of the garnet group; silky which is common in fibrous minerals such as asbestiform chrysotile.", "[66]The diaphaneity of a mineral describes the ability of light to pass through it.", "Transparent minerals do not diminish the intensity of light passing through them.", "An example of a transparent mineral is muscovite (potassium mica); some varieties are sufficiently clear to have been used for windows.", "Translucent minerals allow some light to pass, but less than those that are transparent.", "Jadeite and nephrite (mineral forms of jade are examples of minerals with this property).", "Minerals that do not allow light to pass are called opaque.", "[67] [68]The diaphaneity of a mineral depends on the thickness of the sample.", "When a mineral is sufficiently thin (e.g., in a thin section for petrography ), it may become transparent even if that property is not seen in a hand sample.", "In contrast, some minerals, such as hematite or pyrite, are opaque even in thin-section.", "[68]Colour and streak Main article: Streak (mineralogy)Colour is typically not a diagnostic property of minerals.", "Shown are green uvarovite (left) and red-pink grossular (right), both garnets.", "The diagnostic features would include dodecahedral crystals, resinous lustre, and hardness around 7.", "Colour is the most obvious property of a mineral, but it is often non-diagnostic.", "[69] It is caused by electromagnetic radiation interacting with electrons (except in the case of incandescence, which does not apply to minerals).", "[70] Two broad classes of elements (idiochromatic and allochromatic) are defined with regards to their contribution to a mineral's colour: Idiochromatic elements are essential to a mineral's composition; their contribution to a mineral's colour is diagnostic.", "[67] [71] Examples of such minerals are malachite (green) and azurite (blue).", "In contrast, allochromatic elements in minerals are present in trace amounts as impurities.", "An example of such a mineral would be the ruby and sapphire varieties of the mineral corundum.", "[71] The colours of pseudochromatic minerals are the result of interference of light waves.", "Examples include labradorite and bornite.", "In addition to simple body colour, minerals can have various other distinctive optical properties, such as play of colours, asterism, chatoyancy, iridescence, tarnish, and pleochroism.", "Several of these properties involve variability in colour.", "Play of colour, such as in opal, results in the sample reflecting different colours as it is turned, while pleochroism describes the change in colour as light passes through a mineral in a different orientation.", "Iridescence is a variety of the play of colours where light scatters off a coating on the surface of crystal, cleavage planes, or off layers having minor gradations in chemistry.", "[72] In contrast, the play of colours in opal is caused by light refracting from ordered microscopic silica spheres within its physical structure.", "[73] Chatoyancy (\"\"cat's eye\"\") is the wavy banding of colour that is observed as the sample is rotated; asterism, a variety of chatoyancy, gives the appearance of a star on the mineral grain.", "The latter property is particularly common in gem-quality corundum.", "[72] [73]The streak of a mineral refers to the colour of a mineral in powdered form, which may or may not be identical to its body colour.", "[71] The most common way of testing this property is done with a streak plate, which is made out of porcelain and coloured either white or black.", "The streak of a mineral is independent of trace elements [67] or any weathering surface.", "[71] A common example of this property is illustrated with hematite, which is coloured black, silver, or red in hand sample, but has a cherry-red [67] to reddish-brown streak.", "[71] Streak is more often distinctive for metallic minerals, in contrast to non-metallic minerals whose body colour is created by allochromatic elements.", "[67] Streak testing is constrained by the hardness of the mineral, as those harder than 7 powder the streak plate instead.", "[71]Cleavage, parting, fracture, and tenacity Main articles: Cleavage (crystal) and Fracture (mineralogy)Perfect basal cleavage as seen in biotite (black), and good cleavage seen in the matrix (pink orthoclase ).", "By definition, minerals have a characteristic atomic arrangement.", "Weakness in this crystalline structure causes planes of weakness, and the breakage of a mineral along such planes is termed cleavage.", "The quality of cleavage can be described based on how cleanly and easily the mineral breaks; common descriptors, in order of decreasing quality, are \"\"perfect\"\", \"\"good\"\", \"\"distinct\"\", and \"\"poor\"\".", "In particularly transparent minerals, or in thin-section, cleavage can be seen as a series of parallel lines marking the planar surfaces when viewed from the side.", "Cleavage is not a universal property among minerals; for example, quartz, consisting of extensively interconnected silica tetrahedra, does not have a crystallographic weakness which would allow it to cleave.", "In contrast, micas, which have perfect basal cleavage, consist of sheets of silica tetrahedra which are very weakly held together.", "[74] [75]As cleavage is a function of crystallography, there are a variety of cleavage types.", "Cleavage occurs typically in either one, two, three, four, or six directions.", "Basal cleavage in one direction is a distinctive property of the micas.", "Two-directional cleavage is described as prismatic, and occurs in minerals such as the amphiboles and pyroxenes.", "Minerals such as galena or halite have cubic (or isometric) cleavage in three directions, at 90°; when three directions of cleavage are present, but not at 90°, such as in calcite or rhodochrosite, it is termed rhombohedral cleavage.", "Octahedral cleavage (four directions) is present in fluorite and diamond, and sphalerite has six-directional dodecahedral cleavage.", "[74] [75]Minerals with many cleavages might not break equally well in all of the directions; for example, calcite has good cleavage in three directions, but gypsum has perfect cleavage in one direction, and poor cleavage in two other directions.", "Angles between cleavage planes vary between minerals.", "For example, as the amphiboles are double-chain silicates and the pyroxenes are single-chain silicates, the angle between their cleavage planes is different.", "The pyroxenes cleave in two directions at approximately 90°, whereas the amphiboles distinctively cleave in two directions separated by approximately 120° and 60°.", "The cleavage angles can be measured with a contact goniometer, which is similar to a protractor.", "[74] [75]Parting, sometimes called \"\"false cleavage\"\", is similar in appearance to cleavage but is instead produced by structural defects in the mineral, as opposed to systematic weakness.", "Parting varies from crystal to crystal of a mineral, whereas all crystals of a given mineral will cleave if the atomic structure allows for that property.", "In general, parting is caused by some stress applied to a crystal.", "The sources of the stresses include deformation (e.g.", "an increase in pressure), exsolution, or twinning.", "Minerals that often display parting include the pyroxenes, hematite, magnetite, and corundum.", "[74] [76]When a mineral is broken in a direction that does not correspond to a plane of cleavage, it is termed to have been fractured.", "There are several types of uneven fracture.", "The classic example is conchoidal fracture, like that of quartz; rounded surfaces are created, which are marked by smooth curved lines.", "This type of fracture occurs only in very homogeneous minerals.", "Other types of fracture are fibrous, splintery, and hackly.", "The latter describes a break along a rough, jagged surface; an example of this property is found in native copper.", "[77]Tenacity is related to both cleavage and fracture.", "Whereas fracture and cleavage describes the surfaces that are created when a mineral is broken, tenacity describes how resistant a mineral is to such breaking.", "Minerals can be described as brittle, ductile, malleable, sectile, flexible, or elastic.", "[78]Specific gravity Galena, Pb S, is a mineral with a high specific gravity.", "Specific gravity numerically describes the density of a mineral.", "The dimensions of density are mass divided by volume with units: kg/m 3 or g/cm 3.", "Specific gravity measures how much water a mineral sample displaces.", "Defined as the quotient of the mass of the sample and difference between the weight of the sample in air and its corresponding weight in water, specific gravity is a unitless ratio.", "Among most minerals, this property is not diagnostic.", "Rock forming minerals – typically silicates or occasionally carbonates – have a specific gravity of 2.5–3.5.", "[79]High specific gravity is a diagnostic property of a mineral.", "A variation in chemistry (and consequently, mineral class) correlates to a change in specific gravity.", "Among more common minerals, oxides and sulfides tend to have a higher specific gravity as they include elements with higher atomic mass.", "A generalization is that minerals with metallic or adamantine lustre tend to have higher specific gravities than those having a non-metallic to dull lustre.", "For example, hematite, Fe 2 O 3, has a specific gravity of 5.26 [80] while galena, Pb S, has a specific gravity of 7.2–7.6, [81] which is a result of their high iron and lead content, respectively.", "A very high specific gravity becomes very pronounced in native metals; kamacite, an iron-nickel alloy common in iron meteorites has a specific gravity of 7.9, [82] and gold has an observed specific gravity between 15 and 19.3.", "[79] [83]Other properties Carnotite (yellow) is a radioactive uranium-bearing mineral.", "Other properties can be used to diagnose minerals.", "These are less general, and apply to specific minerals.", "Dropping dilute acid (often 10% HCl) onto a mineral aids in distinguishing carbonates from other mineral classes.", "The acid reacts with the carbonate ( [CO 3] 2−) group, which causes the affected area to effervesce, giving off carbon dioxide gas.", "This test can be further expanded to test the mineral in its original crystal form or powdered form.", "An example of this test is done when distinguishing calcite from dolomite, especially within rocks (limestone and dolostone respectively).", "Calcite immediately effervesces in acid, whereas acid must be applied to powdered dolomite (often to a scratched surface in a rock), for it to effervesce.", "[84] Zeolite minerals will not effervesce in acid; instead, they become frosted after 5–10 minutes, and if left in acid for a day, they dissolve or become a silica gel.", "[85]When tested, magnetism is a very conspicuous property of minerals.", "Among common minerals, magnetite exhibits this property strongly, and magnetism is also present, albeit not as strongly, in pyrrhotite and ilmenite.", "[84] Some minerals exhibit electrical properties – for example, quartz is piezoelectric – but electrical properties are rarely used as diagnostic criteria for minerals because of incomplete data and natural variation.", "[86]Minerals can also be tested for taste or smell.", "Halite, Na Cl, is table salt; its potassium-bearing counterpart, sylvite, has a pronounced bitter taste.", "Sulfides have a characteristic smell, especially as samples are fractured, reacting, or powdered.", "[84]Radioactivity is a rare property; minerals may be composed of radioactive elements.", "They could be a defining constituent, such as uranium in uraninite, autunite, and carnotite, or as trace impurities.", "In the latter case, the decay of a radioactive element damages the mineral crystal; the result, termed a radioactive halo or pleochroic halo, is observable with various techniques, such as thin-section petrography.", "[84]Classification As the composition of the Earth's crust is dominated by silicon and oxygen, silicate elements are by far the most important class of minerals in terms of rock formation and diversity.", "However, non-silicate minerals are of great economic importance, especially as ores.", "[87] [88]Non-silicate minerals are subdivided into several other classes by their dominant chemistry, which includes native elements, sulfides, halides, oxides and hydroxides, carbonates and nitrates, borates, sulfates, phosphates, and organic compounds.", "Most non-silicate mineral species are rare (constituting in total 8% of the Earth's crust), although some are relatively common, such as calcite, pyrite, magnetite, and hematite.", "There are two major structural styles observed in non-silicates: close-packing and silicate-like linked tetrahedra.", "close-packed structures is a way to densely pack atoms while minimizing interstitial space.", "Hexagonal close-packing involves stacking layers where every other layer is the same (\"\"ababab\"\"), whereas cubic close-packing involves stacking groups of three layers (\"\"abcabcabc\"\").", "Analogues to linked silica tetrahedra include SO 4 (sulfate), PO 4 (phosphate), As O 4 (arsenate), and VO 4 (vanadate).", "The non-silicates have great economic importance, as they concentrate elements more than the silicate minerals do.", "[89]The largest grouping of minerals by far are the silicates; most rocks are composed of greater than 95% silicate minerals, and over 90% of the Earth's crust is composed of these minerals.", "[90] The two main constituents of silicates are silicon and oxygen, which are the two most abundant elements in the Earth's crust.", "Other common elements in silicate minerals correspond to other common elements in the Earth's crust, such as aluminium, magnesium, iron, calcium, sodium, and potassium.", "[91] Some important rock-forming silicates include the feldspars, quartz, olivines, pyroxenes, amphiboles, garnets, and micas.", "Silicates Main article: Silicate minerals Aegirine, an iron-sodium clinopyroxene, is part of the inosilicate subclass.", "The base unit of a silicate mineral is the [Si O 4] 4− tetrahedron.", "In the vast majority of cases, silicon is in four-fold or tetrahedral coordination with oxygen.", "In very high-pressure situations, silicon will be in six-fold or octahedral coordination, such as in the perovskite structure or the quartz polymorph stishovite (Si O 2 ).", "In the latter case, the mineral no longer has a silicate structure, but that of rutile (Ti O 2 ), and its associated group, which are simple oxides.", "These silica tetrahedra are then polymerized to some degree to create various structures, such as one-dimensional chains, two-dimensional sheets, and three-dimensional frameworks.", "The basic silicate mineral where no polymerization of the tetrahedra has occurred requires other elements to balance out the base 4- charge.", "In other silicate structures, different combinations of elements are required to balance out the resultant negative charge.", "It is common for the Si 4+ to be substituted by Al 3+ because of similarity in ionic radius and charge; in those cases, the [Al O 4] 5− tetrahedra form the same structures as do the unsubstituted tetrahedra, but their charge-balancing requirements are different.", "[92]The degree of polymerization can be described by both the structure formed and how many tetrahedral corners (or coordinating oxygens) are shared (for aluminium and silicon in tetrahedral sites).", "[93] Orthosilicates (or nesosilicates) have no linking of polyhedra, thus tetrahedra share no corners.", "Disilicates (or sorosilicates) have two tetrahedra sharing one oxygen atom.", "Inosilicates are chain silicates; single-chain silicates have two shared corners, whereas double-chain silicates have two or three shared corners.", "In phyllosilicates, a sheet structure is formed which requires three shared oxygens; in the case of double-chain silicates, some tetrahedra must share two corners instead of three as otherwise a sheet structure would result.", "Framework silicates, or tectosilicates, have tetrahedra that share all four corners.", "The ring silicates, or cyclosilicates, only need tetrahedra to share two corners to form the cyclical structure.", "[94]The silicate subclasses are described below in order of decreasing polymerization.", "Tectosilicates Natrolite is a mineral series in the zeolite group; this sample has a very prominent acicular crystal habit.", "Tectosilicates, also known as framework silicates, have the highest degree of polymerization.", "With all corners of a tetrahedra shared, the silicon:oxygen ratio becomes 1:2.", "Examples are quartz, the feldspars, feldspathoids, and the zeolites.", "Framework silicates tend to be particularly chemically stable as a result of strong covalent bonds.", "[95]Forming 12% of the Earth's crust, quartz (Si O 2) is the most abundant mineral species.", "It is characterized by its high chemical and physical resistivity.", "Quartz has several polymorphs, including tridymite and cristobalite at high temperatures, high-pressure coesite, and ultra-high pressure stishovite.", "The latter mineral can only be formed on Earth by meteorite impacts, and its structure has been composed so much that it had changed from a silicate structure to that of rutile (Ti O 2 ).", "The silica polymorph that is most stable at the Earth's surface is α-quartz.", "Its counterpart, β-quartz, is present only at high temperatures and pressures (changes to α-quartz below 573 °C at 1 bar).", "These two polymorphs differ by a \"\"kinking\"\" of bonds; this change in structure gives β-quartz greater symmetry than α-quartz, and they are thus also called high quartz (β) and low quartz (α).", "[90] [96]Feldspars are the most abundant group in the Earth's crust, at about 50%.", "In the feldspars, Al 3+ substitutes for Si 4+, which creates a charge imbalance that must be accounted for by the addition of cations.", "The base structure becomes either [Al Si 3 O 8] − or [Al 2 Si 2 O 8] 2− There are 22 mineral species of feldspars, subdivided into two major subgroups – alkali and plagioclase – and two less common groups – celsian and banalsite.", "The alkali feldspars are most commonly in a series between potassium-rich orthoclase and sodium-rich albite; in the case of plagioclase, the most common series ranges from albite to calcium-rich anorthite.", "Crystal twinning is common in feldspars, especially polysynthetic twins in plagioclase and Carlsbad twins in alkali feldspars.", "If the latter subgroup cools slowly from a melt, it forms exsolution lamellae because the two components – orthoclase and albite – are unstable in solid solution.", "Exsolution can be on a scale from microscopic to readily observable in hand-sample; perthitic texture forms when Na-rich feldspar exsolve in a K-rich host.", "The opposite texture (antiperthitic), where K-rich feldspar exsolves in a Na-rich host, is very rare.", "[97]Feldspathoids are structurally similar to feldspar, but differ in that they form in Si-deficient conditions, which allows for further substitution by Al 3+.", "As a result, feldsapthoids cannot be associated with quartz.", "A common example of a feldsapthoid is nepheline ( (Na, K)Al Si O 4 ); compared to alkali feldspar, nepheline has an Al 2 O 3 : Si O 2 ratio of 1:2, as opposed to 1:6 in the feldspar.", "[98] Zeolites often have distinctive crystal habits, occurring in needles, plates, or blocky masses.", "They form in the presence of water at low temperatures and pressures, and have channels and voids in their structure.", "Zeolites have several industrial applications, especially in waste water treatment.", "[99]Phyllosilicates Muscovite, a mineral species in the mica group, within the phyllosilicate subclass Phyllosilicates consist of sheets of polymerized tetrahedra.", "They are bound at three oxygen sites, which gives a characteristic silicon:oxygen ratio of 2:5.", "Important examples include the mica, chlorite, and the kaolinite - serpentine groups.", "The sheets are weakly bound by van der Waals forces or hydrogen bonds, which causes a crystallographic weakness, in turn leading to a prominent basal cleavage among the phyllosilicates.", "[100] In addition to the tetrahedra, phyllosilicates have a sheet of octahedra (elements in six-fold coordination by oxygen) that balance out the basic tetrahedra, which have a negative charge (e.g.", "[Si 4 O 10] 4−) These tetrahedra (T) and octahedra (O) sheets are stacked in a variety of combinations to create phyllosilicate groups.", "Within an octahedral sheet, there are three octahedral sites in a unit structure; however, not all of the sites may be occupied.", "In that case, the mineral is termed dioctahedral, whereas in other case it is termed trioctahedral.", "[101]The kaolinite-serpentine group consists of T-O stacks (the 1:1 clay minerals); their hardness ranges from 2 to 4, as the sheets are held by hydrogen bonds.", "The 2:1 clay minerals (pyrophyllite-talc) consist of T-O-T stacks, but they are softer (hardness from 1 to 2), as they are instead held together by van der Waals forces.", "These two groups of minerals are subgrouped by octahedral occupation; specifically, kaolinite and pyrophyllite are dioctahedral whereas serpentine and talc trioctahedral.", "[102]Micas are also T-O-T-stacked phyllosilicates, but differ from the other T-O-T and T-O-stacked subclass members in that they incorporate aluminium into the tetrahedral sheets (clay minerals have Al 3+ in octahedral sites).", "Common examples of micas are muscovite, and the biotite series.", "The chlorite group is related to mica group, but a brucite -like (Mg (OH) 2) layer between the T-O-T stacks.", "[103]Because of their chemical structure, phyllosilicates typically have flexible, elastic, transparent layers that are electrical insulators and can be split into very thin flakes.", "Micas can be used in electronics as insulators, in construction, as optical filler, or even cosmetics.", "Chrysotile, a species of serpentine, is the most common mineral species in industrial asbestos, as it is less dangerous in terms of health than the amphibole asbestos.", "[104]Inosilicates Asbestiform tremolite, part of the amphibole group in the inosilicate subclass Inosilicates consist of tetrahedra repeatedly bonded in chains.", "These chains can be single, where a tetrahedron is bound to two others to form a continuous chain; alternatively, two chains can be merged to create double-chain silicates.", "Single-chain silicates have a silicon:oxygen ratio of 1:3 (e.g.", "[Si 2 O 6] 4− ), whereas the double-chain variety has a ratio of 4:11, e.g.", "[Si 8 O 22] 12−.", "Inosilicates contain two important rock-forming mineral groups; single-chain silicates are most commonly pyroxenes, while double-chain silicates are often amphiboles.", "[105] Higher-order chains exist (e.g.", "three-member, four-member, five-member chains, etc.)", "but they are rare.", "[106]The pyroxene group consists of 21 mineral species.", "[107] Pyroxenes have a general structure formula of XY (Si 2 O 6 ), where X is an octahedral site, while Y can vary in coordination number from six to eight.", "Most varieties of pyroxene consist of permutations of Ca 2+, Fe 2+ and Mg 2+ to balance the negative charge on the backbone.", "Pyroxenes are common in the Earth's crust (about 10%) and are a key constituent of mafic igneous rocks.", "[108]Amphiboles have great variability in chemistry, described variously as a \"\"mineralogical garbage can\"\" or a \"\"mineralogical shark swimming a sea of elements\"\".", "The backbone of the amphiboles is the [Si 8 O 22] 12−; it is balanced by cations in three possible positions, although the third position is not always used, and one element can occupy both remaining ones.", "Finally, the amphiboles are usually hydrated, that is, they have a hydroxyl group ( [OH] − ), although it can be replaced by a fluoride, a chloride, or an oxide ion.", "[109] Because of the variable chemistry, there are over 80 species of amphibole, although variations, as in the pyroxenes, most commonly involve mixtures of Ca 2+, Fe 2+ and Mg 2+.", "[107] Several amphibole mineral species can have an asbestiform crystal habit.", "These asbestos minerals form long, thin, flexible, and strong fibres, which are electrical insulators, chemically inert and heat-resistant; as such, they have several applications, especially in construction materials.", "However, asbestos are known carcinogens, and cause various other illnesses, such as asbestosis; amphibole asbestos ( anthophyllite, tremolite, actinolite, grunerite, and riebeckite) are considered more dangerous than chrysotile serpentine asbestos.", "[110]Cyclosilicates An example of elbaite, a species of tourmaline, with distinctive colour banding.", "Cyclosilicates, or ring silicates, have a ratio of silicon to oxygen of 1:3.", "Six-member rings are most common, with a base structure of [Si 6 O 18] 12−; examples include the tourmaline group and beryl.", "Other ring structures exist, with 3, 4, 8, 9, 12 having been described.", "[111] Cyclosilicates tend to be strong, with elongated, striated crystals.", "[112]Tourmalines have a very complex chemistry that can be described by a general formula XY 3 Z 6 (BO 3) 3 T 6 O 18 V 3 W. The T 6 O 18 is the basic ring structure, where T is usually Si 4+, but substitutable by Al 3+ or B 3+.", "Tourmalines can be subgrouped by the occupancy of the X site, and from there further subdivided by the chemistry of the W site.", "The Y and Z sites can accommodate a variety of cations, especially various transition metals; this variability in structural transition metal content gives the tourmaline group greater variability in colour.", "Other cyclosilicates include beryl, Al 2 Be 3 Si 6 O 18, whose varieties include the gemstones emerald (green) and aquamarine (bluish).", "Cordierite is structurally similar to beryl, and is a common metamorphic mineral.", "[113]Sorosilicates Epidote often has a distinctive pistachio-green colour.", "Sorosilicates, also termed disilicates, have tetrahedron-tetrahedron bonding at one oxygen, which results in a 2:7 ratio of silicon to oxygen.", "The resultant common structural element is the [Si 2 O 7] 6− group.", "The most common disilicates by far are members of the epidote group.", "Epidotes are found in variety of geologic settings, ranging from mid-ocean ridge to granites to metapelites.", "Epidotes are built around the structure [ (Si O 4 ) (Si 2 O 7 )] 10− structure; for example, the mineral species epidote has calcium, aluminium, and ferric iron to charge balance: Ca 2 Al 2 (Fe 3+, Al) (Si O 4 ) (Si 2 O 7 )O (OH).", "The presence of iron as Fe 3+ and Fe 2+ helps understand oxygen fugacity, which in turn is a significant factor in petrogenesis.", "[114]Other examples of sorosilicates include lawsonite, a metamorphic mineral forming in the blueschist facies (subduction zone setting with low temperature and high pressure), vesuvianite, which takes up a significant amount of calcium in its chemical structure.", "[114] [115]Orthosilicates Black andradite, an end-member of the orthosilicate garnet group.", "Orthosilicates consist of isolated tetrahedra that are charge-balanced by other cations.", "[116] Also termed nesosilicates, this type of silicate has a silicon:oxygen ratio of 1:4 (e.g.", "Si O 4 ).", "Typical orthosilicates tend to form blocky equant crystals, and are fairly hard.", "[117] Several rock-forming minerals are part of this subclass, such as the aluminosilicates, the olivine group, and the garnet group.", "The aluminosilicates –bkyanite, andalusite, and sillimanite, all Al 2 Si O 5 – are structurally composed of one [Si O 4] 4− tetrahedron, and one Al 3+ in octahedral coordination.", "The remaining Al 3+ can be in six-fold coordination (kyanite), five-fold (andalusite) or four-fold (sillimanite); which mineral forms in a given environment is depend on pressure and temperature conditions.", "In the olivine structure, the main olivine series of (Mg, Fe) 2 Si O 4 consist of magnesium-rich forsterite and iron-rich fayalite.", "Both iron and magnesium are in octahedral by oxygen.", "Other mineral species having this structure exist, such as tephroite, Mn 2 Si O 4.", "[118] The garnet group has a general formula of X 3 Y 2 (Si O 4) 3, where X is a large eight-fold coordinated cation, and Y is a smaller six-fold coordinated cation.", "There are six ideal endmembers of garnet, split into two group.", "The pyralspite garnets have Al 3+ in the Y position: pyrope (Mg 3 Al 2 (Si O 4) 3 ), almandine (Fe 3 Al 2 (Si O 4) 3 ), and spessartine (Mn 3 Al 2 (Si O 4) 3 ).", "The ugrandite garnets have Ca 2+ in the X position: uvarovite (Ca 3 Cr 2 (Si O 4) 3 ), grossular (Ca 3 Al 2 (Si O 4) 3) and andradite (Ca 3 Fe 2 (Si O 4) 3 ).", "While there are two subgroups of garnet, solid solutions exist between all six end-members.", "[116]Other orthosilicates include zircon, staurolite, and topaz.", "Zircon (Zr Si O 4) is useful in geochronology as the Zr 4+ can be substituted by U 6+; furthermore, because of its very resistant structure, it is difficult to reset it as a chronometer.", "Staurolite is a common metamorphic intermediate-grade index mineral.", "It has a particularly complicated crystal structure that was only fully described in 1986.", "Topaz (Al 2 Si O 4 (F, OH) 2, often found in granitic pegmatites associated with tourmaline, is a common gemstone mineral.", "[119]Non-silicates Native elements Main article: Native element minerals Native gold.", "Rare specimen of stout crystals growing off of a central stalk, size 3.7 x 1.1 x 0.4 cm, from Venezuela.", "Native elements are those that are not chemically bonded to other elements.", "This mineral group includes native metals, semi-metals, and non-metals, and various alloys and solid solutions.", "The metals are held together by metallic bonding, which confers distinctive physical properties such as their shiny metallic lustre, ductility and malleability, and electrical conductivity.", "Native elements are subdivided into groups by their structure or chemical attributes.", "The gold group, with a cubic close-packed structure, includes metals such as gold, silver, and copper.", "The platinum group is similar in structure to the gold group.", "The iron-nickel group is characterized by several iron-nickel alloy species.", "Two examples are kamacite and taenite, which are found in iron meteorites; these species differ by the amount of Ni in the alloy; kamacite has less than 5–7% nickel and is a variety of native iron, whereas the nickel content of taenite ranges from 7–37%.", "Arsenic group minerals consist of semi-metals, which have only some metallic traits; for example, they lack the malleability of metals.", "Native carbon occurs in two allotropes, graphite and diamond; the latter forms at very high pressure in the mantle, which gives it a much stronger structure than graphite.", "[120]Sulfides Main article: Sulfide minerals Red cinnabar (Hg S), a mercury ore, on dolomite.", "The sulfide minerals are chemical compounds of one or more metals or semimetals with a sulfur; tellurium, arsenic, or selenium can substitute for the sulfur.", "Sulfides tend to be soft, brittle minerals with a high specific gravity.", "Many powdered sulfides, such as pyrite, have a sulfurous smell when powdered.", "Sulfides are susceptible to weathering, and many readily dissolve in water; these dissolved minerals can be later redeposited, which creates enriched secondary ore deposits.", "[121] Sulfides are classified by the ratio of the metal or semimetal to the sulfur, such as M: S equal to 2:1, or 1:1.", "[122] Many sulfide minerals are economically important as metal ores; examples include sphalerite (Zn S), an ore of zinc, galena (Pb S), an ore of lead, cinnabar (Hg S), an ore of mercury, and molybdenite (Mo S 2, an ore of molybdenum.", "[123] Pyrite (Fe S 2 ), is the most commonly occurring sulfide, and can be found in most geological environments.", "It is not, however, an ore of iron, but can be instead oxidized to produce sulfuric acid.", "[124] Related to the sulfides are the rare sulfosalts, in which a metallic element is bonded to sulfur and a semimetal such as antimony, arsenic, or bismuth.", "Like the sulfides, sulfosalts are typically soft, heavy, and brittle minerals.", "[125]Oxides Main article: Oxide minerals Oxide minerals are divided into three categories: simple oxides, hydroxides, and multiple oxides.", "Simple oxides are characterized by O 2− as the main anion and primarily ionic bonding.", "They can be further subdivided by the ratio of oxygen to the cations.", "The periclase group consists of minerals with a 1:1 ratio.", "Oxides with a 2:1 ratio include cuprite (Cu 2 O) and water ice.", "Corundum group minerals have a 2:3 ratio, and includes minerals such as corundum (Al 2 O 3 ), and hematite (Fe 2 O 3 ).", "Rutile group minerals have a ratio of 1:2; the eponymous species, rutile (Ti O 2) is the chief ore of titanium; other examples include cassiterite (Sn O 2; ore of tin ), and pyrolusite (Mn O 2; ore of manganese ).", "[126] [127] In hydroxides, the dominant anion is the hydroxyl ion, OH −.", "Bauxites are the chief aluminium ore, and are a heterogeneous mixture of the hydroxide minerals diaspore, gibbsite, and bohmite; they form in areas with a very high rate of chemical weathering (mainly tropical conditions).", "[128] Finally, multiple oxides are compounds of two metals with oxygen.", "A major group within this class are the spinels, with a general formula of X 2+ Y 3+ 2 O 4.", "Examples of species include spinel (Mg Al 2 O 4 ), chromite (Fe Cr 2 O 4 ), and magnetite (Fe 3 O 4 ).", "The latter is readily distinguishable by its strong magnetism, which occurs as it has iron in two oxidation states (Fe 2+ Fe 3+ 2 O 4 ), which makes it a multiple oxide instead of a single oxide.", "[129]Halides Main article: Halide minerals Pink cubic halite (Na Cl; halide class) crystals on a nahcolite matrix (Na HCO 3; a carbonate, and mineral form of sodium bicarbonate, used as baking soda ).", "The halide minerals are compounds in which a halogen (fluorine, chlorine, iodine, or bromine) is the main anion.", "These minerals tend to be soft, weak, brittle, and water-soluble.", "Common examples of halides include halite (Na Cl, table salt), sylvite (KCl), fluorite (Ca F 2 ).", "Halite and sylvite commonly form as evaporites, and can be dominant minerals in chemical sedimentary rocks.", "Cryolite, Na 3 Al F 6, is a key mineral in the extraction of aluminium from bauxites; however, as the only significant occurrence at Ivittuut, Greenland, in a granitic pegmatite, was depleted, synthetic cryolite can be made from fluorite.", "[130]Carbonates Main article: Carbonate minerals The carbonate minerals are those in which the main anionic group is carbonate, [CO 3] 2−.", "Carbonates tend to be brittle, many have rhombohedral cleavage, and all react with acid.", "[131] Due to the last characteristic, field geologists often carry dilute hydrochloric acid to distinguish carbonates from non-carbonates.", "The reaction of acid with carbonates, most commonly found as the polymorph calcite and aragonite (Ca CO 3 ), relates to the dissolution and precipitation of the mineral, which is a key in the formation of limestone caves, features within them such as stalactite and stalagmites, and karst landforms.", "Carbonates are most often formed as biogenic or chemical sediments in marine environments.", "The carbonate group is structurally a triangle, where a central C 4+ cation is surrounded by three O 2− anions; different groups of minerals form from different arrangements of these triangles.", "[132] The most common carbonate mineral is calcite, which is the primary constituent of sedimentary limestone and metamorphic marble.", "Calcite, Ca CO 3, can have a high magnesium impurity.", "Under high-Mg conditions, its polymorph aragonite will form instead; the marine geochemistry in this regard can be described as an aragonite or calcite sea, depending on which mineral preferentially forms.", "Dolomite is a double carbonate, with the formula Ca Mg (CO 3) 2.", "Secondary dolomitization of limestone is common, in which calcite or aragonite are converted to dolomite; this reaction increases pore space (the unit cell volume of dolomite is 88% that of calcite), which can create a reservoir for oil and gas.", "These two mineral species are members of eponymous mineral groups: the calcite group includes carbonates with the general formula XCO 3, and the dolomite group constitutes minerals with the general formula XY (CO 3) 2.", "[133]Sulfates Main article: Sulfate minerals Gypsum desert rose The sulfate minerals all contain the sulfate anion, [SO 4] 2−.", "They tend to be transparent to translucent, soft, and many are fragile.", "[134] Sulfate minerals commonly form as evaporites, where they precipitate out of evaporating saline waters.", "Sulfates can also be found in hydrothermal vein systems associated with sulfides, [135] or as oxidation products of sulfides.", "[136] Sulfates can be subdivided into anhydrous and hydrous minerals.", "The most common hydrous sulfate by far is gypsum, Ca SO 4 ⋅2H 2 O.", "It forms as an evaporite, and is associated with other evaporites such as calcite and halite; if it incorporates sand grains as it crystallizes, gypsum can form desert roses.", "Gypsum has very low thermal conductivity and maintains a low temperature when heated as it loses that heat by dehydrating; as such, gypsum is used as an insulator in materials such as plaster and drywall.", "The anhydrous equivalent of gypsum is anhydrite; it can form directly from seawater in highly arid conditions.", "The barite group has the general formula XSO 4, where the X is a large 12-coordinated cation.", "Examples include barite (Ba SO 4 ), celestine (Sr SO 4 ), and anglesite (Pb SO 4 ); anhydrite is not part of the barite group, as the smaller Ca 2+ is only in eight-fold coordination.", "[137]Phosphates Main article: Phosphate minerals The phosphate minerals are characterized by the tetrahedral [PO 4] 3− unit, although the structure can be generalized, and phosphorus is replaced by antimony, arsenic, or vanadium.", "The most common phosphate is the apatite group; common species within this group are fluorapatite (Ca 5 (PO 4) 3 F), chlorapatite (Ca 5 (PO 4) 3 Cl) and hydroxylapatite (Ca 5 (PO 4) 3 (OH)).", "Minerals in this group are the main crystalline constituents of teeth and bones in vertebrates.", "The relatively abundant monazite group has a general structure of ATO 4, where T is phosphorus or arsenic, and A is often a rare-earth element (REE).", "Monazite is important in two ways: first, as a REE \"\"sink\"\", it can sufficiently concentrate these elements to become an ore; secondly, monazite group elements can incorporate relatively large amounts of uranium and thorium, which can be used in monazite geochronology to date the rock based on the decay of the U and Th to lead.", "[138]Organic minerals Main article: Organic mineral The Strunz classification includes a class for organic minerals.", "These rare compounds contain organic carbon, but can be formed by a geologic process.", "For example, whewellite, Ca C 2 O 4 ⋅H 2 O is an oxalate that can be deposited in hydrothermal ore veins.", "While hydrated calcium oxalate can be found in coal seams and other sedimentary deposits involving organic matter, the hydrothermal occurrence is not considered to be related to biological activity.", "[88]Astrobiology It has been suggested that biominerals could be important indicators of extraterrestrial life and thus could play an important role in the search for past or present life on the planet Mars.", "Furthermore, organic components ( biosignatures) that are often associated with biominerals are believed to play crucial roles in both pre-biotic and biotic reactions.", "[139]On January 24, 2014, NASA reported that current studies by the Curiosity and Opportunity rovers on Mars will now be searching for evidence of ancient life, including a biosphere based on autotrophic, chemotrophic and/or chemolithoautotrophic microorganisms, as well as ancient water, including fluvio-lacustrine environments ( plains related to ancient rivers or lakes) that may have been habitable.", "[140] [141] [142] [143] The search for evidence of habitability, taphonomy (related to fossils ), and organic carbon on the planet Mars is now a primary NASA objective.", "[140] [141]See also Amateur geology Dietary mineral Isomorphism (crystallography)List of minerals List of minerals (complete)Mineral collecting Polymorphism (materials science)Notes References^ Wenk, Hans-Rudolf; 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(2005).", "\"\"Biominerals\"\".", "Mineralogical Magazine.", "69 (5): 621–41.", "Bibcode: 2005Min M...69..621S.", "doi: 10.1180/0026461056950275.^ \"\"Working Group on Environmental Mineralogy and Geochemistry\"\".", "Commissions, working groups and committees.", "International Mineralogical Association.", "3 August 2011.", "Retrieved 4 April 2018.^ Takai, K. (2010).", "\"\"Limits of life and the biosphere: Lessons from the detection of microorganisms in the deep sea and deep subsurface of the Earth.\"\".", "In Gargaud, M.; Lopez-Garcia, P.; Martin, H. Origins and Evolution of Life: An Astrobiological Perspective.", "Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.", "pp.", "469–86.", "ISBN 9781139494595.^ Roussel, E. G.; Cambon Bonavita, M.; Querellou, J.; Cragg, B.", "A.; Prieur, D.; Parkes, R. J.; Parkes, R. J.", "(2008).", "\"\"Extending the Sub-Sea-Floor Biosphere\"\".", "Science.", "320 (5879): 1046.", "Bibcode: 2008Sci...320.1046R.", "doi: 10.1126/science.1154545.", "PMID 18497290.^ Pearce, D. A.; Bridge, P. D.; Hughes, K. A.; Sattler, B.; Psenner, R.; Russel, N. J.", "(2009).", "\"\"Microorganisms in the atmosphere over Antarctica\"\".", "FEMS Microbiology Ecology.", "69 (2): 143–57.", "doi: 10.1111/j.1574-6941.2009.00706.x.", "PMID 19527292.^ Newman, D. K.; Banfield, J. F. (2002).", "\"\"Geomicrobiology: How Molecular-Scale Interactions Underpin Biogeochemical Systems\"\".", "Science.", "296 (5570): 1071–77.", "doi: 10.1126/science.1010716.", "PMID 12004119.^ Warren, L. A.; Kauffman, M. E. (2003).", "\"\"Microbial geoengineers\"\".", "Science.", "299 (5609): 1027–29.", "doi: 10.1126/science.1072076.", "JSTOR 3833546.", "PMID 12586932.^ González-Muñoz, M. T.; Rodriguez-Navarro, C.; Martínez-Ruiz, F.; Arias, J. M.; Merroun, M. L.; Rodriguez-Gallego, M. \"\"Bacterial biomineralization: new insights from Myxococcus-induced mineral precipitation\"\".", "Geological Society, London, Special Publications.", "336 (1): 31–50.", "Bibcode: 2010GSLSP.336...31G.", "doi: 10.1144/SP336.3.^ Veis, A.", "(1990).", "\"\"Biomineralization.", "Cell Biology and Mineral Deposition.", "by Kenneth Simkiss; Karl M. Wilbur On Biomineralization.", "by Heinz A. Lowenstam; Stephen Weiner\"\".", "Science.", "247 (4946): 1129–30.", "Bibcode: 1990Sci...247.1129S.", "doi: 10.1126/science.247.4946.1129.", "JSTOR 2874281.", "PMID 17800080.^ Official IMA list of mineral names (updated from March 2009 list)Archived 2011-07-06 at the Wayback Machine .. uws.edu.au^ Bouligand, Y.", "(2006).", "\"\"Liquid crystals and morphogenesis.\"\".", "In Bourgine, P.; Lesne, A. Morphogenesis: Origins of Patterns and Shape.", "Cambridge, UK: Springer Verlag.", "pp.", "49 ff.", "ISBN 9783642131745.^ Gabriel, C. P.; Davidson, P. (2003).", "\"\"Mineral Liquid Crystals from Self-Assembly of Anisotropic Nanosystems\"\".", "Topics in Current Chemistry.", "226: 119–72.", "doi: 10.1007/b10827.^ K., Hefferan; J., O'Brien (2010).", "Earth Materials.", "Wiley-Blackwell.", "ISBN 978-1-4443-3460-9.^ Bindi, L.; Paul J. Steinhardt; Nan Yao; Peter J. Lu (2011).", "\"\"Icosahedrite, Al 63 Cu 24 Fe 13, the first natural quasicrystal\"\".", "American Mineralogist.", "96: 928–31.", "Bibcode: 2011Am Min..96..928B.", "doi: 10.2138/am.2011.3758.^ Commission on New Minerals and Mineral Names, Approved as new mineral Archived 2012-03-20 at the Wayback Machine.^ a b Chesterman & Lowe 2008, pp.", "15–16^ Chesterman & Lowe 2008, pp.", "719–21^ Chesterman & Lowe 2008, pp.", "747–48^ Chesterman & Lowe 2008, pp.", "694–96^ Chesterman & Lowe 2008, pp.", "728–30^ Dyar & Gunter 2008, p. 15^ Chesterman & Lowe 2008, p. 14^ Chesterman and Cole, pp.", "531–32^ Chesterman & Lowe 2008, pp.", "14–15^ a b Dyar & Gunter 2008, pp.", "20–22^ Dyar & Gunter 2008, pp 558–59^ Dyar & Gunter 2008, p. 556^ Harper, Douglas.", "\"\"Online Etymology Dictionary\"\".", "etymonline.", "Retrieved 28 March 2018.^ Wilk, H (1986).", "\"\"Systematic Classification of Minerals\"\".", "In Wilk, H. The Magic of Minerals (Hardcover).", "Berlin: Springer.", "p. 154.", "ISBN 978-3-642-64783-3.^ a b Dyar & Gunter 2008, pp.", "4–7^ Dyar & Gunter 2008, p. 586^ Dyar & Gunter 2008, p. 141^ Dyar & Gunter 2008, p. 14^ Dyar & Gunter 2008, p. 585^ Dyar & Gunter 2008, pp.", "12–17^ Dyar & Gunter 2008, p. 549^ Dyar & Gunter 2008, p. 579^ Dyar & Gunter 2008, pp.", "22–23^ a b Dyar & Gunter 2008, pp.", "69–80^ Dyar & Gunter 2008, pp.", "654–55^ Dyar & Gunter 2008, p. 581^ Dyar & Gunter 2008, pp.", "631–32^ Dyar & Gunter 2008, p. 166^ Dyar & Gunter 2008, pp.", "41–43^ Chesterman & Lowe 2008, p. 39^ Dyar & Gunter 2008, pp.", "32–39^ Chesterman & Lowe 2008, p. 38^ a b Dyar & Gunter 2008, pp.", "28–29^ \"\"Kyanite\"\".", "Mindat.org.", "Retrieved 3 April 2018.^ Dyar and Darby, pp.", "26–28^ a b c d e Busbey et al.", "2007, p. 72^ a b Dyar & Gunter 2008, p. 25^ Dyar & Gunter 2008, p. 23^ Dyar & Gunter 2008, pp.", "131–44^ a b c d e f Dyar & Gunter 2008, p. 24^ a b Dyar & Gunter 2008, pp.", "24–26^ a b Busbey et al.", "2007, p. 73^ a b c d Dyar & Gunter 2008, pp.", "39–40^ a b c Chesterman & Lowe 2008, pp.", "29–30^ Chesterman & Lowe 2008, pp.", "30–31^ Dyar & Gunter 2008, pp.", "31–33^ Dyar & Gunter 2008, pp.", "30–31^ a b Dyar & Gunter 2008, pp.", "43–44^ \"\"Hematite\"\".", "Mindat.org.", "Retrieved 3 April 2018.^ \"\"Galena\"\".", "Mindat.org.", "Retrieved 3 April 2018.^ \"\"Kamacite\"\".", "Webmineral.com.", "Retrieved 3 April 2018.^ \"\"Gold\"\".", "Mindat.org.", "Retrieved 3 April 2018.^ a b c d Dyar & Gunter 2008, pp.", "44–45^ \"\"Mineral Identification Key: Radioactivity, Magnetism, Acid Reactions\"\".", "Mineralogical Society of America.", "Archived from the original on 2012-09-22.", "Retrieved 2012-08-15.^ Helman, Daniel S. (2016).", "\"\"Symmetry-based electricity in minerals and rocks: A summary of extant data, with examples of centrosymmetric minerals that exhibit pyro- and piezoelectricity\"\".", "Periodico di Mineralogia.", "85. doi: 10.2451/2016PM590.^ Dyar & Gunter 2008, p. 641^ a b Dyar & Gunter 2008, p. 681^ Dyar & Gunter 2008, pp.", "641–43^ a b Dyar & Gunter 2008, p. 104^ Dyar & Gunter 2008, p. 5^ Dyar & Gunter 2008, pp.", "104–20^ Dyar & Gunter 2008, p. 105^ Dyar & Gunter 2008, pp.", "104–17^ Chesterman and Cole, p. 502^ Dyar & Gunter 2008, pp.", "578–83^ Dyar & Gunter 2008, pp.", "583–88^ Dyar & Gunter 2008, p. 588^ Dyar & Gunter 2008, pp.", "589–93^ Chesterman & Lowe 2008, p. 525^ Dyar & Gunter 2008, p. 110^ Dyar & Gunter 2008, pp.", "110–13^ Dyar & Gunter 2008, pp.", "602–05^ Dyar & Gunter 2008, pp.", "593–95^ Chesterman & Lowe 2008, p. 537^ \"\"09.", "D Inosilicates\"\".", "Webmineral.com.", "Retrieved 2012-08-20.^ a b Dyar & Gunter 2008, p. 112^ Dyar & Gunter 2008 pp.", "612–13^ Dyar & Gunter 2008, pp.", "606–12^ Dyar & Gunter 2008, pp.", "611–12^ Dyar & Gunter 2008, pp.", "113–15^ Chesterman & Lowe 2008, p. 558^ Dyar & Gunter 2008, pp.", "617–21^ a b Dyar & Gunter 2008, pp.", "612–27^ Chesterman & Lowe 2008, pp.", "565–73^ a b Dyar & Gunter 2008, pp.", "116–17^ Chesterman & Lowe 2008, p. 573^ Chesterman & Lowe 2008, pp.", "574–75^ Dyar & Gunter 2008, pp.", "627–34^ Dyar & Gunter 2008, pp.", "644–48^ Chesterman & Lowe 2008, p. 357^ Dyar & Gunter 2008, p. 649^ Dyar & Gunter 2008, pp.", "651–54^ Dyar & Gunter 2008, p. 654^ Chesterman & Lowe 2008, p. 383^ Chesterman & Lowe 2008, pp.", "400–03^ Dyar & Gunter 2008, pp.", "657–60^ Dyar & Gunter 2008, pp.", "663–64^ Dyar & Gunter 2008, pp.", "660–63^ Chesterman & Lowe 2008, pp.", "425–30^ Chesterman & Lowe 2008, p. 431^ Dyar & Gunter 2008, p. 667^ Dyar & Gunter 2008, pp.", "668–69^ Chesterman & Lowe 2008, p. 453^ Chesterman & Lowe 2008, pp.", "456–57^ Dyar & Gunter 2008, p. 674^ Dyar & Gunter 2008, pp.", "672–73^ Dyar & Gunter 2008, pp.", "675–80^ Steele, Andrew; Beaty, David, eds.", "(September 26, 2006).", "\"\"Final report of the MEPAG Astrobiology Field Laboratory Science Steering Group (AFL-SSG)\"\".", "The Astrobiology Field Laboratory (.doc).", "Mars Exploration Program Analysis Group (MEPAG) – NASA.", "p. 72.", "Retrieved 2009-07-22.^ a b Grotzinger, John P. (January 24, 2014).", "\"\"Introduction to Special Issue – Habitability, Taphonomy, and the Search for Organic Carbon on Mars\"\".", "Science.", "343 (6169): 386–87.", "Bibcode: 2014Sci...343..386G.", "doi: 10.1126/science.1249944.", "PMID 24458635.^ a b Various (January 24, 2014).", "\"\"Exploring Martian Habitability\"\".", "Science.", "343 (6169): 345–452.^ Various (January 24, 2014).", "\"\"Special Collection – Curiosity – Exploring Martian Habitability\"\".", "Science.", "Retrieved January 24, 2014.^ Grotzinger, J. P.; et al.", "(January 24, 2014).", "\"\"A Habitable Fluvio-Lacustrine Environment at Yellowknife Bay, Gale Crater, Mars\"\".", "Science.", "343 (6169): 1242777.", "Bibcode: 2014Sci...343A.386G.", "Cite Seer X 10.1.1.455.3973. doi: 10.1126/science.1242777.", "PMID 24324272.", "General references Busbey, A.", "B.; Coenraads, R. E.; Roots, D.; Willis, P. (2007).", "Rocks and Fossils.", "San Francisco: Fog City Press.", "ISBN 978-1-74089-632-0.", "Chesterman, C. W.; Lowe, K. E. (2008).", "Field guide to North American rocks and minerals.", "Toronto: Random House of Canada.", "ISBN 0-394-50269-8.", "Dyar, M. D.; Gunter, M. E. (2008).", "Mineralogy and Optical Mineralogy.", "Chantilly, Virginia: Mineralogical Society of America.", "ISBN 978-0-939950-81-2.", "Further reading Hazen, R. M.; Grew, Edward S.; Origlieri, Marcus J.; Downs, Robert T. (March 2017).", "\"\"On the Mineralogy of the 'Anthropocene Epoch ' \"\" (PDF).", "American Mineralogist.", "102 (3).", "Bibcode: 2017Am Min.102..595H.", "doi: 10.2138/am-2017-5875.", "Retrieved August 14, 2017.", "On the creation of new minerals by human activity.", "External links Wikimedia Commons has media related to Minerals.", "The Wikibook Historical Geology has a page on the topic of: Minerals The Wikibook High School Earth Science has a page on the topic of: Earth's Minerals Mindat mineralogical database, largest mineral database on the Internet\"\"Mineralogy Database\"\" by David Barthelmy (2009)\"\"Mineral Identification Key II\"\" Mineralogical Society of America\"\"American Mineralogist Crystal Structure Database\"\"Minerals and the Origins of Life ( Robert Hazen, NASA) (video, 60m, April 2014).", "[ hide]v t e Natural resources Air Pollution / quality Ambient standards (USA) Index Indoordeveloping nations Law Clean Air Act (USA)Ozone depletion Emissions Airshed Trading Deforestation (REDD)Energy Law Resources Fossil fuels ( peak oil) Geothermal Nuclear Solarsunlight shade Tidal Wave Wind Land Arablepeak farmland Degradation Lawproperty Managementhabitat conservation Mineralsmininglaw sandpeak rights Soilconservation fertility health resilience Useplanningreserve Life Biodiversity Bioprospecting Biosphere Bushfood Bushmeat Fisherieslaw management Food Forestsgenetic resources law management Gamelaw Gene bank Herbalist plants Marine conservation Non-timber forest products Rangeland Seed bank Wildlifeconservationmanagement Wood Water Types / location Aquiferstorage and recovery Drinking Fresh Groundwaterpollution rechargeremediation Hydrosphere Icebergs glacial polar Irrigation Rainharvesting Stormwater Surface water Wastewaterreclaimed Aspects Desalination Floods Law Leaching Sanitation Conflict Conservation Peak water Pollution Privatization Quality Right Resourcesmanagementpolicy Related Commonsenclosure global land tragedy of Economicsecological land Ecosystem services Exploitationoverexploitation Earth Overshoot Day Managementadaptive Natural capitalaccounting Nature reserve Systems ecology Urban ecology Wilderness Resource Common-pool Conflict (perpetuation) Curse Depletion Extraction Nationalism Renewable / Non-renewable Portals Agriculture and agronomy Energy Environment Fishing Forestry Mining Water Wetlands Categoryagencies law management ministries organizations Colleges Natural resources Authority control LCCN: sh90001070 GND: 4074836-4 NDL: 00566084Categories: Minerals Mineralogy Natural materials \"" ]
D12080
http://www.bhg.com/recipes/fish/basics/how-to-bake-salmon/
How to Bake Salmon
BHG.com Recipes Seafood Fish Basics How to Bake Salmon Don't be a fish out of water! Baking salmon in the oven is easy and quick. Try out a few of our oven-baked salmon recipes for a simple, healthy, and fresh meal.6 did it Pin Facebook Twitter Google Plus Email Print NETWORK ERRORCannot Contact Server RELOAD YOUR SCREEN OR TRY SELECTING A DIFFERENT VIDEOHow to Select and Prep Salmon When learning how to bake salmon, it's important to select the right fish. Fresh salmon is often available farmed or wild, with wild carrying the higher price tag. The country-of-origin label should tell you where the fish is from and if it is farmed or wild. Common forms of salmon include fillets, steaks, and whole fish. When cooking fresh salmon or making baked salmon fillets, ask your fish market to skin them for you. Wild: Most varieties of wild salmon are available fresh May through October and frozen throughout the year. Wild salmon are typically Pacific coast varieties, such as coho (silver), sockeye (red), Chinook (king), pink, and chum. Farmed: Atlantic salmon is generally farmed. Farmed salmon is often more readily available and sold at a lower price. Prepping the Fish If frozen, thaw salmon in the refrigerator. Rinse and pat dry with paper towels. Cut larger pieces of salmon into serving-size pieces. Place in a single layer in a greased or foil-lined shallow baking pan. For fillets, tuck under any thin edges to ensure even baking. Brush the fish with olive oil or melted butter and season as desired. Tip: Seasoning salmon can be as simple as using salt and ground black pepper, especially if you are planning to serve it with a sauce. Common and simple seasonings are fresh or dried herbs, such as dill, thyme, or minced garlic. Sprinkling seasoning blends like garlic pepper, lemon pepper, or Italian seasoning is also a simple way to boost flavor. Tip: To skin a raw fish fillet, slide a sharp knife just under the skin on one side. Take skin with one hand and slide the knife between fillet and skin, pointing the knife slightly toward the skin. Remove and discard. Easy Baked Salmon Recipes Cold Roasted Salmon Asian Salmon with Oven-Roasted Sweet Potatoes Smoky Salmon Casserole Pistachio Baked Salmon No-Fail Fish and Seafood Ideas How Long to Bake Salmon Oven-baked salmon can be tricky; the key is how long to bake it. Knowing how to cook salmon in the oven is essential to mastering basic cooking techniques for weekday meals. Preheat the oven to 450 degrees F for baked salmon fillets or 350 degrees F for a dressed fish. Fillets can be baked at a lower temperature, if desired, with an increase in cooking time. Put salmon in oven and bake, uncovered, 4 to 6 minutes per 1/2-inch thickness. Bake a dressed salmon 6 to 9 minutes per 8 ounces of fish. To test for doneness, insert a fork and gently twist. The salmon is done as soon as it becomes opaque and begins to flake. How to Bake Salmon in a Packet NETWORK ERRORCannot Contact Server RELOAD YOUR SCREEN OR TRY SELECTING A DIFFERENT VIDEOHow to Bake Salmon in a Packet Baked Salmon in Foil For oven-baked salmon with veggies and some extra flavor, learn how to bake salmon in a foil packet with desired seasonings.1. Preheat oven to 350 degrees F. For each packet, cut an 18x24-inch piece of heavy foil and fold it in half to get an 18x12-inch piece.2. Place desired vegetables, such as precooked carrots, sliced mushrooms, and sliced green onions, on foil. Place one 4-ounce salmon fillet, cut 3/4 inch thick, on top. Drizzle with 1 teaspoon olive oil, melted butter, or a splash of dry white wine. Sprinkle with salt and ground black pepper and, if desired, snipped fresh oregano, dill, finely shredded orange peel, and/or minced garlic. Top with halved orange slices.3. Bring together two opposite foil edges and seal with a double fold. Fold remaining edges together to completely enclose salmon, allowing space for steam to build. Place the foil packets in a single layer in a shallow baking pan.4. Bake 30 minutes or until fish begins to flake when tested with a fork and vegetables are tender (open packets carefully to check doneness, as hot steam will escape). Baked Salmon Recipes Baking salmon is quick, easy, and perfect for weeknight dinners. Whether you're looking for recipes for baked whole salmon or for baked salmon steak, we've got crowd-pleasing healthy salmon recipes that will impress the whole table. Roasted Salmon with Herbs and Yogurt Pistachio Baked Salmon Salmon with Matzo Crust Salmon Steaks with Lemon-Dill Dressing More Ways to Cook Salmon Once you've mastered oven-baked salmon, mix things up and cook it in other ways! Cook on the grill for a more hearty taste, or on a plank for a woody, smoked flavor. How to Grill Salmon How to Grill Salmon on a Cedar Plank30-Minute Dinner Ideas How to Grill Salmon NETWORK ERRORCannot Contact Server RELOAD YOUR SCREEN OR TRY SELECTING A DIFFERENT VIDEOHow to Grill Salmon on a Cedar Plank How to Grill Salmon Pin Facebook Twitter Google Plus Email Print
[ "BHG.com Recipes Seafood Fish Basics How to Bake Salmon Don't be a fish out of water!", "Baking salmon in the oven is easy and quick.", "Try out a few of our oven-baked salmon recipes for a simple, healthy, and fresh meal.6 did it Pin Facebook Twitter Google Plus Email Print NETWORK ERRORCannot Contact Server RELOAD YOUR SCREEN OR TRY SELECTING A DIFFERENT VIDEOHow to Select and Prep Salmon When learning how to bake salmon, it's important to select the right fish.", "Fresh salmon is often available farmed or wild, with wild carrying the higher price tag.", "The country-of-origin label should tell you where the fish is from and if it is farmed or wild.", "Common forms of salmon include fillets, steaks, and whole fish.", "When cooking fresh salmon or making baked salmon fillets, ask your fish market to skin them for you.", "Wild: Most varieties of wild salmon are available fresh May through October and frozen throughout the year.", "Wild salmon are typically Pacific coast varieties, such as coho (silver), sockeye (red), Chinook (king), pink, and chum.", "Farmed: Atlantic salmon is generally farmed.", "Farmed salmon is often more readily available and sold at a lower price.", "Prepping the Fish If frozen, thaw salmon in the refrigerator.", "Rinse and pat dry with paper towels.", "Cut larger pieces of salmon into serving-size pieces.", "Place in a single layer in a greased or foil-lined shallow baking pan.", "For fillets, tuck under any thin edges to ensure even baking.", "Brush the fish with olive oil or melted butter and season as desired.", "Tip: Seasoning salmon can be as simple as using salt and ground black pepper, especially if you are planning to serve it with a sauce.", "Common and simple seasonings are fresh or dried herbs, such as dill, thyme, or minced garlic.", "Sprinkling seasoning blends like garlic pepper, lemon pepper, or Italian seasoning is also a simple way to boost flavor.", "Tip: To skin a raw fish fillet, slide a sharp knife just under the skin on one side.", "Take skin with one hand and slide the knife between fillet and skin, pointing the knife slightly toward the skin.", "Remove and discard.", "Easy Baked Salmon Recipes Cold Roasted Salmon Asian Salmon with Oven-Roasted Sweet Potatoes Smoky Salmon Casserole Pistachio Baked Salmon No-Fail Fish and Seafood Ideas How Long to Bake Salmon Oven-baked salmon can be tricky; the key is how long to bake it.", "Knowing how to cook salmon in the oven is essential to mastering basic cooking techniques for weekday meals.", "Preheat the oven to 450 degrees F for baked salmon fillets or 350 degrees F for a dressed fish.", "Fillets can be baked at a lower temperature, if desired, with an increase in cooking time.", "Put salmon in oven and bake, uncovered, 4 to 6 minutes per 1/2-inch thickness.", "Bake a dressed salmon 6 to 9 minutes per 8 ounces of fish.", "To test for doneness, insert a fork and gently twist.", "The salmon is done as soon as it becomes opaque and begins to flake.", "How to Bake Salmon in a Packet NETWORK ERRORCannot Contact Server RELOAD YOUR SCREEN OR TRY SELECTING A DIFFERENT VIDEOHow to Bake Salmon in a Packet Baked Salmon in Foil For oven-baked salmon with veggies and some extra flavor, learn how to bake salmon in a foil packet with desired seasonings.1.", "Preheat oven to 350 degrees F. For each packet, cut an 18x24-inch piece of heavy foil and fold it in half to get an 18x12-inch piece.2.", "Place desired vegetables, such as precooked carrots, sliced mushrooms, and sliced green onions, on foil.", "Place one 4-ounce salmon fillet, cut 3/4 inch thick, on top.", "Drizzle with 1 teaspoon olive oil, melted butter, or a splash of dry white wine.", "Sprinkle with salt and ground black pepper and, if desired, snipped fresh oregano, dill, finely shredded orange peel, and/or minced garlic.", "Top with halved orange slices.3.", "Bring together two opposite foil edges and seal with a double fold.", "Fold remaining edges together to completely enclose salmon, allowing space for steam to build.", "Place the foil packets in a single layer in a shallow baking pan.4.", "Bake 30 minutes or until fish begins to flake when tested with a fork and vegetables are tender (open packets carefully to check doneness, as hot steam will escape).", "Baked Salmon Recipes Baking salmon is quick, easy, and perfect for weeknight dinners.", "Whether you're looking for recipes for baked whole salmon or for baked salmon steak, we've got crowd-pleasing healthy salmon recipes that will impress the whole table.", "Roasted Salmon with Herbs and Yogurt Pistachio Baked Salmon Salmon with Matzo Crust Salmon Steaks with Lemon-Dill Dressing More Ways to Cook Salmon Once you've mastered oven-baked salmon, mix things up and cook it in other ways!", "Cook on the grill for a more hearty taste, or on a plank for a woody, smoked flavor.", "How to Grill Salmon How to Grill Salmon on a Cedar Plank30-Minute Dinner Ideas How to Grill Salmon NETWORK ERRORCannot Contact Server RELOAD YOUR SCREEN OR TRY SELECTING A DIFFERENT VIDEOHow to Grill Salmon on a Cedar Plank How to Grill Salmon Pin Facebook Twitter Google Plus Email Print" ]
D179113
http://www.innerbody.com/image/urinov.html
Urinary System Anatomy
Click To View Large Image Continued From Above... and red blood cells. Urinary System Anatomy Kidneys The kidneys are a pair of bean-shaped organs found along the posterior wall of the abdominal cavity. The left kidney is located slightly higher than the right kidney because the right side of the liver is much larger than the left side. The kidneys, unlike the other organs of the abdominal cavity, are located posterior to the peritoneum and touch the muscles of the back. The kidneys are surrounded by a layer of adipose that holds them in place and protects them from physical damage. The kidneys filter metabolic wastes, excess ions, and chemicals from the blood to form urine. Ureters The ureters are a pair of tubes that carry urine from the kidneys to the urinary bladder. The ureters are about 10 to 12 inches long and run on the left and right sides of the body parallel to the vertebral column. Gravity and peristalsis of smooth muscle tissue in the walls of the ureters move urine toward the urinary bladder. The ends of the ureters extend slightly into the urinary bladder and are sealed at the point of entry to the bladder by the ureterovesical valves. These valves prevent urine from flowing back towards the kidneys. Urinary Bladder The urinary bladder is a sac-like hollow organ used for the storage of urine. The urinary bladder is located along the body’s midline at the inferior end of the pelvis. Urine entering the urinary bladder from the ureters slowly fills the hollow space of the bladder and stretches its elastic walls. The walls of the bladder allow it to stretch to hold anywhere from 600 to 800 milliliters of urine. Urethra The urethra is the tube through which urine passes from the bladder to the exterior of the body. The female urethra is around 2 inches long and ends inferior to the clitoris and superior to the vaginal opening. In males, the urethra is around 8 to 10 inches long and ends at the tip of the penis. The urethra is also an organ of the male reproductive system as it carries sperm out of the body through the penis. The flow of urine through the urethra is controlled by the internal and external urethral sphincter muscles. The internal urethral sphincter is made of smooth muscle and opens involuntarily when the bladder reaches a certain set level of distention. The opening of the internal sphincter results in the sensation of needing to urinate. The external urethral sphincter is made of skeletal muscle and may be opened to allow urine to pass through the urethra or may be held closed to delay urination. Urinary System Physiology Maintenance of Homeostasis The kidneys maintain the homeostasis of several important internal conditions by controlling the excretion of substances out of the body. Ions The kidney can control the excretion of potassium, sodium, calcium, magnesium, phosphate, and chloride ions into urine. In cases where these ions reach a higher than normal concentration, the kidneys can increase their excretion out of the body to return them to a normal level. Conversely, the kidneys can conserve these ions when they are present in lower than normal levels by allowing the ions to be reabsorbed into the blood during filtration. (See more about ions . )p HThe kidneys monitor and regulate the levels of hydrogen ions (H+) and bicarbonate ions in the blood to control blood p H. H+ ions are produced as a natural byproduct of the metabolism of dietary proteins and accumulate in the blood over time. The kidneys excrete excess H+ ions into urine for elimination from the body. The kidneys also conserve bicarbonate ions, which act as important p H buffers in the blood. Osmolarity The cells of the body need to grow in an isotonic environment in order to maintain their fluid and electrolyte balance. The kidneys maintain the body’s osmotic balance by controlling the amount of water that is filtered out of the blood and excreted into urine. When a person consumes a large amount of water, the kidneys reduce their reabsorption of water to allow the excess water to be excreted in urine. This results in the production of dilute, watery urine. In the case of the body being dehydrated, the kidneys reabsorb as much water as possible back into the blood to produce highly concentrated urine full of excreted ions and wastes. The changes in excretion of water are controlled by antidiuretic hormone (ADH). ADH is produced in the hypothalamus and released by the posterior pituitary gland to help the body retain water. Blood Pressure The kidneys monitor the body’s blood pressure to help maintain homeostasis. When blood pressure is elevated, the kidneys can help to reduce blood pressure by reducing the volume of blood in the body. The kidneys are able to reduce blood volume by reducing the reabsorption of water into the blood and producing watery, dilute urine. When blood pressure becomes too low, the kidneys can produce the enzyme renin to constrict blood vessels and produce concentrated urine, which allows more water to remain in the blood. Filtration Inside each kidney are around a million tiny structures called nephrons. The nephron is the functional unit of the kidney that filters blood to produce urine. Arterioles in the kidneys deliver blood to a bundle of capillaries surrounded by a capsule called a glomerulus. As blood flows through the glomerulus, much of the blood’s plasma is pushed out of the capillaries and into the capsule, leaving the blood cells and a small amount of plasma to continue flowing through the capillaries. The liquid filtrate in the capsule flows through a series of tubules lined with filtering cells and surrounded by capillaries. The cells surrounding the tubules selectively absorb water and substances from the filtrate in the tubule and return it to the blood in the capillaries. At the same time, waste products present in the blood are secreted into the filtrate. By the end of this process, the filtrate in the tubule has become urine containing only water, waste products, and excess ions. The blood exiting the capillaries has reabsorbed all of the nutrients along with most of the water and ions that the body needs to function. Storage and Excretion of Wastes After urine has been produced by the kidneys, it is transported through the ureters to the urinary bladder. The urinary bladder fills with urine and stores it until the body is ready for its excretion. When the volume of the urinary bladder reaches anywhere from 150 to 400 milliliters, its walls begin to stretch and stretch receptors in its walls send signals to the brain and spinal cord. These signals result in the relaxation of the involuntary internal urethral sphincter and the sensation of needing to urinate. Urination may be delayed as long as the bladder does not exceed its maximum volume, but increasing nerve signals lead to greater discomfort and desire to urinate. Urination is the process of releasing urine from the urinary bladder through the urethra and out of the body. The process of urination begins when the muscles of the urethral sphincters relax, allowing urine to pass through the urethra. At the same time that the sphincters relax, the smooth muscle in the walls of the urinary bladder contract to expel urine from the bladder. Production of Hormones The kidneys produce and interact with several hormones that are involved in the control of systems outside of the urinary system. Calcitriol Calcitriol is the active form of vitamin D in the human body. It is produced by the kidneys from precursor molecules produced by UV radiation striking the skin. Calcitriol works together with parathyroid hormone (PTH) to raise the level of calcium ions in the bloodstream. When the level of calcium ions in the blood drops below a threshold level, the parathyroid glands release PTH, which in turn stimulates the kidneys to release calcitriol. Calcitriol promotes the small intestine to absorb calcium from food and deposit it into the bloodstream. It also stimulates the osteoclasts of the skeletal system to break down bone matrix to release calcium ions into the blood. Erythropoietin Erythropoietin, also known as EPO, is a hormone that is produced by the kidneys to stimulate the production of red blood cells. The kidneys monitor the condition of the blood that passes through their capillaries, including the oxygen-carrying capacity of the blood. When the blood becomes hypoxic, meaning that it is carrying deficient levels of oxygen, cells lining the capillaries begin producing EPO and release it into the bloodstream. EPO travels through the blood to the r ed bone marrow, where it stimulates hematopoietic cells to increase their rate of red blood cell production. Red blood cells contain hemoglobin, which greatly increases the blood’s oxygen-carrying capacity and effectively ends the hypoxic conditions. Renin Renin is not a hormone itself, but an enzyme that the kidneys produce to start the renin-angiotensin system (RAS). The RAS increases blood volume and blood pressure in response to low blood pressure, blood loss, or dehydration. Renin is released into the blood where it catalyzes angiotensinogen from the liver into angiotensin I. Angiotensin I is further catalyzed by another enzyme into Angiotensin II. Angiotensin II stimulates several processes, including stimulating the adrenal cortex to produce the hormone aldosterone. Aldosterone then changes the function of the kidneys to increase the reabsorption of water and sodium ions into the blood, increasing blood volume and raising blood pressure. Negative feedback from increased blood pressure finally turns off the RAS to maintain healthy blood pressure levels. Prepared by Tim Taylor, Anatomy and Physiology Instructor
[ "Click To View Large Image Continued From Above... and red blood cells.", "Urinary System Anatomy Kidneys The kidneys are a pair of bean-shaped organs found along the posterior wall of the abdominal cavity.", "The left kidney is located slightly higher than the right kidney because the right side of the liver is much larger than the left side.", "The kidneys, unlike the other organs of the abdominal cavity, are located posterior to the peritoneum and touch the muscles of the back.", "The kidneys are surrounded by a layer of adipose that holds them in place and protects them from physical damage.", "The kidneys filter metabolic wastes, excess ions, and chemicals from the blood to form urine.", "Ureters The ureters are a pair of tubes that carry urine from the kidneys to the urinary bladder.", "The ureters are about 10 to 12 inches long and run on the left and right sides of the body parallel to the vertebral column.", "Gravity and peristalsis of smooth muscle tissue in the walls of the ureters move urine toward the urinary bladder.", "The ends of the ureters extend slightly into the urinary bladder and are sealed at the point of entry to the bladder by the ureterovesical valves.", "These valves prevent urine from flowing back towards the kidneys.", "Urinary Bladder The urinary bladder is a sac-like hollow organ used for the storage of urine.", "The urinary bladder is located along the body’s midline at the inferior end of the pelvis.", "Urine entering the urinary bladder from the ureters slowly fills the hollow space of the bladder and stretches its elastic walls.", "The walls of the bladder allow it to stretch to hold anywhere from 600 to 800 milliliters of urine.", "Urethra The urethra is the tube through which urine passes from the bladder to the exterior of the body.", "The female urethra is around 2 inches long and ends inferior to the clitoris and superior to the vaginal opening.", "In males, the urethra is around 8 to 10 inches long and ends at the tip of the penis.", "The urethra is also an organ of the male reproductive system as it carries sperm out of the body through the penis.", "The flow of urine through the urethra is controlled by the internal and external urethral sphincter muscles.", "The internal urethral sphincter is made of smooth muscle and opens involuntarily when the bladder reaches a certain set level of distention.", "The opening of the internal sphincter results in the sensation of needing to urinate.", "The external urethral sphincter is made of skeletal muscle and may be opened to allow urine to pass through the urethra or may be held closed to delay urination.", "Urinary System Physiology Maintenance of Homeostasis The kidneys maintain the homeostasis of several important internal conditions by controlling the excretion of substances out of the body.", "Ions The kidney can control the excretion of potassium, sodium, calcium, magnesium, phosphate, and chloride ions into urine.", "In cases where these ions reach a higher than normal concentration, the kidneys can increase their excretion out of the body to return them to a normal level.", "Conversely, the kidneys can conserve these ions when they are present in lower than normal levels by allowing the ions to be reabsorbed into the blood during filtration.", "(See more about ions .", ")p HThe kidneys monitor and regulate the levels of hydrogen ions (H+) and bicarbonate ions in the blood to control blood p H. H+ ions are produced as a natural byproduct of the metabolism of dietary proteins and accumulate in the blood over time.", "The kidneys excrete excess H+ ions into urine for elimination from the body.", "The kidneys also conserve bicarbonate ions, which act as important p H buffers in the blood.", "Osmolarity The cells of the body need to grow in an isotonic environment in order to maintain their fluid and electrolyte balance.", "The kidneys maintain the body’s osmotic balance by controlling the amount of water that is filtered out of the blood and excreted into urine.", "When a person consumes a large amount of water, the kidneys reduce their reabsorption of water to allow the excess water to be excreted in urine.", "This results in the production of dilute, watery urine.", "In the case of the body being dehydrated, the kidneys reabsorb as much water as possible back into the blood to produce highly concentrated urine full of excreted ions and wastes.", "The changes in excretion of water are controlled by antidiuretic hormone (ADH).", "ADH is produced in the hypothalamus and released by the posterior pituitary gland to help the body retain water.", "Blood Pressure The kidneys monitor the body’s blood pressure to help maintain homeostasis.", "When blood pressure is elevated, the kidneys can help to reduce blood pressure by reducing the volume of blood in the body.", "The kidneys are able to reduce blood volume by reducing the reabsorption of water into the blood and producing watery, dilute urine.", "When blood pressure becomes too low, the kidneys can produce the enzyme renin to constrict blood vessels and produce concentrated urine, which allows more water to remain in the blood.", "Filtration Inside each kidney are around a million tiny structures called nephrons.", "The nephron is the functional unit of the kidney that filters blood to produce urine.", "Arterioles in the kidneys deliver blood to a bundle of capillaries surrounded by a capsule called a glomerulus.", "As blood flows through the glomerulus, much of the blood’s plasma is pushed out of the capillaries and into the capsule, leaving the blood cells and a small amount of plasma to continue flowing through the capillaries.", "The liquid filtrate in the capsule flows through a series of tubules lined with filtering cells and surrounded by capillaries.", "The cells surrounding the tubules selectively absorb water and substances from the filtrate in the tubule and return it to the blood in the capillaries.", "At the same time, waste products present in the blood are secreted into the filtrate.", "By the end of this process, the filtrate in the tubule has become urine containing only water, waste products, and excess ions.", "The blood exiting the capillaries has reabsorbed all of the nutrients along with most of the water and ions that the body needs to function.", "Storage and Excretion of Wastes After urine has been produced by the kidneys, it is transported through the ureters to the urinary bladder.", "The urinary bladder fills with urine and stores it until the body is ready for its excretion.", "When the volume of the urinary bladder reaches anywhere from 150 to 400 milliliters, its walls begin to stretch and stretch receptors in its walls send signals to the brain and spinal cord.", "These signals result in the relaxation of the involuntary internal urethral sphincter and the sensation of needing to urinate.", "Urination may be delayed as long as the bladder does not exceed its maximum volume, but increasing nerve signals lead to greater discomfort and desire to urinate.", "Urination is the process of releasing urine from the urinary bladder through the urethra and out of the body.", "The process of urination begins when the muscles of the urethral sphincters relax, allowing urine to pass through the urethra.", "At the same time that the sphincters relax, the smooth muscle in the walls of the urinary bladder contract to expel urine from the bladder.", "Production of Hormones The kidneys produce and interact with several hormones that are involved in the control of systems outside of the urinary system.", "Calcitriol Calcitriol is the active form of vitamin D in the human body.", "It is produced by the kidneys from precursor molecules produced by UV radiation striking the skin.", "Calcitriol works together with parathyroid hormone (PTH) to raise the level of calcium ions in the bloodstream.", "When the level of calcium ions in the blood drops below a threshold level, the parathyroid glands release PTH, which in turn stimulates the kidneys to release calcitriol.", "Calcitriol promotes the small intestine to absorb calcium from food and deposit it into the bloodstream.", "It also stimulates the osteoclasts of the skeletal system to break down bone matrix to release calcium ions into the blood.", "Erythropoietin Erythropoietin, also known as EPO, is a hormone that is produced by the kidneys to stimulate the production of red blood cells.", "The kidneys monitor the condition of the blood that passes through their capillaries, including the oxygen-carrying capacity of the blood.", "When the blood becomes hypoxic, meaning that it is carrying deficient levels of oxygen, cells lining the capillaries begin producing EPO and release it into the bloodstream.", "EPO travels through the blood to the r ed bone marrow, where it stimulates hematopoietic cells to increase their rate of red blood cell production.", "Red blood cells contain hemoglobin, which greatly increases the blood’s oxygen-carrying capacity and effectively ends the hypoxic conditions.", "Renin Renin is not a hormone itself, but an enzyme that the kidneys produce to start the renin-angiotensin system (RAS).", "The RAS increases blood volume and blood pressure in response to low blood pressure, blood loss, or dehydration.", "Renin is released into the blood where it catalyzes angiotensinogen from the liver into angiotensin I. Angiotensin I is further catalyzed by another enzyme into Angiotensin II.", "Angiotensin II stimulates several processes, including stimulating the adrenal cortex to produce the hormone aldosterone.", "Aldosterone then changes the function of the kidneys to increase the reabsorption of water and sodium ions into the blood, increasing blood volume and raising blood pressure.", "Negative feedback from increased blood pressure finally turns off the RAS to maintain healthy blood pressure levels.", "Prepared by Tim Taylor, Anatomy and Physiology Instructor" ]
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http://home.costhelper.com/bathroom-remodel.html
Bathroom Remodeling Cost
"Medium: $11,000-$15,000 High: $35,000-$43,000E-mail Post Tweet Comments (20)Typical costs: Remodeling costs vary widely depending on the shape and square footage of the existing room, whether walls or plumbing are moved, and the quality of materials used. According to an annual construction cost survey by Remodeling Magazine, a mid-range remodel of a 5x7-foot bathroom averages $14,109-$18,864; for an upscale expansion of a 5x7 bathroom to 9x9-feet within the existing house footprint, costs run $46,865-$59,456. These are averages; actual costs may be higher or lower. Related articles: Vinyl Flooring, Tile Flooring, Kitchen Cabinets, Kitchen Remodeling, Architect What should be included: A detailed overview of remodeling in general and bathrooms in particular is provided the National Association of the Remodeling Industry [ 1] . Bathrooms: Plan, Remodel, Build [ 2] by Jerry Germer is one of several books available to guide you through the many phases of bathroom renovations. Improve Net.com [ 3] presents practical articles on cabinets, sinks, showers, tubs and the like, while A Bathroom Guide.com [ 4] presents the perfect ""spa"" bathroom. Discounts: This Old House.com [ 5] gives details of bathroom remodels for $1,830-$2,425, with the homeowners doing some but not all of the work. Shopping for a bathroom remodeling: Gather photos of bathroom styles and details that appeal to you. The National Association for the Remodeling Industry [ 6] offers a free downloadable brochure on ""How To Select A Remodeling Professional,"" from checking references to what should be in the written contract. The National Association of the Remodeling Industry [ 7] also gives contractor referrals. E-mail Post Tweet Comments (20)Cost Helper News7 Ways to Stretch Your Reduced Food Budget End of the year budgets are tight for everyone, especially in this economy. It's especially hard for the millions of Americans who depend on government programs like food stamps to help make ends meet. || Posted November 11 20137 Lesser-Known Discounts for the 50+ Crowd As they age, members of the Baby Boomer generation don't like to admit that they're senior citizens, but they love getting discounts. It's kind of a quandary, because some of the best deals available are reduced prices for older folks.|| Posted October 21 2013‣ All Cost Helper Blog Posts What People Are Paying - Recent Comments Bathroom remodel Amount: $1,500.00Posted by: Cml in Gordonsville, VA. Posted: April 11th, 2017 07:04PMSquare Ft of Bathroom: 35 Items Remodeled: Everything1968 home. Replaced all fixtures. Replaced rotted sub floor (2 layers) replaced drywall around tub and tiled. Installed gfci outlet. Scabbed 3 floor joist. Re leveled 1 floor joist. Installed sheet vinyl for floor. New baseboard. no quarter round or shoe molding. Prime and paint walls and ceiling 2 coats. Did all the work myself and came in under 1500 materials cost. Was this post helpful to you? yes no Report prohibited or spam Full Bath Remodel - Craftsman Bungalow Amount: $12,000.00Posted by: TWIST in Chicago, IL. Posted: March 3rd, 2017 09:03AMSquare Ft of Bathroom: 60 Items Remodeled: Tub alcove tile, vanity, floor, walls Some of the work was done ourselves to save $2,000-$3,000. I have a design background and took advantage of contractor discounts on products. Finishes are mid to high end. Cost breakdown Tub $1800 Subway tile $1500 (mid-range with some trim) Kohler Artisan fixtures $1500 DIY Tub and plumbing installation $0 Tile installation: $1500 Vanity: $2500 + $500 install Floor tile: $550 (Black Hex Travertine) Install board and batten on walls, replace window trim, add closet trim and crown molding: $1200. Misc materials and tools: $1200Was this post helpful to you? yes no Report prohibited or spam Bathroom Remodel Amount: $20,000.00Posted by: bopbottle in WICHITA, KS. Posted: November 6th, 2016 02:11AMSquare Ft of Bathroom: 57 Items Remodeled: All We had our small master bath gutted. The cost includes new Crystal brand cabinetry, all new tile in shower and on the lower part of the walls, with a decorative tile accent. Also includes new fixtures including an undermount sink, quartz countertops, new tile floor, glass shower door, all new faucets in ORB, a medicine cabinet and a large mirror and lighting. I was a little surprised for such a small bath, but this is a dompany I have worked with in the past and they are superb and take care of everything!Was this post helpful to you? yes no Report prohibited or spambathroom remodeling cost Amount: $25.00Posted by: a user in Princeton, NJ. Posted: October 8th, 2016 03:10PMSquare Ft of Bathroom: 10 by 7 Items Remodeled: bathroom gut The posted comment shares for this bathroom remodel topic seem absurdly low!! My project for customer entails an entire bathroom gutting: new drywall at all sides, fourth wall pushed out two feet: the one entirely new wall framed out, door hung. three walls chair rail tiled. Entirely new shower stall- expanded out 16 inches, new pan, new framing- cement board, drain needs to be moved out 8 inches to bring to new center, shower faucets and head also need to be re-plumbed to the new center. shower stall to be fully re-tiled in ceramic, including lowered section ceiling in stall New hanging glass door to be installed. Floor to be pulled up new sub floor. Sink moved across room to new wall requiring new drainage piping and water lines installed beneath sub-floor (the angle requires cutting water pipe and drain holes through floor joist or raising the floor. Toilet stays. New vanity and electrical at the sink. New overhead light above mirror at sink, new exhaust fan. Was this post helpful to you? yes no Report prohibited or spam Small 5x7 bathroom remodel Amount: $4,589.00Posted by: High end on the cheap in Santa Paula, CA. Posted: December 13th, 2014 01:12PMSquare Ft of Bathroom: 5x7 Items Remodeled: bathroom My wife has expensive taste on vanity, tile and fixtures. We remodeled our 1951 home with ugly pink tile. We had a friend do the labor to save on costs and looks amazing. Cost break down Vanity $970,Floor Tile $1,200, Accent Tile $600, Labor $780 Supplies $221 ,Sconances (lowes gift card rebate)$0 Paint - (foam green) $20 new Toilet $239 Showerhead and sprayer $59 Plumbing $500Was this post helpful to you? yes no Report prohibited or spam Remodeling bathroom Amount: $6,500.00Posted by: Matt Phillips Annointedservices.com in matteson, IL. Posted: March 24th, 2013 06:03PMSquare Ft of Bathroom: 35 sqft Items Remodeled: custom floor shower Im currently remodeling my lower level bathroom. The same work for a client i would charge about 7500 for a custom bathroom remodel! Here's the math to demo and rebuild my bath room! Avg price for tile,toilet,custom shower base, vanity and plumbing fixtures with lighting about 2500 for materials multiply that by 2 for your labor cost! Remember this! You get what you pay for Was this post helpful to you? yes no Report prohibited or spam Bath tiled and new vanity and paint Amount: $1,700.00Posted by: Carl spinthe in Westerly, RI. Posted: November 5th, 2012 02:11AMWe redid our bathroom with new tile on floors and walls as well as a new double vanity and paint.we hired Jdh home improvement they did an amazing job.in addition they were very professional and polite. We will be using them again. Jeremy 401-688-3639 there website is www.jdhhomeimprovement.com Was this post helpful to you? yes no Report prohibited or spamguest bathroom remodel Amount: $3,500.00Posted by: Ron Stein in matawan, NJ. Posted: March 26th, 2012 08:03AMSquare Ft of Bathroom: 35 Items Remodeled: everything but the tub Had a small leak that ruined the vinyl floor in our guest bathroom - and after 10 years it needed a little sprucing up. So we retile the bathtub surround, tiled the floor, swapped the position of the toilet and vanity and replaced the shower controllers. I did all the work myself..took 7 hard days of work. The tile - at the time- seemed to be going fast but the hours fly buy so i spent 4 days just on the tile. We also picked what we wanted and didnt worry about price too much. The tile was $6 or so a square foot OUCH. the vanity top which was cambria was $600 OUCH OUCH. Got a great deal on the vanity from woodmark. Shower controller and faucet from delta were another $1000. Ouch ouch ouch. It does look great. The price was a little above the budget we got from www.remodelormove.com cost calculators but hope this bathroom lasts 20 years..that is only $175 or so a year..not too bad :)Was this post helpful to you? yes no Report prohibited or spam Full Bath Remodel Amount: $7,700.00Posted by: Marco Anderson in Atlanta, GA. Posted: January 24th, 2011 07:01PMSquare Ft of Bathroom: 72 Items Remodeled: Everything Gutted 1956 Bathroom and did considerable structural repair from water damage. Rearranged room for more efficient layout. $3400 in materials and $4300 in labor. Rewired, redid hvac, new plumbing (old cast iron removed), travertine on floor, mid-grade faucets (moen), dual floating vanity, new glass door into bathroom, new window, tile around soaking tub/shower and travertine floor. We also spent extra on epoxy grout...your spouse will love you forever knowing they never need to clean grout ever again. It's pricey, but definitely consider it. Best money I've every spent...project took 10 days exactly and ZERO stress. Was this post helpful to you? yes no Report prohibited or spamhalf bath remodel Amount: $1,300.00Posted by: KE in Troy, MI. Posted: December 27th, 2010 10:12PMSquare Ft of Bathroom: 27 Items Remodeled: everything A half bath remodel including all materials ($750+) and labor ($500+) but wall paint (done by myself). New toilet, 26""W dark wood cabinet, sink, faucet, wood-framed mirror, ceramic tiles (floor and baseboard), threshold, lighting, switches, towel hanger, toilet paper holder installed. I did not compromise with cheap materials, and still the total cost was much cheaper than I expected. Since half baths are often on the 1st floor and guests frequently use it, it is a good investment!Was this post helpful to you? yes no Report prohibited or spam12x12Amount: $126,000.00Posted by: TT in portland, TN. Posted: December 6th, 2010 08:12PMSquare Ft of Bathroom: 144 Items Remodeled: total gutgutted, and installed granite on floors, 5 feet up walls, in shower and tub. platinum fixtures, hand thrown, fully functional toilet and double sink. Was this post helpful to you? yes no Report prohibited or spam Bathroom Remodel and Update Amount: $6,400.00Posted by: Franny in No. Of San Francisco, CA. Posted: July 30th, 2010 07:07AMSquare Ft of Bathroom: 72 Items Remodeled: Everything We spent $3,385.00 on labor for total gut and some drywall, this also includes tile work, plumbing and electrical work. We spent $3,055.14 total on materials which include a deep soaking bathtub, with wall surround, new Kohler toilet, beautiful tile for the floor and tall vanity which we got at Lowes. We splurged on Pottery Barn Mirror and certain fixtures, curved shower curtain which we love. Some replumbing had to happen, also some electrical work had to be done. We are happy with the results. Was this post helpful to you? yes no Report prohibited or spam Walk out basement bathroom. Amount: $3,000.00Posted by: John Muschko in Ithaca, NY. Posted: April 12th, 2010 06:04AMSquare Ft of Bathroom: 35 Items Remodeled: I took thiis job on myself. Framed out a section of room, corner shower, tile surround and floor, electrical, window install, exhaust fan/heat unit install, sheetrock and paint, copper plumbing (quick connects and solder), install all hardware- 150-160 hrs not inluding shopping trips. Was this post helpful to you? yes no Report prohibited or spam Bathroom Remodel Amount: $4,300.00Posted by: CM in Chicago, IL. Posted: October 29th, 2008 07:10AMSquare Ft of Bathroom: Items Remodeled: everything I have a very very very small bathroom, 5x6 wall to wall, with a shorty tub and shower. I went out and got quote after quote after quote. all in different ball parks, one guy said $9,000, another $7,000, one $5900. the prices were all over the place and for such a small bathroom and for economy tile and fixtures was way to high for my budget. I ended up having a friend do it on the weekends for $2000 and i bought all the material. In the end it cost me $4,300 but with all high end fixtures, tile, and sink. It pays to get more than 3 estimates!Was this post helpful to you? yes no Report prohibited or spam Bathroom Remodel Amount: $5,900.00Posted by: Jason Monroe in Ft. Walton Beach, FL. Posted: September 12th, 2008 02:09PMSquare Ft of Bathroom: 72 Items Remodeled: Everything We had to gut out all of the old fixtures and we extended the bathroom out 2 feet into the walk in closet. We purchased a Rinnai water heater for about $1,200, bought a large oval deep bathtub and had a friend jet it, total cost about $700. The big cost was tiling everything with ornate tile. We went a little crazy. The labor was the expensive part but we didn't have to worry about anything. The small accessories were bought locally but the Price Pfister Catalina Roman Tub faucet - Tuscan Bronze was bought online and the delta faucet was bought from http://deisgnerpolumbingoutlet.com for about. If we had not done the tile the project would have been much less. <a href=""http://designerplumbingoutlet.com"">faucets</a> [url=designerplumbingoutlet.com]DPO [/url]Was this post helpful to you? yes no Report prohibited or spam Bathroom Remodel Amount: $2,200.00Posted by: DIY remodel in Georgetown, MA. Posted: June 25th, 2008 02:06PMSquare Ft of Bathroom: 46 Items Remodeled: All I remodeled our bathroom completely with quality finishes. Never done any of the work before so I learned as I went. New tiled floor, tiled 3 walls around shower and installed 3 foot by 4inch granite cap on the shelf. New shower head, trim kit and tub head (rubbed oil finish). New dark cherry 31"" vanity comort height, undermount sink with granite counter top, new oil rubbed facet, new mirror, light fixtures replaced on ceiling and wall, new toilet, primed and painted walls and ceiling, bamboo shade. It's incredible how great it looks with just a little hard work at such a low cost. I originally priced around for the tie job and they were going to charge me $1800 just for that alone. I ened up doing it for the cost of materials which was about $500 tile, grout, adhesive. Was this post helpful to you? yes no Report prohibited or spam Bathroom Remodeling Cost Estimate Amount: $3,000.00Posted by: Remodeling Dan in sunnyvale, CA. Posted: June 11th, 2008 11:06PMSquare Ft of Bathroom: 35 Items Remodeled: Total gut of the bathroom This was a typical hall way full bath. Standard 5 foot tub, tiled surround. 1 window. Small vanity. Composite countertop with integrated sink. The wall was double thick for plumbing so we recessed a 7 inch deep cabinet in the wall.. a nice feature. Flooring just vinyl which we will replace this year. Did all the work ourselves less the plumbing. Next time will do the plumbing too! took about 5 full days. It turned out nice..better than it was! If you are looking for a quick online estimating tool. www.remodelestimates.com has an online tool that gives OK cost estimates..can never replace a detailed quote..but gives you a quick idea of the costs of things. Was this post helpful to you? yes no Report prohibited or spam Bathroom Addition Amount: $1,750.00Posted by: DYIer in Mass. in Amesbury, MA. Posted: April 19th, 2008 07:04AMSquare Ft of Bathroom: 100 Items Remodeled: Turned 3 season porch into powder room My husband gutted and insulated our three season porch, added a wall and installed plumbing for a new powder room. The plumbing was relatively easy since the upstairs bathroom was directly above the new bathroom. It was his first stab at plumbing and he found it relatively painless. Lots of DIY books out there to help along the way. We estimate that with materials and fixtures we spend approx. $1,750. Was this post helpful to you? yes no Report prohibited or spam Bathroom Expansion and Remodel Amount: $4,580.00Posted by: Jassieone in Pueblo, CO. Posted: July 31st, 2007 06:07AMSquare Ft of Bathroom: 100 Items Remodeled: Expanded from 8x10 to 10x10, travertine tile, separate tub and shower, vanities My husband and I remodeled our master bath by taking out a tub/shower combination, and making a separate spa tub and shower. In order to do this we had to move the wall of the bathroom out 2 feet. We also moved the toilet from it's original location in the sight line of the doorway behind a wall. The labor was free, but, you have to be pretty handy to do it. The tools and plumbing, electrical cost around $50. The bathtub was $750, the shower surround was $750, and we also got 2 separate vanities for $600 total. We spent $1,000 on travertine tiles which will cover the floor, up to chair rail height, and the shower and tub surround. Drywall was about $8 a sheet, and we used 10 sheets. The toilet we bought was $250. The remaining cost was in fixtures, $700 for multiple jet shower heads, and we hired professional drywall finishers to make the job look as professionally done as we feel it is!Was this post helpful to you? yes no Report prohibited or spam Bathroom Expansion and Remodel Amount: $4,580.00Posted by: Jassieon in Pueblo, CO. Posted: July 31st, 2007 06:07AMSquare Ft of Bathroom: 100 Items Remodeled: Expanded from 8x10 to 10x10, travertine tile, separate tub and shower, vanities My husband and I remodeled our master bath by taking out a tub/shower combination, and making a separate spa tub and shower. In order to do this we had to move the wall of the bathroom out 2 feet. We also moved the toilet from it's original location in the sight line of the doorway behind a wall. The labor was free, but, you have to be pretty handy to do it. The tools and plumbing, electrical cost around $50. The bathtub was $750, the shower surround was $750, and we also got 2 separate vanities for $600 total. We spent $1,000 on travertine tiles which will cover the floor, up to chair rail height, and the shower and tub surround. Drywall was about $8 a sheet, and we used 10 sheets. The toilet we bought was $250. The remaining cost was in fixtures, $700 for multiple jet shower heads, and we hired professional drywall finishers to make the job look as professionally done as we feel it is!Was this post helpful to you? yes no Report prohibited or spam Comment On Your Experience With a Bathroom Remodeling Subject: *Amount Spent: *Square Ft of Bathroom: Items Remodeled: Comments: Purchased: Year: City: * State: *Information about you: Email: * Email addresses are not displayed. Name: This is the name we'll display with your post. Remember me on this computer*=required field. External Resources:www.nari.org/homeowners/tips/www.amazon.com/Bathrooms-Remodel-RA-Jerry-Germer/dp/1580111386/ref=pd_ts_b_4/102-231369...www.improvenet.com/Home Owner/Bathroom Remodeling/www.abathroomguide.comwww.thisoldhouse.com/toh/article/0,,192975,00.htmlwww.nari.org/pdf/selectremodpro.pdfwww.nari.org More Home and Garden Topics Check Out All Costs for Home and Garden How Much Does Heating Oil Cost? How Much Does Painting a House Cost? How Much Does a Fence Cost? Search Thousands of Topics on Cost Helper.com How much does cost? "
[ "\"Medium: $11,000-$15,000 High: $35,000-$43,000E-mail Post Tweet Comments (20)Typical costs: Remodeling costs vary widely depending on the shape and square footage of the existing room, whether walls or plumbing are moved, and the quality of materials used.", "According to an annual construction cost survey by Remodeling Magazine, a mid-range remodel of a 5x7-foot bathroom averages $14,109-$18,864; for an upscale expansion of a 5x7 bathroom to 9x9-feet within the existing house footprint, costs run $46,865-$59,456.", "These are averages; actual costs may be higher or lower.", "Related articles: Vinyl Flooring, Tile Flooring, Kitchen Cabinets, Kitchen Remodeling, Architect What should be included: A detailed overview of remodeling in general and bathrooms in particular is provided the National Association of the Remodeling Industry [ 1] .", "Bathrooms: Plan, Remodel, Build [ 2] by Jerry Germer is one of several books available to guide you through the many phases of bathroom renovations.", "Improve Net.com [ 3] presents practical articles on cabinets, sinks, showers, tubs and the like, while A Bathroom Guide.com [ 4] presents the perfect \"\"spa\"\" bathroom.", "Discounts: This Old House.com [ 5] gives details of bathroom remodels for $1,830-$2,425, with the homeowners doing some but not all of the work.", "Shopping for a bathroom remodeling: Gather photos of bathroom styles and details that appeal to you.", "The National Association for the Remodeling Industry [ 6] offers a free downloadable brochure on \"\"How To Select A Remodeling Professional,\"\" from checking references to what should be in the written contract.", "The National Association of the Remodeling Industry [ 7] also gives contractor referrals.", "E-mail Post Tweet Comments (20)Cost Helper News7 Ways to Stretch Your Reduced Food Budget End of the year budgets are tight for everyone, especially in this economy.", "It's especially hard for the millions of Americans who depend on government programs like food stamps to help make ends meet.", "|| Posted November 11 20137 Lesser-Known Discounts for the 50+ Crowd As they age, members of the Baby Boomer generation don't like to admit that they're senior citizens, but they love getting discounts.", "It's kind of a quandary, because some of the best deals available are reduced prices for older folks.|| Posted October 21 2013‣ All Cost Helper Blog Posts What People Are Paying - Recent Comments Bathroom remodel Amount: $1,500.00Posted by: Cml in Gordonsville, VA. Posted: April 11th, 2017 07:04PMSquare Ft of Bathroom: 35 Items Remodeled: Everything1968 home.", "Replaced all fixtures.", "Replaced rotted sub floor (2 layers) replaced drywall around tub and tiled.", "Installed gfci outlet.", "Scabbed 3 floor joist.", "Re leveled 1 floor joist.", "Installed sheet vinyl for floor.", "New baseboard.", "no quarter round or shoe molding.", "Prime and paint walls and ceiling 2 coats.", "Did all the work myself and came in under 1500 materials cost.", "Was this post helpful to you?", "yes no Report prohibited or spam Full Bath Remodel - Craftsman Bungalow Amount: $12,000.00Posted by: TWIST in Chicago, IL.", "Posted: March 3rd, 2017 09:03AMSquare Ft of Bathroom: 60 Items Remodeled: Tub alcove tile, vanity, floor, walls Some of the work was done ourselves to save $2,000-$3,000.", "I have a design background and took advantage of contractor discounts on products.", "Finishes are mid to high end.", "Cost breakdown Tub $1800 Subway tile $1500 (mid-range with some trim) Kohler Artisan fixtures $1500 DIY Tub and plumbing installation $0 Tile installation: $1500 Vanity: $2500 + $500 install Floor tile: $550 (Black Hex Travertine) Install board and batten on walls, replace window trim, add closet trim and crown molding: $1200.", "Misc materials and tools: $1200Was this post helpful to you?", "yes no Report prohibited or spam Bathroom Remodel Amount: $20,000.00Posted by: bopbottle in WICHITA, KS.", "Posted: November 6th, 2016 02:11AMSquare Ft of Bathroom: 57 Items Remodeled: All We had our small master bath gutted.", "The cost includes new Crystal brand cabinetry, all new tile in shower and on the lower part of the walls, with a decorative tile accent.", "Also includes new fixtures including an undermount sink, quartz countertops, new tile floor, glass shower door, all new faucets in ORB, a medicine cabinet and a large mirror and lighting.", "I was a little surprised for such a small bath, but this is a dompany I have worked with in the past and they are superb and take care of everything!Was this post helpful to you?", "yes no Report prohibited or spambathroom remodeling cost Amount: $25.00Posted by: a user in Princeton, NJ.", "Posted: October 8th, 2016 03:10PMSquare Ft of Bathroom: 10 by 7 Items Remodeled: bathroom gut The posted comment shares for this bathroom remodel topic seem absurdly low!!", "My project for customer entails an entire bathroom gutting: new drywall at all sides, fourth wall pushed out two feet: the one entirely new wall framed out, door hung.", "three walls chair rail tiled.", "Entirely new shower stall- expanded out 16 inches, new pan, new framing- cement board, drain needs to be moved out 8 inches to bring to new center, shower faucets and head also need to be re-plumbed to the new center.", "shower stall to be fully re-tiled in ceramic, including lowered section ceiling in stall New hanging glass door to be installed.", "Floor to be pulled up new sub floor.", "Sink moved across room to new wall requiring new drainage piping and water lines installed beneath sub-floor (the angle requires cutting water pipe and drain holes through floor joist or raising the floor.", "Toilet stays.", "New vanity and electrical at the sink.", "New overhead light above mirror at sink, new exhaust fan.", "Was this post helpful to you?", "yes no Report prohibited or spam Small 5x7 bathroom remodel Amount: $4,589.00Posted by: High end on the cheap in Santa Paula, CA.", "Posted: December 13th, 2014 01:12PMSquare Ft of Bathroom: 5x7 Items Remodeled: bathroom My wife has expensive taste on vanity, tile and fixtures.", "We remodeled our 1951 home with ugly pink tile.", "We had a friend do the labor to save on costs and looks amazing.", "Cost break down Vanity $970,Floor Tile $1,200, Accent Tile $600, Labor $780 Supplies $221 ,Sconances (lowes gift card rebate)$0 Paint - (foam green) $20 new Toilet $239 Showerhead and sprayer $59 Plumbing $500Was this post helpful to you?", "yes no Report prohibited or spam Remodeling bathroom Amount: $6,500.00Posted by: Matt Phillips Annointedservices.com in matteson, IL.", "Posted: March 24th, 2013 06:03PMSquare Ft of Bathroom: 35 sqft Items Remodeled: custom floor shower Im currently remodeling my lower level bathroom.", "The same work for a client i would charge about 7500 for a custom bathroom remodel!", "Here's the math to demo and rebuild my bath room!", "Avg price for tile,toilet,custom shower base, vanity and plumbing fixtures with lighting about 2500 for materials multiply that by 2 for your labor cost!", "Remember this!", "You get what you pay for Was this post helpful to you?", "yes no Report prohibited or spam Bath tiled and new vanity and paint Amount: $1,700.00Posted by: Carl spinthe in Westerly, RI.", "Posted: November 5th, 2012 02:11AMWe redid our bathroom with new tile on floors and walls as well as a new double vanity and paint.we hired Jdh home improvement they did an amazing job.in addition they were very professional and polite.", "We will be using them again.", "Jeremy 401-688-3639 there website is www.jdhhomeimprovement.com Was this post helpful to you?", "yes no Report prohibited or spamguest bathroom remodel Amount: $3,500.00Posted by: Ron Stein in matawan, NJ.", "Posted: March 26th, 2012 08:03AMSquare Ft of Bathroom: 35 Items Remodeled: everything but the tub Had a small leak that ruined the vinyl floor in our guest bathroom - and after 10 years it needed a little sprucing up.", "So we retile the bathtub surround, tiled the floor, swapped the position of the toilet and vanity and replaced the shower controllers.", "I did all the work myself..took 7 hard days of work.", "The tile - at the time- seemed to be going fast but the hours fly buy so i spent 4 days just on the tile.", "We also picked what we wanted and didnt worry about price too much.", "The tile was $6 or so a square foot OUCH.", "the vanity top which was cambria was $600 OUCH OUCH.", "Got a great deal on the vanity from woodmark.", "Shower controller and faucet from delta were another $1000.", "Ouch ouch ouch.", "It does look great.", "The price was a little above the budget we got from www.remodelormove.com cost calculators but hope this bathroom lasts 20 years..that is only $175 or so a year..not too bad :)Was this post helpful to you?", "yes no Report prohibited or spam Full Bath Remodel Amount: $7,700.00Posted by: Marco Anderson in Atlanta, GA. Posted: January 24th, 2011 07:01PMSquare Ft of Bathroom: 72 Items Remodeled: Everything Gutted 1956 Bathroom and did considerable structural repair from water damage.", "Rearranged room for more efficient layout.", "$3400 in materials and $4300 in labor.", "Rewired, redid hvac, new plumbing (old cast iron removed), travertine on floor, mid-grade faucets (moen), dual floating vanity, new glass door into bathroom, new window, tile around soaking tub/shower and travertine floor.", "We also spent extra on epoxy grout...your spouse will love you forever knowing they never need to clean grout ever again.", "It's pricey, but definitely consider it.", "Best money I've every spent...project took 10 days exactly and ZERO stress.", "Was this post helpful to you?", "yes no Report prohibited or spamhalf bath remodel Amount: $1,300.00Posted by: KE in Troy, MI.", "Posted: December 27th, 2010 10:12PMSquare Ft of Bathroom: 27 Items Remodeled: everything A half bath remodel including all materials ($750+) and labor ($500+) but wall paint (done by myself).", "New toilet, 26\"\"W dark wood cabinet, sink, faucet, wood-framed mirror, ceramic tiles (floor and baseboard), threshold, lighting, switches, towel hanger, toilet paper holder installed.", "I did not compromise with cheap materials, and still the total cost was much cheaper than I expected.", "Since half baths are often on the 1st floor and guests frequently use it, it is a good investment!Was this post helpful to you?", "yes no Report prohibited or spam12x12Amount: $126,000.00Posted by: TT in portland, TN.", "Posted: December 6th, 2010 08:12PMSquare Ft of Bathroom: 144 Items Remodeled: total gutgutted, and installed granite on floors, 5 feet up walls, in shower and tub.", "platinum fixtures, hand thrown, fully functional toilet and double sink.", "Was this post helpful to you?", "yes no Report prohibited or spam Bathroom Remodel and Update Amount: $6,400.00Posted by: Franny in No.", "Of San Francisco, CA.", "Posted: July 30th, 2010 07:07AMSquare Ft of Bathroom: 72 Items Remodeled: Everything We spent $3,385.00 on labor for total gut and some drywall, this also includes tile work, plumbing and electrical work.", "We spent $3,055.14 total on materials which include a deep soaking bathtub, with wall surround, new Kohler toilet, beautiful tile for the floor and tall vanity which we got at Lowes.", "We splurged on Pottery Barn Mirror and certain fixtures, curved shower curtain which we love.", "Some replumbing had to happen, also some electrical work had to be done.", "We are happy with the results.", "Was this post helpful to you?", "yes no Report prohibited or spam Walk out basement bathroom.", "Amount: $3,000.00Posted by: John Muschko in Ithaca, NY.", "Posted: April 12th, 2010 06:04AMSquare Ft of Bathroom: 35 Items Remodeled: I took thiis job on myself.", "Framed out a section of room, corner shower, tile surround and floor, electrical, window install, exhaust fan/heat unit install, sheetrock and paint, copper plumbing (quick connects and solder), install all hardware- 150-160 hrs not inluding shopping trips.", "Was this post helpful to you?", "yes no Report prohibited or spam Bathroom Remodel Amount: $4,300.00Posted by: CM in Chicago, IL.", "Posted: October 29th, 2008 07:10AMSquare Ft of Bathroom: Items Remodeled: everything I have a very very very small bathroom, 5x6 wall to wall, with a shorty tub and shower.", "I went out and got quote after quote after quote.", "all in different ball parks, one guy said $9,000, another $7,000, one $5900.", "the prices were all over the place and for such a small bathroom and for economy tile and fixtures was way to high for my budget.", "I ended up having a friend do it on the weekends for $2000 and i bought all the material.", "In the end it cost me $4,300 but with all high end fixtures, tile, and sink.", "It pays to get more than 3 estimates!Was this post helpful to you?", "yes no Report prohibited or spam Bathroom Remodel Amount: $5,900.00Posted by: Jason Monroe in Ft. Walton Beach, FL.", "Posted: September 12th, 2008 02:09PMSquare Ft of Bathroom: 72 Items Remodeled: Everything We had to gut out all of the old fixtures and we extended the bathroom out 2 feet into the walk in closet.", "We purchased a Rinnai water heater for about $1,200, bought a large oval deep bathtub and had a friend jet it, total cost about $700.", "The big cost was tiling everything with ornate tile.", "We went a little crazy.", "The labor was the expensive part but we didn't have to worry about anything.", "The small accessories were bought locally but the Price Pfister Catalina Roman Tub faucet - Tuscan Bronze was bought online and the delta faucet was bought from http://deisgnerpolumbingoutlet.com for about.", "If we had not done the tile the project would have been much less.", "<a href=\"\"http://designerplumbingoutlet.com\"\">faucets</a> [url=designerplumbingoutlet.com]DPO [/url]Was this post helpful to you?", "yes no Report prohibited or spam Bathroom Remodel Amount: $2,200.00Posted by: DIY remodel in Georgetown, MA.", "Posted: June 25th, 2008 02:06PMSquare Ft of Bathroom: 46 Items Remodeled: All I remodeled our bathroom completely with quality finishes.", "Never done any of the work before so I learned as I went.", "New tiled floor, tiled 3 walls around shower and installed 3 foot by 4inch granite cap on the shelf.", "New shower head, trim kit and tub head (rubbed oil finish).", "New dark cherry 31\"\" vanity comort height, undermount sink with granite counter top, new oil rubbed facet, new mirror, light fixtures replaced on ceiling and wall, new toilet, primed and painted walls and ceiling, bamboo shade.", "It's incredible how great it looks with just a little hard work at such a low cost.", "I originally priced around for the tie job and they were going to charge me $1800 just for that alone.", "I ened up doing it for the cost of materials which was about $500 tile, grout, adhesive.", "Was this post helpful to you?", "yes no Report prohibited or spam Bathroom Remodeling Cost Estimate Amount: $3,000.00Posted by: Remodeling Dan in sunnyvale, CA.", "Posted: June 11th, 2008 11:06PMSquare Ft of Bathroom: 35 Items Remodeled: Total gut of the bathroom This was a typical hall way full bath.", "Standard 5 foot tub, tiled surround.", "1 window.", "Small vanity.", "Composite countertop with integrated sink.", "The wall was double thick for plumbing so we recessed a 7 inch deep cabinet in the wall.. a nice feature.", "Flooring just vinyl which we will replace this year.", "Did all the work ourselves less the plumbing.", "Next time will do the plumbing too!", "took about 5 full days.", "It turned out nice..better than it was!", "If you are looking for a quick online estimating tool.", "www.remodelestimates.com has an online tool that gives OK cost estimates..can never replace a detailed quote..but gives you a quick idea of the costs of things.", "Was this post helpful to you?", "yes no Report prohibited or spam Bathroom Addition Amount: $1,750.00Posted by: DYIer in Mass.", "in Amesbury, MA.", "Posted: April 19th, 2008 07:04AMSquare Ft of Bathroom: 100 Items Remodeled: Turned 3 season porch into powder room My husband gutted and insulated our three season porch, added a wall and installed plumbing for a new powder room.", "The plumbing was relatively easy since the upstairs bathroom was directly above the new bathroom.", "It was his first stab at plumbing and he found it relatively painless.", "Lots of DIY books out there to help along the way.", "We estimate that with materials and fixtures we spend approx.", "$1,750.", "Was this post helpful to you?", "yes no Report prohibited or spam Bathroom Expansion and Remodel Amount: $4,580.00Posted by: Jassieone in Pueblo, CO. Posted: July 31st, 2007 06:07AMSquare Ft of Bathroom: 100 Items Remodeled: Expanded from 8x10 to 10x10, travertine tile, separate tub and shower, vanities My husband and I remodeled our master bath by taking out a tub/shower combination, and making a separate spa tub and shower.", "In order to do this we had to move the wall of the bathroom out 2 feet.", "We also moved the toilet from it's original location in the sight line of the doorway behind a wall.", "The labor was free, but, you have to be pretty handy to do it.", "The tools and plumbing, electrical cost around $50.", "The bathtub was $750, the shower surround was $750, and we also got 2 separate vanities for $600 total.", "We spent $1,000 on travertine tiles which will cover the floor, up to chair rail height, and the shower and tub surround.", "Drywall was about $8 a sheet, and we used 10 sheets.", "The toilet we bought was $250.", "The remaining cost was in fixtures, $700 for multiple jet shower heads, and we hired professional drywall finishers to make the job look as professionally done as we feel it is!Was this post helpful to you?", "yes no Report prohibited or spam Bathroom Expansion and Remodel Amount: $4,580.00Posted by: Jassieon in Pueblo, CO. Posted: July 31st, 2007 06:07AMSquare Ft of Bathroom: 100 Items Remodeled: Expanded from 8x10 to 10x10, travertine tile, separate tub and shower, vanities My husband and I remodeled our master bath by taking out a tub/shower combination, and making a separate spa tub and shower.", "In order to do this we had to move the wall of the bathroom out 2 feet.", "We also moved the toilet from it's original location in the sight line of the doorway behind a wall.", "The labor was free, but, you have to be pretty handy to do it.", "The tools and plumbing, electrical cost around $50.", "The bathtub was $750, the shower surround was $750, and we also got 2 separate vanities for $600 total.", "We spent $1,000 on travertine tiles which will cover the floor, up to chair rail height, and the shower and tub surround.", "Drywall was about $8 a sheet, and we used 10 sheets.", "The toilet we bought was $250.", "The remaining cost was in fixtures, $700 for multiple jet shower heads, and we hired professional drywall finishers to make the job look as professionally done as we feel it is!Was this post helpful to you?", "yes no Report prohibited or spam Comment On Your Experience With a Bathroom Remodeling Subject: *Amount Spent: *Square Ft of Bathroom: Items Remodeled: Comments: Purchased: Year: City: * State: *Information about you: Email: * Email addresses are not displayed.", "Name: This is the name we'll display with your post.", "Remember me on this computer*=required field.", "External Resources:www.nari.org/homeowners/tips/www.amazon.com/Bathrooms-Remodel-RA-Jerry-Germer/dp/1580111386/ref=pd_ts_b_4/102-231369...www.improvenet.com/Home Owner/Bathroom Remodeling/www.abathroomguide.comwww.thisoldhouse.com/toh/article/0,,192975,00.htmlwww.nari.org/pdf/selectremodpro.pdfwww.nari.org More Home and Garden Topics Check Out All Costs for Home and Garden How Much Does Heating Oil Cost?", "How Much Does Painting a House Cost?", "How Much Does a Fence Cost?", "Search Thousands of Topics on Cost Helper.com How much does cost? \"" ]
D178349
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_Civil_War
American Civil War
"From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedianavigation search American Civil War Clockwise from top: Battle of Gettysburg, Union Captain John Tidball's artillery, Confederate prisoners, ironclad USS Atlanta, ruins of Richmond, Virginia, Battle of Franklin Date April 12, 1861 – May 9, 1865 (by proclamation) [1] (4 years, 3 weeks and 6 days) ( Last shot fired June 22, 1865)Location Southern United States, Northeastern United States, Western United States, Atlantic Ocean Result Union victory Dissolution of the Confederate States U. S. territorial integrity preserved Slavery abolished Beginning of the Reconstruction Era Belligerents United States Confederate States Commanders and leaders Abraham Lincoln Ulysses S. Grant William T. Sherman David Farragut George B. Mc Clellan Henry Halleck George Meadeand others Jefferson Davis Robert E. Lee J. E. Johnston G. T. Beauregard A. S. Johnston †Braxton Braggand others Strength2,200,000: [a]Union Army Union Marines Union Navy Revenue Service698,000 (peak) [2] [ better source needed] [3]750,000–1,000,000: [a] [4]Confederate army Confederate marines Confederate navy360,000 (peak) [2] [5]Casualties and losses110,000+ killed in action/died of wounds 230,000+ accident/disease deaths [6] [7] 25,000–30,000 died in Confederate prisons [2] [6]365,000+ total dead [8] 282,000+ wounded [7] 181,193 captured [2] [ better source needed] [9]Total: 828,000+ casualties94,000+ killed in action/died of wounds [6] 26,000–31,000 died in Union prisons [7]290,000+ total dead 137,000+ wounded 436,658 captured [2] [ better source needed] [10]Total: 864,000+ casualties50,000 free civilians dead [11] 80,000+ slaves dead [12]Total: 785,000–1,000,000+ dead [13] [14] [ show]v t e Theaters of the American Civil War Events leading to the American Civil War Slavery Northwest Ordinance Kentucky and Virginia Resolutions Battle of Negro Fort Missouri Compromise Tariff of 1828Nat Turner's slave rebellion Nullification Crisis The Amistad Prigg v. Pennsylvania Texas annexation Mexican–American War Wilmot Proviso Manifest destiny Underground Railroad Nashville Convention Compromise of 1850Fugitive Slave Act of 1850Uncle Tom's Cabin Kansas–Nebraska Act Ostend Manifesto Bleeding Kansas Caning of Charles Sumner Dred Scott v. Sandford The Impending Crisis of the South Brown's raid on Harpers Ferry1860 presidential election Crittenden Compromise Secession of Southern States Star of the West Corwin Amendment Battle of Fort Sumterv t e The American Civil War (also known by other names) was a civil war that was fought in the United States from 1861 to 1865. As a result of the long-standing controversy over slavery, war broke out in April 1861, when Confederate forces attacked Fort Sumter in South Carolina, shortly after U. S. President Abraham Lincoln was inaugurated. The nationalists of the Union proclaimed loyalty to the U. S. Constitution. They faced secessionists of the Confederate States, who advocated for states' rights to expand slavery. Among the 34 U. S. states in February 1861, seven Southern slave states individually declared their secession from the U. S. to form the Confederate States of America, or the South. The Confederacy grew to include eleven slave states. The Confederacy was never diplomatically recognized by the United States government, nor was it recognized by any foreign country (although the United Kingdom and France granted it belligerent status ). The states that remained loyal to the U. S. (including the border states where slavery was legal) were known as the Union or the North. The Union and Confederacy quickly raised volunteer and conscription armies that fought mostly in the South over four years. The Union finally won the war when General Robert E. Lee surrendered to General Ulysses S. Grant at the Battle of Appomattox Court House, followed by a series of surrenders by Confederate generals throughout the southern states. Four years of intense combat left 620,000 to 750,000 people dead, more than the number of U. S. military deaths in all other wars combined (at least until approximately the Vietnam War ). [15] Much of the South's infrastructure was destroyed, especially the transportation systems, railroads, mills, and houses. The Confederacy collapsed, slavery was abolished, and 4 million slaves were freed. The Reconstruction Era (1863–1877) overlapped and followed the war, with the process of restoring national unity, strengthening the national government, and granting civil rights to freed slaves throughout the country. The Civil War is the most studied and written about episode in U. S. history. [16]Contents [ hide ]1 Prelude to war2 Causes of secession2.1 Slavery2.2 Sectionalism2.3 Protectionism2.4 States' rights2.5 Territorial crisis2.5.1 Nationalism and honor2.5.2 Lincoln's election3 Outbreak of the war3.1 Secession crisis3.2 Battle of Fort Sumter3.3 Attitude of the border states4 War4.1 Mobilization4.1.1 Motivation4.1.2 Prisoners4.2 Naval war4.2.1 Union blockade4.2.1.1 Modern navy evolves4.2.1.2 Blockade runners4.2.1.3 Economic impact4.2.2 Rivers4.3 Eastern theater4.4 Western theater4.5 Trans-Mississippi4.6 End of the war4.6.1 Conquest of Virginia4.6.2 Confederacy surrenders5 Diplomacy6 Union victory and aftermath6.1 Results6.2 Costs6.3 Emancipation6.3.1 Slavery as a war issue6.3.2 Emancipation Proclamation6.4 Texas v. White6.5 Reconstruction7 Memory and historiography7.1 Lost Cause7.2 Beardian historiography7.3 Battlefield preservation7.4 Civil War commemoration7.5 Technological significance8 In works of culture and art8.1 Literature8.2 Film8.3 Song8.4 Video games9 See also10 References10.1 Notes10.2 Citations10.3 Bibliography11 Further reading12 External links Prelude to war In the 1860 presidential election, Republicans, led by Abraham Lincoln, supported banning slavery in all the U. S. territories. The Southern states viewed this as a violation of their constitutional rights and as the first step in a grander Republican plan to eventually abolish slavery. The three pro-Union candidates together received an overwhelming 82% majority of the votes cast nationally: Republican Lincoln's votes centered in the north, Democrat Stephen A. Douglas ' votes were distributed nationally and Constitutional Unionist John Bell 's votes centered in Tennessee, Kentucky, and Virginia. The Republican Party, dominant in the North, secured a plurality of the popular votes and a majority of the electoral votes nationally, so Lincoln was constitutionally elected president. He was the first Republican Party candidate to win the presidency. However, before his inauguration, seven slave states with cotton -based economies declared secession and formed the Confederacy. The first six to declare secession had the highest proportions of slaves in their populations, a total of 49 percent. [17] The first seven with state legislatures to resolve for secession included split majorities for unionists Douglas and Bell in Georgia with 51% and Louisiana with 55%. Alabama had voted 46% for those unionists, Mississippi with 40%, Florida with 38%, Texas with 25%, and South Carolina cast Electoral College votes without a popular vote for president. [18] Of these, only Texas held a referendum on secession. Eight remaining slave states continued to reject calls for secession. Outgoing Democratic President James Buchanan and the incoming Republicans rejected secession as illegal. Lincoln's March 4, 1861, inaugural address declared that his administration would not initiate a civil war. Speaking directly to the ""Southern States"", he attempted to calm their fears of any threats to slavery, reaffirming, ""I have no purpose, directly or indirectly to interfere with the institution of slavery in the United States where it exists. I believe I have no lawful right to do so, and I have no inclination to do so."" [19] After Confederate forces seized numerous federal forts within territory claimed by the Confederacy, efforts at compromise failed and both sides prepared for war. The Confederates assumed that European countries were so dependent on "" King Cotton "" that they would intervene, but none did, and none recognized the new Confederate States of America. Hostilities began on April 12, 1861, when Confederate forces fired upon Fort Sumter. While in the Western Theater the Union made significant permanent gains, in the Eastern Theater, the battle was inconclusive from 1861–1862. Later, in 1863, Lincoln issued the Emancipation Proclamation, which made ending slavery a war goal. [20] To the west, by summer 1862 the Union destroyed the Confederate river navy, then much of their western armies, and seized New Orleans. The 1863 Union Siege of Vicksburg split the Confederacy in two at the Mississippi River. In 1863, Robert E. Lee 's Confederate incursion north ended at the Battle of Gettysburg. Western successes led to Ulysses S. Grant 's command of all Union armies in 1864. Inflicting an ever-tightening naval blockade of Confederate ports, the Union marshaled the resources and manpower to attack the Confederacy from all directions, leading to the fall of Atlanta to William T. Sherman and his march to the sea. The last significant battles raged around the Siege of Petersburg. Lee's escape attempt ended with his surrender at Appomattox Court House, on April 9, 1865. While the military war was coming to an end, the political reintegration of the nation was to take another 12 years, known as the Reconstruction Era. The American Civil War was one of the earliest true industrial wars. Railroads, the telegraph, steamships and iron-clad ships, and mass-produced weapons were employed extensively. The mobilization of civilian factories, mines, shipyards, banks, transportation and food supplies all foreshadowed the impact of industrialization in World War I, World War II and subsequent conflicts. It remains the deadliest war in American history. From 1861 to 1865, it is estimated that 620,000 to 750,000 soldiers died, [21] along with an undetermined number of civilians. [b] By one estimate, the war claimed the lives of 10 percent of all Northern males 20–45 years old, and 30 percent of all Southern white males aged 18–40. [23]Causes of secession Main articles: Origins of the American Civil War and Timeline of events leading to the American Civil War The causes of secession were complex and have been controversial since the war began, but most academic scholars identify slavery as a central cause of the war. James C. Bradford wrote that the issue has been further complicated by historical revisionists, who have tried to offer a variety of reasons for the war. [24] Slavery was the central source of escalating political tension in the 1850s. The Republican Party was determined to prevent any spread of slavery, and many Southern leaders had threatened secession if the Republican candidate, Lincoln, won the 1860 election. After Lincoln won, many Southern leaders felt that disunion was their only option, fearing that the loss of representation would hamper their ability to promote pro-slavery acts and policies. [25] [26]Slavery Status of the states, 1861States that seceded before April 15, 1861States that seceded after April 15, 1861Union states that permitted slavery Union states that banned slavery Territories Slavery was a major cause of disunion. [27] Although there were opposing views even in the Union States, [28] [29] most northern soldiers were largely indifferent on the subject of slavery, [30] while Confederates fought the war largely to protect a southern society of which slavery was an integral part. [31] From the anti-slavery perspective, the issue was primarily about whether the system of slavery was an anachronistic evil that was incompatible with republicanism. The strategy of the anti-slavery forces was containment—to stop the expansion and thus put slavery on a path to gradual extinction. [32] The slave-holding interests in the South denounced this strategy as infringing upon their Constitutional rights. [33] Southern whites believed that the emancipation of slaves would destroy the South's economy, due to the large amount of capital invested in slaves and fears of integrating the ex-slave black population. [34] In particular, southerners feared a repeat of ""the horrors of Santo Domingo"", in which nearly all white people – including men, women, children, and even many sympathetic to abolition – were killed after the successful slave revolt in Haiti. Historian Thomas Fleming points to the historical phrase ""a disease in the public mind"" used by critics of this idea, and proposes it contributed to the segregation in the Jim Crow era following emancipation. [35] These fears were exacerbated by the recent attempts of John Brown to instigate an armed slave rebellion in the South. Slavery was illegal in much of the North, having been outlawed in the late 18th and early 19th centuries. It was also fading in the border states and in Southern cities, but it was expanding in the highly profitable cotton districts of the rural South and Southwest. Subsequent writers on the American Civil War looked to several factors explaining the geographic divide. Sectionalism Sectionalism refers to the different economies, social structure, customs and political values of the North and South. [36] [37] Regional tensions came to a head during the War of 1812, resulting in the Hartford Convention which manifested Northern dissastisfaction with a foreign trade embargo that affected the industrial North disproportionately, the Three-Fifths Compromise, dilution of Northern power by new states, and a succession of Southern Presidents. Sectionalism increased steadily between 1800 and 1860 as the North, which phased slavery out of existence, industrialized, urbanized, and built prosperous farms, while the deep South concentrated on plantation agriculture based on slave labor, together with subsistence farming for poor freedmen. In the 1840s and 50s, the issue of accepting slavery (in the guise of rejecting slave-owning bishops and missionaries) split the nation's largest religious denominations (the Methodist, Baptist and Presbyterian churches) into separate Northern and Southern denominations. [38]Historians have debated whether economic differences between the industrial Northeast and the agricultural South helped cause the war. Most historians now disagree with the economic determinism of historian Charles A. Beard in the 1920s and emphasize that Northern and Southern economies were largely complementary. While socially different, the sections economically benefited each other. [39] [40]Protectionism Slave owners preferred low-cost manual labor with no mechanization. Northern manufacturing interests supported tariffs and protectionism while southern planters demanded free trade, [41] The Democrats in Congress, controlled by Southerners, wrote the tariff laws in the 1830s, 1840s, and 1850s, and kept reducing rates so that the 1857 rates were the lowest since 1816. The Republicans called for an increase in tariffs in the 1860 election. The increases were only enacted in 1861 after Southerners resigned their seats in Congress. [42] [43] The tariff issue was a Northern grievance. However, neo-Confederate writers have claimed it as a Southern grievance. In 1860–61 none of the groups that proposed compromises to head off secession raised the tariff issue. [44] Pamphleteers North and South rarely mentioned the tariff. [45]States' rights The South argued that each state had the right to secede—leave the Union—at any time, that the Constitution was a ""compact"" or agreement among the states. Northerners (including President Buchanan) rejected that notion as opposed to the will of the Founding Fathers who said they were setting up a perpetual union. [46] Historian James Mc Pherson writes concerning states' rights and other non-slavery explanations: While one or more of these interpretations remain popular among the Sons of Confederate Veterans and other Southern heritage groups, few professional historians now subscribe to them. Of all these interpretations, the states'-rights argument is perhaps the weakest. It fails to ask the question, states' rights for what purpose? States' rights, or sovereignty, was always more a means than an end, an instrument to achieve a certain goal more than a principle. [47]Territorial crisis Further information: Slave and free states Between 1803 and 1854, the United States achieved a vast expansion of territory through purchase, negotiation, and conquest. At first, the new states carved out of these territories entering the union were apportioned equally between slave and free states. It was over territories west of the Mississippi that the proslavery and antislavery forces collided. [48]With the conquest of northern Mexico west to California in 1848, slaveholding interests looked forward to expanding into these lands and perhaps Cuba and Central America as well. [49] [50] Northern ""free soil"" interests vigorously sought to curtail any further expansion of slave territory. The Compromise of 1850 over California balanced a free-soil state with stronger fugitive slave laws for a political settlement after four years of strife in the 1840s. But the states admitted following California were all free: Minnesota (1858), Oregon (1859) and Kansas (1861). In the southern states the question of the territorial expansion of slavery westward again became explosive. [51] Both the South and the North drew the same conclusion: ""The power to decide the question of slavery for the territories was the power to determine the future of slavery itself."" [52] [53]Sen. Stephen Douglas, author of the Kansas–Nebraska Act of 1854 Sen. John J. Crittenden, of the 1860 Crittenden Compromise By 1860, four doctrines had emerged to answer the question of federal control in the territories, and they all claimed they were sanctioned by the Constitution, implicitly or explicitly. [54] The first of these ""conservative"" theories, represented by the Constitutional Union Party, argued that the Missouri Compromise apportionment of territory north for free soil and south for slavery should become a Constitutional mandate. The Crittenden Compromise of 1860 was an expression of this view. [55]The second doctrine of Congressional preeminence, championed by Abraham Lincoln and the Republican Party, insisted that the Constitution did not bind legislators to a policy of balance—that slavery could be excluded in a territory as it was done in the Northwest Ordinance of 1787 at the discretion of Congress, [56] thus Congress could restrict human bondage, but never establish it. The Wilmot Proviso announced this position in 1846. [57]Senator Stephen A. Douglas proclaimed the doctrine of territorial or ""popular"" sovereignty—which asserted that the settlers in a territory had the same rights as states in the Union to establish or disestablish slavery as a purely local matter. [58] The Kansas–Nebraska Act of 1854 legislated this doctrine. [59] In Kansas Territory, years of pro and anti-slavery violence and political conflict erupted; the congressional House of Representatives voted to admit Kansas as a free state in early 1860, but its admission in the Senate was delayed until January 1861, after the 1860 elections when southern senators began to leave. [60]The fourth theory was advocated by Mississippi Senator Jefferson Davis, [61] one of state sovereignty (""states' rights""), [62] also known as the ""Calhoun doctrine"", [63] named after the South Carolinian political theorist and statesman John C. Calhoun. [64] Rejecting the arguments for federal authority or self-government, state sovereignty would empower states to promote the expansion of slavery as part of the federal union under the U. S. Constitution. [65] ""States' rights"" was an ideology formulated and applied as a means of advancing slave state interests through federal authority. [66] As historian Thomas L. Krannawitter points out, the ""Southern demand for federal slave protection represented a demand for an unprecedented expansion of federal power."" [67] [68] These four doctrines comprised the major ideologies presented to the American public on the matters of slavery, the territories and the U. S. Constitution prior to the 1860 presidential election. [69]Nationalism and honor Nationalism was a powerful force in the early 19th century, with famous spokesmen such as Andrew Jackson and Daniel Webster. While practically all Northerners supported the Union, Southerners were split between those loyal to the entire United States (called ""unionists"") and those loyal primarily to the southern region and then the Confederacy. [70]C. Vann Woodward said of the latter group,A great slave society ... had grown up and miraculously flourished in the heart of a thoroughly bourgeois and partly puritanical republic. It had renounced its bourgeois origins and elaborated and painfully rationalized its institutional, legal, metaphysical, and religious defenses ... When the crisis came it chose to fight. It proved to be the death struggle of a society, which went down in ruins. [71]Perceived insults to Southern collective honor included the enormous popularity of Uncle Tom's Cabin (1852) [72] and the actions of abolitionist John Brown in trying to incite a slave rebellion in 1859. [73]While the South moved towards a Southern nationalism, leaders in the North were also becoming more nationally minded, and they rejected any notion of splitting the Union. The Republican national electoral platform of 1860 warned that Republicans regarded disunion as treason and would not tolerate it: ""We denounce those threats of disunion ... as denying the vital principles of a free government, and as an avowal of contemplated treason, which it is the imperative duty of an indignant people sternly to rebuke and forever silence."" [74] The South ignored the warnings: Southerners did not realize how ardently the North would fight to hold the Union together. [75]Lincoln's election Main article: United States presidential election, 1860Abraham Lincoln in 1864The election of Abraham Lincoln in November 1860 was the final trigger for secession. [76] Efforts at compromise, including the "" Corwin Amendment "" and the "" Crittenden Compromise "", failed. Southern leaders feared that Lincoln would stop the expansion of slavery and put it on a course toward extinction. The slave states, which had already become a minority in the House of Representatives, were now facing a future as a perpetual minority in the Senate and Electoral College against an increasingly powerful North. Before Lincoln took office in March 1861, seven slave states had declared their secession and joined to form the Confederacy. According to Lincoln, the people had shown that they can be successful in establishing and administering a republic, but a third challenge faced the nation, maintaining a republic based on the people's vote against an attempt to overthrow it. [77]Outbreak of the war Secession crisis The election of Lincoln caused the legislature of South Carolina to call a state convention to consider secession. Prior to the war, South Carolina did more than any other Southern state to advance the notion that a state had the right to nullify federal laws, and even to secede from the United States. The convention summoned unanimously voted to secede on December 20, 1860, and adopted the "" Declaration of the Immediate Causes Which Induce and Justify the Secession of South Carolina from the Federal Union "". It argued for states' rights for slave owners in the South, but contained a complaint about states' rights in the North in the form of opposition to the Fugitive Slave Act, claiming that Northern states were not fulfilling their federal obligations under the Constitution. The ""cotton states"" of Mississippi, Florida, Alabama, Georgia, Louisiana, and Texas followed suit, seceding in January and February 1861. The first published imprint of secession, a broadside issued by the Charleston Mercury, December 20, 1860Among the ordinances of secession passed by the individual states, those of three—Texas, Alabama, and Virginia—specifically mentioned the plight of the ""slaveholding states"" at the hands of northern abolitionists. The rest make no mention of the slavery issue, and are often brief announcements of the dissolution of ties by the legislatures. [78] However, at least four states—South Carolina, [79] Mississippi, [80] Georgia, [81] and Texas [82] —also passed lengthy and detailed explanations of their causes for secession, all of which laid the blame squarely on the movement to abolish slavery and that movement's influence over the politics of the northern states. The southern states believed slaveholding was a constitutional right because of the Fugitive slave clause of the Constitution. These states agreed to form a new federal government, the Confederate States of America, on February 4, 1861. [83] They took control of federal forts and other properties within their boundaries with little resistance from outgoing President James Buchanan, whose term ended on March 4, 1861. Buchanan said that the Dred Scott decision was proof that the South had no reason for secession, and that the Union ""was intended to be perpetual"", but that ""The power by force of arms to compel a State to remain in the Union"" was not among the ""enumerated powers granted to Congress"". [84] One quarter of the U. S. Army—the entire garrison in Texas—was surrendered in February 1861 to state forces by its commanding general, David E. Twiggs, who then joined the Confederacy. As Southerners resigned their seats in the Senate and the House, Republicans were able to pass bills for projects that had been blocked by Southern Senators before the war, including the Morrill Tariff, land grant colleges (the Morrill Act ), a Homestead Act, a transcontinental railroad (the Pacific Railway Acts ), [85] the National Banking Act and the authorization of United States Notes by the Legal Tender Act of 1862. The Revenue Act of 1861 introduced the income tax to help finance the war. On December 18, 1860, the Crittenden Compromise was proposed to re-establish the Missouri Compromise line by constitutionally banning slavery in territories to the north of the line while guaranteeing it to the south. The adoption of this compromise likely would have prevented the secession of every southern state apart from South Carolina, but Lincoln and the Republicans rejected it. [86] It was then proposed to hold a national referendum on the compromise. The Republicans again rejected the idea, although a majority of both Northerners and Southerners would have voted in favor of it. [87] A pre-war February Peace Conference of 1861 met in Washington, proposing a solution similar to that of the Crittenden compromise, it was rejected by Congress. The Republicans proposed an alternative compromise to not interfere with slavery where it existed but the South regarded it as insufficient. Nonetheless, the remaining eight slave states rejected pleas to join the Confederacy following a two-to-one no-vote in Virginia's First Secessionist Convention on April 4, 1861. [88]Jefferson Davis, President of the Confederate States of America (1861–1865)On March 4, 1861, Abraham Lincoln was sworn in as President. In his inaugural address, he argued that the Constitution was a more perfect union than the earlier Articles of Confederation and Perpetual Union, that it was a binding contract, and called any secession ""legally void"". [89] He had no intent to invade Southern states, nor did he intend to end slavery where it existed, but said that he would use force to maintain possession of Federal property. The government would make no move to recover post offices, and if resisted, mail delivery would end at state lines. Where popular conditions did not allow peaceful enforcement of Federal law, U. S. marshals and judges would be withdrawn. No mention was made of bullion lost from U. S. mints in Louisiana, Georgia, and North Carolina. He stated that it would be U. S. policy to only collect import duties at its ports; there could be no serious injury to the South to justify armed revolution during his administration. His speech closed with a plea for restoration of the bonds of union, famously calling on ""the mystic chords of memory"" binding the two regions. [89]The South sent delegations to Washington and offered to pay for the federal properties [ which?] and enter into a peace treaty with the United States. Lincoln rejected any negotiations with Confederate agents because he claimed the Confederacy was not a legitimate government, and that making any treaty with it would be tantamount to recognition of it as a sovereign government. [90] Secretary of State William Seward, who at the time saw himself as the real governor or ""prime minister"" behind the throne of the inexperienced Lincoln, engaged in unauthorized and indirect negotiations that failed. [90] President Lincoln was determined to hold all remaining Union-occupied forts in the Confederacy, Fort Monroe in Virginia, in Florida, Fort Pickens, Fort Jefferson, Fort Taylor and Fort Sumter, located at the cockpit of secession in Charleston, South Carolina. Battle of Fort Sumter Main article: Battle of Fort Sumter Mass meeting in New York City April 20, 1861, to support the Union. Fort Sumter was located in the middle of the harbor of Charleston, South Carolina. Its garrison recently moved there to avoid incidents with local militias in the streets of the city. Lincoln told Maj. Anderson to hold on until fired upon. Jefferson Davis ordered the surrender of the fort. Anderson gave a conditional reply that the Confederate government rejected, and Davis ordered General P. G. T. Beauregard to attack the fort before a relief expedition could arrive. He bombarded Fort Sumter on April 12–13, forcing its capitulation. The attack on Fort Sumter rallied the North to the defense of American nationalism. Historian Allan Nevins said: The thunderclap of Sumter produced a startling crystallization of Northern sentiment. ... Anger swept the land. From every side came news of mass meetings, speeches, resolutions, tenders of business support, the muster of companies and regiments, the determined action of governors and legislatures."" [91]Union leaders incorrectly assumed that only a minority of Southerners were actually in favor of secession and that there were large numbers of southern Unionists that could be counted on. Had Northerners realized that most Southerners really did favor secession, they might have hesitated at attempting the enormous task of conquering a united South. [92]Lincoln called on all the states to send forces to recapture the fort and other federal properties. With the scale of the rebellion apparently small so far, Lincoln called for only 75,000 volunteers for 90 days. [93] The governor of Massachusetts had state regiments on trains headed south the next day. In western Missouri, local secessionists seized Liberty Arsenal. [94] On May 3, 1861, Lincoln called for an additional 42,000 volunteers for a period of three years. [95]Four states in the middle and upper South had repeatedly rejected Confederate overtures, but now Virginia, Tennessee, Arkansas, and North Carolina refused to send forces against their neighbors, declared their secession, and joined the Confederacy. To reward Virginia, the Confederate capital was moved to Richmond. [96]Attitude of the border states Main article: Border states (American Civil War)US Secession map 1863. The Union vs. the Confederacy. Union states Union territories not permitting slavery Border Union states, permitting slavery Confederate states Union territories permitting slavery (claimed by Confederacy)Maryland, Delaware, Missouri, and Kentucky were slave states that were opposed to both secession and coercing the South. West Virginia then joined them as an additional border state after it separated from Virginia and became a state of the Union in 1863. Maryland's territory surrounded the United States' capital of Washington, DC and could cut it off from the North. [97] It had numerous anti-Lincoln officials who tolerated anti-army rioting in Baltimore and the burning of bridges, both aimed at hindering the passage of troops to the South. Maryland's legislature voted overwhelmingly (53–13) to stay in the Union, but also rejected hostilities with its southern neighbors, voting to close Maryland's rail lines to prevent them from being used for war. [98] Lincoln responded by establishing martial law and unilaterally suspending habeas corpus in Maryland, along with sending in militia units from the North. [99] Lincoln rapidly took control of Maryland and the District of Columbia by seizing many prominent figures, including arresting 1/3 of the members of the Maryland General Assembly on the day it reconvened. [98] [100] All were held without trial, ignoring a ruling by the Chief Justice of the U. S. Supreme Court Roger Taney, a Maryland native, that only Congress (and not the president) could suspend habeas corpus ( Ex parte Merryman ). Indeed, federal troops imprisoned a prominent Baltimore newspaper editor, Frank Key Howard, Francis Scott Key's grandson, after he criticized Lincoln in an editorial for ignoring the Supreme Court Chief Justice's ruling. [101]In Missouri, an elected convention on secession voted decisively to remain within the Union. When pro-Confederate Governor Claiborne F. Jackson called out the state militia, it was attacked by federal forces under General Nathaniel Lyon, who chased the governor and the rest of the State Guard to the southwestern corner of the state ( see also: Missouri secession ). In the resulting vacuum, the convention on secession reconvened and took power as the Unionist provisional government of Missouri. [102]Kentucky did not secede; for a time, it declared itself neutral. When Confederate forces entered the state in September 1861, neutrality ended and the state reaffirmed its Union status, while trying to maintain slavery. During a brief invasion by Confederate forces, Confederate sympathizers organized a secession convention, inaugurated a governor, and gained recognition from the Confederacy. The rebel government soon went into exile and never controlled Kentucky. [103]After Virginia's secession, a Unionist government in Wheeling asked 48 counties to vote on an ordinance to create a new state on October 24, 1861. A voter turnout of 34 percent approved the statehood bill (96 percent approving). [104] The inclusion of 24 secessionist counties [105] in the state and the ensuing guerrilla war engaged about 40,000 Federal troops for much of the war. [106] [107] Congress admitted West Virginia to the Union on June 20, 1863. West Virginia provided about 20,000–22,000 soldiers to both the Confederacy and the Union. [108]A Unionist secession attempt occurred in East Tennessee, but was suppressed by the Confederacy, which arrested over 3,000 men suspected of being loyal to the Union. They were held without trial. [109]War See also: List of American Civil War battles and Military leadership in the American Civil War County map of Civil War battles by theater and year The Civil War was a contest marked by the ferocity and frequency of battle. Over four years, 237 named battles were fought, as were many more minor actions and skirmishes, which were often characterized by their bitter intensity and high casualties. In his book The American Civil War, John Keegan writes that ""The American Civil War was to prove one of the most ferocious wars ever fought"". Without geographic objectives, the only target for each side was the enemy's soldier. [110]Mobilization See also: Child soldiers in the American Civil War As the first seven states began organizing a Confederacy in Montgomery, the entire U. S. army numbered 16,000. However, Northern governors had begun to mobilize their militias. [111] The Confederate Congress authorized the new nation up to 100,000 troops sent by governors as early as February. By May, Jefferson Davis was pushing for 100,000 men under arms for one year or the duration, and that was answered in kind by the U. S. Congress. [112]In the first year of the war, both sides had far more volunteers than they could effectively train and equip. After the initial enthusiasm faded, reliance on the cohort of young men who came of age every year and wanted to join was not enough. Both sides used a draft law— conscription —as a device to encourage or force volunteering; relatively few were actually drafted and served. The Confederacy passed a draft law in April 1862 for young men aged 18 to 35; overseers of slaves, government officials, and clergymen were exempt. [113] The U. S. Congress followed in July, authorizing a militia draft within a state when it could not meet its quota with volunteers. European immigrants joined the Union Army in large numbers, including 177,000 born in Germany and 144,000 born in Ireland. [114]Union soldiers before Marye's Heights, Second Fredericksburg Confederate dead overrun at Marye's Heights, reoccupied next day May 4, 1863When the Emancipation Proclamation went into effect in January 1863, ex-slaves were energetically recruited by the states, and used to meet the state quotas. States and local communities offered higher and higher cash bonuses for white volunteers. Congress tightened the law in March 1863. Men selected in the draft could provide substitutes or, until mid-1864, pay commutation money. Many eligibles pooled their money to cover the cost of anyone drafted. Families used the substitute provision to select which man should go into the army and which should stay home. There was much evasion and overt resistance to the draft, especially in Catholic areas. The great draft riot in New York City in July 1863 involved Irish immigrants who had been signed up as citizens to swell the vote of the city's Democratic political machine, not realizing it made them liable for the draft. [115] Of the 168,649 men procured for the Union through the draft, 117,986 were substitutes, leaving only 50,663 who had their personal services conscripted. [116]Rioters attacking a building during the New York anti-draft riots of 1863In both the North and South, the draft laws were highly unpopular. In the North, some 120,000 men evaded conscription, many of them fleeing to Canada, and another 280,000 soldiers deserted during the war. [117] At least 100,000 Southerners deserted, or about 10 percent. In the South, many men deserted temporarily to take care of their distressed families, then returned to their units. [118] In the North, ""bounty jumpers"" enlisted to get the generous bonus, deserted, then went back to a second recruiting station under a different name to sign up again for a second bonus; 141 were caught and executed. [119]From a tiny frontier force in 1860, the Union and Confederate armies had grown into the ""largest and most efficient armies in the world"" within a few years. European observers at the time dismissed them as amateur and unprofessional, but British historian John Keegan 's assessment is that each outmatched the French, Prussian and Russian armies of the time, and but for the Atlantic, would have threatened any of them with defeat. [120]Motivation Perman and Taylor (2010) say that historians are of two minds on why millions of men seemed so eager to fight, suffer and die over four years: Some historians emphasize that Civil War soldiers were driven by political ideology, holding firm beliefs about the importance of liberty, Union, or state rights, or about the need to protect or to destroy slavery. Others point to less overtly political reasons to fight, such as the defense of one's home and family, or the honor and brotherhood to be preserved when fighting alongside other men. Most historians agree that no matter what a soldier thought about when he went into the war, the experience of combat affected him profoundly and sometimes altered his reasons for continuing the fight. [121]Prisoners Main article: American Civil War prison camps At the start of the civil war, a system of paroles operated. Captives agreed not to fight until they were officially exchanged. Meanwhile, they were held in camps run by their own army where they were paid but not allowed to perform any military duties. [122] The system of exchanges collapsed in 1863 when the Confederacy refused to exchange black prisoners. After that, about 56,000 of the 409,000 POWs died in prisons during the war, accounting for nearly 10 percent of the conflict's fatalities. [123]Naval war The small U. S. Navy of 1861 was rapidly enlarged to 6,000 officers and 45,000 men in 1865, with 671 vessels, having a tonnage of 510,396. [124] [125] Its mission was to blockade Confederate ports, take control of the river system, defend against Confederate raiders on the high seas, and be ready for a possible war with the British Royal Navy. [126] Meanwhile, the main riverine war was fought in the West, where a series of major rivers gave access to the Confederate heartland, if the U. S. Navy could take control. In the East, the Navy supplied and moved army forces about, and occasionally shelled Confederate installations. Union blockade Main article: Union blockade General Scott's "" Anaconda Plan "" 1861. Tightening naval blockade, forcing rebels out of Missouri along the Mississippi River, Kentucky Unionists sit on the fence, idled cotton industry illustrated in Georgia. By early 1861, General Winfield Scott had devised the Anaconda Plan to win the war with as little bloodshed as possible. [127] Scott argued that a Union blockade of the main ports would weaken the Confederate economy. Lincoln adopted parts of the plan, but he overruled Scott's caution about 90-day volunteers. Public opinion, however, demanded an immediate attack by the army to capture Richmond. [128]In April 1861, Lincoln announced the Union blockade of all Southern ports; commercial ships could not get insurance and regular traffic ended. The South blundered in embargoing cotton exports in 1861 before the blockade was effective; by the time they realized the mistake, it was too late. ""King Cotton"" was dead, as the South could export less than 10 percent of its cotton. The blockade shut down the ten Confederate seaports with railheads that moved almost all the cotton, especially New Orleans, Mobile, and Charleston. By June 1861, warships were stationed off the principal Southern ports, and a year later nearly 300 ships were in service. [129]Modern navy evolves The Civil War occurred during the early stages of the industrial revolution and subsequently many naval innovations emerged during this time, most notably the advent of the ironclad warship. It began when the Confederacy, knowing they had to meet or match the Union's naval superiority, responded to the Union blockade by building or converting more than 130 vessels, including twenty-six ironclads and floating batteries. [130] Only half of these saw active service. Many were equipped with ram bows, creating ""ram fever"" among Union squadrons wherever they threatened. But in the face of overwhelming Union superiority and the Union's own ironclad warships, they were unsuccessful. [131]The Confederacy experimented with a submarine, which did not work well, [132] and with building an ironclad ship, the CSS Virginia, which was based on rebuilding a sunken Union ship, the Merrimack. On its first foray on March 8, 1862, the Virginia inflicted significant damage to the Union's wooden fleet, but the next day the first Union ironclad, the USS Monitor, arrived to challenge it in the Chesapeake Bay. The resulting three hour battle between the Ironclads was a draw, but it marked the worldwide transition to ironclad warships. [133] Not long after the battle the Confederacy was forced to scuttle the Virginia to prevent its capture, while the Union built many copies of the Monitor. Lacking the technology and infrastructure to build effective warships, the Confederacy attempted to obtain warships from Britain. [134]Blockade runners Main article: Blockade runners of the American Civil War Gunline of nine Union ironclads. South Atlantic Blockading Squadron off Charleston. Continuous blockade of all major ports was sustained by North's overwhelming war production. British investors built small, fast, steam-driven blockade runners that traded arms and luxuries brought in from Britain through Bermuda, Cuba, and the Bahamas in return for high-priced cotton. Many of the ships were designed for speed and were so small that only a small amount of cotton went out. [135] When the Union Navy seized a blockade runner, the ship and cargo were condemned as a Prize of war and sold, with the proceeds given to the Navy sailors; the captured crewmen were mostly British and they were simply released. [136] The Southern economy nearly collapsed during the war. There were multiple reasons for this: the severe deterioration of food supplies, especially in cities, the failure of Southern railroads, the loss of control of the main rivers, foraging by Northern armies, and the seizure of animals and crops by Confederate armies. Most historians agree that the blockade was a major factor in ruining the Confederate economy; however, Wise argues that the blockade runners provided just enough of a lifeline to allow Lee to continue fighting for additional months, thanks to fresh supplies of 400,000 rifles, lead, blankets, and boots that the homefront economy could no longer supply. [137]Economic impact Surdam argues that the blockade was a powerful weapon that eventually ruined the Southern economy, at the cost of few lives in combat. Practically, the entire Confederate cotton crop was useless (although it was sold to Union traders), costing the Confederacy its main source of income. Critical imports were scarce and the coastal trade was largely ended as well. [138] The measure of the blockade's success was not the few ships that slipped through, but the thousands that never tried it. Merchant ships owned in Europe could not get insurance and were too slow to evade the blockade; they simply stopped calling at Confederate ports. [139]To fight an offensive war, the Confederacy purchased ships from Britain, converted them to warships, and raided American merchant ships in the Atlantic and Pacific oceans. Insurance rates skyrocketed and the American flag virtually disappeared from international waters. However, the same ships were reflagged with European flags and continued unmolested. [131] After the war, the U. S. demanded that Britain pay for the damage done, and Britain paid the U. S. $15 million in 1871. [140]Rivers Clashes on the rivers were melees of ironclads, cottonclads, gunboats and rams, complicated by torpedoes and fire rafts. The 1862 Union strategy called for simultaneous advances along four axes: [141]Mc Clellan would lead the main thrust in Virginia towards Richmond. Ohio forces would advance through Kentucky into Tennessee. The Missouri Department would drive south along the Mississippi River. The westernmost attack would originate from Kansas. Ulysses Grant used river transport and Andrew Foote's gunboats of the Western Flotilla to threaten the Confederacy's ""Gibraltar of the West"" at Columbus, Kentucky. Though rebuffed at Belmont, Grant cut off Columbus. The Confederates, lacking their own gunboats, were forced to retreat and the Union took control of western Kentucky in March 1862. [142]In addition to ocean-going warships coming up the Mississippi, the Union Navy used timberclads, tinclads, and armored gunboats. Shipyards at Cairo, Illinois, and St. Louis built new boats or modified steamboats for action. [143] They took control of the Red, Tennessee, Cumberland, Mississippi, and Ohio rivers after victories at Fort Henry (February 6, 1862) and Fort Donelson (February 11 to 16, 1862), and supplied Grant's forces as he moved into Tennessee. At Shiloh (Pittsburg Landing), in Tennessee in April 1862, the Confederates made a surprise attack that pushed Union forces against the river as night fell. Overnight, the Navy landed additional reinforcements, and Grant counter-attacked. Grant and the Union won a decisive victory—the first battle with the high casualty rates that would repeat over and over. [144]Memphis fell to Union forces on June 6, 1862, and became a key base for further advances south along the Mississippi River. On April 24, 1862, U. S. Naval forces under Farragut ran past Confederate defenses south of New Orleans. Confederate forces abandoned the city, giving the Union a critical anchor in the deep South. [145]Naval forces assisted Grant in the long, complex Vicksburg Campaign that resulted in the Confederates surrendering at Vicksburg, Mississippi in July 1863, and in the Union fully controlling the Mississippi River soon after. [146]Eastern theater Further information: Eastern Theater of the American Civil War Left: The Battle of Antietam, the Civil War's deadliest one-day fight. Union troops committed piecemeal had little effect. Right: Confederate ironclads at Norfolk and New Orleans dispersed blockade, until Union ironclads could defeat them. In one of the first highly visible battles, a march by Union troops under the command of Maj. Gen. Irvin Mc Dowell on the Confederate forces near Washington was repulsed. Maj. Gen. George B. Mc Clellan took command of the Union Army of the Potomac on July 26 (he was briefly general-in-chief of all the Union armies, but was subsequently relieved of that post in favor of Maj. Gen. Henry W. Halleck ), and the war began in earnest in 1862. Upon the strong urging of President Lincoln to begin offensive operations, Mc Clellan attacked Virginia in the spring of 1862 by way of the peninsula between the York River and James River, southeast of Richmond. Although Mc Clellan's army reached the gates of Richmond in the Peninsula Campaign, [147] [148] [149] Johnston halted his advance at the Battle of Seven Pines, then General Robert E. Lee and top subordinates James Longstreet and Stonewall Jackson defeated Mc Clellan in the Seven Days Battles and forced his retreat. [150] The Northern Virginia Campaign, which included the Second Battle of Bull Run, ended in yet another victory for the South. [151] Mc Clellan resisted General-in-Chief Halleck's orders to send reinforcements to John Pope's Union Army of Virginia, which made it easier for Lee's Confederates to defeat twice the number of combined enemy troops. Emboldened by Second Bull Run, the Confederacy made its first invasion of the North. General Lee led 45,000 men of the Army of Northern Virginia across the Potomac River into Maryland on September 5. Lincoln then restored Pope's troops to Mc Clellan. Mc Clellan and Lee fought at the Battle of Antietam near Sharpsburg, Maryland, on September 17, 1862, the bloodiest single day in United States military history. [150] [152] Lee's army, checked at last, returned to Virginia before Mc Clellan could destroy it. Antietam is considered a Union victory because it halted Lee's invasion of the North and provided an opportunity for Lincoln to announce his Emancipation Proclamation. [153]Union forces performing a bayonet charge, 1862When the cautious Mc Clellan failed to follow up on Antietam, he was replaced by Maj. Gen. Ambrose Burnside. Burnside was soon defeated at the Battle of Fredericksburg [154] on December 13, 1862, when more than 12,000 Union soldiers were killed or wounded during repeated futile frontal assaults against Marye's Heights. After the battle, Burnside was replaced by Maj. Gen. Joseph Hooker. Hooker, too, proved unable to defeat Lee's army; despite outnumbering the Confederates by more than two to one, he was humiliated in the Battle of Chancellorsville in May 1863. [155] Gen. Stonewall Jackson was shot in the arm by accidental friendly fire during the battle and subsequently died of complications. [156] Gen. Hooker was replaced by Maj. Gen. George Meade during Lee's second invasion of the North, in June. Meade defeated Lee at the Battle of Gettysburg (July 1 to 3, 1863). [157] This was the bloodiest battle of the war, and has been called the war's turning point. Pickett's Charge on July 3 is often considered the high-water mark of the Confederacy because it signaled the collapse of serious Confederate threats of victory. Lee's army suffered 28,000 casualties (versus Meade's 23,000). [158] However, Lincoln was angry that Meade failed to intercept Lee's retreat, and after Meade's inconclusive fall campaign, Lincoln turned to the Western Theater for new leadership. At the same time, the Confederate stronghold of Vicksburg surrendered, giving the Union control of the Mississippi River, permanently isolating the western Confederacy, and producing the new leader Lincoln needed, Ulysses S. Grant. Western theater Further information: Western Theater of the American Civil War While the Confederate forces had numerous successes in the Eastern Theater, they were defeated many times in the West. They were driven from Missouri early in the war as a result of the Battle of Pea Ridge. [159] Leonidas Polk 's invasion of Columbus, Kentucky ended Kentucky's policy of neutrality and turned that state against the Confederacy. Nashville and central Tennessee fell to the Union early in 1862, leading to attrition of local food supplies and livestock and a breakdown in social organization. Left: The Battle of Chickamauga, the highest two-day losses. Confederate victory held off Union offensive for two months. Right: New Orleans captured. Union ironclads forced passage, sank Confederate fleet, destroyed batteries, held docks for Army. The Mississippi was opened to Union traffic to the southern border of Tennessee with the taking of Island No. 10 and New Madrid, Missouri, and then Memphis, Tennessee. In April 1862, the Union Navy captured New Orleans, [160] which allowed Union forces to begin moving up the Mississippi. Only the fortress city of Vicksburg, Mississippi, prevented Union control of the entire river. General Braxton Bragg 's second Confederate invasion of Kentucky ended with a meaningless victory over Maj. Gen. Don Carlos Buell at the Battle of Perryville, although Bragg was forced to end his attempt at invading Kentucky and retreat due to lack of support for the Confederacy in that state. [161] Bragg was narrowly defeated by Maj. Gen. William Rosecrans at the Battle of Stones River in Tennessee. [162]The one clear Confederate victory in the West was the Battle of Chickamauga. Bragg, reinforced by Lt. Gen. James Longstreet 's corps (from Lee's army in the east), defeated Rosecrans, despite the heroic defensive stand of Maj. Gen. George Henry Thomas. Rosecrans retreated to Chattanooga, which Bragg then besieged. The Union's key strategist and tactician in the West was Ulysses S. Grant, who won victories at Forts Henry and Donelson (by which the Union seized control of the Tennessee and Cumberland Rivers); the Battle of Shiloh; [163] and the Battle of Vicksburg, [164] which cemented Union control of the Mississippi River and is considered one of the turning points of the war. Grant marched to the relief of Rosecrans and defeated Bragg at the Third Battle of Chattanooga, [165] driving Confederate forces out of Tennessee and opening a route to Atlanta and the heart of the Confederacy. Trans-Mississippi Further information on Missouri in the Civil War: Trans-Mississippi Theater of the American Civil War Left: Quantrill's Raid captured a hotel in free-state Kansas for a day in a town of 2,000, burned 185 buildings, killed 182 men and boys. [166]Right: Nathaniel Lyon secured St. Louis docks and arsenal, led Union forces to expel Missouri Confederate forces and government. [167]Extensive guerrilla warfare characterized the trans-Mississippi region, as the Confederacy lacked the troops and the logistics to support regular armies that could challenge Union control. [168] Roving Confederate bands such as Quantrill's Raiders terrorized the countryside, striking both military installations and civilian settlements. [169] The ""Sons of Liberty"" and ""Order of the American Knights"" attacked pro-Union people, elected officeholders, and unarmed uniformed soldiers. These partisans could not be entirely driven out of the state of Missouri until an entire regular Union infantry division was engaged. By 1864, these violent activities harmed the nationwide anti-war movement organizing against the re-election of Lincoln. Missouri not only stayed in the Union, Lincoln took 70 percent of the vote for re-election. [166]Numerous small-scale military actions south and west of Missouri sought to control Indian Territory and New Mexico Territory for the Union. The Union repulsed Confederate incursions into New Mexico in 1862, and the exiled Arizona government withdrew into Texas. In the Indian Territory, civil war broke out within tribes. About 12,000 Indian warriors fought for the Confederacy, and smaller numbers for the Union. [170] The most prominent Cherokee was Brigadier General Stand Watie, the last Confederate general to surrender. [171]After the fall of Vicksburg in July 1863, General Kirby Smith in Texas was informed by Jefferson Davis that he could expect no further help from east of the Mississippi River. Although he lacked resources to beat Union armies, he built up a formidable arsenal at Tyler, along with his own Kirby Smithdom economy, a virtual ""independent fiefdom"" in Texas, including railroad construction and international smuggling. The Union in turn did not directly engage him. [172] Its 1864 Red River Campaign to take Shreveport, Louisiana was a failure and Texas remained in Confederate hands throughout the war. End of the war Conquest of Virginia At the beginning of 1864, Lincoln made Grant commander of all Union armies. Grant made his headquarters with the Army of the Potomac, and put Maj. Gen. William Tecumseh Sherman in command of most of the western armies. Grant understood the concept of total war and believed, along with Lincoln and Sherman, that only the utter defeat of Confederate forces and their economic base would end the war. [173] This was total war not in killing civilians but rather in taking provisions and forage and destroying homes, farms, and railroads, that Grant said ""would otherwise have gone to the support of secession and rebellion. This policy I believe exercised a material influence in hastening the end."" [174] Grant devised a coordinated strategy that would strike at the entire Confederacy from multiple directions. Generals George Meade and Benjamin Butler were ordered to move against Lee near Richmond, General Franz Sigel (and later Philip Sheridan) were to attack the Shenandoah Valley, General Sherman was to capture Atlanta and march to the sea (the Atlantic Ocean), Generals George Crook and William W. Averell were to operate against railroad supply lines in West Virginia, and Maj. Gen. Nathaniel P. Banks was to capture Mobile, Alabama. [175]These dead soldiers—from Ewell 's May 1864 attack at Spotsylvania —delayed Grant's advance on Richmond in the Overland Campaign. The Peacemakers by George Peter Alexander Healy portrays Sherman, Grant, Lincoln, and Porter discussing plans for the last weeks of the Civil War aboard the steamer River Queen in March 1865. Grant's army set out on the Overland Campaign with the goal of drawing Lee into a defense of Richmond, where they would attempt to pin down and destroy the Confederate army. The Union army first attempted to maneuver past Lee and fought several battles, notably at the Wilderness, Spotsylvania, and Cold Harbor. These battles resulted in heavy losses on both sides, and forced Lee's Confederates to fall back repeatedly. An attempt to outflank Lee from the south failed under Butler, who was trapped inside the Bermuda Hundred river bend. Each battle resulted in setbacks for the Union that mirrored what they had suffered under prior generals, though unlike those prior generals, Grant fought on rather than retreat. Grant was tenacious and kept pressing Lee's Army of Northern Virginia back to Richmond. While Lee was preparing for an attack on Richmond, Grant unexpectedly turned south to cross the James River and began the protracted Siege of Petersburg, where the two armies engaged in trench warfare for over nine months. [176]Grant finally found a commander, General Philip Sheridan, aggressive enough to prevail in the Valley Campaigns of 1864. Sheridan was initially repelled at the Battle of New Market by former U. S. Vice President and Confederate Gen. John C. Breckinridge. The Battle of New Market was the Confederacy's last major victory of the war. After redoubling his efforts, Sheridan defeated Maj. Gen. Jubal A. Early in a series of battles, including a final decisive defeat at the Battle of Cedar Creek. Sheridan then proceeded to destroy the agricultural base of the Shenandoah Valley, a strategy similar to the tactics Sherman later employed in Georgia. [177]Meanwhile, Sherman maneuvered from Chattanooga to Atlanta, defeating Confederate Generals Joseph E. Johnston and John Bell Hood along the way. The fall of Atlanta on September 2, 1864, guaranteed the reelection of Lincoln as president. [178] Hood left the Atlanta area to swing around and menace Sherman's supply lines and invade Tennessee in the Franklin-Nashville Campaign. Union Maj. Gen. John Schofield defeated Hood at the Battle of Franklin, and George H. Thomas dealt Hood a massive defeat at the Battle of Nashville, effectively destroying Hood's army. [179]Leaving Atlanta, and his base of supplies, Sherman's army marched with an unknown destination, laying waste to about 20 percent of the farms in Georgia in his "" March to the Sea "". He reached the Atlantic Ocean at Savannah, Georgia in December 1864. Sherman's army was followed by thousands of freed slaves; there were no major battles along the March. Sherman turned north through South Carolina and North Carolina to approach the Confederate Virginia lines from the south, increasing the pressure on Lee's army. [180]Lee's army, thinned by desertion and casualties, was now much smaller than Grant's. One last Confederate attempt to break the Union hold on Petersburg failed at the decisive Battle of Five Forks (sometimes called ""the Waterloo of the Confederacy"") on April 1. This meant that the Union now controlled the entire perimeter surrounding Richmond-Petersburg, completely cutting it off from the Confederacy. Realizing that the capital was now lost, Lee decided to evacuate his army. The Confederate capital fell to the Union XXV Corps, composed of black troops. The remaining Confederate units fled west after a defeat at Sayler's Creek. [181]Confederacy surrenders Main article: Conclusion of the American Civil War Map of Confederate territory losses year by year Initially, Lee did not intend to surrender, but planned to regroup at the village of Appomattox Court House, where supplies were to be waiting, and then continue the war. Grant chased Lee and got in front of him, so that when Lee's army reached Appomattox Court House, they were surrounded. After an initial battle, Lee decided that the fight was now hopeless, and surrendered his Army of Northern Virginia on April 9, 1865, at the Mc Lean House. [182] In an untraditional gesture and as a sign of Grant's respect and anticipation of peacefully restoring Confederate states to the Union, Lee was permitted to keep his sword and his horse, Traveller. On April 14, 1865, President Lincoln was shot by John Wilkes Booth, a Southern sympathizer. Lincoln died early the next morning, and Andrew Johnson became the president. Meanwhile, Confederate forces across the South surrendered as news of Lee's surrender reached them. [183] On April 26, 1865, General Joseph E. Johnston surrendered nearly 90,000 men of the Army of Tennessee to Major General William T. Sherman at the Bennett Place near present-day Durham, North Carolina. It proved to be the largest surrender of Confederate forces, effectively bringing the war to an end. President Johnson officially declared a virtual end to the insurrection on May 9, 1865; President Jefferson Davis was captured the following day. [1] On June 2, Kirby Smith officially surrendered his troops in the Trans-Mississippi Department. [184] On June 23, Cherokee leader Stand Watie became the last Confederate General to surrender his forces. [185]Diplomacy Main article: Diplomacy of the American Civil War Though the Confederacy hoped that Britain and France would join them against the Union, this was never likely, and so they instead tried to bring Britain and France in as mediators. [186] [187] The Union, under Lincoln and Secretary of State William H. Seward worked to block this, and threatened war if any country officially recognized the existence of the Confederate States of America. In 1861, Southerners voluntarily embargoed cotton shipments, hoping to start an economic depression in Europe that would force Britain to enter the war to get cotton, but this did not work. Worse, Europe developed other cotton suppliers, which they found superior, hindering the South's recovery after the war. [188]Crewmembers of USS Wissahickon by the ship's 11-inch (280 mm) Dahlgren gun, circa 1863Cotton diplomacy proved a failure as Europe had a surplus of cotton, while the 1860–62 crop failures in Europe made the North's grain exports of critical importance. It also helped to turn European opinion further away from the Confederacy. It was said that ""King Corn was more powerful than King Cotton"", as U. S. grain went from a quarter of the British import trade to almost half. [188] When Britain did face a cotton shortage, it was temporary, being replaced by increased cultivation in Egypt and India. Meanwhile, the war created employment for arms makers, ironworkers, and British ships to transport weapons. [189]Lincoln's foreign policy was deficient in 1861 in terms of appealing to European public opinion. Diplomats had to explain that United States was not committed to the ending of slavery, but instead they repeated legalistic arguments about the unconstitutionality of secession. Confederate spokesmen, on the other hand, were much more successful by ignoring slavery and instead focusing on their struggle for liberty, their commitment to free trade, and the essential role of cotton in the European economy. In addition, the European aristocracy (the dominant factor in every major country) was ""absolutely gleeful in pronouncing the American debacle as proof that the entire experiment in popular government had failed. European government leaders welcomed the fragmentation of the ascendant American Republic."" [190]U. S. minister to Britain Charles Francis Adams proved particularly adept and convinced Britain not to boldly challenge the blockade. The Confederacy purchased several warships from commercial shipbuilders in Britain ( CSS Alabama, CSS Shenandoah, CSS Tennessee, CSS Tallahassee, CSS Florida, and some others). The most famous, the CSS Alabama, did considerable damage and led to serious postwar disputes. However, public opinion against slavery created a political liability for politicians in Britain, where the antislavery movement was powerful. [191]War loomed in late 1861 between the U. S. and Britain over the Trent affair, involving the U. S. Navy's boarding of the British ship Trent and seizure of two Confederate diplomats. However, London and Washington were able to smooth over the problem after Lincoln released the two. In 1862, the British considered mediation between North and South– though even such an offer would have risked war with the U. S. British Prime Minister Lord Palmerston reportedly read Uncle Tom's Cabin three times when deciding on this. [192]The Union victory in the Battle of Antietam caused them to delay this decision. The Emancipation Proclamation over time would reinforce the political liability of supporting the Confederacy. Despite sympathy for the Confederacy, France's own seizure of Mexico ultimately deterred them from war with the Union. Confederate offers late in the war to end slavery in return for diplomatic recognition were not seriously considered by London or Paris. After 1863, the Polish revolt against Russia further distracted the European powers, and ensured that they would remain neutral. [193]Union victory and aftermath Results The causes of the war, the reasons for its outcome, and even the name of the war itself are subjects of lingering contention today. The North and West grew rich while the once-rich South became poor for a century. The national political power of the slaveowners and rich southerners ended. Historians are less sure about the results of the postwar Reconstruction, especially regarding the second class citizenship of the Freedmen and their poverty. [194]Historians have debated whether the Confederacy could have won the war. Most scholars, including James Mc Pherson, argue that Confederate victory was at least possible. [195] Mc Pherson argues that the North's advantage in population and resources made Northern victory likely but not guaranteed. He also argues that if the Confederacy had fought using unconventional tactics, they would have more easily been able to hold out long enough to exhaust the Union. [196]Comparison of Union and Confederacy, 1860–1864 [197]Year Union Confederacy Population1860 22,100,000 (71%) 9,100,000 (29%)1864 28,800,000 (90%) [c] 3,000,000 (10%) [198]Free 1860 21,700,000 (81%) 5,600,000 (19%)Slave1860 400,000 (11%) 3,500,000 (89%)1864 negligible 1,900,000 [d]Soldiers 1860–64 2,100,000 (67%) 1,064,000 (33%)Railroad miles1860 21,800 (71%) 8,800 (29%)1864 29,100 (98%) [199] negligible Manufactures1860 90% 10%1864 98% negligible Arms production1860 97% 3%1864 98% negligible Cotton bales1860 negligible 4,500,0001864 300,000 negligible Exports1860 30% 70%1864 98% negligible Confederates did not need to invade and hold enemy territory to win, but only needed to fight a defensive war to convince the North that the cost of winning was too high. The North needed to conquer and hold vast stretches of enemy territory and defeat Confederate armies to win. [196] Lincoln was not a military dictator, and could continue to fight the war only as long as the American public supported a continuation of the war. The Confederacy sought to win independence by out-lasting Lincoln; however, after Atlanta fell and Lincoln defeated Mc Clellan in the election of 1864, all hope for a political victory for the South ended. At that point, Lincoln had secured the support of the Republicans, War Democrats, the border states, emancipated slaves, and the neutrality of Britain and France. By defeating the Democrats and Mc Clellan, he also defeated the Copperheads and their peace platform. [200]Many scholars argue that the Union held an insurmountable long-term advantage over the Confederacy in industrial strength and population. Confederate actions, they argue, only delayed defeat. [201] [202] Civil War historian Shelby Foote expressed this view succinctly: ""I think that the North fought that war with one hand behind its back ... If there had been more Southern victories, and a lot more, the North simply would have brought that other hand out from behind its back. I don't think the South ever had a chance to win that War."" [203]A minority view among historians is that the Confederacy lost because, as E. Merton Coulter put it, ""people did not will hard enough and long enough to win."" [204] [205] Marxist historian Armstead Robinson agrees, pointing to a class conflict in the Confederate army between the slave owners and the larger number of non-owners. He argues that the non-owner soldiers grew embittered about fighting to preserve slavery, and fought less enthusiastically. He attributes the major Confederate defeats in 1863 at Vicksburg and Missionary Ridge to this class conflict. [206] However, most historians reject the argument. [207] James M. Mc Pherson, after reading thousands of letters written by Confederate soldiers, found strong patriotism that continued to the end; they truly believed they were fighting for freedom and liberty. Even as the Confederacy was visibly collapsing in 1864–65, he says most Confederate soldiers were fighting hard. [208] Historian Gary Gallagher cites General Sherman who in early 1864 commented, ""The devils seem to have a determination that cannot but be admired."" Despite their loss of slaves and wealth, with starvation looming, Sherman continued, ""yet I see no sign of let up—some few deserters—plenty tired of war, but the masses determined to fight it out."" [209]Also important were Lincoln's eloquence in rationalizing the national purpose and his skill in keeping the border states committed to the Union cause. The Emancipation Proclamation was an effective use of the President's war powers. [210] The Confederate government failed in its attempt to get Europe involved in the war militarily, particularly Britain and France. Southern leaders needed to get European powers to help break up the blockade the Union had created around the Southern ports and cities. Lincoln's naval blockade was 95 percent effective at stopping trade goods; as a result, imports and exports to the South declined significantly. The abundance of European cotton and Britain's hostility to the institution of slavery, along with Lincoln's Atlantic and Gulf of Mexico naval blockades, severely decreased any chance that either Britain or France would enter the war. [211]Historian Don Doyle has argued that the Union victory had a major impact on the course of world history. [212] The Union victory energized popular democratic forces. A Confederate victory, on the other hand, would have meant a new birth of slavery, not freedom. Historian Fergus Bordewich, following Doyle, argues that: The North's victory decisively proved the durability of democratic government. Confederate independence, on the other hand, would have established an American model for reactionary politics and race-based repression that would likely have cast an international shadow into the twentieth century and perhaps beyond."" [213]Scholars have debated what the effects of the war were on political and economic power in the South. [214] The prevailing view is that the southern planter elite retained its powerful position in the South. [214] However, a 2017 study challenges this, noting that while some Southern elites retained their economic status, the turmoil of the 1860s created greater opportunities for economic mobility in the South than in the North. [214]Costs One in thirteen veterans were amputees. Remains of both sides were reinterred. National cemetery in Andersonville, GA. The war resulted in at least 1,030,000 casualties (3 percent of the population), including about 620,000 soldier deaths—two-thirds by disease, and 50,000 civilians. [11] Binghamton University historian J. David Hacker believes the number of soldier deaths was approximately 750,000, 20 percent higher than traditionally estimated, and possibly as high as 850,000. [21] [215] The war accounted for more American deaths than in all other U. S. wars combined. [216]Based on 1860 census figures, 8 percent of all white males aged 13 to 43 died in the war, including 6 percent in the North and 18 percent in the South. [217] [218] About 56,000 soldiers died in prison camps during the War. [219] An estimated 60,000 men lost limbs in the war. [220]Union army dead, amounting to 15 percent of the over two million who served, was broken down as follows: [6]110,070 killed in action (67,000) or died of wounds (43,000).199,790 died of disease (75 percent was due to the war, the remainder would have occurred in civilian life anyway)24,866 died in Confederate prison camps9,058 killed by accidents or drowning15,741 other/unknown deaths359,528 total dead In addition there were 4,523 deaths in the Navy (2,112 in battle) and 460 in the Marines (148 in battle). [7]Black troops made up 10 percent of the Union death toll, they amounted to 15 percent of disease deaths but less than 3 percent of those killed in battle. [6] Losses among African Americans were high, in the last year and a half and from all reported casualties, approximately 20 percent of all African Americans enrolled in the military lost their lives during the Civil War. [221]: 16 Notably, their mortality rate was significantly higher than white soldiers: [We] find, according to the revised official data, that of the slightly over two millions troops in the United States Volunteers, over 316,000 died (from all causes), or 15.2 percent. Of the 67,000 Regular Army (white) troops, 8.6 percent, or not quite 6,000, died. Of the approximately 180,000 United States Colored Troops, however, over 36,000 died, or 20.5 percent. In other words, the mortality ""rate"" amongst the United States Colored Troops in the Civil War was thirty-five percent greater than that among other troops, notwithstanding the fact that the former were not enrolled until some eighteen months after the fighting began. [221]: 16Confederate records compiled by historian William F. Fox list 74,524 killed and died of wounds and 59,292 died of disease. Including Confederate estimates of battle losses where no records exist would bring the Confederate death toll to 94,000 killed and died of wounds. Fox complained, however, that records were incomplete, especially during the last year of the war, and that battlefield reports likely under-counted deaths (many men counted as wounded in battlefield reports subsequently died of their wounds). Thomas L. Livermore, using Fox's data, put the number of Confederate non-combat deaths at 166,000, using the official estimate of Union deaths from disease and accidents and a comparison of Union and Confederate enlistment records, for a total of 260,000 deaths. [6] However, this excludes the 30,000 deaths of Confederate troops in prisons, which would raise the minimum number of deaths to 290,000. The United States National Park Service uses the following figures in its official tally of war losses: [2]Union: 853,838110,100 killed in action224,580 disease deaths275,154 wounded in action211,411 captured (including 30,192 who died as POWs)Confederate: 914,66094,000 killed in action164,000 disease deaths194,026 wounded in action462,634 captured (including 31,000 who died as POWs)Burying Union dead on the Antietam battlefield, 1862While the figures of 360,000 army deaths for the Union and 260,000 for the Confederacy remained commonly cited, they are incomplete. In addition to many Confederate records being missing, partly as a result of Confederate widows not reporting deaths due to being ineligible for benefits, both armies only counted troops who died during their service, and not the tens of thousands who died of wounds or diseases after being discharged. This often happened only a few days or weeks later. Francis Amasa Walker, Superintendent of the 1870 Census, used census and Surgeon General data to estimate a minimum of 500,000 Union military deaths and 350,000 Confederate military deaths, for a total death toll of 850,000 soldiers. While Walker's estimates were originally dismissed because of the 1870 Census's undercounting, it was later found that the census was only off by 6.5%, and that the data Walker used would be roughly accurate. [215]Analyzing the number of dead by using census data to calculate the deviation of the death rate of men of fighting age from the norm suggests that at least 627,000 and at most 888,000, but most likely 761,000 soldiers, died in the war. [22] This would break down to approximately 350,000 Confederate and 411,000 Union military deaths, going by the proportion of Union to Confederate battle losses. Deaths among former slaves has proven much harder to estimate, due to the lack of reliable census data at the time, though they were known to be considerable, as former slaves were set free or escaped in massive numbers in an area where the Union army did not have sufficient shelter, doctors, or food for them. University of Connecticut Professor James Downs states that tens to hundreds of thousands of slaves died during the war from disease, starvation, exposure, or execution at the hands of the Confederates, and that if these deaths are counted in the war's total, the death toll would exceed 1 million. [222]Losses were far higher than during the recent defeat of Mexico, which saw roughly thirteen thousand American deaths, including fewer than two thousand killed in battle, between 1846 and 1848. One reason for the high number of battle deaths during the war was the continued use of tactics similar to those of the Napoleonic Wars at the turn of the century, such as charging. With the advent of more accurate rifled barrels, Minié balls and (near the end of the war for the Union army) repeating firearms such as the Spencer Repeating Rifle and the Henry Repeating Rifle, soldiers were mowed down when standing in lines in the open. This led to the adoption of trench warfare, a style of fighting that defined much of World War I. [223]The wealth amassed in slaves and slavery for the Confederacy's 3.5 million blacks effectively ended when Union armies arrived; they were nearly all freed by the Emancipation Proclamation. Slaves in the border states and those located in some former Confederate territory occupied before the Emancipation Proclamation were freed by state action or (on December 6, 1865) by the Thirteenth Amendment. [224]The war destroyed much of the wealth that had existed in the South. All accumulated investment Confederate bonds was forfeit; most banks and railroads were bankrupt. Income per person in the South dropped to less than 40 percent of that of the North, a condition that lasted until well into the 20th century. Southern influence in the U. S. federal government, previously considerable, was greatly diminished until the latter half of the 20th century. [225] The full restoration of the Union was the work of a highly contentious postwar era known as Reconstruction. Emancipation Slavery as a war issue While not all Southerners saw themselves as fighting to preserve slavery, most of the officers and over a third of the rank and file in Lee 's army had close family ties to slavery. To Northerners, in contrast, the motivation was primarily to preserve the Union, not to abolish slavery. [226] Abraham Lincoln consistently made preserving the Union the central goal of the war, though he increasingly saw slavery as a crucial issue and made ending it an additional goal. [227] Lincoln's decision to issue the Emancipation Proclamation angered both Peace Democrats (""Copperheads"") and War Democrats, but energized most Republicans. [228] By warning that free blacks would flood the North, Democrats made gains in the 1862 elections, but they did not gain control of Congress. The Republicans' counterargument that slavery was the mainstay of the enemy steadily gained support, with the Democrats losing decisively in the 1863 elections in the northern state of Ohio when they tried to resurrect anti-black sentiment. [229]Emancipation Proclamation Main article: Emancipation Proclamation Left: Contrabands —fugitive slaves—cooks, laundresses, laborers, teamsters, railroad repair crews—fled to the Union Army, but were not officially freed until 1863. Emancipation Proclamation . Right: In 1863, the Union army accepted Freedmen. Seen here are Black and White teen-aged soldiers. The Emancipation Proclamation enabled African-Americans, both free blacks and escaped slaves, to join the Union Army. [e] About 190,000 volunteered, further enhancing the numerical advantage the Union armies enjoyed over the Confederates, who did not dare emulate the equivalent manpower source for fear of fundamentally undermining the legitimacy of slavery. [f]During the Civil War, sentiment concerning slaves, enslavement and emancipation in the United States was divided. In 1861, Lincoln worried that premature attempts at emancipation would mean the loss of the border states, and that ""to lose Kentucky is nearly the same as to lose the whole game."" [235] Copperheads and some War Democrats opposed emancipation, although the latter eventually accepted it as part of total war needed to save the Union. [236]At first, Lincoln reversed attempts at emancipation by Secretary of War Simon Cameron and Generals John C. Frémont (in Missouri) and David Hunter (in South Carolina, Georgia and Florida) to keep the loyalty of the border states and the War Democrats. Lincoln warned the border states that a more radical type of emancipation would happen if his gradual plan based on compensated emancipation and voluntary colonization was rejected. [237] But only the District of Columbia accepted Lincoln's gradual plan, which was enacted by Congress. When Lincoln told his cabinet about his proposed emancipation proclamation, Seward advised Lincoln to wait for a victory before issuing it, as to do otherwise would seem like ""our last shriek on the retreat"". [238] Lincoln laid the groundwork for public support in an open letter published in abolitionist Horace Greeley's newspaper. [239]In September 1862, the Battle of Antietam provided this opportunity, and the subsequent War Governors' Conference added support for the proclamation. [240] Lincoln issued his preliminary Emancipation Proclamation on September 22, 1862, and his final Emancipation Proclamation on January 1, 1863. In his letter to Albert G. Hodges, Lincoln explained his belief that ""If slavery is not wrong, nothing is wrong ... And yet I have never understood that the Presidency conferred upon me an unrestricted right to act officially upon this judgment and feeling ... I claim not to have controlled events, but confess plainly that events have controlled me."" [241]Lincoln's moderate approach succeeded in inducing border states, War Democrats and emancipated slaves to fight for the Union. The Union-controlled border states (Kentucky, Missouri, Maryland, Delaware and West Virginia) and Union-controlled regions around New Orleans, Norfolk and elsewhere, were not covered by the Emancipation Proclamation. All abolished slavery on their own, except Kentucky and Delaware. [242]Since the Emancipation Proclamation was based on the President's war powers, it only included territory held by Confederates at the time. However, the Proclamation became a symbol of the Union's growing commitment to add emancipation to the Union's definition of liberty. [243] The Emancipation Proclamation greatly reduced the Confederacy's hope of getting aid from Britain or France. [244] By late 1864, Lincoln was playing a leading role in getting Congress to vote for the Thirteenth Amendment, which made emancipation universal and permanent. [245]Texas v. White In Texas v. White, 74 U. S. 700 (1869) the United States Supreme Court ruled that Texas had remained a state ever since it first joined the Union, despite claims that it joined the Confederate States; the court further held that the Constitution did not permit states to unilaterally secede from the United States, and that the ordinances of secession, and all the acts of the legislatures within seceding states intended to give effect to such ordinances, were ""absolutely null "", under the constitution. [246]Reconstruction Main article: Reconstruction Era Northern teachers traveled into the South to provide education and training for the newly freed population. Reconstruction began during the war, with the Emancipation Proclamation of January 1, 1863, and it continued until 1877. [247] It comprised multiple complex methods to resolve the outstanding issues of the war's aftermath, the most important of which were the three "" Reconstruction Amendments "" to the Constitution, which remain in effect to the present time: the 13th (1865), the 14th (1868) and the 15th (1870). From the Union perspective, the goals of Reconstruction were to consolidate the Union victory on the battlefield by reuniting the Union; to guarantee a "" republican form of government for the ex-Confederate states; and to permanently end slavery—and prevent semi-slavery status. [248]President Johnson took a lenient approach and saw the achievement of the main war goals as realized in 1865, when each ex-rebel state repudiated secession and ratified the Thirteenth Amendment. Radical Republicans demanded proof that Confederate nationalism was dead and that the slaves were truly free. They came to the fore after the 1866 elections and undid much of Johnson's work. In 1872 the ""Liberal Republicans"" argued that the war goals had been achieved and that Reconstruction should end. They ran a presidential ticket in 1872 but were decisively defeated. In 1874, Democrats, primarily Southern, took control of Congress and opposed any more reconstruction. The Compromise of 1877 closed with a national consensus that the Civil War had finally ended. [249] With the withdrawal of federal troops, however, whites retook control of every Southern legislature; the Jim Crow period of disenfranchisement and legal segregation was about to begin. Memory and historiography Left: Monument to the Grand Army of the Republic, a Union veteran organization Right: Cherokee Confederates reunion in New Orleans, 1903The Civil War is one of the central events in American collective memory. There are innumerable statues, commemorations, books and archival collections. The memory includes the home front, military affairs, the treatment of soldiers, both living and dead, in the war's aftermath, depictions of the war in literature and art, evaluations of heroes and villains, and considerations of the moral and political lessons of the war. [250] The last theme includes moral evaluations of racism and slavery, heroism in combat and heroism behind the lines, and the issues of democracy and minority rights, as well as the notion of an "" Empire of Liberty "" influencing the world. [251]Professional historians have paid much more attention to the causes of the war, than to the war itself. Military history has largely developed outside academe, leading to a proliferation of solid studies by non-scholars who are thoroughly familiar with the primary sources, pay close attention to battles and campaigns, and write for the large public readership, rather than the small scholarly community. Bruce Catton and Shelby Foote are among the best-known writers. [252] [253] Practically every major figure in the war, both North and South, has had a serious biographical study. [254] Deeply religious Southerners saw the hand of God in history, which demonstrated His wrath at their sinfulness, or His rewards for their suffering. Historian Wilson Fallin has examined the sermons of white and black Baptist preachers after the War. Southern white preachers said: God had chastised them and given them a special mission—to maintain orthodoxy, strict biblicism, personal piety, and traditional race relations. Slavery, they insisted, had not been sinful. Rather, emancipation was a historical tragedy and the end of Reconstruction was a clear sign of God's favor. [255]In sharp contrast, Black preachers interpreted the Civil War as: God's gift of freedom. They appreciated opportunities to exercise their independence, to worship in their own way, to affirm their worth and dignity, and to proclaim the fatherhood of God and the brotherhood of man. Most of all, they could form their own churches, associations, and conventions. These institutions offered self-help and racial uplift, and provided places where the gospel of liberation could be proclaimed. As a result, black preachers continued to insist that God would protect and help him; God would be their rock in a stormy land. [256]Lost Cause Main article: Lost Cause of the Confederacy Memory of the war in the white South crystallized in the myth of the ""Lost Cause"", shaping regional identity and race relations for generations. [257] Alan T. Nolan notes that the Lost Cause was expressly ""a rationalization, a cover-up to vindicate the name and fame"" of those in rebellion. Some claims revolve around the insignificance of slavery; some appeals highlight cultural differences between North and South; the military conflict by Confederate actors is idealized; in any case, secession was said to be lawful. [258] Nolan argues that the adoption of the Lost Cause perspective facilitated the reunification of the North and the South while excusing the ""virulent racism"" of the 19th century, sacrificing African-American progress to a white man's reunification. He also deems the Lost Cause ""a caricature of the truth. This caricature wholly misrepresents and distorts the facts of the matter"" in every instance. [259]Beardian historiography The interpretation of the Civil War presented by Charles A. Beard and Mary R. Beard in The Rise of American Civilization (1927) was highly influential among historians and the general public until the civil rights movement of the 1950s and 1960s. The Beards downplayed slavery, abolitionism, and issues of morality. They ignored constitutional issues of states' rights and even ignored American nationalism as the force that finally led to victory in the war. Indeed, the ferocious combat itself was passed over as merely an ephemeral event. Much more important was the calculus of class conflict. The Beards announced that the Civil War was really: [A] social cataclysm in which the capitalists, laborers, and farmers of the North and West drove from power in the national government the planting aristocracy of the South. [260]The Beards themselves abandoned their interpretation by the 1940s and it became defunct among historians in the 1950s, when scholars shifted to an emphasis on slavery. However, Beardian themes still echo among Lost Cause writers. [261]Battlefield preservation Beginning in 1961 the U. S. Post Office released Commemorative stamps for five famous battles, each issued on the 100th anniversary of the respective battle. The first efforts at Civil War battlefield preservation and memorialization came during the war itself with the establishment of National Cemeteries at Gettysburg, Mill Springs and Chattanooga. Soldiers began erecting markers on battlefields beginning with the First Battle of Bull Run in July 1861, but the oldest surviving monument is the Hazen monument, erected at Stones River near Murfreesboro, Tennessee, in the summer of 1863 by soldiers in Union Col. William B. Hazen's brigade to mark the spot where they buried their dead in the Battle of Stones River. In the 1890s, the United States government established five Civil War battlefield parks under the jurisdiction of the War Department, beginning with the creation of the Chickamauga and Chattanooga National Military Park in Tennessee and the Antietam National Battlefield in Maryland in 1890. The Shiloh National Military Park was established in 1894, followed by the Gettysburg National Military Park in 1895 and Vicksburg National Military Park in 1899. In 1933, these five parks and other national monuments were transferred to the jurisdiction of the National Park Service. [262]The modern Civil War battlefield preservation movement began in 1987 with the founding of the Association for the Preservation of Civil War Sites (APCWS), a grassroots organization created by Civil War historians and others to preserve battlefield land by acquiring it. In 1991, the original Civil War Trust was created in the mold of the Statue of Liberty/Ellis Island Foundation, but failed to attract corporate donors and soon helped manage the disbursement of U. S. Mint Civil War commemorative coin revenues designated for battlefield preservation. Although the two organizations joined forces on a number of battlefield acquisitions, ongoing conflicts prompted the boards of both organizations to facilitate a merger, which happened in 1999 with the creation of the Civil War Preservation Trust. In 2011, the organization was renamed The Civil War Trust. From 1987 through late 2017, The Trust and its predecessor organizations saved more than 40,000 acres at 126 Civil War battlefields and sites in 21 states. [263]Civil War commemoration Main article: Commemoration of the American Civil War See also: Commemoration of the American Civil War on postage stamps Left: Grand Army of the Republic (Union)Right: United Confederate Veterans The American Civil War has been commemorated in many capacities ranging from the reenactment of battles, to statues and memorial halls erected, to films being produced, to stamps and coins with Civil War themes being issued, all of which helped to shape public memory. This varied advent occurred in greater proportions on the 100th and 150th anniversary. [264] Hollywood 's take on the war has been especially influential in shaping public memory, as seen in such film classics as Birth of a Nation (1915), Gone with the Wind (1939), and more recently Lincoln (2012). Ken Burns produced a notable PBS series on television titled The Civil War (1990). It was digitally remastered and re-released in 2015. Technological significance There were numerous technological innovations during the Civil War that had a great impact on 19th century science. The Civil War was one of the earliest examples of an "" industrial war "", in which technological might is used to achieve military supremacy in a war. [265] New inventions, such as the train and telegraph, delivered soldiers, supplies and messages at a time when horses were considered to be the fastest way to travel. [266] [267] It was also in this war when countries first used aerial warfare, in the form of reconnaissance balloons, to a significant effect. [268] It saw the first action involving steam-powered ironclad warships in naval warfare history. [269] Repeating firearms such as the Henry rifle, Spencer rifle, Colt revolving rifle, Triplett & Scott carbine and others, first appeared during the Civil War; they were a revolutionary invention that would soon replace muzzle-loading and single-shot firearms in warfare, as well as the first appearances of rapid-firing weapons and machine guns such as the Agar gun and the Gatling gun. [270]In works of culture and art Literature The Rise and Fall of the Confederate Government (1881) by Jefferson Davis The Red Badge of Courage (1885) by Stephen Crane The Private History of a Campaign That Failed (1885) by Mark Twain Texar's Revenge, or, North Against South (1887) by Jules Verne"" An Occurrence at Owl Creek Bridge "" (1890) by Ambrose Bierce Gone with the Wind (1936) by Margaret Mitchell Shiloh (1952) by Shelby Foote North and South (1982) by John Jakes Oldest Living Confederate Widow Tells All (1989) by Allan Gurganus Film The Birth of a Nation (1915, US)The General (1926, US)Gone with the Wind (1939, US)The Red Badge of Courage (1951, US)The Horse Soldiers (1959, US)Shenandoah (1965, US)The Good, the Bad and the Ugly (1966, Italy-Spain-FRG)The Beguiled (1971, US)Glory (1989, US)The Civil War (1990, US)Gettysburg (1993, US)The Last Outlaw (1993, US)Cold Mountain (2003, US)Gods and Generals (2003, US)North and South (miniseries)Lincoln (2012, US)12 Years a Slave (2012, US)Free State of Jones (2016, US)The Gettysburg Address (2017, US)Song""Johnny Reb"" (1959) written by Merle Kilgore, sung by Johnny Horton"" The Night They Drove Old Dixie Down "" (1969) written by Robbie Robertson, sung by The Band Video games Sid Meier's Gettysburg! (1997, US)Sid Meier's Antietam! (1999, US)American Conqest: Divided Nation (2006, US)Forge of Freedom: The American Civil War (2006, US)The History Channel: Civil War – A Nation Divided (2006, US)Ageod's American Civil War (2007, US/FR)History Civil War: Secret Missions (2008, US)Call of Juarez: Bound in Blood (2009, US)Darkest of Days (2009, US)Victoria II: A House Divided (2011, US)Ageod's American Civil War II (2013, US/FR)Ultimate General: Gettysburg (2014, UKR)Ultimate General: Civil War (2016, UKR)See also General reference Battles of the American Civil War Bibliography of the American Civil War Bibliography of Abraham Lincoln Bibliography of Ulysses S. Grant Corps badges of the American Civil War Costliest Battles of the American Civil War Naval bibliography of the American Civil War Origins of the American Civil War Uniforms of the Confederacy Uniforms of the Union Weapons in the American Civil War Union United States Union Army Union Navy Abraham Lincoln Emancipation Proclamation Confederacy Confederate States Confederate Army Confederate Navy Jefferson Davis Ethnic articles African Americans in the American Civil War German Americans in the American Civil War Irish Americans in the American Civil War Native Americans in the American Civil War American Civil War portal Topical articles Blockade runners of the American Civil War Blockade, Union – of the American Civil War Casualties in the American Civil War Commemoration of the American Civil War Commemoration of the American Civil War on postage stamps Education of freed people during the Civil War Infantry in the American Civil War Modern display of the Confederate flag Nursing in the American Civil War, Dorothea Dix Ships captured during the American Civil War Slavery during the American Civil War Spies in the American Civil War National articles Foreign enlistment in the American Civil War Britain in the American Civil War Canada in the American Civil War Prussia in the American Civil War State articles See articles in the format, ""*state* in the American Civil War""Memorials List of Confederate monuments and memorials List of memorials and monuments at Arlington National Cemetery List of memorials to Jefferson Davis List of memorials to Robert E. Lee List of memorials to Stonewall Jackson List of monuments erected by the United Daughters of the Confederacy List of monuments of the Gettysburg Battlefield List of Union Civil War monuments and memorials Memorials to Abraham Lincoln Removal of Confederate monuments and memorials References Notes^ a b Total number that served^ A novel way of calculating casualties by looking at the deviation of the death rate of men of fighting age from the norm through analysis of census data found that at least 627,000 and at most 888,000 people, but most likely 761,000 people, died through the war. [22]^ ""Union population 1864"" aggregates 1860 population, average annual immigration 1855–1864, and population governed formerly by CSA per Kenneth Martis source. Contrabands and after the Emancipation Proclamation freedmen, migrating into Union control on the coasts and to the advancing armies, and natural increase are excluded.^ ""Slave 1864, CSA"" aggregates 1860 slave census of Virginia, North Carolina, South Carolina, Georgia and Texas. It omits losses from contraband and after the Emancipation Proclamation, freedmen migrating to the Union controlled coastal ports and those joining advancing Union armies, especially in the Mississippi Valley.^ At the beginning of the war, some Union commanders thought they were supposed to return escaped slaves to their masters. By 1862, when it became clear that this would be a long war, the question of what to do about slavery became more general. The Southern economy and military effort depended on slave labor. It began to seem unreasonable to protect slavery while blockading Southern commerce and destroying Southern production. As one Congressman put it, the slaves ""... cannot be neutral. As laborers, if not as soldiers, they will be allies of the rebels, or of the Union."" [230] The same Congressman—and his fellow Radical Republicans—put pressure on Lincoln to rapidly emancipate the slaves, whereas moderate Republicans came to accept gradual, compensated emancipation and colonization. [231] Enslaved African Americans did not wait for Lincoln's action before escaping and seeking freedom behind Union lines. From early years of the war, hundreds of thousands of African Americans escaped to Union lines, especially in occupied areas like Nashville, Norfolk and the Hampton Roads region in 1862, Tennessee from 1862 on, the line of Sherman's march, etc. So many African Americans fled to Union lines that commanders created camps and schools for them, where both adults and children learned to read and write. See Catton, Bruce. Never Call Retreat, p. 335. The American Missionary Association entered the war effort by sending teachers south to such contraband camps, for instance establishing schools in Norfolk and on nearby plantations. In addition, approximately 180,000 or more African-American men served as soldiers and sailors with Union troops. Most of those were escaped slaves. Probably the most prominent of these African-American soldiers is the 54th Massachusetts Volunteer Infantry.^ In spite of the South's shortage of soldiers, most Southern leaders—until 1865—opposed enlisting slaves. They used them as laborers to support the war effort. As Howell Cobb said, ""If slaves will make good soldiers our whole theory of slavery is wrong."" Confederate generals Patrick Cleburne and Robert E. Lee argued in favor of arming blacks late in the war, and Jefferson Davis was eventually persuaded to support plans for arming slaves to avoid military defeat. The Confederacy surrendered at Appomattox before this plan could be implemented. [232] The great majority of the 4 million slaves were freed by the Emancipation Proclamation, as Union armies moved south. Historian John D. Winters referred to the exhilaration of the slaves when the Union Army came through Louisiana: ""As the troops moved up to Alexandria, the Negroes crowded the roadsides to watch the passing army. They were 'all frantic with joy, some weeping, some blessing, and some dancing in the exuberance of their emotions.' All of the Negroes were attracted by the pageantry and excitement of the army. Others cheered because they anticipated the freedom to plunder and to do as they pleased now that the Federal troops were there."" [233] Confederates enslaved captured black Union soldiers, and black soldiers especially were shot when trying to surrender at the Fort Pillow Massacre. See Catton, Bruce. Never Call Retreat, p. 335. This led to a breakdown of the prisoner and mail exchange program and the growth of prison camps such as Andersonville prison in Georgia, where almost 13,000 Union prisoners of war died of starvation and disease. [234]Citations^ a b ""The Belligerent Rights of the Rebels at an End. All Nations Warned Against Harboring Their Privateers. If They Do Their Ships Will be Excluded from Our Ports. Restoration of Law in the State of Virginia. The Machinery of Government to be Put in Motion There"". The New York Times. Associated Press. May 10, 1865. Retrieved December 23, 2013.^ a b c d e f ""Facts"". National Park Service.^ ""Size of the Union Army in the American Civil War"": Of which 131,000 were in the Navy and Marines, 140,000 were garrison troops and home defense militia, and 427,000 were in the field army.^ Long, E. B. The Civil War Day by Day: An Almanac, 1861–1865. Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1971. OCLC 68283123. p. 705.^ ""The war of the rebellion: a compilation of the official records of the Union and Confederate armies. ; Series 4 – Volume 2"", United States. War Dept 1900.^ a b c d e f Fox, William F. Regimental losses in the American Civil War (1889)^ a b c d Official DOD data Archived February 28, 2014, at the Wayback Machine.^ Chambers & Anderson 1999, p. 849.^ 211,411 Union soldiers were captured, and 30,218 died in prison. The ones who died have been excluded to prevent double-counting of casualties.^ 462,634 Confederate soldiers were captured and 25,976 died in prison. The ones who died have been excluded to prevent double-counting of casualties.^ a b Nofi, Al (June 13, 2001). ""Statistics on the War's Costs"". Louisiana State University. Archived from the original on July 11, 2007. Retrieved October 14, 2007.^ Professor James Downs. ""Color blindness in the demographic death toll of the Civil War"". University of Connecticut, April 13th 2012. ""The rough 19th century estimate was that 60,000 former slaves died from the epidemic, but doctors treating black patients often claimed that they were unable to keep accurate records due to demands on their time and the lack of manpower and resources. The surviving records only include the number of black patients whom doctors encountered; tens of thousands of other slaves who died had no contact with army doctors, leaving no records of their deaths."" 60,000 documented plus 'tens of thousands' undocumented gives a minimum of 80,000 slave deaths.^ Recounting the dead, Associate Professor J. David Hacker, "" estimates, based on Census data, indicate that the [military] death toll was approximately 750,000, and may have been as high as 850,000 ""^ Professor James Downs. ""Color blindness in the demographic death toll of the Civil War"". Oxford University Press, April 13th 2012. ""An 2 April 2012 New York Times article, ""New Estimate Raises Civil War Death Toll,"" reports that a new study ratchets up the death toll from an estimated 650,000 to a staggering 850,000 people. As horrific as this new number is, it fails to reflect the mortality of former slaves during the war. If former slaves were included in this figure, the Civil War death toll would likely be over a million casualties ...""^ ""Answers to your Civil War Questions"". Civil War Trust. Civil War Trust. Retrieved 14 Jan 2018.^ Hutchison, Coleman (2015). A History of American Civil War Literature. Cambridge University Press.^ ""Date of Secession Related to 1860 Black Population"", America's Civil War^ Burnham, Walter Dean. Presidential Ballots, 1836–1892. Johns Hopkins University Press, 1955, pp. 247–57^ Deborah Gray White, Mia Bay, and Waldo E. Martin, Jr., Freedom on My Mind: A History of African Americans (New York: Bedford/St. Martin's, 2013), 325.^ Frank J. Williams, ""Doing Less and Doing More: The President and the Proclamation – Legally, Militarily and Politically,"" in Harold Holzer, ed. The Emancipation Proclamation (2006), pp. 74–75.^ a b ""U. S. Civil War Took Bigger Toll Than Previously Estimated, New Analysis Suggests"". Science Daily. September 22, 2011. Retrieved September 22, 2011.^ a b Hacker 2011, p. 307–48.^ Huddleston 2002, p. 3.^ James C. Bradford, A Companion to American Military History (2010), vol. 1, p. 101.^ See also Freehling, William W., The Road to Disunion: Secessionists Triumphant 1854–1861, pp. 9–24, and Martis, Kenneth C., The Historical Atlas of Political Parties in the United States Congress, 1789–1989, ISBN 0-02-920170-5, pp. 111–115, and Foner, Eric. Politics and Ideology in the Age of the Civil War, (Oxford University Press, 1980), pp. 18–20, 21–24.^ Coates, Ta-Nehisi (22 June 2015). ""What This Cruel War Was Over"". The Atlantic. Retrieved 21 December 2016.^ Gallagher, Gary (February 21, 2011). Remembering the Civil War (Speech). Sesquicentennial of the Start of the Civil War. Miller Center of Public Affairs UV: C-Span. Retrieved August 29, 2017. Issues related to the institution of slavery precipitated secession... It was not states’ rights. It was not a tariff. It was not unhappiness with manner and customs that led to secession and eventually to war. It was a cluster of issues profoundly dividing the nation along a fault line delineated by the institution of slavery.^ Mc Pherson, James M. (March 1, 1994). What They Fought For 1861–1865. Louisiana State University Press. p. 62. ISBN 9780807119044. |^ Mc Pherson, James M. (April 3, 1997). For Cause and Comrades. Oxford University Press. p. 39. ISBN 9780195090239.^ Gallagher, Gary (February 21, 2011). Remembering the Civil War (Speech). Sesquicentennial of the Start of the Civil War. Miller Center of Public Affairs UV: C-Span. Retrieved August 29, 2017. The loyal citizenry initially gave very little thought to emancipation in their quest to save the union. Most loyal citizens, though profoundly prejudice by 21st century standards, embraced emancipation as a tool to punish slave holders, weaken the confederacy, and protect the union from future internal strife. A minority of the white populous invoked moral grounds to attack slavery, though their arguments carried far less popular weight than those presenting emancipation as a military measure necessary to defeat the rebels and restore the Union.^ Eskridge, Larry (January 29, 2011). ""After 150 years, we still ask: Why 'this cruel war'?"". Canton Daily Ledger. Canton, Illinois. Archived from the original on February 1, 2011. Retrieved January 29, 2011.^ Weeks 2013, p. 240.^ Olsen 2002, p. 237.^ Chadwick, French Esnor. Causes of the civil war, 1859–1861 (1906) p. 8^ Thomas Fleming (2014). A Disease in the Public Mind: A New Understanding of Why We Fought the Civil War. ISBN 978-0306822957.^ Charles S. Sydnor, The Development of Southern Sectionalism 1819–1848 (1948).^ Robert Royal Russel, Economic Aspects of Southern Sectionalism, 1840–1861 (1973).^ Ahlstrom 1972, p. 648–649.^ Kenneth M. Stampp, The Imperiled Union: Essays on the Background of the Civil War (1981), p. 198; Richard Hofstadter, The Progressive Historians: Turner, Beard, Parrington (1969).^ Woodworth 1996, p. 145, 151, 505, 512, 554, 557, 684.^ Thornton & Ekelund 2004, p. 21.^ Frank Taussig, The Tariff History of the United States (1931), pp. 115–61^ Hofstadter 1938, p. 50–55.^ Robert Gray Gunderson, Old Gentleman's Convention: The Washington Peace Conference of 1861. (1961)^ Jon L. Wakelyn (1996). Southern Pamphlets on Secession, November 1860 – April 1861. U. of North Carolina Press. pp. 23–30. ISBN 978-0-8078-6614-6.^ Forrest Mc Donald, States' Rights and the Union: Imperium in Imperio, 1776–1876 (2002).^ Mc Pherson 2007, pp. 3–9.^ Krannawitter 2008, p. 49–50.^ Mc Pherson 2007, p. 14.^ Stampp 1990, p. 190–93.^ Mc Pherson 2007, pp. 13–14.^ Bestor 1964, p. 19.^ Mc Pherson 2007, p. 16.^ Bestor 1964, pp. 19–21.^ Bestor 1964, p. 20.^ Russell 1966, p. 468–69.^ Bestor, Arthur. ""The American Civil War as a Constitutional Crisis"", in Lawrence Meir Friedman (ed.) ""American Law and the Constitutional Order: Historical Perspectives, ISBN 978-0-674-02527-1 p. 231^ Bestor 1964, pp. 21–23.^ Johannsen 1973, p. 406.^ ""Territorial Politics and Government"". Territorial Kansas Online: University of Kansas and Kansas Historical Society. Retrieved July 10, 2014. Finteg^ Bestor 1964, p. 21.^ Bestor 1964, p. 23.^ Varon 2008, p. 58.^ Russell 1966, p. 470.^ Bestor 1964, p. 23–24.^ Mc Pherson 2007, p. 7.^ Krannawitter 2008, p. 232.^ Gara, 1964, p. 190^ Bestor 1964, p. 24–25.^ Potter 1962, p. 924–50.^ C. Vann Woodward (1971), American Counterpoint: Slavery and Racism in the North-South Dialogue, p. 281.^ Bertram Wyatt-Brown, The Shaping of Southern Culture: Honor, Grace, and War, 1760s–1880s (2000).^ Avery Craven, The Growth of Southern Nationalism, 1848–1861 (1953).^ ""Republican Platform of 1860,"" in Kirk H. Porter, and Donald Bruce Johnson, eds. National Party Platforms, 1840–1956, (University of Illinois Press, 1956). p. 32.^ Susan-Mary Grant, North over South: Northern Nationalism and American Identity in the Antebellum Era (2000); Melinda Lawson, Patriot Fires: Forging a New American Nationalism in the Civil War North (2005).^ Potter & Fehrenbacher 1976, p. 485.^ Jaffa, Harry V. (2000). A New Birth of Freedom: Abraham Lincoln and the Coming of the Civil War. Rowman & Littlefield. ISBN 0-8476-9952-8. p. 1^ Ordinances of Secession by State Archived 2004-06-11 at the Wayback Machine .. Retrieved November 28, 2012.^ The text of the Declaration of the Immediate Causes Which Induce and Justify the Secession of South Carolina from the Federal Union.^ The text of A Declaration of the Immediate Causes which Induce and Justify the Secession of the State of Mississippi from the Federal Union. Retrieved November 28, 2012.^ The text of Georgia's secession declaration. Retrieved November 28, 2012.^ The text of A Declaration of the Causes which Impel the State of Texas to Secede from the Federal Union. Retrieved November 28, 2012.^ Mc Pherson 1988, p. 24.^ President James Buchanan, Message of December 8, 1860. Retrieved November 28, 2012.^ ""Profile Showing the Grades upon the Different Routes Surveyed for the Union Pacific Rail Road Between the Missouri River and the Valley of the Platte River"". World Digital Library. 1865. Retrieved July 16, 2013.^ Rhodes, James Ford. History of the United States from the compromise of 1850 to the Mc Kinley-Bryan campaign of 1896 Volume III (1920) pp. 41–66^ Rhodes, James Ford. History of the United States from the compromise of 1850 to the Mc Kinley-Bryan campaign of 1896 Volume III (1920) pp. 147–52^ Mc Pherson 1988, pp. 234–266.^ a b Abraham Lincoln, First Inaugural Address, Monday, March 4, 1861.^ a b Potter & Fehrenbacher 1976, p. 572–73.^ Allan Nevins, The War for the Union: The Improvised War 1861–1862 (1959), pp. 74–75.^ James Ford Rhodes, History of the United States from the compromise of 1850 to the Mc Kinley-Bryan campaign of 1896 Volume III (1920) pp. 291–92^ Mc Pherson 1988, p. 274.^ Howard Louis Conard (1901). Encyclopedia of the History of Missouri. p. 45.^ ""Abraham Lincoln: Proclamation 83 – Increasing the Size of the Army and Navy"". Presidency.ucsb.edu. Retrieved November 3, 2011.^ Mc Pherson 1988, pp. 276–307.^ ""Civil War and the Maryland General Assembly, Maryland State Archives"". msa.maryland.gov. Retrieved May 28, 2017.^ a b ""Teaching American History in Maryland – Documents for the Classroom: Arrest of the Maryland Legislature, 1861 "". Maryland State Archives. 2005. Archived from the original on January 11, 2008. Retrieved February 6, 2008.^ Mc Pherson 1988, p. 284–87.^ William C. Harris, Lincoln and the Border States: Preserving the Union (University Press of Kansas, 2011), p. 71,^ Howard, F. K. (Frank Key) (1863). Fourteen Months in American Bastiles. London: H. F. Mackintosh. Retrieved August 18, 2014.^ Nevins, The War for the Union (1959), 1:119–29.^ Nevins, The War for the Union (1959), 1:129–36.^ ""A State of Convenience, The Creation of West Virginia"". West Virginia Archives & History. Retrieved April 20, 2012.^ Curry, Richard Orr (1964), A House Divided, A Study of the Statehood Politics & the Copperhead Movement in West Virginia, University of Pittsburgh Press, map on p. 49.^ Mc Pherson 1988, p. 303.^ Weigley 2004, p. 55.^ Snell, Mark A., West Virginia and the Civil War, History Press, Charleston, SC, 2011, p. 28.^ Neely 1993, p. 10–11.^ Keegan, ""The American Civil War"", p. 73. Over 10,000 military engagements took place during the war, 40 percent of them in Virginia and Tennessee. See Gabor Boritt, ed. War Comes Again (1995), p. 247.^ ""With an actual strength of 1,080 officers and 14,926 enlisted men on June 30, 1860, the Regular Army ..."" Civil War Extracts pp. 199–221, American Military History.^ E. Merton Coulter, Confederate States of America (1950) p. 308. John G. Nicolay and John Hay ( Abraham Lincoln: a history, vol. 4, p. 264) state: ""Since the organization of the Montgomery government in February, some four different calls for Southern volunteers had been made ... In his message of April 29 to the rebel Congress, Jefferson Davis proposed to organize for instant action an army of 100,000 ..."" Coulter reports that Alexander Stephens took this to mean Davis wanted unilateral control of a standing army, and from that moment on became his implacable opponent.^ Albert Burton Moore. Conscription and Conflict in the Confederacy (1924) online edition.^ Albert Bernhardt Faust, The German Element in the United States (1909) v. 1, p. 523 online. The railroads and banks grew rapidly. See Oberholtzer, Ellis Paxson. Jay Cooke: Financier Of The Civil War (1907), Vol. 2 at Google Books, pp. 378–430. See also Oberholtzer, A History of the United States Since the Civil War (1926), 3:69–122.^ Barnet Schecter, The Devil's Own Work: The Civil War Draft Riots and the Fight to Reconstruct America (2007).^ Eugene Murdock, One Million Men: the Civil War draft in the North (1971).^ Judith Lee Hallock, ""The Role of the Community in Civil War Desertion."" Civil War History (1983) 29#2 pp. 123–34. online^ Peter S. Bearman, ""Desertion as localism: Army unit solidarity and group norms in the U. S. Civil War."" Social Forces (1991) 70#2 pp. 321–42 in JSTOR.^ Robert Fantina, Desertion and the American soldier, 1776–2006 (2006), p. 74.^ Keegan 2009, p. 57.^ Perman & Taylor 2010, p. 177.^ Roger Pickenpaugh (2013). Captives in Blue: The Civil War Prisons of the Confederacy. University of Alabama Press. pp. 57–73.^ Tucker, Pierpaoli & White 2010, p. 1466.^ Welles 1865, p. 152.^ Tucker, Pierpaoli & White 2010, p. 462.^ Canney 1998, p. ?.^ Richter 2009, p. 49.^ Johnson 1998, p. 228.^ Anderson 1989, pp. 288–89, 296–98.^ Nelson 2005, p. 92.^ a b Anderson 1989, p. 300.^ Gerald F. Teaster and Linda and James Treaster Ambrose, The Confederate Submarine H. L. Hunley (1989)^ Nelson 2005, p. 345.^ Fuller 2008, p. 36.^ Stern 1962, pp. 224–225.^ Mark E. Neely, Jr. ""The Perils of Running the Blockade: The Influence of International Law in an Era of Total War,"" Civil War History (1986) 32#2, pp. 101–18 in Project MUSE^ Stephen R. Wise, Lifeline of the Confederacy: Blockade Running during the Civil War (1991)^ Surdam, David G. (1998). ""The Union Navy's blockade reconsidered"". Naval War College Review. 51 (4): 85–107.^ David G. Surdam, Northern Naval Superiority and the Economics of the American Civil War (University of South Carolina Press, 2001).^ Jones 2002, p. 225.^ Anderson 1989, p. 91.^ Whitsell, Robert D. (1963). ""Military and Naval Activity between Cairo and Columbus"". Register of the Kentucky Historical Society. 62 (2): 107–21.^ Myron J. Smith, Tinclads in the Civil War: Union Light-Draught Gunboat Operations on Western Waters, 1862–1865 (2009).^ Frank & Reaves 2003, p. 170.^ Symonds & Clipson 2001, p. 92.^ Ronald Scott Mangum, ""The Vicksburg Campaign: A Study In Joint Operations,"" Parameters: U. S. Army War College (1991) 21#3, pp. 74–86 online^ Foote 1974, p. 464–519.^ Bruce Catton, Terrible Swift Sword, pp. 263–96.^ Mc Pherson 1988, pp. 424–27.^ a b Mc Pherson 1988, pp. 538–44.^ Mc Pherson 1988, pp. 528–33.^ Mc Pherson 1988, pp. 543–45.^ Mc Pherson 1988, pp. 557–558.^ Mc Pherson 1988, pp. 571–74.^ Mc Pherson 1988, pp. 639–45.^ Jonathan A. Noyalas (3 Dec 2010). Stonewall Jackson's 1862 Valley Campaign. Arcadia Publishing. p. 93.^ Mc Pherson 1988, pp. 653–663.^ Mc Pherson 1988, p. 664.^ Mc Pherson 1988, pp. 404–05.^ Mc Pherson 1988, pp. 418–20.^ Mc Pherson 1988, pp. 419–20.^ Mc Pherson 1988, pp. 480–83.^ Mc Pherson 1988, pp. 405–13.^ Mc Pherson 1988, pp. 637–38.^ Mc Pherson 1988, pp. 677–80.^ a b Keegan 2009, p. 270.^ Keegan 2009, p. 100.^ James B. Martin, Third War: Irregular Warfare on the Western Border 1861–1865 (Combat Studies Institute Leavenworth Paper series, number 23, 2012). See also, Michael Fellman, Inside War: The Guerrilla Conflict in Missouri during the Civil War (1989). Missouri alone was the scene of over 1,000 engagements between regular units, and uncounted numbers of guerrilla attacks and raids by informal pro-Confederate bands, especially in the recently settled western counties.^ Bohl, Sarah (2004). ""A War on Civilians: Order Number 11 and the Evacuation of Western Missouri"". Prologue. 36 (1): 44–51.^ Graves, William H. (1991). ""Indian Soldiers for the Gray Army: Confederate Recruitment in Indian Territory"". Chronicles of Oklahoma. 69 (2): 134–145.^ Neet, J. Frederick; Jr (1996). ""Stand Watie: Confederate General in the Cherokee Nation"". Great Plains Journal. 6 (1): 36–51.^ Keegan 2009, p. 220–21.^ Mark E. Neely Jr.; ""Was the Civil War a Total War?"" Civil War History, Vol. 50, 2004, pp. 434+.^ U. S. Grant (1990). Personal Memoirs of U. S. Grant; Selected Letters. Library of America. p. 247. ISBN 0-940450-58-5.^ Ron Field (2013). Petersburg 1864–65: The Longest Siege. Osprey Publishing. p. 6.^ Mc Pherson 1988, pp. 724–42.^ Mc Pherson 1988, pp. 778–79.^ Mc Pherson 1988, pp. 773–76.^ Mc Pherson 1988, pp. 812–15.^ Mc Pherson 1988, pp. 825–30.^ Mc Pherson 1988, pp. 846–47.^ William Marvel, Lee's Last Retreat: The Flight to Appomattox (2002), pp. 158–81.^ Unaware of the surrender of Lee, on April 16 the last major battles of the war were fought at the Battle of Columbus, Georgia and the Battle of West Point.^ http://www.civilwar.org/education/history/end-of-war/smith-surrenders.html General Kirby Smith Surrenders the Trans-Mississippi Forces Archived February 7, 2016, at the Wayback Machine. Web. Retrieved February 6, 2016.^ Morris, John Wesley, Ghost towns of Oklahoma, University of Oklahoma Press, 1977, pp. 68–69, ISBN 0-8061-1420-7^ Mc Pherson 1988, pp. 546–57.^ Herring 2011, p. 237.^ a b Mc Pherson 1988, p. 386.^ Allan Nevins, War for the Union 1862–1863, pp. 263–64.^ Don H. Doyle, The Cause of All Nations: An International History of the American Civil War (2014), pp. 8 (quote), 69–70.^ Richard Huzzeym, Freedom Burning: Anti-Slavery and Empire in Victorian Britain (2013)^ Stephen B. Oates, The Approaching Fury: Voices of the Storm 1820–1861, p. 125.^ Herring 2011, p. 261.^ Mc Pherson 1988, p. 851.^ Mc Pherson 1988, p. 855.^ a b James Mc Pherson, Why did the Confederacy Lose?. p. ?.^ Railroad length is from: Chauncey Depew (ed. ), One Hundred Years of American Commerce 1795–1895, p. 111; For other data see: 1860 U. S. Census and Carter, Susan B., ed. The Historical Statistics of the United States: Millennial Edition (5 vols), 2006.^ Martis, Kenneth C., ""The Historical Atlas of the Congresses of the Confederate States of America: 1861–1865"" Simon & Schuster (1994) ISBN 0-13-389115-1 p. 27. At the beginning of 1865, the Confederacy controlled one-third of its congressional districts, which were apportioned by population. The major slave-populations found in Louisiana, Mississippi, Tennessee, and Alabama were effectively under Union control by the end of 1864.^ Digital History Reader, U. S. Railroad Construction, 1860–1880 Virginia Tech, Retrieved August 21, 2012. ""Total Union railroad miles"" aggregates existing track reported 1860 @ 21800 plus new construction 1860–1864 @ 5000, plus southern railroads administered by USMRR @ 2300.^ Mc Pherson 1988, pp. 771–72.^ Murray, Bernstein & Knox 1996, p. 235.^ Heidler Heidler Coles 2002, p. 1207–10.^ Ward 1990, p. 272.^ E. Merton Coulter, The Confederate States of America, 1861–1865 (1950), p. 566.^ Richard E. Beringer, Herman Hattaway, Archer Jones and William N. Still Jr, Why the South Lost the Civil War (1991), ch 1.^ Armstead Robinson, Bitter Fruits of Bondage: The Demise of Slavery and the Collapse of the Confederacy, 1861–1865 (University of Virginia Press, 2004)^ see Alan Farmer, History Review (2005), No. 52: 15–20.^ Mc Pherson 1997, pp. 169–72.^ Gallagher 1999, p. 57.^ Fehrenbacher, Don (2004). ""Lincoln's Wartime Leadership: The First Hundred Days"". University of Illinois. Retrieved October 16, 2007.^ Mc Pherson 1988, pp. 382–88.^ Don H. Doyle, The Cause of All Nations: An International History of the American Civil War (2014).^ Fergus M. Bordewich, ""The World Was Watching: America's Civil War slowly came to be seen as part of a global struggle against oppressive privilege"", Wall Street Journal (February 7–8, 2015).^ a b c Dupont, Brandon; Rosenbloom, Joshua L. ""The Economic Origins of the Postwar Southern Elite"". Explorations in Economic History. doi: 10.1016/j.eeh.2017.09.002.^ a b Hacker, J. David (September 20, 2011). ""Recounting the Dead"". The New York Times. The New York Times Company. Associated Press. Retrieved September 22, 2011.^ Mc Pherson 1988, p. xix.^ Vinovskis 1990, p. 7.^ Richard Wightman Fox (2008)."" National Life After Death "". Slate.com.^ "" U. S. Civil War Prison Camps Claimed Thousands "". National Geographic News. July 1, 2003.^ Teresa Riordan (March 8, 2004). ""When Necessity Meets Ingenuity: Art of Restoring What's Missing"". The New York Times. The New York Times Company. Associated Press. Retrieved December 23, 2013.^ a b Herbert Aptheker, ""Negro Casualties in the Civil War"", The Journal of Negro History, Vol. 32, No. 1. (January 1947).^ Professor James Downs. ""Sick from Freedom: African-American Illness and Suffering during the Civil War and Reconstruction"". January 1, 2012.^ Ron Field and Peter Dennis (2013). American Civil War Fortifications (2): Land and Field Fortifications. Osprey Publishing. p. 4.^ Claudia Goldin, ""The economics of emancipation."" The Journal of Economic History 33#1 (1973): 66–85.^ The Economist, "" The Civil War: Finally Passing "", April 2, 2011, pp. 23–25.^ Foner 1981, p. ?.^ Foner 2010, p. 74.^ Mc Pherson, pp. 506–8.^ Mc Pherson. p. 686.^ Mc Pherson 1988, p. 495.^ Mc Pherson 1988, pp. 355, 494–96, 495.^ Mc Pherson 1988, pp. 831–37.^ Winters 1963, p. 237.^ Mc Pherson 1988, pp. 791–98.^ Lincoln's letter to O. H. Browning, September 22, 1861. Sentiment among German Americans was largely anti-slavery especially among Forty-Eighters, resulting in hundreds of thousands of German Americans volunteering to fight for the Union. "" Wittke, Carl (1952). ""Refugees of Revolution"". Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania press. "", Christian B. Keller, ""Flying Dutchmen and Drunken Irishmen: The Myths and Realities of Ethnic Civil War Soldiers"", Journal of Military History, Vol/ 73, No. 1, January 2009, pp. 117–45; for primary sources see Walter D. Kamphoefner and Wolfgang Helbich, eds, Germans in the Civil War: The Letters They Wrote Home (2006). ""On the other hand, many of the recent immigrants in the North viewed freed slaves as competition for scarce jobs, and as the reason why the Civil War was being fought."" Baker, Kevin (March 2003). ""Violent City"", American Heritage. Retrieved July 29, 2010. ""Due in large part to this fierce competition with free blacks for labor opportunities, the poor and working class Irish Catholics generally opposed emancipation. When the draft began in the summer of 1863, they launched a major riot in New York City that was suppressed by the military, as well as much smaller protests in other cities."" Barnet Schecter, The Devil's Own Work: The Civil War Draft Riots and the Fight to Reconstruct America (2007), ch 6. Many Catholics in the North had volunteered to fight in 1861, sending thousands of soldiers to the front and taking high casualties, especially at Fredericksburg; their volunteering fell off after 1862.^ Baker, Kevin (March 2003). ""Violent City"", American Heritage. Retrieved July 29, 2010.^ Mc Pherson, James, in Gabor S. Boritt, ed. Lincoln, the War President, pp. 52–54.^ Oates, Stephen B., Abraham Lincoln: The Man Behind the Myths, p. 106.^ ""Lincoln Letter to Greeley, August 22, 1862"".^ Pulling, Sr. Anne Francis. ""Images of America: Altoona, 2001, 10.^ Lincoln's Letter to A. G. Hodges, April 4, 1864.^ Harper, Douglas (2003). ""SLAVERY in DELAWARE"". Archived from the original on October 16, 2007. Retrieved October 16, 2007.^ "" James Mc Pherson, The War that Never Goes Away""^ Asante & Mazama 2004, p. 82.^ Holzer & Gabbard 2007, p. 172–174.^ Murray, pp. 155–59.^ Hans L. Trefousse, Historical Dictionary of Reconstruction (Greenwood, 1991) covers all the main events and leaders.^ Eric Foner's A Short History of Reconstruction (1990) is a brief survey.^ C. Vann Woodward, Reunion and Reaction: The Compromise of 1877 and the End of Reconstruction (2nd edn 1991).^ Joan Waugh and Gary W. Gallagher, eds (2009), Wars within a War: Controversy and Conflict over the American Civil War (University of North Carolina Press).^ David W. Blight, Race and Reunion : The Civil War in American Memory (2001).^ Steven E. Woodworth (1996). The American Civil War: A Handbook of Literature and Research. p. 208.^ Stephen Cushman (2014). Belligerent Muse: Five Northern Writers and How They Shaped Our Understanding of the Civil War. pp. 5–6.^ Charles F. Ritter and Jon L. Wakelyn, eds., Leaders of the American Civil War: A Biographical and Historiographical Dictionary (1998) Provide short biographies and valuable historiographical summaries^ Wilson Fallin Jr, Uplifting the People: Three Centuries of Black Baptists in Alabama (2007), pp. 52–53.^ Fallin, Uplifting the People: Three Centuries of Black Baptists in Alabama (2007), pp. 52–53.^ Gaines M. Foster (1988), Ghosts of the Confederacy: Defeat, the Lost Cause and the Emergence of the New South, 1865–1913.^ Nolan, Alan T., in Gallagher, Gary W., and Alan T. Nolan, The Myth of the Lost Cause and Civil War history (2000), pp. 12–19.^ Nolan, The Myth of the Lost Cause, pp. 28–29.^ Charles A. Beard and Mary R. Beard, The Rise of American Civilization (1927), 2:54.^ Richard Hofstadter (2012) [1968]. Progressive Historians. Knopf Doubleday. p. 304.^ Timothy B. Smith, ""The Golden Age of Battlefield Preservation"" (2008; The University of Tennessee Press).^ Bob Zeller, ""Fighting the Second Civil War: A History of Battlefield Preservation and the Emergence of the Civil War Trust,"" (2017: Knox Press)^ Gary Gallagher, Causes Won, Lost, and Forgotten: How Hollywood and Popular Art Shape What We Know about the Civil War (Univ of North Carolina Press, 2008).^ Bailey, Thomas and David Kennedy: The American Pageant, p. 434. 1987^ Dome, Steam (1974). ""A Civil War Iron Clad Car"". Railroad History. The Railway & Locomotive Historical Society. 130 (Spring 1974): 51–53.^ William Rattle Plum, The Military Telegraph During the Civil War in the United States, ed. Christopher H. Sterling (New York: Arno Press, 1974) vol. 1:63.^ Buckley, John. Air Power in the Age of Total War (Warfare and History). Routledge; 1 edition (December 18, 1998). pp. 6, 24. ISBN 978-1-85728-589-5^ Sondhaus, Naval Warfare 1815–1914 p. 77.^ Keegan, John (2009). 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Baltimore, Maryland: Johns Hopkins University Press. ISBN 978-0-8018-6773-6. Johannsen, Robert W. (1973). Stephen A. Douglas. New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-501620-8. Johnson, Timothy D. (1998). Winfield Scott: The Quest for Military Glory. Lawrence, Kansas: University Press of Kansas. ISBN 978-0-7006-0914-7. Jones, Howard (1999). Abraham Lincoln and a New Birth of Freedom: The Union and Slavery in the Diplomacy of the Civil War. Lincoln, Nebraska: University of Nebraska Press. ISBN 978-0-8032-2582-4. Jones, Howard (2002). Crucible of Power: A History of American Foreign Relations to 1913. Wilmington, Delaware: Rowman & Littlefield. ISBN 978-0-8420-2916-2. Keegan, John (2009). The American Civil War: A Military History. New York: Alfred A. Knopf. ISBN 978-0-307-26343-8. Krannawitter, Thomas L. (2008). Vindicating Lincoln : defending the politics of our greatest president. Lanham, Maryland: Rowman & Littlefield Publishers. ISBN 0-7425-5972-6. Lipset, Seymour Martin (1960). Political Man: The Social Bases of Politics. Garden City, New York: Doubleday & Company, Inc. Mc Pherson, James M. (1988). Battle Cry of Freedom: The Civil War Era. Oxford, New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-503863-7. Mc Pherson, James M. (1992). Ordeal By Fire : The Civil War and Reconstruction (2 ed.). New York: Mc Graw-Hill. ISBN 978-0-07-045842-0. Mc Pherson, James M. (1997). For Cause and Comrades: Why Men Fought in the Civil War. Oxford, New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-974105-2. Mc Pherson, James M. (2007). This Mighty Scourge: Perspectives on the Civil War. Oxford, New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-539242-5. Thornton, Mark; Ekelund, Robert Burton (2004). Tariffs, Blockades, and Inflation: The Economics of the Civil War. Rowman & Littlefield. Murray, Robert Bruce. Legal Cases of the Civil War (2003). ISBN 0-8117-0059-3Murray, Williamson; Bernstein, Alvin; Knox, Mac Gregor (1996). The Making of Strategy: Rulers, States, and War. Cabmbridge, New York: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-56627-8. Neely, Mark (1993). Confederate Bastille: Jefferson Davis and Civil Liberties. Milwaukee, Wisconsin: Marquette University Press. ISBN 978-0-87462-325-3. Nelson, James L. (2005). Reign of Iron: The Story of the First Battling Ironclads, the Monitor and the Merrimack. New York: Harper Collins. ISBN 978-0-06-052404-3. Nevins, Allan. Ordeal of the Union, an 8-volume set (1947–1971). the most detailed political, economic and military narrative; by Pulitzer Prize-winner1. Fruits of Manifest Destiny, 1847–1852 online; 2. A House Dividing, 1852–1857; 3. Douglas, Buchanan, and Party Chaos, 1857–1859; 4. Prologue to Civil War, 1859–1861; vols 5–8 have the series title War for the Union; 5. The Improvised War, 1861–1862; 6. online; War Becomes Revolution, 1862–1863; 7. The Organized War, 1863–1864; 8. The Organized War to Victory, 1864–1865Olsen, Christopher J. (2002). Political Culture and Secession in Mississippi: Masculinity, Honor, and the Antiparty Tradition, 1830–1860. Oxford, New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-516097-0. Perman, Michael; Taylor, Amy M. (2010). Major Problems in the Civil War and Reconstruction: Documents and Essays (3 ed.). Boston, Massachusetts: Wadsworth, Cengage Learning. ISBN 978-0-618-87520-7. Potter, David M. (1962). ""The Historian's Use of Nationalism and Vice Versa"". American Historical Review. 67 (4): 924–50. JSTOR 1845246. Potter, David M.; Fehrenbacher, Don E. (1976). The Impending Crisis, 1848–1861. New York: Harper & Row. ISBN 978-0-06-013403-7. Rhodes, John Ford (1917). History of the Civil War, 1861–1865. New York: The Macmillan Company. Richter, William L. (2009). The A to Z of the Civil War and Reconstruction. Lanham: Scarecrow Press. ISBN 978-0-8108-6336-1. Russell, Robert R. (1966). ""Constitutional Doctrines with Regard to Slavery in Territories"". Journal of Southern History. 32 (4): 466–86. doi: 10.2307/2204926. JSTOR 2204926. Schott, Thomas E. (1996). Alexander H. Stephens of Georgia: A Biography. Baton Rouge, Louisiana: Louisiana State University Press. ISBN 978-0-8071-2106-1. Sheehan-Dean, Aaron, ed. (2014). A Companion to the U. S. Civil War. New York: Wiley Blackwell. ISBN 1-4443-5131-1., 2 vol. 1232 pp; 64 topical chapters by experts; emphasis on historiography. Stampp, Kenneth M. (1990). America in 1857: A Nation on the Brink. Oxford, New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-503902-5. Stern, Phillip Van Doren (1962). The Confederate Navy. Doubleday & Company, Inc. Symonds, Craig L.; Clipson, William J. (2001). The Naval Institute Historical Atlas of the U. S. Navy. Naval Institute Press. ISBN 978-1-55750-984-0. Tucker, Spencer C.; Pierpaoli, Paul G.; White, William E. (2010). The Civil War Naval Encyclopedia. Santa Barbara, California: ABC-CLIO. ISBN 978-1-59884-338-5. Varon, Elizabeth R. (2008). Disunion! : The Coming of the American Civil War, 1789–1859. Chapel Hill, North Carolina: University of North Carolina Press. ISBN 978-0-8078-3232-5. Vinovskis, Maris (1990). Toward a Social History of the American Civil War: Exploratory Essays. Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-39559-5. Ward, Geoffrey R. (1990). The Civil War: An Illustrated History. New York: Alfred A. Knopf. ISBN 978-0-394-56285-8. Weeks, William E. (2013). The New Cambridge History of American Foreign Relations. Cambridge, New York: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-1-107-00590-7. Weigley, Frank Russell (2004). A Great Civil War: A Military and Political History, 1861–1865. Bloomington, Indiana: Indiana University Press. ISBN 0-253-33738-0. Welles, Gideon (1865). Secretary of the Navy's Report. 37–38. American Seamen's Friend Society. Winters, John D. (1963). The Civil War in Louisiana. Baton Rouge, Louisiana: Louisiana State University Press. ISBN 978-0-8071-0834-5. Woodworth, Steven E. (1996). American Civil War: A Handbook of Literature and Research. Wesport, Connecticut: Greenwood Press. ISBN 978-0-313-29019-0. Further reading Gugliotta, Guy. New Estimate Raises Civil War Death Toll, The New York Times, April 3, 2012, p. D1 (of the New York edition), and April 2, 2012, on NYTimes.com. Retrieved 2012-04-03 online. Bibliography of American Civil War naval history"" American Civil War "". Encyclopædia Britannica (11th ed.). 1911. Tidball, John C. The Artillery Service in the War of the Rebellion, 1861–1865. Westholme Publishing, 2011. ISBN 978-1594161490. 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[ "\"From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedianavigation search American Civil War Clockwise from top: Battle of Gettysburg, Union Captain John Tidball's artillery, Confederate prisoners, ironclad USS Atlanta, ruins of Richmond, Virginia, Battle of Franklin Date April 12, 1861 – May 9, 1865 (by proclamation) [1] (4 years, 3 weeks and 6 days) ( Last shot fired June 22, 1865)Location Southern United States, Northeastern United States, Western United States, Atlantic Ocean Result Union victory Dissolution of the Confederate States U. S. territorial integrity preserved Slavery abolished Beginning of the Reconstruction Era Belligerents United States Confederate States Commanders and leaders Abraham Lincoln Ulysses S. Grant William T. Sherman David Farragut George B. Mc Clellan Henry Halleck George Meadeand others Jefferson Davis Robert E. Lee J. E. Johnston G. T. Beauregard A. S. Johnston †Braxton Braggand others Strength2,200,000: [a]Union Army Union Marines Union Navy Revenue Service698,000 (peak) [2] [ better source needed] [3]750,000–1,000,000: [a] [4]Confederate army Confederate marines Confederate navy360,000 (peak) [2] [5]Casualties and losses110,000+ killed in action/died of wounds 230,000+ accident/disease deaths [6] [7] 25,000–30,000 died in Confederate prisons [2] [6]365,000+ total dead [8] 282,000+ wounded [7] 181,193 captured [2] [ better source needed] [9]Total: 828,000+ casualties94,000+ killed in action/died of wounds [6] 26,000–31,000 died in Union prisons [7]290,000+ total dead 137,000+ wounded 436,658 captured [2] [ better source needed] [10]Total: 864,000+ casualties50,000 free civilians dead [11] 80,000+ slaves dead [12]Total: 785,000–1,000,000+ dead [13] [14] [ show]v t e Theaters of the American Civil War Events leading to the American Civil War Slavery Northwest Ordinance Kentucky and Virginia Resolutions Battle of Negro Fort Missouri Compromise Tariff of 1828Nat Turner's slave rebellion Nullification Crisis The Amistad Prigg v. Pennsylvania Texas annexation Mexican–American War Wilmot Proviso Manifest destiny Underground Railroad Nashville Convention Compromise of 1850Fugitive Slave Act of 1850Uncle Tom's Cabin Kansas–Nebraska Act Ostend Manifesto Bleeding Kansas Caning of Charles Sumner Dred Scott v. Sandford The Impending Crisis of the South Brown's raid on Harpers Ferry1860 presidential election Crittenden Compromise Secession of Southern States Star of the West Corwin Amendment Battle of Fort Sumterv t e The American Civil War (also known by other names) was a civil war that was fought in the United States from 1861 to 1865.", "As a result of the long-standing controversy over slavery, war broke out in April 1861, when Confederate forces attacked Fort Sumter in South Carolina, shortly after U. S. President Abraham Lincoln was inaugurated.", "The nationalists of the Union proclaimed loyalty to the U. S. Constitution.", "They faced secessionists of the Confederate States, who advocated for states' rights to expand slavery.", "Among the 34 U. S. states in February 1861, seven Southern slave states individually declared their secession from the U. S. to form the Confederate States of America, or the South.", "The Confederacy grew to include eleven slave states.", "The Confederacy was never diplomatically recognized by the United States government, nor was it recognized by any foreign country (although the United Kingdom and France granted it belligerent status ).", "The states that remained loyal to the U. S. (including the border states where slavery was legal) were known as the Union or the North.", "The Union and Confederacy quickly raised volunteer and conscription armies that fought mostly in the South over four years.", "The Union finally won the war when General Robert E. Lee surrendered to General Ulysses S. Grant at the Battle of Appomattox Court House, followed by a series of surrenders by Confederate generals throughout the southern states.", "Four years of intense combat left 620,000 to 750,000 people dead, more than the number of U. S. military deaths in all other wars combined (at least until approximately the Vietnam War ).", "[15] Much of the South's infrastructure was destroyed, especially the transportation systems, railroads, mills, and houses.", "The Confederacy collapsed, slavery was abolished, and 4 million slaves were freed.", "The Reconstruction Era (1863–1877) overlapped and followed the war, with the process of restoring national unity, strengthening the national government, and granting civil rights to freed slaves throughout the country.", "The Civil War is the most studied and written about episode in U. S. history.", "[16]Contents [ hide ]1 Prelude to war2 Causes of secession2.1 Slavery2.2 Sectionalism2.3 Protectionism2.4 States' rights2.5 Territorial crisis2.5.1 Nationalism and honor2.5.2 Lincoln's election3 Outbreak of the war3.1 Secession crisis3.2 Battle of Fort Sumter3.3 Attitude of the border states4 War4.1 Mobilization4.1.1 Motivation4.1.2 Prisoners4.2 Naval war4.2.1 Union blockade4.2.1.1 Modern navy evolves4.2.1.2 Blockade runners4.2.1.3 Economic impact4.2.2 Rivers4.3 Eastern theater4.4 Western theater4.5 Trans-Mississippi4.6 End of the war4.6.1 Conquest of Virginia4.6.2 Confederacy surrenders5 Diplomacy6 Union victory and aftermath6.1 Results6.2 Costs6.3 Emancipation6.3.1 Slavery as a war issue6.3.2 Emancipation Proclamation6.4 Texas v. White6.5 Reconstruction7 Memory and historiography7.1 Lost Cause7.2 Beardian historiography7.3 Battlefield preservation7.4 Civil War commemoration7.5 Technological significance8 In works of culture and art8.1 Literature8.2 Film8.3 Song8.4 Video games9 See also10 References10.1 Notes10.2 Citations10.3 Bibliography11 Further reading12 External links Prelude to war In the 1860 presidential election, Republicans, led by Abraham Lincoln, supported banning slavery in all the U. S. territories.", "The Southern states viewed this as a violation of their constitutional rights and as the first step in a grander Republican plan to eventually abolish slavery.", "The three pro-Union candidates together received an overwhelming 82% majority of the votes cast nationally: Republican Lincoln's votes centered in the north, Democrat Stephen A. Douglas ' votes were distributed nationally and Constitutional Unionist John Bell 's votes centered in Tennessee, Kentucky, and Virginia.", "The Republican Party, dominant in the North, secured a plurality of the popular votes and a majority of the electoral votes nationally, so Lincoln was constitutionally elected president.", "He was the first Republican Party candidate to win the presidency.", "However, before his inauguration, seven slave states with cotton -based economies declared secession and formed the Confederacy.", "The first six to declare secession had the highest proportions of slaves in their populations, a total of 49 percent.", "[17] The first seven with state legislatures to resolve for secession included split majorities for unionists Douglas and Bell in Georgia with 51% and Louisiana with 55%.", "Alabama had voted 46% for those unionists, Mississippi with 40%, Florida with 38%, Texas with 25%, and South Carolina cast Electoral College votes without a popular vote for president.", "[18] Of these, only Texas held a referendum on secession.", "Eight remaining slave states continued to reject calls for secession.", "Outgoing Democratic President James Buchanan and the incoming Republicans rejected secession as illegal.", "Lincoln's March 4, 1861, inaugural address declared that his administration would not initiate a civil war.", "Speaking directly to the \"\"Southern States\"\", he attempted to calm their fears of any threats to slavery, reaffirming, \"\"I have no purpose, directly or indirectly to interfere with the institution of slavery in the United States where it exists.", "I believe I have no lawful right to do so, and I have no inclination to do so.\"\"", "[19] After Confederate forces seized numerous federal forts within territory claimed by the Confederacy, efforts at compromise failed and both sides prepared for war.", "The Confederates assumed that European countries were so dependent on \"\" King Cotton \"\" that they would intervene, but none did, and none recognized the new Confederate States of America.", "Hostilities began on April 12, 1861, when Confederate forces fired upon Fort Sumter.", "While in the Western Theater the Union made significant permanent gains, in the Eastern Theater, the battle was inconclusive from 1861–1862.", "Later, in 1863, Lincoln issued the Emancipation Proclamation, which made ending slavery a war goal.", "[20] To the west, by summer 1862 the Union destroyed the Confederate river navy, then much of their western armies, and seized New Orleans.", "The 1863 Union Siege of Vicksburg split the Confederacy in two at the Mississippi River.", "In 1863, Robert E. Lee 's Confederate incursion north ended at the Battle of Gettysburg.", "Western successes led to Ulysses S. Grant 's command of all Union armies in 1864.", "Inflicting an ever-tightening naval blockade of Confederate ports, the Union marshaled the resources and manpower to attack the Confederacy from all directions, leading to the fall of Atlanta to William T. Sherman and his march to the sea.", "The last significant battles raged around the Siege of Petersburg.", "Lee's escape attempt ended with his surrender at Appomattox Court House, on April 9, 1865.", "While the military war was coming to an end, the political reintegration of the nation was to take another 12 years, known as the Reconstruction Era.", "The American Civil War was one of the earliest true industrial wars.", "Railroads, the telegraph, steamships and iron-clad ships, and mass-produced weapons were employed extensively.", "The mobilization of civilian factories, mines, shipyards, banks, transportation and food supplies all foreshadowed the impact of industrialization in World War I, World War II and subsequent conflicts.", "It remains the deadliest war in American history.", "From 1861 to 1865, it is estimated that 620,000 to 750,000 soldiers died, [21] along with an undetermined number of civilians.", "[b] By one estimate, the war claimed the lives of 10 percent of all Northern males 20–45 years old, and 30 percent of all Southern white males aged 18–40.", "[23]Causes of secession Main articles: Origins of the American Civil War and Timeline of events leading to the American Civil War The causes of secession were complex and have been controversial since the war began, but most academic scholars identify slavery as a central cause of the war.", "James C. Bradford wrote that the issue has been further complicated by historical revisionists, who have tried to offer a variety of reasons for the war.", "[24] Slavery was the central source of escalating political tension in the 1850s.", "The Republican Party was determined to prevent any spread of slavery, and many Southern leaders had threatened secession if the Republican candidate, Lincoln, won the 1860 election.", "After Lincoln won, many Southern leaders felt that disunion was their only option, fearing that the loss of representation would hamper their ability to promote pro-slavery acts and policies.", "[25] [26]Slavery Status of the states, 1861States that seceded before April 15, 1861States that seceded after April 15, 1861Union states that permitted slavery Union states that banned slavery Territories Slavery was a major cause of disunion.", "[27] Although there were opposing views even in the Union States, [28] [29] most northern soldiers were largely indifferent on the subject of slavery, [30] while Confederates fought the war largely to protect a southern society of which slavery was an integral part.", "[31] From the anti-slavery perspective, the issue was primarily about whether the system of slavery was an anachronistic evil that was incompatible with republicanism.", "The strategy of the anti-slavery forces was containment—to stop the expansion and thus put slavery on a path to gradual extinction.", "[32] The slave-holding interests in the South denounced this strategy as infringing upon their Constitutional rights.", "[33] Southern whites believed that the emancipation of slaves would destroy the South's economy, due to the large amount of capital invested in slaves and fears of integrating the ex-slave black population.", "[34] In particular, southerners feared a repeat of \"\"the horrors of Santo Domingo\"\", in which nearly all white people – including men, women, children, and even many sympathetic to abolition – were killed after the successful slave revolt in Haiti.", "Historian Thomas Fleming points to the historical phrase \"\"a disease in the public mind\"\" used by critics of this idea, and proposes it contributed to the segregation in the Jim Crow era following emancipation.", "[35] These fears were exacerbated by the recent attempts of John Brown to instigate an armed slave rebellion in the South.", "Slavery was illegal in much of the North, having been outlawed in the late 18th and early 19th centuries.", "It was also fading in the border states and in Southern cities, but it was expanding in the highly profitable cotton districts of the rural South and Southwest.", "Subsequent writers on the American Civil War looked to several factors explaining the geographic divide.", "Sectionalism Sectionalism refers to the different economies, social structure, customs and political values of the North and South.", "[36] [37] Regional tensions came to a head during the War of 1812, resulting in the Hartford Convention which manifested Northern dissastisfaction with a foreign trade embargo that affected the industrial North disproportionately, the Three-Fifths Compromise, dilution of Northern power by new states, and a succession of Southern Presidents.", "Sectionalism increased steadily between 1800 and 1860 as the North, which phased slavery out of existence, industrialized, urbanized, and built prosperous farms, while the deep South concentrated on plantation agriculture based on slave labor, together with subsistence farming for poor freedmen.", "In the 1840s and 50s, the issue of accepting slavery (in the guise of rejecting slave-owning bishops and missionaries) split the nation's largest religious denominations (the Methodist, Baptist and Presbyterian churches) into separate Northern and Southern denominations.", "[38]Historians have debated whether economic differences between the industrial Northeast and the agricultural South helped cause the war.", "Most historians now disagree with the economic determinism of historian Charles A.", "Beard in the 1920s and emphasize that Northern and Southern economies were largely complementary.", "While socially different, the sections economically benefited each other.", "[39] [40]Protectionism Slave owners preferred low-cost manual labor with no mechanization.", "Northern manufacturing interests supported tariffs and protectionism while southern planters demanded free trade, [41] The Democrats in Congress, controlled by Southerners, wrote the tariff laws in the 1830s, 1840s, and 1850s, and kept reducing rates so that the 1857 rates were the lowest since 1816.", "The Republicans called for an increase in tariffs in the 1860 election.", "The increases were only enacted in 1861 after Southerners resigned their seats in Congress.", "[42] [43] The tariff issue was a Northern grievance.", "However, neo-Confederate writers have claimed it as a Southern grievance.", "In 1860–61 none of the groups that proposed compromises to head off secession raised the tariff issue.", "[44] Pamphleteers North and South rarely mentioned the tariff.", "[45]States' rights The South argued that each state had the right to secede—leave the Union—at any time, that the Constitution was a \"\"compact\"\" or agreement among the states.", "Northerners (including President Buchanan) rejected that notion as opposed to the will of the Founding Fathers who said they were setting up a perpetual union.", "[46] Historian James Mc Pherson writes concerning states' rights and other non-slavery explanations: While one or more of these interpretations remain popular among the Sons of Confederate Veterans and other Southern heritage groups, few professional historians now subscribe to them.", "Of all these interpretations, the states'-rights argument is perhaps the weakest.", "It fails to ask the question, states' rights for what purpose?", "States' rights, or sovereignty, was always more a means than an end, an instrument to achieve a certain goal more than a principle.", "[47]Territorial crisis Further information: Slave and free states Between 1803 and 1854, the United States achieved a vast expansion of territory through purchase, negotiation, and conquest.", "At first, the new states carved out of these territories entering the union were apportioned equally between slave and free states.", "It was over territories west of the Mississippi that the proslavery and antislavery forces collided.", "[48]With the conquest of northern Mexico west to California in 1848, slaveholding interests looked forward to expanding into these lands and perhaps Cuba and Central America as well.", "[49] [50] Northern \"\"free soil\"\" interests vigorously sought to curtail any further expansion of slave territory.", "The Compromise of 1850 over California balanced a free-soil state with stronger fugitive slave laws for a political settlement after four years of strife in the 1840s.", "But the states admitted following California were all free: Minnesota (1858), Oregon (1859) and Kansas (1861).", "In the southern states the question of the territorial expansion of slavery westward again became explosive.", "[51] Both the South and the North drew the same conclusion: \"\"The power to decide the question of slavery for the territories was the power to determine the future of slavery itself.\"\"", "[52] [53]Sen. Stephen Douglas, author of the Kansas–Nebraska Act of 1854 Sen. John J. Crittenden, of the 1860 Crittenden Compromise By 1860, four doctrines had emerged to answer the question of federal control in the territories, and they all claimed they were sanctioned by the Constitution, implicitly or explicitly.", "[54] The first of these \"\"conservative\"\" theories, represented by the Constitutional Union Party, argued that the Missouri Compromise apportionment of territory north for free soil and south for slavery should become a Constitutional mandate.", "The Crittenden Compromise of 1860 was an expression of this view.", "[55]The second doctrine of Congressional preeminence, championed by Abraham Lincoln and the Republican Party, insisted that the Constitution did not bind legislators to a policy of balance—that slavery could be excluded in a territory as it was done in the Northwest Ordinance of 1787 at the discretion of Congress, [56] thus Congress could restrict human bondage, but never establish it.", "The Wilmot Proviso announced this position in 1846.", "[57]Senator Stephen A. Douglas proclaimed the doctrine of territorial or \"\"popular\"\" sovereignty—which asserted that the settlers in a territory had the same rights as states in the Union to establish or disestablish slavery as a purely local matter.", "[58] The Kansas–Nebraska Act of 1854 legislated this doctrine.", "[59] In Kansas Territory, years of pro and anti-slavery violence and political conflict erupted; the congressional House of Representatives voted to admit Kansas as a free state in early 1860, but its admission in the Senate was delayed until January 1861, after the 1860 elections when southern senators began to leave.", "[60]The fourth theory was advocated by Mississippi Senator Jefferson Davis, [61] one of state sovereignty (\"\"states' rights\"\"), [62] also known as the \"\"Calhoun doctrine\"\", [63] named after the South Carolinian political theorist and statesman John C. Calhoun.", "[64] Rejecting the arguments for federal authority or self-government, state sovereignty would empower states to promote the expansion of slavery as part of the federal union under the U. S. Constitution.", "[65] \"\"States' rights\"\" was an ideology formulated and applied as a means of advancing slave state interests through federal authority.", "[66] As historian Thomas L. Krannawitter points out, the \"\"Southern demand for federal slave protection represented a demand for an unprecedented expansion of federal power.\"\"", "[67] [68] These four doctrines comprised the major ideologies presented to the American public on the matters of slavery, the territories and the U. S. Constitution prior to the 1860 presidential election.", "[69]Nationalism and honor Nationalism was a powerful force in the early 19th century, with famous spokesmen such as Andrew Jackson and Daniel Webster.", "While practically all Northerners supported the Union, Southerners were split between those loyal to the entire United States (called \"\"unionists\"\") and those loyal primarily to the southern region and then the Confederacy.", "[70]C. Vann Woodward said of the latter group,A great slave society ... had grown up and miraculously flourished in the heart of a thoroughly bourgeois and partly puritanical republic.", "It had renounced its bourgeois origins and elaborated and painfully rationalized its institutional, legal, metaphysical, and religious defenses ...", "When the crisis came it chose to fight.", "It proved to be the death struggle of a society, which went down in ruins.", "[71]Perceived insults to Southern collective honor included the enormous popularity of Uncle Tom's Cabin (1852) [72] and the actions of abolitionist John Brown in trying to incite a slave rebellion in 1859.", "[73]While the South moved towards a Southern nationalism, leaders in the North were also becoming more nationally minded, and they rejected any notion of splitting the Union.", "The Republican national electoral platform of 1860 warned that Republicans regarded disunion as treason and would not tolerate it: \"\"We denounce those threats of disunion ... as denying the vital principles of a free government, and as an avowal of contemplated treason, which it is the imperative duty of an indignant people sternly to rebuke and forever silence.\"\"", "[74] The South ignored the warnings: Southerners did not realize how ardently the North would fight to hold the Union together.", "[75]Lincoln's election Main article: United States presidential election, 1860Abraham Lincoln in 1864The election of Abraham Lincoln in November 1860 was the final trigger for secession.", "[76] Efforts at compromise, including the \"\" Corwin Amendment \"\" and the \"\" Crittenden Compromise \"\", failed.", "Southern leaders feared that Lincoln would stop the expansion of slavery and put it on a course toward extinction.", "The slave states, which had already become a minority in the House of Representatives, were now facing a future as a perpetual minority in the Senate and Electoral College against an increasingly powerful North.", "Before Lincoln took office in March 1861, seven slave states had declared their secession and joined to form the Confederacy.", "According to Lincoln, the people had shown that they can be successful in establishing and administering a republic, but a third challenge faced the nation, maintaining a republic based on the people's vote against an attempt to overthrow it.", "[77]Outbreak of the war Secession crisis The election of Lincoln caused the legislature of South Carolina to call a state convention to consider secession.", "Prior to the war, South Carolina did more than any other Southern state to advance the notion that a state had the right to nullify federal laws, and even to secede from the United States.", "The convention summoned unanimously voted to secede on December 20, 1860, and adopted the \"\" Declaration of the Immediate Causes Which Induce and Justify the Secession of South Carolina from the Federal Union \"\".", "It argued for states' rights for slave owners in the South, but contained a complaint about states' rights in the North in the form of opposition to the Fugitive Slave Act, claiming that Northern states were not fulfilling their federal obligations under the Constitution.", "The \"\"cotton states\"\" of Mississippi, Florida, Alabama, Georgia, Louisiana, and Texas followed suit, seceding in January and February 1861.", "The first published imprint of secession, a broadside issued by the Charleston Mercury, December 20, 1860Among the ordinances of secession passed by the individual states, those of three—Texas, Alabama, and Virginia—specifically mentioned the plight of the \"\"slaveholding states\"\" at the hands of northern abolitionists.", "The rest make no mention of the slavery issue, and are often brief announcements of the dissolution of ties by the legislatures.", "[78] However, at least four states—South Carolina, [79] Mississippi, [80] Georgia, [81] and Texas [82] —also passed lengthy and detailed explanations of their causes for secession, all of which laid the blame squarely on the movement to abolish slavery and that movement's influence over the politics of the northern states.", "The southern states believed slaveholding was a constitutional right because of the Fugitive slave clause of the Constitution.", "These states agreed to form a new federal government, the Confederate States of America, on February 4, 1861.", "[83] They took control of federal forts and other properties within their boundaries with little resistance from outgoing President James Buchanan, whose term ended on March 4, 1861.", "Buchanan said that the Dred Scott decision was proof that the South had no reason for secession, and that the Union \"\"was intended to be perpetual\"\", but that \"\"The power by force of arms to compel a State to remain in the Union\"\" was not among the \"\"enumerated powers granted to Congress\"\".", "[84] One quarter of the U. S. Army—the entire garrison in Texas—was surrendered in February 1861 to state forces by its commanding general, David E. Twiggs, who then joined the Confederacy.", "As Southerners resigned their seats in the Senate and the House, Republicans were able to pass bills for projects that had been blocked by Southern Senators before the war, including the Morrill Tariff, land grant colleges (the Morrill Act ), a Homestead Act, a transcontinental railroad (the Pacific Railway Acts ), [85] the National Banking Act and the authorization of United States Notes by the Legal Tender Act of 1862.", "The Revenue Act of 1861 introduced the income tax to help finance the war.", "On December 18, 1860, the Crittenden Compromise was proposed to re-establish the Missouri Compromise line by constitutionally banning slavery in territories to the north of the line while guaranteeing it to the south.", "The adoption of this compromise likely would have prevented the secession of every southern state apart from South Carolina, but Lincoln and the Republicans rejected it.", "[86] It was then proposed to hold a national referendum on the compromise.", "The Republicans again rejected the idea, although a majority of both Northerners and Southerners would have voted in favor of it.", "[87] A pre-war February Peace Conference of 1861 met in Washington, proposing a solution similar to that of the Crittenden compromise, it was rejected by Congress.", "The Republicans proposed an alternative compromise to not interfere with slavery where it existed but the South regarded it as insufficient.", "Nonetheless, the remaining eight slave states rejected pleas to join the Confederacy following a two-to-one no-vote in Virginia's First Secessionist Convention on April 4, 1861.", "[88]Jefferson Davis, President of the Confederate States of America (1861–1865)On March 4, 1861, Abraham Lincoln was sworn in as President.", "In his inaugural address, he argued that the Constitution was a more perfect union than the earlier Articles of Confederation and Perpetual Union, that it was a binding contract, and called any secession \"\"legally void\"\".", "[89] He had no intent to invade Southern states, nor did he intend to end slavery where it existed, but said that he would use force to maintain possession of Federal property.", "The government would make no move to recover post offices, and if resisted, mail delivery would end at state lines.", "Where popular conditions did not allow peaceful enforcement of Federal law, U. S. marshals and judges would be withdrawn.", "No mention was made of bullion lost from U. S. mints in Louisiana, Georgia, and North Carolina.", "He stated that it would be U. S. policy to only collect import duties at its ports; there could be no serious injury to the South to justify armed revolution during his administration.", "His speech closed with a plea for restoration of the bonds of union, famously calling on \"\"the mystic chords of memory\"\" binding the two regions.", "[89]The South sent delegations to Washington and offered to pay for the federal properties [ which?]", "and enter into a peace treaty with the United States.", "Lincoln rejected any negotiations with Confederate agents because he claimed the Confederacy was not a legitimate government, and that making any treaty with it would be tantamount to recognition of it as a sovereign government.", "[90] Secretary of State William Seward, who at the time saw himself as the real governor or \"\"prime minister\"\" behind the throne of the inexperienced Lincoln, engaged in unauthorized and indirect negotiations that failed.", "[90] President Lincoln was determined to hold all remaining Union-occupied forts in the Confederacy, Fort Monroe in Virginia, in Florida, Fort Pickens, Fort Jefferson, Fort Taylor and Fort Sumter, located at the cockpit of secession in Charleston, South Carolina.", "Battle of Fort Sumter Main article: Battle of Fort Sumter Mass meeting in New York City April 20, 1861, to support the Union.", "Fort Sumter was located in the middle of the harbor of Charleston, South Carolina.", "Its garrison recently moved there to avoid incidents with local militias in the streets of the city.", "Lincoln told Maj. Anderson to hold on until fired upon.", "Jefferson Davis ordered the surrender of the fort.", "Anderson gave a conditional reply that the Confederate government rejected, and Davis ordered General P. G. T. Beauregard to attack the fort before a relief expedition could arrive.", "He bombarded Fort Sumter on April 12–13, forcing its capitulation.", "The attack on Fort Sumter rallied the North to the defense of American nationalism.", "Historian Allan Nevins said: The thunderclap of Sumter produced a startling crystallization of Northern sentiment.", "... Anger swept the land.", "From every side came news of mass meetings, speeches, resolutions, tenders of business support, the muster of companies and regiments, the determined action of governors and legislatures.\"\"", "[91]Union leaders incorrectly assumed that only a minority of Southerners were actually in favor of secession and that there were large numbers of southern Unionists that could be counted on.", "Had Northerners realized that most Southerners really did favor secession, they might have hesitated at attempting the enormous task of conquering a united South.", "[92]Lincoln called on all the states to send forces to recapture the fort and other federal properties.", "With the scale of the rebellion apparently small so far, Lincoln called for only 75,000 volunteers for 90 days.", "[93] The governor of Massachusetts had state regiments on trains headed south the next day.", "In western Missouri, local secessionists seized Liberty Arsenal.", "[94] On May 3, 1861, Lincoln called for an additional 42,000 volunteers for a period of three years.", "[95]Four states in the middle and upper South had repeatedly rejected Confederate overtures, but now Virginia, Tennessee, Arkansas, and North Carolina refused to send forces against their neighbors, declared their secession, and joined the Confederacy.", "To reward Virginia, the Confederate capital was moved to Richmond.", "[96]Attitude of the border states Main article: Border states (American Civil War)US Secession map 1863.", "The Union vs. the Confederacy.", "Union states Union territories not permitting slavery Border Union states, permitting slavery Confederate states Union territories permitting slavery (claimed by Confederacy)Maryland, Delaware, Missouri, and Kentucky were slave states that were opposed to both secession and coercing the South.", "West Virginia then joined them as an additional border state after it separated from Virginia and became a state of the Union in 1863.", "Maryland's territory surrounded the United States' capital of Washington, DC and could cut it off from the North.", "[97] It had numerous anti-Lincoln officials who tolerated anti-army rioting in Baltimore and the burning of bridges, both aimed at hindering the passage of troops to the South.", "Maryland's legislature voted overwhelmingly (53–13) to stay in the Union, but also rejected hostilities with its southern neighbors, voting to close Maryland's rail lines to prevent them from being used for war.", "[98] Lincoln responded by establishing martial law and unilaterally suspending habeas corpus in Maryland, along with sending in militia units from the North.", "[99] Lincoln rapidly took control of Maryland and the District of Columbia by seizing many prominent figures, including arresting 1/3 of the members of the Maryland General Assembly on the day it reconvened.", "[98] [100] All were held without trial, ignoring a ruling by the Chief Justice of the U. S. Supreme Court Roger Taney, a Maryland native, that only Congress (and not the president) could suspend habeas corpus ( Ex parte Merryman ).", "Indeed, federal troops imprisoned a prominent Baltimore newspaper editor, Frank Key Howard, Francis Scott Key's grandson, after he criticized Lincoln in an editorial for ignoring the Supreme Court Chief Justice's ruling.", "[101]In Missouri, an elected convention on secession voted decisively to remain within the Union.", "When pro-Confederate Governor Claiborne F. Jackson called out the state militia, it was attacked by federal forces under General Nathaniel Lyon, who chased the governor and the rest of the State Guard to the southwestern corner of the state ( see also: Missouri secession ).", "In the resulting vacuum, the convention on secession reconvened and took power as the Unionist provisional government of Missouri.", "[102]Kentucky did not secede; for a time, it declared itself neutral.", "When Confederate forces entered the state in September 1861, neutrality ended and the state reaffirmed its Union status, while trying to maintain slavery.", "During a brief invasion by Confederate forces, Confederate sympathizers organized a secession convention, inaugurated a governor, and gained recognition from the Confederacy.", "The rebel government soon went into exile and never controlled Kentucky.", "[103]After Virginia's secession, a Unionist government in Wheeling asked 48 counties to vote on an ordinance to create a new state on October 24, 1861.", "A voter turnout of 34 percent approved the statehood bill (96 percent approving).", "[104] The inclusion of 24 secessionist counties [105] in the state and the ensuing guerrilla war engaged about 40,000 Federal troops for much of the war.", "[106] [107] Congress admitted West Virginia to the Union on June 20, 1863.", "West Virginia provided about 20,000–22,000 soldiers to both the Confederacy and the Union.", "[108]A Unionist secession attempt occurred in East Tennessee, but was suppressed by the Confederacy, which arrested over 3,000 men suspected of being loyal to the Union.", "They were held without trial.", "[109]War See also: List of American Civil War battles and Military leadership in the American Civil War County map of Civil War battles by theater and year The Civil War was a contest marked by the ferocity and frequency of battle.", "Over four years, 237 named battles were fought, as were many more minor actions and skirmishes, which were often characterized by their bitter intensity and high casualties.", "In his book The American Civil War, John Keegan writes that \"\"The American Civil War was to prove one of the most ferocious wars ever fought\"\".", "Without geographic objectives, the only target for each side was the enemy's soldier.", "[110]Mobilization See also: Child soldiers in the American Civil War As the first seven states began organizing a Confederacy in Montgomery, the entire U. S. army numbered 16,000.", "However, Northern governors had begun to mobilize their militias.", "[111] The Confederate Congress authorized the new nation up to 100,000 troops sent by governors as early as February.", "By May, Jefferson Davis was pushing for 100,000 men under arms for one year or the duration, and that was answered in kind by the U. S. Congress.", "[112]In the first year of the war, both sides had far more volunteers than they could effectively train and equip.", "After the initial enthusiasm faded, reliance on the cohort of young men who came of age every year and wanted to join was not enough.", "Both sides used a draft law— conscription —as a device to encourage or force volunteering; relatively few were actually drafted and served.", "The Confederacy passed a draft law in April 1862 for young men aged 18 to 35; overseers of slaves, government officials, and clergymen were exempt.", "[113] The U. S. Congress followed in July, authorizing a militia draft within a state when it could not meet its quota with volunteers.", "European immigrants joined the Union Army in large numbers, including 177,000 born in Germany and 144,000 born in Ireland.", "[114]Union soldiers before Marye's Heights, Second Fredericksburg Confederate dead overrun at Marye's Heights, reoccupied next day May 4, 1863When the Emancipation Proclamation went into effect in January 1863, ex-slaves were energetically recruited by the states, and used to meet the state quotas.", "States and local communities offered higher and higher cash bonuses for white volunteers.", "Congress tightened the law in March 1863.", "Men selected in the draft could provide substitutes or, until mid-1864, pay commutation money.", "Many eligibles pooled their money to cover the cost of anyone drafted.", "Families used the substitute provision to select which man should go into the army and which should stay home.", "There was much evasion and overt resistance to the draft, especially in Catholic areas.", "The great draft riot in New York City in July 1863 involved Irish immigrants who had been signed up as citizens to swell the vote of the city's Democratic political machine, not realizing it made them liable for the draft.", "[115] Of the 168,649 men procured for the Union through the draft, 117,986 were substitutes, leaving only 50,663 who had their personal services conscripted.", "[116]Rioters attacking a building during the New York anti-draft riots of 1863In both the North and South, the draft laws were highly unpopular.", "In the North, some 120,000 men evaded conscription, many of them fleeing to Canada, and another 280,000 soldiers deserted during the war.", "[117] At least 100,000 Southerners deserted, or about 10 percent.", "In the South, many men deserted temporarily to take care of their distressed families, then returned to their units.", "[118] In the North, \"\"bounty jumpers\"\" enlisted to get the generous bonus, deserted, then went back to a second recruiting station under a different name to sign up again for a second bonus; 141 were caught and executed.", "[119]From a tiny frontier force in 1860, the Union and Confederate armies had grown into the \"\"largest and most efficient armies in the world\"\" within a few years.", "European observers at the time dismissed them as amateur and unprofessional, but British historian John Keegan 's assessment is that each outmatched the French, Prussian and Russian armies of the time, and but for the Atlantic, would have threatened any of them with defeat.", "[120]Motivation Perman and Taylor (2010) say that historians are of two minds on why millions of men seemed so eager to fight, suffer and die over four years: Some historians emphasize that Civil War soldiers were driven by political ideology, holding firm beliefs about the importance of liberty, Union, or state rights, or about the need to protect or to destroy slavery.", "Others point to less overtly political reasons to fight, such as the defense of one's home and family, or the honor and brotherhood to be preserved when fighting alongside other men.", "Most historians agree that no matter what a soldier thought about when he went into the war, the experience of combat affected him profoundly and sometimes altered his reasons for continuing the fight.", "[121]Prisoners Main article: American Civil War prison camps At the start of the civil war, a system of paroles operated.", "Captives agreed not to fight until they were officially exchanged.", "Meanwhile, they were held in camps run by their own army where they were paid but not allowed to perform any military duties.", "[122] The system of exchanges collapsed in 1863 when the Confederacy refused to exchange black prisoners.", "After that, about 56,000 of the 409,000 POWs died in prisons during the war, accounting for nearly 10 percent of the conflict's fatalities.", "[123]Naval war The small U. S. Navy of 1861 was rapidly enlarged to 6,000 officers and 45,000 men in 1865, with 671 vessels, having a tonnage of 510,396.", "[124] [125] Its mission was to blockade Confederate ports, take control of the river system, defend against Confederate raiders on the high seas, and be ready for a possible war with the British Royal Navy.", "[126] Meanwhile, the main riverine war was fought in the West, where a series of major rivers gave access to the Confederate heartland, if the U. S. Navy could take control.", "In the East, the Navy supplied and moved army forces about, and occasionally shelled Confederate installations.", "Union blockade Main article: Union blockade General Scott's \"\" Anaconda Plan \"\" 1861.", "Tightening naval blockade, forcing rebels out of Missouri along the Mississippi River, Kentucky Unionists sit on the fence, idled cotton industry illustrated in Georgia.", "By early 1861, General Winfield Scott had devised the Anaconda Plan to win the war with as little bloodshed as possible.", "[127] Scott argued that a Union blockade of the main ports would weaken the Confederate economy.", "Lincoln adopted parts of the plan, but he overruled Scott's caution about 90-day volunteers.", "Public opinion, however, demanded an immediate attack by the army to capture Richmond.", "[128]In April 1861, Lincoln announced the Union blockade of all Southern ports; commercial ships could not get insurance and regular traffic ended.", "The South blundered in embargoing cotton exports in 1861 before the blockade was effective; by the time they realized the mistake, it was too late.", "\"\"King Cotton\"\" was dead, as the South could export less than 10 percent of its cotton.", "The blockade shut down the ten Confederate seaports with railheads that moved almost all the cotton, especially New Orleans, Mobile, and Charleston.", "By June 1861, warships were stationed off the principal Southern ports, and a year later nearly 300 ships were in service.", "[129]Modern navy evolves The Civil War occurred during the early stages of the industrial revolution and subsequently many naval innovations emerged during this time, most notably the advent of the ironclad warship.", "It began when the Confederacy, knowing they had to meet or match the Union's naval superiority, responded to the Union blockade by building or converting more than 130 vessels, including twenty-six ironclads and floating batteries.", "[130] Only half of these saw active service.", "Many were equipped with ram bows, creating \"\"ram fever\"\" among Union squadrons wherever they threatened.", "But in the face of overwhelming Union superiority and the Union's own ironclad warships, they were unsuccessful.", "[131]The Confederacy experimented with a submarine, which did not work well, [132] and with building an ironclad ship, the CSS Virginia, which was based on rebuilding a sunken Union ship, the Merrimack.", "On its first foray on March 8, 1862, the Virginia inflicted significant damage to the Union's wooden fleet, but the next day the first Union ironclad, the USS Monitor, arrived to challenge it in the Chesapeake Bay.", "The resulting three hour battle between the Ironclads was a draw, but it marked the worldwide transition to ironclad warships.", "[133] Not long after the battle the Confederacy was forced to scuttle the Virginia to prevent its capture, while the Union built many copies of the Monitor.", "Lacking the technology and infrastructure to build effective warships, the Confederacy attempted to obtain warships from Britain.", "[134]Blockade runners Main article: Blockade runners of the American Civil War Gunline of nine Union ironclads.", "South Atlantic Blockading Squadron off Charleston.", "Continuous blockade of all major ports was sustained by North's overwhelming war production.", "British investors built small, fast, steam-driven blockade runners that traded arms and luxuries brought in from Britain through Bermuda, Cuba, and the Bahamas in return for high-priced cotton.", "Many of the ships were designed for speed and were so small that only a small amount of cotton went out.", "[135] When the Union Navy seized a blockade runner, the ship and cargo were condemned as a Prize of war and sold, with the proceeds given to the Navy sailors; the captured crewmen were mostly British and they were simply released.", "[136] The Southern economy nearly collapsed during the war.", "There were multiple reasons for this: the severe deterioration of food supplies, especially in cities, the failure of Southern railroads, the loss of control of the main rivers, foraging by Northern armies, and the seizure of animals and crops by Confederate armies.", "Most historians agree that the blockade was a major factor in ruining the Confederate economy; however, Wise argues that the blockade runners provided just enough of a lifeline to allow Lee to continue fighting for additional months, thanks to fresh supplies of 400,000 rifles, lead, blankets, and boots that the homefront economy could no longer supply.", "[137]Economic impact Surdam argues that the blockade was a powerful weapon that eventually ruined the Southern economy, at the cost of few lives in combat.", "Practically, the entire Confederate cotton crop was useless (although it was sold to Union traders), costing the Confederacy its main source of income.", "Critical imports were scarce and the coastal trade was largely ended as well.", "[138] The measure of the blockade's success was not the few ships that slipped through, but the thousands that never tried it.", "Merchant ships owned in Europe could not get insurance and were too slow to evade the blockade; they simply stopped calling at Confederate ports.", "[139]To fight an offensive war, the Confederacy purchased ships from Britain, converted them to warships, and raided American merchant ships in the Atlantic and Pacific oceans.", "Insurance rates skyrocketed and the American flag virtually disappeared from international waters.", "However, the same ships were reflagged with European flags and continued unmolested.", "[131] After the war, the U. S. demanded that Britain pay for the damage done, and Britain paid the U. S. $15 million in 1871.", "[140]Rivers Clashes on the rivers were melees of ironclads, cottonclads, gunboats and rams, complicated by torpedoes and fire rafts.", "The 1862 Union strategy called for simultaneous advances along four axes: [141]Mc Clellan would lead the main thrust in Virginia towards Richmond.", "Ohio forces would advance through Kentucky into Tennessee.", "The Missouri Department would drive south along the Mississippi River.", "The westernmost attack would originate from Kansas.", "Ulysses Grant used river transport and Andrew Foote's gunboats of the Western Flotilla to threaten the Confederacy's \"\"Gibraltar of the West\"\" at Columbus, Kentucky.", "Though rebuffed at Belmont, Grant cut off Columbus.", "The Confederates, lacking their own gunboats, were forced to retreat and the Union took control of western Kentucky in March 1862.", "[142]In addition to ocean-going warships coming up the Mississippi, the Union Navy used timberclads, tinclads, and armored gunboats.", "Shipyards at Cairo, Illinois, and St. Louis built new boats or modified steamboats for action.", "[143] They took control of the Red, Tennessee, Cumberland, Mississippi, and Ohio rivers after victories at Fort Henry (February 6, 1862) and Fort Donelson (February 11 to 16, 1862), and supplied Grant's forces as he moved into Tennessee.", "At Shiloh (Pittsburg Landing), in Tennessee in April 1862, the Confederates made a surprise attack that pushed Union forces against the river as night fell.", "Overnight, the Navy landed additional reinforcements, and Grant counter-attacked.", "Grant and the Union won a decisive victory—the first battle with the high casualty rates that would repeat over and over.", "[144]Memphis fell to Union forces on June 6, 1862, and became a key base for further advances south along the Mississippi River.", "On April 24, 1862, U. S. Naval forces under Farragut ran past Confederate defenses south of New Orleans.", "Confederate forces abandoned the city, giving the Union a critical anchor in the deep South.", "[145]Naval forces assisted Grant in the long, complex Vicksburg Campaign that resulted in the Confederates surrendering at Vicksburg, Mississippi in July 1863, and in the Union fully controlling the Mississippi River soon after.", "[146]Eastern theater Further information: Eastern Theater of the American Civil War Left: The Battle of Antietam, the Civil War's deadliest one-day fight.", "Union troops committed piecemeal had little effect.", "Right: Confederate ironclads at Norfolk and New Orleans dispersed blockade, until Union ironclads could defeat them.", "In one of the first highly visible battles, a march by Union troops under the command of Maj. Gen. Irvin Mc Dowell on the Confederate forces near Washington was repulsed.", "Maj. Gen. George B. Mc Clellan took command of the Union Army of the Potomac on July 26 (he was briefly general-in-chief of all the Union armies, but was subsequently relieved of that post in favor of Maj. Gen. Henry W. Halleck ), and the war began in earnest in 1862.", "Upon the strong urging of President Lincoln to begin offensive operations, Mc Clellan attacked Virginia in the spring of 1862 by way of the peninsula between the York River and James River, southeast of Richmond.", "Although Mc Clellan's army reached the gates of Richmond in the Peninsula Campaign, [147] [148] [149] Johnston halted his advance at the Battle of Seven Pines, then General Robert E. Lee and top subordinates James Longstreet and Stonewall Jackson defeated Mc Clellan in the Seven Days Battles and forced his retreat.", "[150] The Northern Virginia Campaign, which included the Second Battle of Bull Run, ended in yet another victory for the South.", "[151] Mc Clellan resisted General-in-Chief Halleck's orders to send reinforcements to John Pope's Union Army of Virginia, which made it easier for Lee's Confederates to defeat twice the number of combined enemy troops.", "Emboldened by Second Bull Run, the Confederacy made its first invasion of the North.", "General Lee led 45,000 men of the Army of Northern Virginia across the Potomac River into Maryland on September 5.", "Lincoln then restored Pope's troops to Mc Clellan.", "Mc Clellan and Lee fought at the Battle of Antietam near Sharpsburg, Maryland, on September 17, 1862, the bloodiest single day in United States military history.", "[150] [152] Lee's army, checked at last, returned to Virginia before Mc Clellan could destroy it.", "Antietam is considered a Union victory because it halted Lee's invasion of the North and provided an opportunity for Lincoln to announce his Emancipation Proclamation.", "[153]Union forces performing a bayonet charge, 1862When the cautious Mc Clellan failed to follow up on Antietam, he was replaced by Maj. Gen. Ambrose Burnside.", "Burnside was soon defeated at the Battle of Fredericksburg [154] on December 13, 1862, when more than 12,000 Union soldiers were killed or wounded during repeated futile frontal assaults against Marye's Heights.", "After the battle, Burnside was replaced by Maj. Gen. Joseph Hooker.", "Hooker, too, proved unable to defeat Lee's army; despite outnumbering the Confederates by more than two to one, he was humiliated in the Battle of Chancellorsville in May 1863.", "[155] Gen. Stonewall Jackson was shot in the arm by accidental friendly fire during the battle and subsequently died of complications.", "[156] Gen. Hooker was replaced by Maj. Gen. George Meade during Lee's second invasion of the North, in June.", "Meade defeated Lee at the Battle of Gettysburg (July 1 to 3, 1863).", "[157] This was the bloodiest battle of the war, and has been called the war's turning point.", "Pickett's Charge on July 3 is often considered the high-water mark of the Confederacy because it signaled the collapse of serious Confederate threats of victory.", "Lee's army suffered 28,000 casualties (versus Meade's 23,000).", "[158] However, Lincoln was angry that Meade failed to intercept Lee's retreat, and after Meade's inconclusive fall campaign, Lincoln turned to the Western Theater for new leadership.", "At the same time, the Confederate stronghold of Vicksburg surrendered, giving the Union control of the Mississippi River, permanently isolating the western Confederacy, and producing the new leader Lincoln needed, Ulysses S. Grant.", "Western theater Further information: Western Theater of the American Civil War While the Confederate forces had numerous successes in the Eastern Theater, they were defeated many times in the West.", "They were driven from Missouri early in the war as a result of the Battle of Pea Ridge.", "[159] Leonidas Polk 's invasion of Columbus, Kentucky ended Kentucky's policy of neutrality and turned that state against the Confederacy.", "Nashville and central Tennessee fell to the Union early in 1862, leading to attrition of local food supplies and livestock and a breakdown in social organization.", "Left: The Battle of Chickamauga, the highest two-day losses.", "Confederate victory held off Union offensive for two months.", "Right: New Orleans captured.", "Union ironclads forced passage, sank Confederate fleet, destroyed batteries, held docks for Army.", "The Mississippi was opened to Union traffic to the southern border of Tennessee with the taking of Island No.", "10 and New Madrid, Missouri, and then Memphis, Tennessee.", "In April 1862, the Union Navy captured New Orleans, [160] which allowed Union forces to begin moving up the Mississippi.", "Only the fortress city of Vicksburg, Mississippi, prevented Union control of the entire river.", "General Braxton Bragg 's second Confederate invasion of Kentucky ended with a meaningless victory over Maj. Gen. Don Carlos Buell at the Battle of Perryville, although Bragg was forced to end his attempt at invading Kentucky and retreat due to lack of support for the Confederacy in that state.", "[161] Bragg was narrowly defeated by Maj. Gen. William Rosecrans at the Battle of Stones River in Tennessee.", "[162]The one clear Confederate victory in the West was the Battle of Chickamauga.", "Bragg, reinforced by Lt. Gen. James Longstreet 's corps (from Lee's army in the east), defeated Rosecrans, despite the heroic defensive stand of Maj. Gen. George Henry Thomas.", "Rosecrans retreated to Chattanooga, which Bragg then besieged.", "The Union's key strategist and tactician in the West was Ulysses S. Grant, who won victories at Forts Henry and Donelson (by which the Union seized control of the Tennessee and Cumberland Rivers); the Battle of Shiloh; [163] and the Battle of Vicksburg, [164] which cemented Union control of the Mississippi River and is considered one of the turning points of the war.", "Grant marched to the relief of Rosecrans and defeated Bragg at the Third Battle of Chattanooga, [165] driving Confederate forces out of Tennessee and opening a route to Atlanta and the heart of the Confederacy.", "Trans-Mississippi Further information on Missouri in the Civil War: Trans-Mississippi Theater of the American Civil War Left: Quantrill's Raid captured a hotel in free-state Kansas for a day in a town of 2,000, burned 185 buildings, killed 182 men and boys.", "[166]Right: Nathaniel Lyon secured St. Louis docks and arsenal, led Union forces to expel Missouri Confederate forces and government.", "[167]Extensive guerrilla warfare characterized the trans-Mississippi region, as the Confederacy lacked the troops and the logistics to support regular armies that could challenge Union control.", "[168] Roving Confederate bands such as Quantrill's Raiders terrorized the countryside, striking both military installations and civilian settlements.", "[169] The \"\"Sons of Liberty\"\" and \"\"Order of the American Knights\"\" attacked pro-Union people, elected officeholders, and unarmed uniformed soldiers.", "These partisans could not be entirely driven out of the state of Missouri until an entire regular Union infantry division was engaged.", "By 1864, these violent activities harmed the nationwide anti-war movement organizing against the re-election of Lincoln.", "Missouri not only stayed in the Union, Lincoln took 70 percent of the vote for re-election.", "[166]Numerous small-scale military actions south and west of Missouri sought to control Indian Territory and New Mexico Territory for the Union.", "The Union repulsed Confederate incursions into New Mexico in 1862, and the exiled Arizona government withdrew into Texas.", "In the Indian Territory, civil war broke out within tribes.", "About 12,000 Indian warriors fought for the Confederacy, and smaller numbers for the Union.", "[170] The most prominent Cherokee was Brigadier General Stand Watie, the last Confederate general to surrender.", "[171]After the fall of Vicksburg in July 1863, General Kirby Smith in Texas was informed by Jefferson Davis that he could expect no further help from east of the Mississippi River.", "Although he lacked resources to beat Union armies, he built up a formidable arsenal at Tyler, along with his own Kirby Smithdom economy, a virtual \"\"independent fiefdom\"\" in Texas, including railroad construction and international smuggling.", "The Union in turn did not directly engage him.", "[172] Its 1864 Red River Campaign to take Shreveport, Louisiana was a failure and Texas remained in Confederate hands throughout the war.", "End of the war Conquest of Virginia At the beginning of 1864, Lincoln made Grant commander of all Union armies.", "Grant made his headquarters with the Army of the Potomac, and put Maj. Gen. William Tecumseh Sherman in command of most of the western armies.", "Grant understood the concept of total war and believed, along with Lincoln and Sherman, that only the utter defeat of Confederate forces and their economic base would end the war.", "[173] This was total war not in killing civilians but rather in taking provisions and forage and destroying homes, farms, and railroads, that Grant said \"\"would otherwise have gone to the support of secession and rebellion.", "This policy I believe exercised a material influence in hastening the end.\"\"", "[174] Grant devised a coordinated strategy that would strike at the entire Confederacy from multiple directions.", "Generals George Meade and Benjamin Butler were ordered to move against Lee near Richmond, General Franz Sigel (and later Philip Sheridan) were to attack the Shenandoah Valley, General Sherman was to capture Atlanta and march to the sea (the Atlantic Ocean), Generals George Crook and William W. Averell were to operate against railroad supply lines in West Virginia, and Maj. Gen. Nathaniel P. Banks was to capture Mobile, Alabama.", "[175]These dead soldiers—from Ewell 's May 1864 attack at Spotsylvania —delayed Grant's advance on Richmond in the Overland Campaign.", "The Peacemakers by George Peter Alexander Healy portrays Sherman, Grant, Lincoln, and Porter discussing plans for the last weeks of the Civil War aboard the steamer River Queen in March 1865.", "Grant's army set out on the Overland Campaign with the goal of drawing Lee into a defense of Richmond, where they would attempt to pin down and destroy the Confederate army.", "The Union army first attempted to maneuver past Lee and fought several battles, notably at the Wilderness, Spotsylvania, and Cold Harbor.", "These battles resulted in heavy losses on both sides, and forced Lee's Confederates to fall back repeatedly.", "An attempt to outflank Lee from the south failed under Butler, who was trapped inside the Bermuda Hundred river bend.", "Each battle resulted in setbacks for the Union that mirrored what they had suffered under prior generals, though unlike those prior generals, Grant fought on rather than retreat.", "Grant was tenacious and kept pressing Lee's Army of Northern Virginia back to Richmond.", "While Lee was preparing for an attack on Richmond, Grant unexpectedly turned south to cross the James River and began the protracted Siege of Petersburg, where the two armies engaged in trench warfare for over nine months.", "[176]Grant finally found a commander, General Philip Sheridan, aggressive enough to prevail in the Valley Campaigns of 1864.", "Sheridan was initially repelled at the Battle of New Market by former U. S. Vice President and Confederate Gen. John C. Breckinridge.", "The Battle of New Market was the Confederacy's last major victory of the war.", "After redoubling his efforts, Sheridan defeated Maj. Gen. Jubal A.", "Early in a series of battles, including a final decisive defeat at the Battle of Cedar Creek.", "Sheridan then proceeded to destroy the agricultural base of the Shenandoah Valley, a strategy similar to the tactics Sherman later employed in Georgia.", "[177]Meanwhile, Sherman maneuvered from Chattanooga to Atlanta, defeating Confederate Generals Joseph E. Johnston and John Bell Hood along the way.", "The fall of Atlanta on September 2, 1864, guaranteed the reelection of Lincoln as president.", "[178] Hood left the Atlanta area to swing around and menace Sherman's supply lines and invade Tennessee in the Franklin-Nashville Campaign.", "Union Maj. Gen. John Schofield defeated Hood at the Battle of Franklin, and George H. Thomas dealt Hood a massive defeat at the Battle of Nashville, effectively destroying Hood's army.", "[179]Leaving Atlanta, and his base of supplies, Sherman's army marched with an unknown destination, laying waste to about 20 percent of the farms in Georgia in his \"\" March to the Sea \"\".", "He reached the Atlantic Ocean at Savannah, Georgia in December 1864.", "Sherman's army was followed by thousands of freed slaves; there were no major battles along the March.", "Sherman turned north through South Carolina and North Carolina to approach the Confederate Virginia lines from the south, increasing the pressure on Lee's army.", "[180]Lee's army, thinned by desertion and casualties, was now much smaller than Grant's.", "One last Confederate attempt to break the Union hold on Petersburg failed at the decisive Battle of Five Forks (sometimes called \"\"the Waterloo of the Confederacy\"\") on April 1.", "This meant that the Union now controlled the entire perimeter surrounding Richmond-Petersburg, completely cutting it off from the Confederacy.", "Realizing that the capital was now lost, Lee decided to evacuate his army.", "The Confederate capital fell to the Union XXV Corps, composed of black troops.", "The remaining Confederate units fled west after a defeat at Sayler's Creek.", "[181]Confederacy surrenders Main article: Conclusion of the American Civil War Map of Confederate territory losses year by year Initially, Lee did not intend to surrender, but planned to regroup at the village of Appomattox Court House, where supplies were to be waiting, and then continue the war.", "Grant chased Lee and got in front of him, so that when Lee's army reached Appomattox Court House, they were surrounded.", "After an initial battle, Lee decided that the fight was now hopeless, and surrendered his Army of Northern Virginia on April 9, 1865, at the Mc Lean House.", "[182] In an untraditional gesture and as a sign of Grant's respect and anticipation of peacefully restoring Confederate states to the Union, Lee was permitted to keep his sword and his horse, Traveller.", "On April 14, 1865, President Lincoln was shot by John Wilkes Booth, a Southern sympathizer.", "Lincoln died early the next morning, and Andrew Johnson became the president.", "Meanwhile, Confederate forces across the South surrendered as news of Lee's surrender reached them.", "[183] On April 26, 1865, General Joseph E. Johnston surrendered nearly 90,000 men of the Army of Tennessee to Major General William T. Sherman at the Bennett Place near present-day Durham, North Carolina.", "It proved to be the largest surrender of Confederate forces, effectively bringing the war to an end.", "President Johnson officially declared a virtual end to the insurrection on May 9, 1865; President Jefferson Davis was captured the following day.", "[1] On June 2, Kirby Smith officially surrendered his troops in the Trans-Mississippi Department.", "[184] On June 23, Cherokee leader Stand Watie became the last Confederate General to surrender his forces.", "[185]Diplomacy Main article: Diplomacy of the American Civil War Though the Confederacy hoped that Britain and France would join them against the Union, this was never likely, and so they instead tried to bring Britain and France in as mediators.", "[186] [187] The Union, under Lincoln and Secretary of State William H. Seward worked to block this, and threatened war if any country officially recognized the existence of the Confederate States of America.", "In 1861, Southerners voluntarily embargoed cotton shipments, hoping to start an economic depression in Europe that would force Britain to enter the war to get cotton, but this did not work.", "Worse, Europe developed other cotton suppliers, which they found superior, hindering the South's recovery after the war.", "[188]Crewmembers of USS Wissahickon by the ship's 11-inch (280 mm) Dahlgren gun, circa 1863Cotton diplomacy proved a failure as Europe had a surplus of cotton, while the 1860–62 crop failures in Europe made the North's grain exports of critical importance.", "It also helped to turn European opinion further away from the Confederacy.", "It was said that \"\"King Corn was more powerful than King Cotton\"\", as U. S. grain went from a quarter of the British import trade to almost half.", "[188] When Britain did face a cotton shortage, it was temporary, being replaced by increased cultivation in Egypt and India.", "Meanwhile, the war created employment for arms makers, ironworkers, and British ships to transport weapons.", "[189]Lincoln's foreign policy was deficient in 1861 in terms of appealing to European public opinion.", "Diplomats had to explain that United States was not committed to the ending of slavery, but instead they repeated legalistic arguments about the unconstitutionality of secession.", "Confederate spokesmen, on the other hand, were much more successful by ignoring slavery and instead focusing on their struggle for liberty, their commitment to free trade, and the essential role of cotton in the European economy.", "In addition, the European aristocracy (the dominant factor in every major country) was \"\"absolutely gleeful in pronouncing the American debacle as proof that the entire experiment in popular government had failed.", "European government leaders welcomed the fragmentation of the ascendant American Republic.\"\"", "[190]U. S. minister to Britain Charles Francis Adams proved particularly adept and convinced Britain not to boldly challenge the blockade.", "The Confederacy purchased several warships from commercial shipbuilders in Britain ( CSS Alabama, CSS Shenandoah, CSS Tennessee, CSS Tallahassee, CSS Florida, and some others).", "The most famous, the CSS Alabama, did considerable damage and led to serious postwar disputes.", "However, public opinion against slavery created a political liability for politicians in Britain, where the antislavery movement was powerful.", "[191]War loomed in late 1861 between the U. S. and Britain over the Trent affair, involving the U. S. Navy's boarding of the British ship Trent and seizure of two Confederate diplomats.", "However, London and Washington were able to smooth over the problem after Lincoln released the two.", "In 1862, the British considered mediation between North and South– though even such an offer would have risked war with the U. S. British Prime Minister Lord Palmerston reportedly read Uncle Tom's Cabin three times when deciding on this.", "[192]The Union victory in the Battle of Antietam caused them to delay this decision.", "The Emancipation Proclamation over time would reinforce the political liability of supporting the Confederacy.", "Despite sympathy for the Confederacy, France's own seizure of Mexico ultimately deterred them from war with the Union.", "Confederate offers late in the war to end slavery in return for diplomatic recognition were not seriously considered by London or Paris.", "After 1863, the Polish revolt against Russia further distracted the European powers, and ensured that they would remain neutral.", "[193]Union victory and aftermath Results The causes of the war, the reasons for its outcome, and even the name of the war itself are subjects of lingering contention today.", "The North and West grew rich while the once-rich South became poor for a century.", "The national political power of the slaveowners and rich southerners ended.", "Historians are less sure about the results of the postwar Reconstruction, especially regarding the second class citizenship of the Freedmen and their poverty.", "[194]Historians have debated whether the Confederacy could have won the war.", "Most scholars, including James Mc Pherson, argue that Confederate victory was at least possible.", "[195] Mc Pherson argues that the North's advantage in population and resources made Northern victory likely but not guaranteed.", "He also argues that if the Confederacy had fought using unconventional tactics, they would have more easily been able to hold out long enough to exhaust the Union.", "[196]Comparison of Union and Confederacy, 1860–1864 [197]Year Union Confederacy Population1860 22,100,000 (71%) 9,100,000 (29%)1864 28,800,000 (90%) [c] 3,000,000 (10%) [198]Free 1860 21,700,000 (81%) 5,600,000 (19%)Slave1860 400,000 (11%) 3,500,000 (89%)1864 negligible 1,900,000 [d]Soldiers 1860–64 2,100,000 (67%) 1,064,000 (33%)Railroad miles1860 21,800 (71%) 8,800 (29%)1864 29,100 (98%) [199] negligible Manufactures1860 90% 10%1864 98% negligible Arms production1860 97% 3%1864 98% negligible Cotton bales1860 negligible 4,500,0001864 300,000 negligible Exports1860 30% 70%1864 98% negligible Confederates did not need to invade and hold enemy territory to win, but only needed to fight a defensive war to convince the North that the cost of winning was too high.", "The North needed to conquer and hold vast stretches of enemy territory and defeat Confederate armies to win.", "[196] Lincoln was not a military dictator, and could continue to fight the war only as long as the American public supported a continuation of the war.", "The Confederacy sought to win independence by out-lasting Lincoln; however, after Atlanta fell and Lincoln defeated Mc Clellan in the election of 1864, all hope for a political victory for the South ended.", "At that point, Lincoln had secured the support of the Republicans, War Democrats, the border states, emancipated slaves, and the neutrality of Britain and France.", "By defeating the Democrats and Mc Clellan, he also defeated the Copperheads and their peace platform.", "[200]Many scholars argue that the Union held an insurmountable long-term advantage over the Confederacy in industrial strength and population.", "Confederate actions, they argue, only delayed defeat.", "[201] [202] Civil War historian Shelby Foote expressed this view succinctly: \"\"I think that the North fought that war with one hand behind its back ...", "If there had been more Southern victories, and a lot more, the North simply would have brought that other hand out from behind its back.", "I don't think the South ever had a chance to win that War.\"\"", "[203]A minority view among historians is that the Confederacy lost because, as E. Merton Coulter put it, \"\"people did not will hard enough and long enough to win.\"\"", "[204] [205] Marxist historian Armstead Robinson agrees, pointing to a class conflict in the Confederate army between the slave owners and the larger number of non-owners.", "He argues that the non-owner soldiers grew embittered about fighting to preserve slavery, and fought less enthusiastically.", "He attributes the major Confederate defeats in 1863 at Vicksburg and Missionary Ridge to this class conflict.", "[206] However, most historians reject the argument.", "[207] James M. Mc Pherson, after reading thousands of letters written by Confederate soldiers, found strong patriotism that continued to the end; they truly believed they were fighting for freedom and liberty.", "Even as the Confederacy was visibly collapsing in 1864–65, he says most Confederate soldiers were fighting hard.", "[208] Historian Gary Gallagher cites General Sherman who in early 1864 commented, \"\"The devils seem to have a determination that cannot but be admired.\"\"", "Despite their loss of slaves and wealth, with starvation looming, Sherman continued, \"\"yet I see no sign of let up—some few deserters—plenty tired of war, but the masses determined to fight it out.\"\"", "[209]Also important were Lincoln's eloquence in rationalizing the national purpose and his skill in keeping the border states committed to the Union cause.", "The Emancipation Proclamation was an effective use of the President's war powers.", "[210] The Confederate government failed in its attempt to get Europe involved in the war militarily, particularly Britain and France.", "Southern leaders needed to get European powers to help break up the blockade the Union had created around the Southern ports and cities.", "Lincoln's naval blockade was 95 percent effective at stopping trade goods; as a result, imports and exports to the South declined significantly.", "The abundance of European cotton and Britain's hostility to the institution of slavery, along with Lincoln's Atlantic and Gulf of Mexico naval blockades, severely decreased any chance that either Britain or France would enter the war.", "[211]Historian Don Doyle has argued that the Union victory had a major impact on the course of world history.", "[212] The Union victory energized popular democratic forces.", "A Confederate victory, on the other hand, would have meant a new birth of slavery, not freedom.", "Historian Fergus Bordewich, following Doyle, argues that: The North's victory decisively proved the durability of democratic government.", "Confederate independence, on the other hand, would have established an American model for reactionary politics and race-based repression that would likely have cast an international shadow into the twentieth century and perhaps beyond.\"\"", "[213]Scholars have debated what the effects of the war were on political and economic power in the South.", "[214] The prevailing view is that the southern planter elite retained its powerful position in the South.", "[214] However, a 2017 study challenges this, noting that while some Southern elites retained their economic status, the turmoil of the 1860s created greater opportunities for economic mobility in the South than in the North.", "[214]Costs One in thirteen veterans were amputees.", "Remains of both sides were reinterred.", "National cemetery in Andersonville, GA.", "The war resulted in at least 1,030,000 casualties (3 percent of the population), including about 620,000 soldier deaths—two-thirds by disease, and 50,000 civilians.", "[11] Binghamton University historian J. David Hacker believes the number of soldier deaths was approximately 750,000, 20 percent higher than traditionally estimated, and possibly as high as 850,000.", "[21] [215] The war accounted for more American deaths than in all other U. S. wars combined.", "[216]Based on 1860 census figures, 8 percent of all white males aged 13 to 43 died in the war, including 6 percent in the North and 18 percent in the South.", "[217] [218] About 56,000 soldiers died in prison camps during the War.", "[219] An estimated 60,000 men lost limbs in the war.", "[220]Union army dead, amounting to 15 percent of the over two million who served, was broken down as follows: [6]110,070 killed in action (67,000) or died of wounds (43,000).199,790 died of disease (75 percent was due to the war, the remainder would have occurred in civilian life anyway)24,866 died in Confederate prison camps9,058 killed by accidents or drowning15,741 other/unknown deaths359,528 total dead In addition there were 4,523 deaths in the Navy (2,112 in battle) and 460 in the Marines (148 in battle).", "[7]Black troops made up 10 percent of the Union death toll, they amounted to 15 percent of disease deaths but less than 3 percent of those killed in battle.", "[6] Losses among African Americans were high, in the last year and a half and from all reported casualties, approximately 20 percent of all African Americans enrolled in the military lost their lives during the Civil War.", "[221]: 16 Notably, their mortality rate was significantly higher than white soldiers: [We] find, according to the revised official data, that of the slightly over two millions troops in the United States Volunteers, over 316,000 died (from all causes), or 15.2 percent.", "Of the 67,000 Regular Army (white) troops, 8.6 percent, or not quite 6,000, died.", "Of the approximately 180,000 United States Colored Troops, however, over 36,000 died, or 20.5 percent.", "In other words, the mortality \"\"rate\"\" amongst the United States Colored Troops in the Civil War was thirty-five percent greater than that among other troops, notwithstanding the fact that the former were not enrolled until some eighteen months after the fighting began.", "[221]: 16Confederate records compiled by historian William F. Fox list 74,524 killed and died of wounds and 59,292 died of disease.", "Including Confederate estimates of battle losses where no records exist would bring the Confederate death toll to 94,000 killed and died of wounds.", "Fox complained, however, that records were incomplete, especially during the last year of the war, and that battlefield reports likely under-counted deaths (many men counted as wounded in battlefield reports subsequently died of their wounds).", "Thomas L. Livermore, using Fox's data, put the number of Confederate non-combat deaths at 166,000, using the official estimate of Union deaths from disease and accidents and a comparison of Union and Confederate enlistment records, for a total of 260,000 deaths.", "[6] However, this excludes the 30,000 deaths of Confederate troops in prisons, which would raise the minimum number of deaths to 290,000.", "The United States National Park Service uses the following figures in its official tally of war losses: [2]Union: 853,838110,100 killed in action224,580 disease deaths275,154 wounded in action211,411 captured (including 30,192 who died as POWs)Confederate: 914,66094,000 killed in action164,000 disease deaths194,026 wounded in action462,634 captured (including 31,000 who died as POWs)Burying Union dead on the Antietam battlefield, 1862While the figures of 360,000 army deaths for the Union and 260,000 for the Confederacy remained commonly cited, they are incomplete.", "In addition to many Confederate records being missing, partly as a result of Confederate widows not reporting deaths due to being ineligible for benefits, both armies only counted troops who died during their service, and not the tens of thousands who died of wounds or diseases after being discharged.", "This often happened only a few days or weeks later.", "Francis Amasa Walker, Superintendent of the 1870 Census, used census and Surgeon General data to estimate a minimum of 500,000 Union military deaths and 350,000 Confederate military deaths, for a total death toll of 850,000 soldiers.", "While Walker's estimates were originally dismissed because of the 1870 Census's undercounting, it was later found that the census was only off by 6.5%, and that the data Walker used would be roughly accurate.", "[215]Analyzing the number of dead by using census data to calculate the deviation of the death rate of men of fighting age from the norm suggests that at least 627,000 and at most 888,000, but most likely 761,000 soldiers, died in the war.", "[22] This would break down to approximately 350,000 Confederate and 411,000 Union military deaths, going by the proportion of Union to Confederate battle losses.", "Deaths among former slaves has proven much harder to estimate, due to the lack of reliable census data at the time, though they were known to be considerable, as former slaves were set free or escaped in massive numbers in an area where the Union army did not have sufficient shelter, doctors, or food for them.", "University of Connecticut Professor James Downs states that tens to hundreds of thousands of slaves died during the war from disease, starvation, exposure, or execution at the hands of the Confederates, and that if these deaths are counted in the war's total, the death toll would exceed 1 million.", "[222]Losses were far higher than during the recent defeat of Mexico, which saw roughly thirteen thousand American deaths, including fewer than two thousand killed in battle, between 1846 and 1848.", "One reason for the high number of battle deaths during the war was the continued use of tactics similar to those of the Napoleonic Wars at the turn of the century, such as charging.", "With the advent of more accurate rifled barrels, Minié balls and (near the end of the war for the Union army) repeating firearms such as the Spencer Repeating Rifle and the Henry Repeating Rifle, soldiers were mowed down when standing in lines in the open.", "This led to the adoption of trench warfare, a style of fighting that defined much of World War I.", "[223]The wealth amassed in slaves and slavery for the Confederacy's 3.5 million blacks effectively ended when Union armies arrived; they were nearly all freed by the Emancipation Proclamation.", "Slaves in the border states and those located in some former Confederate territory occupied before the Emancipation Proclamation were freed by state action or (on December 6, 1865) by the Thirteenth Amendment.", "[224]The war destroyed much of the wealth that had existed in the South.", "All accumulated investment Confederate bonds was forfeit; most banks and railroads were bankrupt.", "Income per person in the South dropped to less than 40 percent of that of the North, a condition that lasted until well into the 20th century.", "Southern influence in the U. S. federal government, previously considerable, was greatly diminished until the latter half of the 20th century.", "[225] The full restoration of the Union was the work of a highly contentious postwar era known as Reconstruction.", "Emancipation Slavery as a war issue While not all Southerners saw themselves as fighting to preserve slavery, most of the officers and over a third of the rank and file in Lee 's army had close family ties to slavery.", "To Northerners, in contrast, the motivation was primarily to preserve the Union, not to abolish slavery.", "[226] Abraham Lincoln consistently made preserving the Union the central goal of the war, though he increasingly saw slavery as a crucial issue and made ending it an additional goal.", "[227] Lincoln's decision to issue the Emancipation Proclamation angered both Peace Democrats (\"\"Copperheads\"\") and War Democrats, but energized most Republicans.", "[228] By warning that free blacks would flood the North, Democrats made gains in the 1862 elections, but they did not gain control of Congress.", "The Republicans' counterargument that slavery was the mainstay of the enemy steadily gained support, with the Democrats losing decisively in the 1863 elections in the northern state of Ohio when they tried to resurrect anti-black sentiment.", "[229]Emancipation Proclamation Main article: Emancipation Proclamation Left: Contrabands —fugitive slaves—cooks, laundresses, laborers, teamsters, railroad repair crews—fled to the Union Army, but were not officially freed until 1863.", "Emancipation Proclamation .", "Right: In 1863, the Union army accepted Freedmen.", "Seen here are Black and White teen-aged soldiers.", "The Emancipation Proclamation enabled African-Americans, both free blacks and escaped slaves, to join the Union Army.", "[e] About 190,000 volunteered, further enhancing the numerical advantage the Union armies enjoyed over the Confederates, who did not dare emulate the equivalent manpower source for fear of fundamentally undermining the legitimacy of slavery.", "[f]During the Civil War, sentiment concerning slaves, enslavement and emancipation in the United States was divided.", "In 1861, Lincoln worried that premature attempts at emancipation would mean the loss of the border states, and that \"\"to lose Kentucky is nearly the same as to lose the whole game.\"\"", "[235] Copperheads and some War Democrats opposed emancipation, although the latter eventually accepted it as part of total war needed to save the Union.", "[236]At first, Lincoln reversed attempts at emancipation by Secretary of War Simon Cameron and Generals John C. Frémont (in Missouri) and David Hunter (in South Carolina, Georgia and Florida) to keep the loyalty of the border states and the War Democrats.", "Lincoln warned the border states that a more radical type of emancipation would happen if his gradual plan based on compensated emancipation and voluntary colonization was rejected.", "[237] But only the District of Columbia accepted Lincoln's gradual plan, which was enacted by Congress.", "When Lincoln told his cabinet about his proposed emancipation proclamation, Seward advised Lincoln to wait for a victory before issuing it, as to do otherwise would seem like \"\"our last shriek on the retreat\"\".", "[238] Lincoln laid the groundwork for public support in an open letter published in abolitionist Horace Greeley's newspaper.", "[239]In September 1862, the Battle of Antietam provided this opportunity, and the subsequent War Governors' Conference added support for the proclamation.", "[240] Lincoln issued his preliminary Emancipation Proclamation on September 22, 1862, and his final Emancipation Proclamation on January 1, 1863.", "In his letter to Albert G. Hodges, Lincoln explained his belief that \"\"If slavery is not wrong, nothing is wrong ... And yet I have never understood that the Presidency conferred upon me an unrestricted right to act officially upon this judgment and feeling ...", "I claim not to have controlled events, but confess plainly that events have controlled me.\"\"", "[241]Lincoln's moderate approach succeeded in inducing border states, War Democrats and emancipated slaves to fight for the Union.", "The Union-controlled border states (Kentucky, Missouri, Maryland, Delaware and West Virginia) and Union-controlled regions around New Orleans, Norfolk and elsewhere, were not covered by the Emancipation Proclamation.", "All abolished slavery on their own, except Kentucky and Delaware.", "[242]Since the Emancipation Proclamation was based on the President's war powers, it only included territory held by Confederates at the time.", "However, the Proclamation became a symbol of the Union's growing commitment to add emancipation to the Union's definition of liberty.", "[243] The Emancipation Proclamation greatly reduced the Confederacy's hope of getting aid from Britain or France.", "[244] By late 1864, Lincoln was playing a leading role in getting Congress to vote for the Thirteenth Amendment, which made emancipation universal and permanent.", "[245]Texas v. White In Texas v. White, 74 U. S. 700 (1869) the United States Supreme Court ruled that Texas had remained a state ever since it first joined the Union, despite claims that it joined the Confederate States; the court further held that the Constitution did not permit states to unilaterally secede from the United States, and that the ordinances of secession, and all the acts of the legislatures within seceding states intended to give effect to such ordinances, were \"\"absolutely null \"\", under the constitution.", "[246]Reconstruction Main article: Reconstruction Era Northern teachers traveled into the South to provide education and training for the newly freed population.", "Reconstruction began during the war, with the Emancipation Proclamation of January 1, 1863, and it continued until 1877.", "[247] It comprised multiple complex methods to resolve the outstanding issues of the war's aftermath, the most important of which were the three \"\" Reconstruction Amendments \"\" to the Constitution, which remain in effect to the present time: the 13th (1865), the 14th (1868) and the 15th (1870).", "From the Union perspective, the goals of Reconstruction were to consolidate the Union victory on the battlefield by reuniting the Union; to guarantee a \"\" republican form of government for the ex-Confederate states; and to permanently end slavery—and prevent semi-slavery status.", "[248]President Johnson took a lenient approach and saw the achievement of the main war goals as realized in 1865, when each ex-rebel state repudiated secession and ratified the Thirteenth Amendment.", "Radical Republicans demanded proof that Confederate nationalism was dead and that the slaves were truly free.", "They came to the fore after the 1866 elections and undid much of Johnson's work.", "In 1872 the \"\"Liberal Republicans\"\" argued that the war goals had been achieved and that Reconstruction should end.", "They ran a presidential ticket in 1872 but were decisively defeated.", "In 1874, Democrats, primarily Southern, took control of Congress and opposed any more reconstruction.", "The Compromise of 1877 closed with a national consensus that the Civil War had finally ended.", "[249] With the withdrawal of federal troops, however, whites retook control of every Southern legislature; the Jim Crow period of disenfranchisement and legal segregation was about to begin.", "Memory and historiography Left: Monument to the Grand Army of the Republic, a Union veteran organization Right: Cherokee Confederates reunion in New Orleans, 1903The Civil War is one of the central events in American collective memory.", "There are innumerable statues, commemorations, books and archival collections.", "The memory includes the home front, military affairs, the treatment of soldiers, both living and dead, in the war's aftermath, depictions of the war in literature and art, evaluations of heroes and villains, and considerations of the moral and political lessons of the war.", "[250] The last theme includes moral evaluations of racism and slavery, heroism in combat and heroism behind the lines, and the issues of democracy and minority rights, as well as the notion of an \"\" Empire of Liberty \"\" influencing the world.", "[251]Professional historians have paid much more attention to the causes of the war, than to the war itself.", "Military history has largely developed outside academe, leading to a proliferation of solid studies by non-scholars who are thoroughly familiar with the primary sources, pay close attention to battles and campaigns, and write for the large public readership, rather than the small scholarly community.", "Bruce Catton and Shelby Foote are among the best-known writers.", "[252] [253] Practically every major figure in the war, both North and South, has had a serious biographical study.", "[254] Deeply religious Southerners saw the hand of God in history, which demonstrated His wrath at their sinfulness, or His rewards for their suffering.", "Historian Wilson Fallin has examined the sermons of white and black Baptist preachers after the War.", "Southern white preachers said: God had chastised them and given them a special mission—to maintain orthodoxy, strict biblicism, personal piety, and traditional race relations.", "Slavery, they insisted, had not been sinful.", "Rather, emancipation was a historical tragedy and the end of Reconstruction was a clear sign of God's favor.", "[255]In sharp contrast, Black preachers interpreted the Civil War as: God's gift of freedom.", "They appreciated opportunities to exercise their independence, to worship in their own way, to affirm their worth and dignity, and to proclaim the fatherhood of God and the brotherhood of man.", "Most of all, they could form their own churches, associations, and conventions.", "These institutions offered self-help and racial uplift, and provided places where the gospel of liberation could be proclaimed.", "As a result, black preachers continued to insist that God would protect and help him; God would be their rock in a stormy land.", "[256]Lost Cause Main article: Lost Cause of the Confederacy Memory of the war in the white South crystallized in the myth of the \"\"Lost Cause\"\", shaping regional identity and race relations for generations.", "[257] Alan T. Nolan notes that the Lost Cause was expressly \"\"a rationalization, a cover-up to vindicate the name and fame\"\" of those in rebellion.", "Some claims revolve around the insignificance of slavery; some appeals highlight cultural differences between North and South; the military conflict by Confederate actors is idealized; in any case, secession was said to be lawful.", "[258] Nolan argues that the adoption of the Lost Cause perspective facilitated the reunification of the North and the South while excusing the \"\"virulent racism\"\" of the 19th century, sacrificing African-American progress to a white man's reunification.", "He also deems the Lost Cause \"\"a caricature of the truth.", "This caricature wholly misrepresents and distorts the facts of the matter\"\" in every instance.", "[259]Beardian historiography The interpretation of the Civil War presented by Charles A.", "Beard and Mary R. Beard in The Rise of American Civilization (1927) was highly influential among historians and the general public until the civil rights movement of the 1950s and 1960s.", "The Beards downplayed slavery, abolitionism, and issues of morality.", "They ignored constitutional issues of states' rights and even ignored American nationalism as the force that finally led to victory in the war.", "Indeed, the ferocious combat itself was passed over as merely an ephemeral event.", "Much more important was the calculus of class conflict.", "The Beards announced that the Civil War was really: [A] social cataclysm in which the capitalists, laborers, and farmers of the North and West drove from power in the national government the planting aristocracy of the South.", "[260]The Beards themselves abandoned their interpretation by the 1940s and it became defunct among historians in the 1950s, when scholars shifted to an emphasis on slavery.", "However, Beardian themes still echo among Lost Cause writers.", "[261]Battlefield preservation Beginning in 1961 the U. S. Post Office released Commemorative stamps for five famous battles, each issued on the 100th anniversary of the respective battle.", "The first efforts at Civil War battlefield preservation and memorialization came during the war itself with the establishment of National Cemeteries at Gettysburg, Mill Springs and Chattanooga.", "Soldiers began erecting markers on battlefields beginning with the First Battle of Bull Run in July 1861, but the oldest surviving monument is the Hazen monument, erected at Stones River near Murfreesboro, Tennessee, in the summer of 1863 by soldiers in Union Col. William B. Hazen's brigade to mark the spot where they buried their dead in the Battle of Stones River.", "In the 1890s, the United States government established five Civil War battlefield parks under the jurisdiction of the War Department, beginning with the creation of the Chickamauga and Chattanooga National Military Park in Tennessee and the Antietam National Battlefield in Maryland in 1890.", "The Shiloh National Military Park was established in 1894, followed by the Gettysburg National Military Park in 1895 and Vicksburg National Military Park in 1899.", "In 1933, these five parks and other national monuments were transferred to the jurisdiction of the National Park Service.", "[262]The modern Civil War battlefield preservation movement began in 1987 with the founding of the Association for the Preservation of Civil War Sites (APCWS), a grassroots organization created by Civil War historians and others to preserve battlefield land by acquiring it.", "In 1991, the original Civil War Trust was created in the mold of the Statue of Liberty/Ellis Island Foundation, but failed to attract corporate donors and soon helped manage the disbursement of U. S. Mint Civil War commemorative coin revenues designated for battlefield preservation.", "Although the two organizations joined forces on a number of battlefield acquisitions, ongoing conflicts prompted the boards of both organizations to facilitate a merger, which happened in 1999 with the creation of the Civil War Preservation Trust.", "In 2011, the organization was renamed The Civil War Trust.", "From 1987 through late 2017, The Trust and its predecessor organizations saved more than 40,000 acres at 126 Civil War battlefields and sites in 21 states.", "[263]Civil War commemoration Main article: Commemoration of the American Civil War See also: Commemoration of the American Civil War on postage stamps Left: Grand Army of the Republic (Union)Right: United Confederate Veterans The American Civil War has been commemorated in many capacities ranging from the reenactment of battles, to statues and memorial halls erected, to films being produced, to stamps and coins with Civil War themes being issued, all of which helped to shape public memory.", "This varied advent occurred in greater proportions on the 100th and 150th anniversary.", "[264] Hollywood 's take on the war has been especially influential in shaping public memory, as seen in such film classics as Birth of a Nation (1915), Gone with the Wind (1939), and more recently Lincoln (2012).", "Ken Burns produced a notable PBS series on television titled The Civil War (1990).", "It was digitally remastered and re-released in 2015.", "Technological significance There were numerous technological innovations during the Civil War that had a great impact on 19th century science.", "The Civil War was one of the earliest examples of an \"\" industrial war \"\", in which technological might is used to achieve military supremacy in a war.", "[265] New inventions, such as the train and telegraph, delivered soldiers, supplies and messages at a time when horses were considered to be the fastest way to travel.", "[266] [267] It was also in this war when countries first used aerial warfare, in the form of reconnaissance balloons, to a significant effect.", "[268] It saw the first action involving steam-powered ironclad warships in naval warfare history.", "[269] Repeating firearms such as the Henry rifle, Spencer rifle, Colt revolving rifle, Triplett & Scott carbine and others, first appeared during the Civil War; they were a revolutionary invention that would soon replace muzzle-loading and single-shot firearms in warfare, as well as the first appearances of rapid-firing weapons and machine guns such as the Agar gun and the Gatling gun.", "[270]In works of culture and art Literature The Rise and Fall of the Confederate Government (1881) by Jefferson Davis The Red Badge of Courage (1885) by Stephen Crane The Private History of a Campaign That Failed (1885) by Mark Twain Texar's Revenge, or, North Against South (1887) by Jules Verne\"\" An Occurrence at Owl Creek Bridge \"\" (1890) by Ambrose Bierce Gone with the Wind (1936) by Margaret Mitchell Shiloh (1952) by Shelby Foote North and South (1982) by John Jakes Oldest Living Confederate Widow Tells All (1989) by Allan Gurganus Film The Birth of a Nation (1915, US)The General (1926, US)Gone with the Wind (1939, US)The Red Badge of Courage (1951, US)The Horse Soldiers (1959, US)Shenandoah (1965, US)The Good, the Bad and the Ugly (1966, Italy-Spain-FRG)The Beguiled (1971, US)Glory (1989, US)The Civil War (1990, US)Gettysburg (1993, US)The Last Outlaw (1993, US)Cold Mountain (2003, US)Gods and Generals (2003, US)North and South (miniseries)Lincoln (2012, US)12 Years a Slave (2012, US)Free State of Jones (2016, US)The Gettysburg Address (2017, US)Song\"\"Johnny Reb\"\" (1959) written by Merle Kilgore, sung by Johnny Horton\"\" The Night They Drove Old Dixie Down \"\" (1969) written by Robbie Robertson, sung by The Band Video games Sid Meier's Gettysburg!", "(1997, US)Sid Meier's Antietam!", "(1999, US)American Conqest: Divided Nation (2006, US)Forge of Freedom: The American Civil War (2006, US)The History Channel: Civil War – A Nation Divided (2006, US)Ageod's American Civil War (2007, US/FR)History Civil War: Secret Missions (2008, US)Call of Juarez: Bound in Blood (2009, US)Darkest of Days (2009, US)Victoria II: A House Divided (2011, US)Ageod's American Civil War II (2013, US/FR)Ultimate General: Gettysburg (2014, UKR)Ultimate General: Civil War (2016, UKR)See also General reference Battles of the American Civil War Bibliography of the American Civil War Bibliography of Abraham Lincoln Bibliography of Ulysses S. Grant Corps badges of the American Civil War Costliest Battles of the American Civil War Naval bibliography of the American Civil War Origins of the American Civil War Uniforms of the Confederacy Uniforms of the Union Weapons in the American Civil War Union United States Union Army Union Navy Abraham Lincoln Emancipation Proclamation Confederacy Confederate States Confederate Army Confederate Navy Jefferson Davis Ethnic articles African Americans in the American Civil War German Americans in the American Civil War Irish Americans in the American Civil War Native Americans in the American Civil War American Civil War portal Topical articles Blockade runners of the American Civil War Blockade, Union – of the American Civil War Casualties in the American Civil War Commemoration of the American Civil War Commemoration of the American Civil War on postage stamps Education of freed people during the Civil War Infantry in the American Civil War Modern display of the Confederate flag Nursing in the American Civil War, Dorothea Dix Ships captured during the American Civil War Slavery during the American Civil War Spies in the American Civil War National articles Foreign enlistment in the American Civil War Britain in the American Civil War Canada in the American Civil War Prussia in the American Civil War State articles See articles in the format, \"\"*state* in the American Civil War\"\"Memorials List of Confederate monuments and memorials List of memorials and monuments at Arlington National Cemetery List of memorials to Jefferson Davis List of memorials to Robert E. Lee List of memorials to Stonewall Jackson List of monuments erected by the United Daughters of the Confederacy List of monuments of the Gettysburg Battlefield List of Union Civil War monuments and memorials Memorials to Abraham Lincoln Removal of Confederate monuments and memorials References Notes^ a b Total number that served^ A novel way of calculating casualties by looking at the deviation of the death rate of men of fighting age from the norm through analysis of census data found that at least 627,000 and at most 888,000 people, but most likely 761,000 people, died through the war.", "[22]^ \"\"Union population 1864\"\" aggregates 1860 population, average annual immigration 1855–1864, and population governed formerly by CSA per Kenneth Martis source.", "Contrabands and after the Emancipation Proclamation freedmen, migrating into Union control on the coasts and to the advancing armies, and natural increase are excluded.^ \"\"Slave 1864, CSA\"\" aggregates 1860 slave census of Virginia, North Carolina, South Carolina, Georgia and Texas.", "It omits losses from contraband and after the Emancipation Proclamation, freedmen migrating to the Union controlled coastal ports and those joining advancing Union armies, especially in the Mississippi Valley.^ At the beginning of the war, some Union commanders thought they were supposed to return escaped slaves to their masters.", "By 1862, when it became clear that this would be a long war, the question of what to do about slavery became more general.", "The Southern economy and military effort depended on slave labor.", "It began to seem unreasonable to protect slavery while blockading Southern commerce and destroying Southern production.", "As one Congressman put it, the slaves \"\"... cannot be neutral.", "As laborers, if not as soldiers, they will be allies of the rebels, or of the Union.\"\"", "[230] The same Congressman—and his fellow Radical Republicans—put pressure on Lincoln to rapidly emancipate the slaves, whereas moderate Republicans came to accept gradual, compensated emancipation and colonization.", "[231] Enslaved African Americans did not wait for Lincoln's action before escaping and seeking freedom behind Union lines.", "From early years of the war, hundreds of thousands of African Americans escaped to Union lines, especially in occupied areas like Nashville, Norfolk and the Hampton Roads region in 1862, Tennessee from 1862 on, the line of Sherman's march, etc.", "So many African Americans fled to Union lines that commanders created camps and schools for them, where both adults and children learned to read and write.", "See Catton, Bruce.", "Never Call Retreat, p. 335.", "The American Missionary Association entered the war effort by sending teachers south to such contraband camps, for instance establishing schools in Norfolk and on nearby plantations.", "In addition, approximately 180,000 or more African-American men served as soldiers and sailors with Union troops.", "Most of those were escaped slaves.", "Probably the most prominent of these African-American soldiers is the 54th Massachusetts Volunteer Infantry.^ In spite of the South's shortage of soldiers, most Southern leaders—until 1865—opposed enlisting slaves.", "They used them as laborers to support the war effort.", "As Howell Cobb said, \"\"If slaves will make good soldiers our whole theory of slavery is wrong.\"\"", "Confederate generals Patrick Cleburne and Robert E. Lee argued in favor of arming blacks late in the war, and Jefferson Davis was eventually persuaded to support plans for arming slaves to avoid military defeat.", "The Confederacy surrendered at Appomattox before this plan could be implemented.", "[232] The great majority of the 4 million slaves were freed by the Emancipation Proclamation, as Union armies moved south.", "Historian John D. Winters referred to the exhilaration of the slaves when the Union Army came through Louisiana: \"\"As the troops moved up to Alexandria, the Negroes crowded the roadsides to watch the passing army.", "They were 'all frantic with joy, some weeping, some blessing, and some dancing in the exuberance of their emotions.'", "All of the Negroes were attracted by the pageantry and excitement of the army.", "Others cheered because they anticipated the freedom to plunder and to do as they pleased now that the Federal troops were there.\"\"", "[233] Confederates enslaved captured black Union soldiers, and black soldiers especially were shot when trying to surrender at the Fort Pillow Massacre.", "See Catton, Bruce.", "Never Call Retreat, p. 335.", "This led to a breakdown of the prisoner and mail exchange program and the growth of prison camps such as Andersonville prison in Georgia, where almost 13,000 Union prisoners of war died of starvation and disease.", "[234]Citations^ a b \"\"The Belligerent Rights of the Rebels at an End.", "All Nations Warned Against Harboring Their Privateers.", "If They Do Their Ships Will be Excluded from Our Ports.", "Restoration of Law in the State of Virginia.", "The Machinery of Government to be Put in Motion There\"\".", "The New York Times.", "Associated Press.", "May 10, 1865.", "Retrieved December 23, 2013.^ a b c d e f \"\"Facts\"\".", "National Park Service.^ \"\"Size of the Union Army in the American Civil War\"\": Of which 131,000 were in the Navy and Marines, 140,000 were garrison troops and home defense militia, and 427,000 were in the field army.^ Long, E. B.", "The Civil War Day by Day: An Almanac, 1861–1865.", "Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1971.", "OCLC 68283123. p. 705.^ \"\"The war of the rebellion: a compilation of the official records of the Union and Confederate armies.", "; Series 4 – Volume 2\"\", United States.", "War Dept 1900.^ a b c d e f Fox, William F. Regimental losses in the American Civil War (1889)^ a b c d Official DOD data Archived February 28, 2014, at the Wayback Machine.^ Chambers & Anderson 1999, p. 849.^ 211,411 Union soldiers were captured, and 30,218 died in prison.", "The ones who died have been excluded to prevent double-counting of casualties.^ 462,634 Confederate soldiers were captured and 25,976 died in prison.", "The ones who died have been excluded to prevent double-counting of casualties.^ a b Nofi, Al (June 13, 2001).", "\"\"Statistics on the War's Costs\"\".", "Louisiana State University.", "Archived from the original on July 11, 2007.", "Retrieved October 14, 2007.^ Professor James Downs.", "\"\"Color blindness in the demographic death toll of the Civil War\"\".", "University of Connecticut, April 13th 2012.", "\"\"The rough 19th century estimate was that 60,000 former slaves died from the epidemic, but doctors treating black patients often claimed that they were unable to keep accurate records due to demands on their time and the lack of manpower and resources.", "The surviving records only include the number of black patients whom doctors encountered; tens of thousands of other slaves who died had no contact with army doctors, leaving no records of their deaths.\"\"", "60,000 documented plus 'tens of thousands' undocumented gives a minimum of 80,000 slave deaths.^ Recounting the dead, Associate Professor J. David Hacker, \"\" estimates, based on Census data, indicate that the [military] death toll was approximately 750,000, and may have been as high as 850,000 \"\"^ Professor James Downs.", "\"\"Color blindness in the demographic death toll of the Civil War\"\".", "Oxford University Press, April 13th 2012.", "\"\"An 2 April 2012 New York Times article, \"\"New Estimate Raises Civil War Death Toll,\"\" reports that a new study ratchets up the death toll from an estimated 650,000 to a staggering 850,000 people.", "As horrific as this new number is, it fails to reflect the mortality of former slaves during the war.", "If former slaves were included in this figure, the Civil War death toll would likely be over a million casualties ...\"\"^ \"\"Answers to your Civil War Questions\"\".", "Civil War Trust.", "Civil War Trust.", "Retrieved 14 Jan 2018.^ Hutchison, Coleman (2015).", "A History of American Civil War Literature.", "Cambridge University Press.^ \"\"Date of Secession Related to 1860 Black Population\"\", America's Civil War^ Burnham, Walter Dean.", "Presidential Ballots, 1836–1892.", "Johns Hopkins University Press, 1955, pp.", "247–57^ Deborah Gray White, Mia Bay, and Waldo E. Martin, Jr., Freedom on My Mind: A History of African Americans (New York: Bedford/St.", "Martin's, 2013), 325.^ Frank J. Williams, \"\"Doing Less and Doing More: The President and the Proclamation – Legally, Militarily and Politically,\"\" in Harold Holzer, ed.", "The Emancipation Proclamation (2006), pp.", "74–75.^ a b \"\"U. S. Civil War Took Bigger Toll Than Previously Estimated, New Analysis Suggests\"\".", "Science Daily.", "September 22, 2011.", "Retrieved September 22, 2011.^ a b Hacker 2011, p. 307–48.^ Huddleston 2002, p. 3.^ James C. Bradford, A Companion to American Military History (2010), vol.", "1, p. 101.^ See also Freehling, William W., The Road to Disunion: Secessionists Triumphant 1854–1861, pp.", "9–24, and Martis, Kenneth C., The Historical Atlas of Political Parties in the United States Congress, 1789–1989, ISBN 0-02-920170-5, pp.", "111–115, and Foner, Eric.", "Politics and Ideology in the Age of the Civil War, (Oxford University Press, 1980), pp.", "18–20, 21–24.^ Coates, Ta-Nehisi (22 June 2015).", "\"\"What This Cruel War Was Over\"\".", "The Atlantic.", "Retrieved 21 December 2016.^ Gallagher, Gary (February 21, 2011).", "Remembering the Civil War (Speech).", "Sesquicentennial of the Start of the Civil War.", "Miller Center of Public Affairs UV: C-Span.", "Retrieved August 29, 2017.", "Issues related to the institution of slavery precipitated secession...", "It was not states’ rights.", "It was not a tariff.", "It was not unhappiness with manner and customs that led to secession and eventually to war.", "It was a cluster of issues profoundly dividing the nation along a fault line delineated by the institution of slavery.^ Mc Pherson, James M. (March 1, 1994).", "What They Fought For 1861–1865.", "Louisiana State University Press.", "p. 62.", "ISBN 9780807119044.", "|^ Mc Pherson, James M. (April 3, 1997).", "For Cause and Comrades.", "Oxford University Press.", "p. 39.", "ISBN 9780195090239.^ Gallagher, Gary (February 21, 2011).", "Remembering the Civil War (Speech).", "Sesquicentennial of the Start of the Civil War.", "Miller Center of Public Affairs UV: C-Span.", "Retrieved August 29, 2017.", "The loyal citizenry initially gave very little thought to emancipation in their quest to save the union.", "Most loyal citizens, though profoundly prejudice by 21st century standards, embraced emancipation as a tool to punish slave holders, weaken the confederacy, and protect the union from future internal strife.", "A minority of the white populous invoked moral grounds to attack slavery, though their arguments carried far less popular weight than those presenting emancipation as a military measure necessary to defeat the rebels and restore the Union.^ Eskridge, Larry (January 29, 2011).", "\"\"After 150 years, we still ask: Why 'this cruel war'?\"\".", "Canton Daily Ledger.", "Canton, Illinois.", "Archived from the original on February 1, 2011.", "Retrieved January 29, 2011.^ Weeks 2013, p. 240.^ Olsen 2002, p. 237.^ Chadwick, French Esnor.", "Causes of the civil war, 1859–1861 (1906) p. 8^ Thomas Fleming (2014).", "A Disease in the Public Mind: A New Understanding of Why We Fought the Civil War.", "ISBN 978-0306822957.^ Charles S. Sydnor, The Development of Southern Sectionalism 1819–1848 (1948).^ Robert Royal Russel, Economic Aspects of Southern Sectionalism, 1840–1861 (1973).^ Ahlstrom 1972, p. 648–649.^ Kenneth M. Stampp, The Imperiled Union: Essays on the Background of the Civil War (1981), p. 198; Richard Hofstadter, The Progressive Historians: Turner, Beard, Parrington (1969).^ Woodworth 1996, p. 145, 151, 505, 512, 554, 557, 684.^ Thornton & Ekelund 2004, p. 21.^ Frank Taussig, The Tariff History of the United States (1931), pp.", "115–61^ Hofstadter 1938, p. 50–55.^ Robert Gray Gunderson, Old Gentleman's Convention: The Washington Peace Conference of 1861.", "(1961)^ Jon L. Wakelyn (1996).", "Southern Pamphlets on Secession, November 1860 – April 1861.", "U. of North Carolina Press.", "pp.", "23–30.", "ISBN 978-0-8078-6614-6.^ Forrest Mc Donald, States' Rights and the Union: Imperium in Imperio, 1776–1876 (2002).^ Mc Pherson 2007, pp.", "3–9.^ Krannawitter 2008, p. 49–50.^ Mc Pherson 2007, p. 14.^ Stampp 1990, p. 190–93.^ Mc Pherson 2007, pp.", "13–14.^ Bestor 1964, p. 19.^ Mc Pherson 2007, p. 16.^ Bestor 1964, pp.", "19–21.^ Bestor 1964, p. 20.^ Russell 1966, p. 468–69.^ Bestor, Arthur.", "\"\"The American Civil War as a Constitutional Crisis\"\", in Lawrence Meir Friedman (ed.)", "\"\"American Law and the Constitutional Order: Historical Perspectives, ISBN 978-0-674-02527-1 p. 231^ Bestor 1964, pp.", "21–23.^ Johannsen 1973, p. 406.^ \"\"Territorial Politics and Government\"\".", "Territorial Kansas Online: University of Kansas and Kansas Historical Society.", "Retrieved July 10, 2014.", "Finteg^ Bestor 1964, p. 21.^ Bestor 1964, p. 23.^ Varon 2008, p. 58.^ Russell 1966, p. 470.^ Bestor 1964, p. 23–24.^ Mc Pherson 2007, p. 7.^ Krannawitter 2008, p. 232.^ Gara, 1964, p. 190^ Bestor 1964, p. 24–25.^ Potter 1962, p. 924–50.^ C. Vann Woodward (1971), American Counterpoint: Slavery and Racism in the North-South Dialogue, p. 281.^ Bertram Wyatt-Brown, The Shaping of Southern Culture: Honor, Grace, and War, 1760s–1880s (2000).^ Avery Craven, The Growth of Southern Nationalism, 1848–1861 (1953).^ \"\"Republican Platform of 1860,\"\" in Kirk H. Porter, and Donald Bruce Johnson, eds.", "National Party Platforms, 1840–1956, (University of Illinois Press, 1956).", "p. 32.^ Susan-Mary Grant, North over South: Northern Nationalism and American Identity in the Antebellum Era (2000); Melinda Lawson, Patriot Fires: Forging a New American Nationalism in the Civil War North (2005).^ Potter & Fehrenbacher 1976, p. 485.^ Jaffa, Harry V. (2000).", "A New Birth of Freedom: Abraham Lincoln and the Coming of the Civil War.", "Rowman & Littlefield.", "ISBN 0-8476-9952-8. p. 1^ Ordinances of Secession by State Archived 2004-06-11 at the Wayback Machine .. Retrieved November 28, 2012.^ The text of the Declaration of the Immediate Causes Which Induce and Justify the Secession of South Carolina from the Federal Union.^ The text of A Declaration of the Immediate Causes which Induce and Justify the Secession of the State of Mississippi from the Federal Union.", "Retrieved November 28, 2012.^ The text of Georgia's secession declaration.", "Retrieved November 28, 2012.^ The text of A Declaration of the Causes which Impel the State of Texas to Secede from the Federal Union.", "Retrieved November 28, 2012.^ Mc Pherson 1988, p. 24.^ President James Buchanan, Message of December 8, 1860.", "Retrieved November 28, 2012.^ \"\"Profile Showing the Grades upon the Different Routes Surveyed for the Union Pacific Rail Road Between the Missouri River and the Valley of the Platte River\"\".", "World Digital Library.", "1865.", "Retrieved July 16, 2013.^ Rhodes, James Ford.", "History of the United States from the compromise of 1850 to the Mc Kinley-Bryan campaign of 1896 Volume III (1920) pp.", "41–66^ Rhodes, James Ford.", "History of the United States from the compromise of 1850 to the Mc Kinley-Bryan campaign of 1896 Volume III (1920) pp.", "147–52^ Mc Pherson 1988, pp.", "234–266.^ a b Abraham Lincoln, First Inaugural Address, Monday, March 4, 1861.^ a b Potter & Fehrenbacher 1976, p. 572–73.^ Allan Nevins, The War for the Union: The Improvised War 1861–1862 (1959), pp.", "74–75.^ James Ford Rhodes, History of the United States from the compromise of 1850 to the Mc Kinley-Bryan campaign of 1896 Volume III (1920) pp.", "291–92^ Mc Pherson 1988, p. 274.^ Howard Louis Conard (1901).", "Encyclopedia of the History of Missouri.", "p. 45.^ \"\"Abraham Lincoln: Proclamation 83 – Increasing the Size of the Army and Navy\"\".", "Presidency.ucsb.edu.", "Retrieved November 3, 2011.^ Mc Pherson 1988, pp.", "276–307.^ \"\"Civil War and the Maryland General Assembly, Maryland State Archives\"\".", "msa.maryland.gov.", "Retrieved May 28, 2017.^ a b \"\"Teaching American History in Maryland – Documents for the Classroom: Arrest of the Maryland Legislature, 1861 \"\".", "Maryland State Archives.", "2005.", "Archived from the original on January 11, 2008.", "Retrieved February 6, 2008.^ Mc Pherson 1988, p. 284–87.^ William C. Harris, Lincoln and the Border States: Preserving the Union (University Press of Kansas, 2011), p. 71,^ Howard, F. K. (Frank Key) (1863).", "Fourteen Months in American Bastiles.", "London: H. F. Mackintosh.", "Retrieved August 18, 2014.^ Nevins, The War for the Union (1959), 1:119–29.^ Nevins, The War for the Union (1959), 1:129–36.^ \"\"A State of Convenience, The Creation of West Virginia\"\".", "West Virginia Archives & History.", "Retrieved April 20, 2012.^ Curry, Richard Orr (1964), A House Divided, A Study of the Statehood Politics & the Copperhead Movement in West Virginia, University of Pittsburgh Press, map on p. 49.^ Mc Pherson 1988, p. 303.^ Weigley 2004, p. 55.^ Snell, Mark A., West Virginia and the Civil War, History Press, Charleston, SC, 2011, p. 28.^ Neely 1993, p. 10–11.^ Keegan, \"\"The American Civil War\"\", p. 73.", "Over 10,000 military engagements took place during the war, 40 percent of them in Virginia and Tennessee.", "See Gabor Boritt, ed.", "War Comes Again (1995), p. 247.^ \"\"With an actual strength of 1,080 officers and 14,926 enlisted men on June 30, 1860, the Regular Army ...\"\" Civil War Extracts pp.", "199–221, American Military History.^ E. Merton Coulter, Confederate States of America (1950) p. 308.", "John G. Nicolay and John Hay ( Abraham Lincoln: a history, vol.", "4, p. 264) state: \"\"Since the organization of the Montgomery government in February, some four different calls for Southern volunteers had been made ...", "In his message of April 29 to the rebel Congress, Jefferson Davis proposed to organize for instant action an army of 100,000 ...\"\" Coulter reports that Alexander Stephens took this to mean Davis wanted unilateral control of a standing army, and from that moment on became his implacable opponent.^ Albert Burton Moore.", "Conscription and Conflict in the Confederacy (1924) online edition.^ Albert Bernhardt Faust, The German Element in the United States (1909) v. 1, p. 523 online.", "The railroads and banks grew rapidly.", "See Oberholtzer, Ellis Paxson.", "Jay Cooke: Financier Of The Civil War (1907), Vol.", "2 at Google Books, pp.", "378–430.", "See also Oberholtzer, A History of the United States Since the Civil War (1926), 3:69–122.^ Barnet Schecter, The Devil's Own Work: The Civil War Draft Riots and the Fight to Reconstruct America (2007).^ Eugene Murdock, One Million Men: the Civil War draft in the North (1971).^ Judith Lee Hallock, \"\"The Role of the Community in Civil War Desertion.\"\"", "Civil War History (1983) 29#2 pp.", "123–34.", "online^ Peter S. Bearman, \"\"Desertion as localism: Army unit solidarity and group norms in the U. S. Civil War.\"\"", "Social Forces (1991) 70#2 pp.", "321–42 in JSTOR.^ Robert Fantina, Desertion and the American soldier, 1776–2006 (2006), p. 74.^ Keegan 2009, p. 57.^ Perman & Taylor 2010, p. 177.^ Roger Pickenpaugh (2013).", "Captives in Blue: The Civil War Prisons of the Confederacy.", "University of Alabama Press.", "pp.", "57–73.^ Tucker, Pierpaoli & White 2010, p. 1466.^ Welles 1865, p. 152.^ Tucker, Pierpaoli & White 2010, p. 462.^ Canney 1998, p. ?.^ Richter 2009, p. 49.^ Johnson 1998, p. 228.^ Anderson 1989, pp.", "288–89, 296–98.^ Nelson 2005, p. 92.^ a b Anderson 1989, p. 300.^ Gerald F. Teaster and Linda and James Treaster Ambrose, The Confederate Submarine H. L. Hunley (1989)^ Nelson 2005, p. 345.^ Fuller 2008, p. 36.^ Stern 1962, pp.", "224–225.^ Mark E. Neely, Jr. \"\"The Perils of Running the Blockade: The Influence of International Law in an Era of Total War,\"\" Civil War History (1986) 32#2, pp.", "101–18 in Project MUSE^ Stephen R. Wise, Lifeline of the Confederacy: Blockade Running during the Civil War (1991)^ Surdam, David G. (1998).", "\"\"The Union Navy's blockade reconsidered\"\".", "Naval War College Review.", "51 (4): 85–107.^ David G. Surdam, Northern Naval Superiority and the Economics of the American Civil War (University of South Carolina Press, 2001).^ Jones 2002, p. 225.^ Anderson 1989, p. 91.^ Whitsell, Robert D. (1963).", "\"\"Military and Naval Activity between Cairo and Columbus\"\".", "Register of the Kentucky Historical Society.", "62 (2): 107–21.^ Myron J. Smith, Tinclads in the Civil War: Union Light-Draught Gunboat Operations on Western Waters, 1862–1865 (2009).^ Frank & Reaves 2003, p. 170.^ Symonds & Clipson 2001, p. 92.^ Ronald Scott Mangum, \"\"The Vicksburg Campaign: A Study In Joint Operations,\"\" Parameters: U. S. Army War College (1991) 21#3, pp.", "74–86 online^ Foote 1974, p. 464–519.^ Bruce Catton, Terrible Swift Sword, pp.", "263–96.^ Mc Pherson 1988, pp.", "424–27.^ a b Mc Pherson 1988, pp.", "538–44.^ Mc Pherson 1988, pp.", "528–33.^ Mc Pherson 1988, pp.", "543–45.^ Mc Pherson 1988, pp.", "557–558.^ Mc Pherson 1988, pp.", "571–74.^ Mc Pherson 1988, pp.", "639–45.^ Jonathan A. Noyalas (3 Dec 2010).", "Stonewall Jackson's 1862 Valley Campaign.", "Arcadia Publishing.", "p. 93.^ Mc Pherson 1988, pp.", "653–663.^ Mc Pherson 1988, p. 664.^ Mc Pherson 1988, pp.", "404–05.^ Mc Pherson 1988, pp.", "418–20.^ Mc Pherson 1988, pp.", "419–20.^ Mc Pherson 1988, pp.", "480–83.^ Mc Pherson 1988, pp.", "405–13.^ Mc Pherson 1988, pp.", "637–38.^ Mc Pherson 1988, pp.", "677–80.^ a b Keegan 2009, p. 270.^ Keegan 2009, p. 100.^ James B. Martin, Third War: Irregular Warfare on the Western Border 1861–1865 (Combat Studies Institute Leavenworth Paper series, number 23, 2012).", "See also, Michael Fellman, Inside War: The Guerrilla Conflict in Missouri during the Civil War (1989).", "Missouri alone was the scene of over 1,000 engagements between regular units, and uncounted numbers of guerrilla attacks and raids by informal pro-Confederate bands, especially in the recently settled western counties.^ Bohl, Sarah (2004).", "\"\"A War on Civilians: Order Number 11 and the Evacuation of Western Missouri\"\".", "Prologue.", "36 (1): 44–51.^ Graves, William H. (1991).", "\"\"Indian Soldiers for the Gray Army: Confederate Recruitment in Indian Territory\"\".", "Chronicles of Oklahoma.", "69 (2): 134–145.^ Neet, J. Frederick; Jr (1996).", "\"\"Stand Watie: Confederate General in the Cherokee Nation\"\".", "Great Plains Journal.", "6 (1): 36–51.^ Keegan 2009, p. 220–21.^ Mark E. Neely Jr.; \"\"Was the Civil War a Total War?\"\"", "Civil War History, Vol.", "50, 2004, pp.", "434+.^ U. S. Grant (1990).", "Personal Memoirs of U. S. Grant; Selected Letters.", "Library of America.", "p. 247.", "ISBN 0-940450-58-5.^ Ron Field (2013).", "Petersburg 1864–65: The Longest Siege.", "Osprey Publishing.", "p. 6.^ Mc Pherson 1988, pp.", "724–42.^ Mc Pherson 1988, pp.", "778–79.^ Mc Pherson 1988, pp.", "773–76.^ Mc Pherson 1988, pp.", "812–15.^ Mc Pherson 1988, pp.", "825–30.^ Mc Pherson 1988, pp.", "846–47.^ William Marvel, Lee's Last Retreat: The Flight to Appomattox (2002), pp.", "158–81.^ Unaware of the surrender of Lee, on April 16 the last major battles of the war were fought at the Battle of Columbus, Georgia and the Battle of West Point.^ http://www.civilwar.org/education/history/end-of-war/smith-surrenders.html General Kirby Smith Surrenders the Trans-Mississippi Forces Archived February 7, 2016, at the Wayback Machine.", "Web.", "Retrieved February 6, 2016.^ Morris, John Wesley, Ghost towns of Oklahoma, University of Oklahoma Press, 1977, pp.", "68–69, ISBN 0-8061-1420-7^ Mc Pherson 1988, pp.", "546–57.^ Herring 2011, p. 237.^ a b Mc Pherson 1988, p. 386.^ Allan Nevins, War for the Union 1862–1863, pp.", "263–64.^ Don H. Doyle, The Cause of All Nations: An International History of the American Civil War (2014), pp.", "8 (quote), 69–70.^ Richard Huzzeym, Freedom Burning: Anti-Slavery and Empire in Victorian Britain (2013)^ Stephen B. Oates, The Approaching Fury: Voices of the Storm 1820–1861, p. 125.^ Herring 2011, p. 261.^ Mc Pherson 1988, p. 851.^ Mc Pherson 1988, p. 855.^ a b James Mc Pherson, Why did the Confederacy Lose?.", "p. ?.^ Railroad length is from: Chauncey Depew (ed.", "), One Hundred Years of American Commerce 1795–1895, p. 111; For other data see: 1860 U. S. Census and Carter, Susan B., ed.", "The Historical Statistics of the United States: Millennial Edition (5 vols), 2006.^ Martis, Kenneth C., \"\"The Historical Atlas of the Congresses of the Confederate States of America: 1861–1865\"\" Simon & Schuster (1994) ISBN 0-13-389115-1 p. 27.", "At the beginning of 1865, the Confederacy controlled one-third of its congressional districts, which were apportioned by population.", "The major slave-populations found in Louisiana, Mississippi, Tennessee, and Alabama were effectively under Union control by the end of 1864.^ Digital History Reader, U. S. Railroad Construction, 1860–1880 Virginia Tech, Retrieved August 21, 2012.", "\"\"Total Union railroad miles\"\" aggregates existing track reported 1860 @ 21800 plus new construction 1860–1864 @ 5000, plus southern railroads administered by USMRR @ 2300.^ Mc Pherson 1988, pp.", "771–72.^ Murray, Bernstein & Knox 1996, p. 235.^ Heidler Heidler Coles 2002, p. 1207–10.^ Ward 1990, p. 272.^ E. Merton Coulter, The Confederate States of America, 1861–1865 (1950), p. 566.^ Richard E. Beringer, Herman Hattaway, Archer Jones and William N. Still Jr, Why the South Lost the Civil War (1991), ch 1.^ Armstead Robinson, Bitter Fruits of Bondage: The Demise of Slavery and the Collapse of the Confederacy, 1861–1865 (University of Virginia Press, 2004)^ see Alan Farmer, History Review (2005), No.", "52: 15–20.^ Mc Pherson 1997, pp.", "169–72.^ Gallagher 1999, p. 57.^ Fehrenbacher, Don (2004).", "\"\"Lincoln's Wartime Leadership: The First Hundred Days\"\".", "University of Illinois.", "Retrieved October 16, 2007.^ Mc Pherson 1988, pp.", "382–88.^ Don H. Doyle, The Cause of All Nations: An International History of the American Civil War (2014).^ Fergus M. Bordewich, \"\"The World Was Watching: America's Civil War slowly came to be seen as part of a global struggle against oppressive privilege\"\", Wall Street Journal (February 7–8, 2015).^ a b c Dupont, Brandon; Rosenbloom, Joshua L. \"\"The Economic Origins of the Postwar Southern Elite\"\".", "Explorations in Economic History.", "doi: 10.1016/j.eeh.2017.09.002.^ a b Hacker, J. David (September 20, 2011).", "\"\"Recounting the Dead\"\".", "The New York Times.", "The New York Times Company.", "Associated Press.", "Retrieved September 22, 2011.^ Mc Pherson 1988, p. xix.^ Vinovskis 1990, p. 7.^ Richard Wightman Fox (2008).\"\"", "National Life After Death \"\".", "Slate.com.^ \"\" U. S. Civil War Prison Camps Claimed Thousands \"\".", "National Geographic News.", "July 1, 2003.^ Teresa Riordan (March 8, 2004).", "\"\"When Necessity Meets Ingenuity: Art of Restoring What's Missing\"\".", "The New York Times.", "The New York Times Company.", "Associated Press.", "Retrieved December 23, 2013.^ a b Herbert Aptheker, \"\"Negro Casualties in the Civil War\"\", The Journal of Negro History, Vol.", "32, No.", "1.", "(January 1947).^ Professor James Downs.", "\"\"Sick from Freedom: African-American Illness and Suffering during the Civil War and Reconstruction\"\".", "January 1, 2012.^ Ron Field and Peter Dennis (2013).", "American Civil War Fortifications (2): Land and Field Fortifications.", "Osprey Publishing.", "p. 4.^ Claudia Goldin, \"\"The economics of emancipation.\"\"", "The Journal of Economic History 33#1 (1973): 66–85.^ The Economist, \"\" The Civil War: Finally Passing \"\", April 2, 2011, pp.", "23–25.^ Foner 1981, p. ?.^ Foner 2010, p. 74.^ Mc Pherson, pp.", "506–8.^ Mc Pherson.", "p. 686.^ Mc Pherson 1988, p. 495.^ Mc Pherson 1988, pp.", "355, 494–96, 495.^ Mc Pherson 1988, pp.", "831–37.^ Winters 1963, p. 237.^ Mc Pherson 1988, pp.", "791–98.^ Lincoln's letter to O. H. Browning, September 22, 1861.", "Sentiment among German Americans was largely anti-slavery especially among Forty-Eighters, resulting in hundreds of thousands of German Americans volunteering to fight for the Union. \"\"", "Wittke, Carl (1952).", "\"\"Refugees of Revolution\"\".", "Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania press.", "\"\", Christian B. Keller, \"\"Flying Dutchmen and Drunken Irishmen: The Myths and Realities of Ethnic Civil War Soldiers\"\", Journal of Military History, Vol/ 73, No.", "1, January 2009, pp.", "117–45; for primary sources see Walter D. Kamphoefner and Wolfgang Helbich, eds, Germans in the Civil War: The Letters They Wrote Home (2006).", "\"\"On the other hand, many of the recent immigrants in the North viewed freed slaves as competition for scarce jobs, and as the reason why the Civil War was being fought.\"\"", "Baker, Kevin (March 2003).", "\"\"Violent City\"\", American Heritage.", "Retrieved July 29, 2010.", "\"\"Due in large part to this fierce competition with free blacks for labor opportunities, the poor and working class Irish Catholics generally opposed emancipation.", "When the draft began in the summer of 1863, they launched a major riot in New York City that was suppressed by the military, as well as much smaller protests in other cities.\"\"", "Barnet Schecter, The Devil's Own Work: The Civil War Draft Riots and the Fight to Reconstruct America (2007), ch 6.", "Many Catholics in the North had volunteered to fight in 1861, sending thousands of soldiers to the front and taking high casualties, especially at Fredericksburg; their volunteering fell off after 1862.^ Baker, Kevin (March 2003).", "\"\"Violent City\"\", American Heritage.", "Retrieved July 29, 2010.^ Mc Pherson, James, in Gabor S. Boritt, ed.", "Lincoln, the War President, pp.", "52–54.^ Oates, Stephen B., Abraham Lincoln: The Man Behind the Myths, p. 106.^ \"\"Lincoln Letter to Greeley, August 22, 1862\"\".^ Pulling, Sr. Anne Francis.", "\"\"Images of America: Altoona, 2001, 10.^ Lincoln's Letter to A. G. Hodges, April 4, 1864.^ Harper, Douglas (2003).", "\"\"SLAVERY in DELAWARE\"\".", "Archived from the original on October 16, 2007.", "Retrieved October 16, 2007.^ \"\" James Mc Pherson, The War that Never Goes Away\"\"^ Asante & Mazama 2004, p. 82.^ Holzer & Gabbard 2007, p. 172–174.^ Murray, pp.", "155–59.^ Hans L. Trefousse, Historical Dictionary of Reconstruction (Greenwood, 1991) covers all the main events and leaders.^ Eric Foner's A Short History of Reconstruction (1990) is a brief survey.^ C. Vann Woodward, Reunion and Reaction: The Compromise of 1877 and the End of Reconstruction (2nd edn 1991).^ Joan Waugh and Gary W. Gallagher, eds (2009), Wars within a War: Controversy and Conflict over the American Civil War (University of North Carolina Press).^ David W. Blight, Race and Reunion : The Civil War in American Memory (2001).^ Steven E. Woodworth (1996).", "The American Civil War: A Handbook of Literature and Research.", "p. 208.^ Stephen Cushman (2014).", "Belligerent Muse: Five Northern Writers and How They Shaped Our Understanding of the Civil War.", "pp.", "5–6.^ Charles F. Ritter and Jon L. Wakelyn, eds., Leaders of the American Civil War: A Biographical and Historiographical Dictionary (1998) Provide short biographies and valuable historiographical summaries^ Wilson Fallin Jr, Uplifting the People: Three Centuries of Black Baptists in Alabama (2007), pp.", "52–53.^ Fallin, Uplifting the People: Three Centuries of Black Baptists in Alabama (2007), pp.", "52–53.^ Gaines M. Foster (1988), Ghosts of the Confederacy: Defeat, the Lost Cause and the Emergence of the New South, 1865–1913.^ Nolan, Alan T., in Gallagher, Gary W., and Alan T. Nolan, The Myth of the Lost Cause and Civil War history (2000), pp.", "12–19.^ Nolan, The Myth of the Lost Cause, pp.", "28–29.^ Charles A.", "Beard and Mary R. Beard, The Rise of American Civilization (1927), 2:54.^ Richard Hofstadter (2012) [1968].", "Progressive Historians.", "Knopf Doubleday.", "p. 304.^ Timothy B. Smith, \"\"The Golden Age of Battlefield Preservation\"\" (2008; The University of Tennessee Press).^ Bob Zeller, \"\"Fighting the Second Civil War: A History of Battlefield Preservation and the Emergence of the Civil War Trust,\"\" (2017: Knox Press)^ Gary Gallagher, Causes Won, Lost, and Forgotten: How Hollywood and Popular Art Shape What We Know about the Civil War (Univ of North Carolina Press, 2008).^ Bailey, Thomas and David Kennedy: The American Pageant, p. 434.", "1987^ Dome, Steam (1974).", "\"\"A Civil War Iron Clad Car\"\".", "Railroad History.", "The Railway & Locomotive Historical Society.", "130 (Spring 1974): 51–53.^ William Rattle Plum, The Military Telegraph During the Civil War in the United States, ed.", "Christopher H. Sterling (New York: Arno Press, 1974) vol.", "1:63.^ Buckley, John.", "Air Power in the Age of Total War (Warfare and History).", "Routledge; 1 edition (December 18, 1998).", "pp.", "6, 24.", "ISBN 978-1-85728-589-5^ Sondhaus, Naval Warfare 1815–1914 p. 77.^ Keegan, John (2009).", "The American Civil War: A Military History.", "Vintage Books.", "p. 75.", "ISBN 978-0-307-27314-7Bibliography Main article: Bibliography of the American Civil War Ahlstrom, Sydney E. (1972).", "A Religious History of the American People.", "New Haven, Connecticut: Yale University Press.", "ISBN 978-0-300-01762-5.", "Anderson, Bern (1989).", "By Sea and By River: The naval history of the Civil War.", "New York, New York: Da Capo Press.", "ISBN 978-0-306-80367-3.", "Asante, Molefi Kete; Mazama, Ama (2004).", "Encyclopedia of Black Studies.", "Thousand Oaks, California: SAGE Publications.", "ISBN 978-0-7619-2762-4.", "Beringer, Richard E., Archer Jones, and Herman Hattaway, Why the South Lost the Civil War (1986), influential analysis of factors; an abridged version is The Elements of Confederate Defeat: Nationalism, War Aims, and Religion (1988)Bestor, Arthur (1964).", "\"\"The American Civil War as a Constitutional Crisis\"\".", "American Historical Review.", "69 (2): 327–52.", "JSTOR 1844986.", "Canney, Donald L. (1998).", "Lincoln's Navy: The Ships, Men and Organization, 1861–65.", "Annapolis, Maryland: Naval Institute Press.", "ISBN 978-1-55750-519-4.", "Catton, Bruce (1960).", "The Civil War.", "New York: American Heritage Distributed by Houghton Mifflin.", "ISBN 978-0-8281-0305-3.", "Chambers, John W.; Anderson, Fred (1999).", "The Oxford Companion to American Military History.", "Oxford, New York: Oxford University Press.", "ISBN 978-0-19-507198-6.", "Davis, William C. (1983).", "Stand in the Day of Battle: The Imperiled Union : 1861–1865.", "Garden City, New York: Doubleday.", "ISBN 978-0-385-14895-5.", "Davis, William C. (2003).", "Look Away!", ": A History of the Confederate States of America.", "New York: Free Press.", "ISBN 978-0-7432-3499-3.", "Donald, David; Baker, Jean H.; Holt, Michael F. (2001).", "The Civil War and Reconstruction.", "New York: W. W. Norton & Company.", "ISBN 978-0-393-97427-0.", "Fehrenbacher, Don E. (1981).", "Slavery, Law, and Politics: The Dred Scott Case in Historical Perspective.", "Oxford, New York: Oxford University Press.", "ISBN 978-0-19-502883-6.", "Fellman, Michael; Gordon, Lesley J.; Sunderland, Daniel E. (2007).", "This Terrible War: The Civil War and its Aftermath (2 ed.).", "New York: Pearson.", "ISBN 978-0-321-38960-2.", "Foner, Eric (1981).", "Politics and Ideology in the Age of the Civil War.", "Oxford, New York: Oxford University Press.", "ISBN 978-0-19-502926-0.", "Retrieved April 20, 2012.", "Foner, Eric (2010).", "The Fiery Trial: Abraham Lincoln and American Slavery.", "New York: W. W. Norton & Co. ISBN 978-0-393-34066-2.", "Foote, Shelby (1974).", "The Civil War: A Narrative: Volume 1: Fort Sumter to Perryville.", "New York: Vintage Books.", "ISBN 978-0-394-74623-4.", "Frank, Joseph Allan; Reaves, George A.", "(2003).", "Seeing the Elephant: Raw Recruits at the Battle of Shiloh.", "Urbana, Illinois: University of Illinois Press.", "ISBN 978-0-252-07126-3.", "Fuller, Howard J.", "(2008).", "Clad in Iron – The American Civil War and the Challenge of British Naval Power.", "Annapolis, Maryland: Naval Institute Press.", "ISBN 978-1-59114-297-3.", "Gallagher, Gary W. (1999).", "The Confederate War.", "Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press.", "ISBN 978-0-674-16056-9.", "Gara, Larry.", "1964.", "The Fugitive Slave Law: A Double Paradox in Essays on the Civil War and Reconstruction, New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1970 (originally published in Civil War History, X, No.", "3, September 1964)Green, Fletcher M. (2008).", "Constitutional Development in the South Atlantic States, 1776–1860: A Study in the Evolution of Democracy.", "Chapel Hill, North Carolina: University of North Carolina Press.", "ISBN 978-1-58477-928-5.", "Guelzo, Allen C. (2009).", "Lincoln: A Very Short Introduction.", "Oxford, New York: Oxford University Press.", "ISBN 978-0-19-536780-5.", "Guelzo, Allen C. (2012).", "Fateful Lightning: A New History of the Civil War and Reconstruction.", "Oxford, New York: Oxford University Press.", "ISBN 978-0-19-984328-2.", "Hacker, J. David (December 2011).", "\"\"A Census-Based Count of the Civil War Dead\"\".", "Civil War History.", "57 (4): 307–48.", "doi: 10.1353/cwh.2011.0061.", "PMID 22512048.", "Heidler, David S.; Heidler, Jeanne T.; Coles, David J.", "(2002).", "Encyclopedia of the American Civil War: A Political, Social, and Military History.", "Santa Barbara, California: ABC-CLIO.", "ISBN 1-57607-382-3.", "Herring, George C. (2011).", "From Colony to Superpower: U. S. Foreign Relations since 1776.", "Oxford, New York: Oxford University Press.", "ISBN 978-0-19-976553-9.", "Hofstadter, Richard (1938).", "\"\"The Tariff Issue on the Eve of the Civil War\"\".", "American Historical Review.", "44 (1): 50–55.", "JSTOR 1840850.", "Holt, Michael F. (2005).", "The Fate of Their Country: Politicians, Slavery Extension, and the Coming of the Civil War.", "New York: Hill and Wang.", "ISBN 978-0-8090-4439-9.", "Holzer, Harold; Gabbard, Sara Vaughn (2007).", "Lincoln and Freedom: Slavery, Emancipation, and the Thirteenth Amendment.", "Carbondale, Illinois: Southern Illinois University Press.", "ISBN 978-0-8093-2764-5.", "Huddleston, John (2002).", "Killing Ground: The Civil War and the Changing American Landscape.", "Baltimore, Maryland: Johns Hopkins University Press.", "ISBN 978-0-8018-6773-6.", "Johannsen, Robert W. (1973).", "Stephen A. Douglas.", "New York: Oxford University Press.", "ISBN 978-0-19-501620-8.", "Johnson, Timothy D. (1998).", "Winfield Scott: The Quest for Military Glory.", "Lawrence, Kansas: University Press of Kansas.", "ISBN 978-0-7006-0914-7.", "Jones, Howard (1999).", "Abraham Lincoln and a New Birth of Freedom: The Union and Slavery in the Diplomacy of the Civil War.", "Lincoln, Nebraska: University of Nebraska Press.", "ISBN 978-0-8032-2582-4.", "Jones, Howard (2002).", "Crucible of Power: A History of American Foreign Relations to 1913.", "Wilmington, Delaware: Rowman & Littlefield.", "ISBN 978-0-8420-2916-2.", "Keegan, John (2009).", "The American Civil War: A Military History.", "New York: Alfred A. Knopf.", "ISBN 978-0-307-26343-8.", "Krannawitter, Thomas L. (2008).", "Vindicating Lincoln : defending the politics of our greatest president.", "Lanham, Maryland: Rowman & Littlefield Publishers.", "ISBN 0-7425-5972-6.", "Lipset, Seymour Martin (1960).", "Political Man: The Social Bases of Politics.", "Garden City, New York: Doubleday & Company, Inc. Mc Pherson, James M. (1988).", "Battle Cry of Freedom: The Civil War Era.", "Oxford, New York: Oxford University Press.", "ISBN 978-0-19-503863-7.", "Mc Pherson, James M. (1992).", "Ordeal By Fire : The Civil War and Reconstruction (2 ed.).", "New York: Mc Graw-Hill.", "ISBN 978-0-07-045842-0.", "Mc Pherson, James M. (1997).", "For Cause and Comrades: Why Men Fought in the Civil War.", "Oxford, New York: Oxford University Press.", "ISBN 978-0-19-974105-2.", "Mc Pherson, James M. (2007).", "This Mighty Scourge: Perspectives on the Civil War.", "Oxford, New York: Oxford University Press.", "ISBN 978-0-19-539242-5.", "Thornton, Mark; Ekelund, Robert Burton (2004).", "Tariffs, Blockades, and Inflation: The Economics of the Civil War.", "Rowman & Littlefield.", "Murray, Robert Bruce.", "Legal Cases of the Civil War (2003).", "ISBN 0-8117-0059-3Murray, Williamson; Bernstein, Alvin; Knox, Mac Gregor (1996).", "The Making of Strategy: Rulers, States, and War.", "Cabmbridge, New York: Cambridge University Press.", "ISBN 978-0-521-56627-8.", "Neely, Mark (1993).", "Confederate Bastille: Jefferson Davis and Civil Liberties.", "Milwaukee, Wisconsin: Marquette University Press.", "ISBN 978-0-87462-325-3.", "Nelson, James L. (2005).", "Reign of Iron: The Story of the First Battling Ironclads, the Monitor and the Merrimack.", "New York: Harper Collins.", "ISBN 978-0-06-052404-3.", "Nevins, Allan.", "Ordeal of the Union, an 8-volume set (1947–1971).", "the most detailed political, economic and military narrative; by Pulitzer Prize-winner1.", "Fruits of Manifest Destiny, 1847–1852 online; 2.", "A House Dividing, 1852–1857; 3.", "Douglas, Buchanan, and Party Chaos, 1857–1859; 4.", "Prologue to Civil War, 1859–1861; vols 5–8 have the series title War for the Union; 5.", "The Improvised War, 1861–1862; 6. online; War Becomes Revolution, 1862–1863; 7.", "The Organized War, 1863–1864; 8.", "The Organized War to Victory, 1864–1865Olsen, Christopher J.", "(2002).", "Political Culture and Secession in Mississippi: Masculinity, Honor, and the Antiparty Tradition, 1830–1860.", "Oxford, New York: Oxford University Press.", "ISBN 978-0-19-516097-0.", "Perman, Michael; Taylor, Amy M. (2010).", "Major Problems in the Civil War and Reconstruction: Documents and Essays (3 ed.).", "Boston, Massachusetts: Wadsworth, Cengage Learning.", "ISBN 978-0-618-87520-7.", "Potter, David M. (1962).", "\"\"The Historian's Use of Nationalism and Vice Versa\"\".", "American Historical Review.", "67 (4): 924–50.", "JSTOR 1845246.", "Potter, David M.; Fehrenbacher, Don E. (1976).", "The Impending Crisis, 1848–1861.", "New York: Harper & Row.", "ISBN 978-0-06-013403-7.", "Rhodes, John Ford (1917).", "History of the Civil War, 1861–1865.", "New York: The Macmillan Company.", "Richter, William L. (2009).", "The A to Z of the Civil War and Reconstruction.", "Lanham: Scarecrow Press.", "ISBN 978-0-8108-6336-1.", "Russell, Robert R. (1966).", "\"\"Constitutional Doctrines with Regard to Slavery in Territories\"\".", "Journal of Southern History.", "32 (4): 466–86.", "doi: 10.2307/2204926.", "JSTOR 2204926.", "Schott, Thomas E. (1996).", "Alexander H. Stephens of Georgia: A Biography.", "Baton Rouge, Louisiana: Louisiana State University Press.", "ISBN 978-0-8071-2106-1.", "Sheehan-Dean, Aaron, ed.", "(2014).", "A Companion to the U. S. Civil War.", "New York: Wiley Blackwell.", "ISBN 1-4443-5131-1., 2 vol.", "1232 pp; 64 topical chapters by experts; emphasis on historiography.", "Stampp, Kenneth M. (1990).", "America in 1857: A Nation on the Brink.", "Oxford, New York: Oxford University Press.", "ISBN 0-19-503902-5.", "Stern, Phillip Van Doren (1962).", "The Confederate Navy.", "Doubleday & Company, Inc. Symonds, Craig L.; Clipson, William J.", "(2001).", "The Naval Institute Historical Atlas of the U. S. Navy.", "Naval Institute Press.", "ISBN 978-1-55750-984-0.", "Tucker, Spencer C.; Pierpaoli, Paul G.; White, William E. (2010).", "The Civil War Naval Encyclopedia.", "Santa Barbara, California: ABC-CLIO.", "ISBN 978-1-59884-338-5.", "Varon, Elizabeth R. (2008).", "Disunion!", ": The Coming of the American Civil War, 1789–1859.", "Chapel Hill, North Carolina: University of North Carolina Press.", "ISBN 978-0-8078-3232-5.", "Vinovskis, Maris (1990).", "Toward a Social History of the American Civil War: Exploratory Essays.", "Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press.", "ISBN 978-0-521-39559-5.", "Ward, Geoffrey R. (1990).", "The Civil War: An Illustrated History.", "New York: Alfred A. Knopf.", "ISBN 978-0-394-56285-8.", "Weeks, William E. (2013).", "The New Cambridge History of American Foreign Relations.", "Cambridge, New York: Cambridge University Press.", "ISBN 978-1-107-00590-7.", "Weigley, Frank Russell (2004).", "A Great Civil War: A Military and Political History, 1861–1865.", "Bloomington, Indiana: Indiana University Press.", "ISBN 0-253-33738-0.", "Welles, Gideon (1865).", "Secretary of the Navy's Report.", "37–38.", "American Seamen's Friend Society.", "Winters, John D. (1963).", "The Civil War in Louisiana.", "Baton Rouge, Louisiana: Louisiana State University Press.", "ISBN 978-0-8071-0834-5.", "Woodworth, Steven E. (1996).", "American Civil War: A Handbook of Literature and Research.", "Wesport, Connecticut: Greenwood Press.", "ISBN 978-0-313-29019-0.", "Further reading Gugliotta, Guy.", "New Estimate Raises Civil War Death Toll, The New York Times, April 3, 2012, p. D1 (of the New York edition), and April 2, 2012, on NYTimes.com.", "Retrieved 2012-04-03 online.", "Bibliography of American Civil War naval history\"\" American Civil War \"\".", "Encyclopædia Britannica (11th ed.).", "1911.", "Tidball, John C. The Artillery Service in the War of the Rebellion, 1861–1865.", "Westholme Publishing, 2011.", "ISBN 978-1594161490.", "External links Find more about American Civil War at Wikipedia's sister projects Definitions from Wiktionary Media from Wikimedia Commons News from Wikinews Quotations from Wikiquote Texts from Wikisource Textbooks from Wikibooks Travel guide from Wikivoyage Learning resources from Wikiversity Data from Wikidata American Civil War at Curlie (based on DMOZ)Civil War photos at the National Archives View images from the Civil War Photographs Collection at the Library of Congress Civil War Trust Civil War Era Digital Collection at Gettysburg College This collection contains digital images of political cartoons, personal papers, pamphlets, maps, paintings and photographs from the Civil War Era held in Special Collections at Gettysburg College.", "Civil War 150 Washington Post interactive website on the 150th Anniversary of the American Civil War.", "Civil War in the American South – An Association of Southeastern Research Libraries (ASERL) portal with links to almost 9,000 digitized Civil War-era items—books, pamphlets, broadsides, letters, maps, personal papers, and manuscripts—held at ASERL member libraries The Civil War – site with 7,000 pages, including the complete run of Harper's Weekly newspapers from the Civil War The short film A House Divided (1960) is available for free download at the Internet Archive West Point Atlas of Civil War Battles\"\"American Civil World\"\" maps at the Persuasive Cartography, The PJ Mode Collection, Cornell University Library Civil War Manuscripts [ show]Articles related to the American Civil War Authority control LCCN: sh85140205 GND: 4136055-2 SELIBR: 155276 NDL: 00568022Categories: American Civil War Rebellions in the United States Conflicts in 1861 Conflicts in 1862Conflicts in 1863 Conflicts in 1864 Conflicts in 1865 19th-century conflicts Wars involving the United States1860s in the United States Wars of independence Internal wars of the United States 1860s conflicts \"" ]
D113131
http://www.military.com/benefits/military-pay/military-travel-and-per-diem-rates.html
Military Per Diem Rates
Benefits Military Pay Military Per Diem Rates Military.com Per Diem is a daily allotment to reimburse servicemembers for the out-of-pocket cost of food, lodging and incidental expenses that occur while on military business or temporary assigned duty (TDY or TAD) away from their home station. Per Diem sets the limit to how much a servicemember can be reimbursed for meals and lodging. The following is a summary of how the Per Diem works: The Per Diem Allowance Each year the Do D Per Diem, Travel and Transportation Committee sets the Per Diem allowance. The Per Diem is specific to a given travel location and can range from a standard CONUS rate from $144 per day up to $735 per day for Out-of-CONUS rates. Current Per Diem Rates The Per Diem rate you will receive is based on a combination of the Maximum Lodging and the Meals and Incidental Expenses (M&IE) rates. M&IE is either determined by adding the Local Meals Rate and Incidental Expense Rates, or the Proportional Meal Rate. To find the specific Per Diem rate for a given location visit the Do D Travel and Per Diem website. Privately Owned Vehicle (POV) Mileage Reimbursement Rates Privately Owned Vehicle Mileage Reimbursement Rates If no Government Owned Vehicle available (TDY) $0.54Airplane (TDY) $1.17Motorcycle (TDY) $0.51MALT Rate (PCS) $0.19Related Topics Allowances Military Pay Military Pay Calculator© Copyright 2018 Military.com. All rights reserved. This material may not be published, broadcast, rewritten or redistributed. You May Also Like Trump Cites Military Pay Raise in Support for Bill to Avoid Shutdown The White House cited the military pay raise in initial backing for a huge spending package. US Troops in Niger to Get Danger Pay Five Months after Deadly Ambush Troops in Niger, Mali and Cameroon will be getting danger pay of up to $225 per month. Five Months After Ambush, US Troops in Niger Still Don't Get Danger Pay The request has yet to be approved by the White House, the commander of U. S. Africa Command said. Trump's 2019 Budget Includes 2.6% Raise, Modest Force Size Boost The increase would be the largest in almost a decade.
[ "Benefits Military Pay Military Per Diem Rates Military.com Per Diem is a daily allotment to reimburse servicemembers for the out-of-pocket cost of food, lodging and incidental expenses that occur while on military business or temporary assigned duty (TDY or TAD) away from their home station.", "Per Diem sets the limit to how much a servicemember can be reimbursed for meals and lodging.", "The following is a summary of how the Per Diem works: The Per Diem Allowance Each year the Do D Per Diem, Travel and Transportation Committee sets the Per Diem allowance.", "The Per Diem is specific to a given travel location and can range from a standard CONUS rate from $144 per day up to $735 per day for Out-of-CONUS rates.", "Current Per Diem Rates The Per Diem rate you will receive is based on a combination of the Maximum Lodging and the Meals and Incidental Expenses (M&IE) rates.", "M&IE is either determined by adding the Local Meals Rate and Incidental Expense Rates, or the Proportional Meal Rate.", "To find the specific Per Diem rate for a given location visit the Do D Travel and Per Diem website.", "Privately Owned Vehicle (POV) Mileage Reimbursement Rates Privately Owned Vehicle Mileage Reimbursement Rates If no Government Owned Vehicle available (TDY) $0.54Airplane (TDY) $1.17Motorcycle (TDY) $0.51MALT Rate (PCS) $0.19Related Topics Allowances Military Pay Military Pay Calculator© Copyright 2018 Military.com.", "All rights reserved.", "This material may not be published, broadcast, rewritten or redistributed.", "You May Also Like Trump Cites Military Pay Raise in Support for Bill to Avoid Shutdown The White House cited the military pay raise in initial backing for a huge spending package.", "US Troops in Niger to Get Danger Pay Five Months after Deadly Ambush Troops in Niger, Mali and Cameroon will be getting danger pay of up to $225 per month.", "Five Months After Ambush, US Troops in Niger Still Don't Get Danger Pay The request has yet to be approved by the White House, the commander of U. S. Africa Command said.", "Trump's 2019 Budget Includes 2.6% Raise, Modest Force Size Boost The increase would be the largest in almost a decade." ]
D118780
http://energyinformative.org/solar-panels-cost/
How Much Do Solar Panels Cost
How Much Do Solar Panels Cost Last updated March 23, 2015 by Mathias Aarre Maehlum How much do solar panels cost? This is undoubtedly the question we`re asked the most, and unfortunately it has no straightforward answer. We decided to pull together all aspects of this question, and write the best resource on the costs of solar panels you will find on the entire Internet. Residential solar systems are typically sized from 3 to 8k W and end up costing between $15,000 and $40,000. The cost per watt (price inclusive of parts, labor, permitting fees, overhead, and profit) has decreased significantly over the last decade and is now between 6 and 8 ($/W) in many parts of the U. S. Generally, the bigger the system, the lower the cost per watt. The total costs are split into system, installation and operational costs, roughly in the following ratios: Contents Case Study System Costs Installation Costs Operational Costs Incentives Solar for $0 Down The goal of this article is to give you an idea of how much a solar panel system will end up costing in your particular situation. In the first part of this article we`ll be going through how much solar panels cost for a typical American single-family home. By clicking on the blue links in the overview table below, you will be taken further down on the page, to part two, for more in-depth information. Case Study Let`s start by evaluating the solar system costs for a single-family home in Los Angeles, California. To make things simple, this family chose to pay for their solar system in cash – you`ll learn more about other ways to finance a solar system further down on the page. In order to supply 70% of the household`s electricity consumption, 5,600 k Wh per year, we decided to install a 3 k W solar system on their roof.5,600 k Wh is the equivalent to:6,000 lbs. less in carbon emissions Planting trees on half an acre Not driving your car for 7,500 miles The calculations below are based on the following assumptions: Electric bill of $100 per month Cost per watt at $6.50 [1]Electricity rate at 14.78 cents per k Wh [2]Annual growth of electricity rate at 2.8% [3]These numbers are all based on recent data from credible sources – see reference list at the bottom. Costs Total Costs $19,500System $9,000Solar Panels $6,500Balance of System $2,500Installation $7,500Labor $3,000Permits, Inspection Fees $4,500Operational Costs $3,000Note that costs have been rounded to closest $500 in order to generalize the case study. Incentives $9,252LADWP Solar Incentive Program $4,86030% Federal Tax Credit $4,392Net Costs $10,248Tax credits and other benefits that are received over time have not been evaluated. In other words, the homeowner would pay less in reality than what our calculation suggests. Savings Total Savings $21,989Net Present Value $2,919Rate of Return (ROR) 11%Payback Time 9.5 years Return on Investment (ROI) 215%Increased Property Value $16,720Total Savings represent the sum of electricity savings for the next 25 years – typically how long a solar panel warranty lasts. The solar system will more than likely keep generating electricity after 25 years, which will result in more savings and a higher ROI in the years to come. Above is an overview over how much the family from California saves every month for the first year. In the graph below, you can clearly see net savings from 1st to 30th year. The payback time is when the net savings reaches zero, about 10 years after initial investment. Payback Time Payback time represents the threshold where savings have exceeded costs. The family from our case study has paid back their entire solar system after nine years and six months (see graph above). According to the U. S. Department of Energy, most solar systems pay for themselves within 5 years. [5] In some places in the United States, the payback time can be as little as three years. The electricity your solar system generates beyond this point brings in long-term savings. Residents in Hawaii saves on average $64,000 over the course of only 20 years. Increased Home Value U. S. Department of Energy states that a solar electric system raises the property value of a home with $20 for every $1 in utility savings over a year. [5]This means that the family with the 3k W solar system from our case study instantly added $16,720 to their home value by putting solar panels on their roof (based on the first year`s electricity savings of $836). What are some of the other ways you can benefit from going solar? Read our list over the most important Benefits of Solar Panels. System Costs As mentioned in the introduction, residential solar systems are typically sized from 3 to 8k W and end up costing somewhere between $15,000 and $40,000. In this section, we will look at the costs of the various components of a solar system (not installation or operational costs). Note that all numbers discussed in this article are dependent on a boatload of different variables such as where in the country you live – they do however represent typical costs. Solar Panels The solar panels themselves usually account for about 30% of total costs. Residential solar panels with a combined capacity of 3-8k W typically cost between $4,000-$16,000. The best solar panels are not necessarily the most expensive. Cost per watt ($/W) is a more convenient way of looking at the costs of solar panels. This metric indicates costs relative to electrical power output. The cost of solar panels have decreased significantly over the last decade and are currently selling for under $0.70/W in industrial quantities. For homeowners, this translates to about $1.5/W. Balance of System Balance of system (Bo S) refers to all components of a solar system except the solar panels themselves. This typically includes one or several inverters, mounts, wiring and other electrical components. Balance of system makes up for about 20% of total costs – homeowners should expect to pay somewhere between $3,000-$10,000 for these components. Inverter Inverters convert direct current (DC) from your solar panels into alternating current (AC), which is used by home appliances and enables you to grid-tie your system. Inverters typically account for 10% ($1,000-$4,000) of total costs. Also note that solar panels usually come with a warranty of 20-25 years, but conventional central inverters will need replacement before this. If you choose to go with micro-inverters instead of a central (string) inverter, the costs will increase along with a boost in power output and an extended warranty. Installation Costs In this category we`ve included labor costs (15%), as well as permits and inspection fees (15%). The cost of both categories are highly dependent on what state you live in, but in most cases end up between $2,000-$5,000 per installation. Here`s a few things you might have to take into account:• Building and electrical permits at Department of Buildings • Neighborhood covenant requirements • Approval from homeowners association Your solar installer might not be educated on what is involved in obtaining the various permits where you live. Choosing a reputable and large installer is often the best choice. Error, group does not exist! Check your syntax! (ID: 1)Operational Costs Operational costs include monitoring, maintenance, repair, insurance and overhead costs – typically $4,000-$8,000 (20%). This is a cost category where there is a lot of potential to cut costs. Not everyone will need monitoring and you can probably get away with little maintenance. You will hopefully never need any repairs. Incentives The solar market flourishes when there are financial incentives in place – even in places that aren’t particularly rich in sunlight. The final costs of a solar system is highly dependent on where you live and what rebates, tax credits and grants you are eligible for. In some situations, total costs can be cut well above 50%, and homeowners are able to go solar for only few thousand dollars. Everyone receives at least a 30% federal tax credit. To find out what other incentives you are eligible for, search the Database of State Incentives for Renewables & Efficiency (DSIRE). Alternatively, get in touch with us and let us evaluate your situation for free. Some incentives are capped at a certain power and cost thresholds. Going with a system size that maximizes this potential is usually what we recommend. Solar for $0 Down If you`ve been following the solar industry the last couple of years you`ve probably heard of power purchase agreements (PPAs), as well as third-party-owned and pay-as-you-go solar. These are essentially all financial models to reduce or eliminate upfront costs. Their arrival is the single biggest reason for why solar is has grown with a tremendous rate in the last couple of years. Homeowners can now go solar for $0 down and generate savings from day 1. Here`s how leasing works: Instead of paying the electrical utility company for power, you lease a solar system, and pay a fixed rate for the electricity it produces. These new electricity rates are cheaper and typically locked in for 15 years, as opposed to utility rates that have been on the rise for decades. Where to go from now? The goal of this article was to give you an overview over the different expenses that come with a residential solar system, and give you an idea about how much it would cost in your situation. For a cost/savings estimate, get in touch with solar experts below: Error, group does not exist! Check your syntax! (ID: 2)References: [1] California Solar Statistics, [2] U. S. Energy Information Administration , [3] California Energy Commission, [4] U. S. Department of Energy. Author: Mathias Aarre Mæhlum Facebook Twitter Google Comments Gary Tulie says November 10, 2012 at 8:36 am When is the USA going to get its act together? In the UK and most or Europe there are no permitting fees and no inspection fees. Solar with a few exceptions (Historic buildings & commercial buildings) is considered permitted development without the need to apply for permission. The installers have to register and comply with agreed standards – are inspected on their first install, and thereafter only have occasional spot tests. As a result of this, Installed costs in Europe are around half those in the USA for domestic solar arrays Why can’t the USA at least simplify and standardise its permitting and inspection regime so that every install goes through a similar process? This could have a dramatic effect on installed cost – possibly as valuable as the current incentives!Reply DARA says September 30, 2014 at 11:41 pm Your numbers seem a bit old. Here’s some information about average solar prices in the US as of 2nd qtr 2014 (from SEIA – Solar Energy Industries Association): Year-over-year, the national average PV installed system price declined by 9% to $2.73/watt in Q2 2014. The average price of a residential PV installation in Q2 2014 was $3.92/watt, 41% lower than 2010. Since the second quarter of 2010, the average price of a solar panel has declined by 64%. Replyaleph says October 19, 2014 at 2:30 pm In considering payback time/cost what has to be considered is the % of off grid energy a solar installation provides. So, when a payback, say for, 9 years is quoted for a given solar system, is the assumption for 100% off grid? (Highly unlikely, 50% is a stretch) There needs to be a more precise explanation from marketers and academics, or establishment of a reference standard to enable consumers to make precisely informed financial decisions. Reply Arizona d00d says May 13, 2015 at 4:59 am Another problem, like most web pages I’ve read on this topic tonight, is that this article has not been updated to take into account the war that the utility companies are waging on net metering. Officially, it’s still supported by these utilities, but the costs are so high as to make it a joke now. Here in Arizona, the biggest utility, Arizona Public Service (APS), went so far as to buy (with dark money) seats this past election (Nov 2014) on the Arizona Corporation Commission, the body that’s supposed to regulate them; they now own 3 out of 5 seats total, including the chair. The point is that solar is no longer viable in these places until the costs for batteries come down so that even urban homes can disconnect from the grid. This is happening, mainly thanks to Elon Musk, but it’ll still be a few years before this becomes viable outside of expensive markets. Reply Wagner Caetano says May 19, 2015 at 5:53 pm Solar panels costs in the US is much lower than in Brazil. To import it we pay 60% import tax + 18% VAT on the total price (equipment + shipping). We have a big problem since last year with low reservoir level in hydro electric generation systems. God bless Brazilian politics that will not stop until this country become like Cuba or Venezuela. Reply Drew says May 27, 2015 at 4:49 pm The numbers really do speak for themselves when it comes to solar energy. All you need to do is take the plunge and you can start saving money. Thanks for sharing!Reply John Turner says June 23, 2015 at 11:50 am Nice, i like it! here you can find how to choose the right batterie for your solar power system https://www.patriotdirect.org/choosing-the-right-batteries/ and here are the components of an electrical solar power system https://www.patriotdirect.org/the-components-of-an-electrical-solar-power-system/Reply AWS Solar says July 19, 2015 at 2:03 am I was fortunate enough to have the best solar company in Los Angeles to install my solar system on my home and now by electrical bill it is very low. Reply Jon Mc says July 28, 2015 at 4:43 am The reason for the difference is that you’re quoting the cost of the entire installation per watt, whereas their chart is the cost of just the PV cells and modules, without the installation costs averaged in. Reply Joe Weil says July 28, 2015 at 7:30 am So who in these European communities is making sure that systems aren’t dumping dirty power onto the grid? The power systems in the USA have never been under the government other than oversight… even nuclear power. So there are hundreds of power grids under independent operation. Then there are the regulatory agencies… they need to get their cut of the clothe. Fifty states, thousands of counties and even more incorporated cities and townships. So a lot of it depends on the areas view of renewable energy. I think the article overplayed the costs involved for operation and the inverter is not separate from the system balance so toss those costs out… These systems are not complete without a power storage system to mitigate grid time… These would be something along the lines of the Tesla Power Wall, for example. These can dovetail off of the Balance system. Now you can run off of battery power during peak use time to mitigate the power companies tier one pricing. All this while the solar panels are feeding the grid helping out good ol’ Edison and lowering your ‘lectric bill or putting some change in your pocket. In the afternoon the batteries recharge and solar panels light your home or facility. At night you can run off of battery power until the sun comes up or the batteries draw done to their low limits. You might want to have a separate grid tie to keep critical items running, like refrigerators or AC… Until the sun comes up you would have to go back on the grid until the solar panels take over. Power brokers, Uncle Edison etc., like to buy power from large providers at large power amount prices. So the “incentive” that they pay to subsidize power bill or put change in your pocket will never reach a zero sum equality. So of you by power at 5 cents, you can bet your going to get 2.5 cents back for your contribution and at certain times you will be donating the power to Uncle Ed. I believe the optimum system can reach a zero sum with use and operation not including equipment capital and capital appreciation. As an Electrical Engineer I’m chomping at the bit for a solar panel with solid state battery as part of PV cell production process. When this happens the price of an independent grid tie will be very attractive. Reply Leave a Reply Your email address will not be published. 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[ "How Much Do Solar Panels Cost Last updated March 23, 2015 by Mathias Aarre Maehlum How much do solar panels cost?", "This is undoubtedly the question we`re asked the most, and unfortunately it has no straightforward answer.", "We decided to pull together all aspects of this question, and write the best resource on the costs of solar panels you will find on the entire Internet.", "Residential solar systems are typically sized from 3 to 8k W and end up costing between $15,000 and $40,000.", "The cost per watt (price inclusive of parts, labor, permitting fees, overhead, and profit) has decreased significantly over the last decade and is now between 6 and 8 ($/W) in many parts of the U. S. Generally, the bigger the system, the lower the cost per watt.", "The total costs are split into system, installation and operational costs, roughly in the following ratios: Contents Case Study System Costs Installation Costs Operational Costs Incentives Solar for $0 Down The goal of this article is to give you an idea of how much a solar panel system will end up costing in your particular situation.", "In the first part of this article we`ll be going through how much solar panels cost for a typical American single-family home.", "By clicking on the blue links in the overview table below, you will be taken further down on the page, to part two, for more in-depth information.", "Case Study Let`s start by evaluating the solar system costs for a single-family home in Los Angeles, California.", "To make things simple, this family chose to pay for their solar system in cash – you`ll learn more about other ways to finance a solar system further down on the page.", "In order to supply 70% of the household`s electricity consumption, 5,600 k Wh per year, we decided to install a 3 k W solar system on their roof.5,600 k Wh is the equivalent to:6,000 lbs.", "less in carbon emissions Planting trees on half an acre Not driving your car for 7,500 miles The calculations below are based on the following assumptions: Electric bill of $100 per month Cost per watt at $6.50 [1]Electricity rate at 14.78 cents per k Wh [2]Annual growth of electricity rate at 2.8% [3]These numbers are all based on recent data from credible sources – see reference list at the bottom.", "Costs Total Costs $19,500System $9,000Solar Panels $6,500Balance of System $2,500Installation $7,500Labor $3,000Permits, Inspection Fees $4,500Operational Costs $3,000Note that costs have been rounded to closest $500 in order to generalize the case study.", "Incentives $9,252LADWP Solar Incentive Program $4,86030% Federal Tax Credit $4,392Net Costs $10,248Tax credits and other benefits that are received over time have not been evaluated.", "In other words, the homeowner would pay less in reality than what our calculation suggests.", "Savings Total Savings $21,989Net Present Value $2,919Rate of Return (ROR) 11%Payback Time 9.5 years Return on Investment (ROI) 215%Increased Property Value $16,720Total Savings represent the sum of electricity savings for the next 25 years – typically how long a solar panel warranty lasts.", "The solar system will more than likely keep generating electricity after 25 years, which will result in more savings and a higher ROI in the years to come.", "Above is an overview over how much the family from California saves every month for the first year.", "In the graph below, you can clearly see net savings from 1st to 30th year.", "The payback time is when the net savings reaches zero, about 10 years after initial investment.", "Payback Time Payback time represents the threshold where savings have exceeded costs.", "The family from our case study has paid back their entire solar system after nine years and six months (see graph above).", "According to the U. S. Department of Energy, most solar systems pay for themselves within 5 years.", "[5] In some places in the United States, the payback time can be as little as three years.", "The electricity your solar system generates beyond this point brings in long-term savings.", "Residents in Hawaii saves on average $64,000 over the course of only 20 years.", "Increased Home Value U. S. Department of Energy states that a solar electric system raises the property value of a home with $20 for every $1 in utility savings over a year.", "[5]This means that the family with the 3k W solar system from our case study instantly added $16,720 to their home value by putting solar panels on their roof (based on the first year`s electricity savings of $836).", "What are some of the other ways you can benefit from going solar?", "Read our list over the most important Benefits of Solar Panels.", "System Costs As mentioned in the introduction, residential solar systems are typically sized from 3 to 8k W and end up costing somewhere between $15,000 and $40,000.", "In this section, we will look at the costs of the various components of a solar system (not installation or operational costs).", "Note that all numbers discussed in this article are dependent on a boatload of different variables such as where in the country you live – they do however represent typical costs.", "Solar Panels The solar panels themselves usually account for about 30% of total costs.", "Residential solar panels with a combined capacity of 3-8k W typically cost between $4,000-$16,000.", "The best solar panels are not necessarily the most expensive.", "Cost per watt ($/W) is a more convenient way of looking at the costs of solar panels.", "This metric indicates costs relative to electrical power output.", "The cost of solar panels have decreased significantly over the last decade and are currently selling for under $0.70/W in industrial quantities.", "For homeowners, this translates to about $1.5/W.", "Balance of System Balance of system (Bo S) refers to all components of a solar system except the solar panels themselves.", "This typically includes one or several inverters, mounts, wiring and other electrical components.", "Balance of system makes up for about 20% of total costs – homeowners should expect to pay somewhere between $3,000-$10,000 for these components.", "Inverter Inverters convert direct current (DC) from your solar panels into alternating current (AC), which is used by home appliances and enables you to grid-tie your system.", "Inverters typically account for 10% ($1,000-$4,000) of total costs.", "Also note that solar panels usually come with a warranty of 20-25 years, but conventional central inverters will need replacement before this.", "If you choose to go with micro-inverters instead of a central (string) inverter, the costs will increase along with a boost in power output and an extended warranty.", "Installation Costs In this category we`ve included labor costs (15%), as well as permits and inspection fees (15%).", "The cost of both categories are highly dependent on what state you live in, but in most cases end up between $2,000-$5,000 per installation.", "Here`s a few things you might have to take into account:• Building and electrical permits at Department of Buildings • Neighborhood covenant requirements • Approval from homeowners association Your solar installer might not be educated on what is involved in obtaining the various permits where you live.", "Choosing a reputable and large installer is often the best choice.", "Error, group does not exist!", "Check your syntax!", "(ID: 1)Operational Costs Operational costs include monitoring, maintenance, repair, insurance and overhead costs – typically $4,000-$8,000 (20%).", "This is a cost category where there is a lot of potential to cut costs.", "Not everyone will need monitoring and you can probably get away with little maintenance.", "You will hopefully never need any repairs.", "Incentives The solar market flourishes when there are financial incentives in place – even in places that aren’t particularly rich in sunlight.", "The final costs of a solar system is highly dependent on where you live and what rebates, tax credits and grants you are eligible for.", "In some situations, total costs can be cut well above 50%, and homeowners are able to go solar for only few thousand dollars.", "Everyone receives at least a 30% federal tax credit.", "To find out what other incentives you are eligible for, search the Database of State Incentives for Renewables & Efficiency (DSIRE).", "Alternatively, get in touch with us and let us evaluate your situation for free.", "Some incentives are capped at a certain power and cost thresholds.", "Going with a system size that maximizes this potential is usually what we recommend.", "Solar for $0 Down If you`ve been following the solar industry the last couple of years you`ve probably heard of power purchase agreements (PPAs), as well as third-party-owned and pay-as-you-go solar.", "These are essentially all financial models to reduce or eliminate upfront costs.", "Their arrival is the single biggest reason for why solar is has grown with a tremendous rate in the last couple of years.", "Homeowners can now go solar for $0 down and generate savings from day 1.", "Here`s how leasing works: Instead of paying the electrical utility company for power, you lease a solar system, and pay a fixed rate for the electricity it produces.", "These new electricity rates are cheaper and typically locked in for 15 years, as opposed to utility rates that have been on the rise for decades.", "Where to go from now?", "The goal of this article was to give you an overview over the different expenses that come with a residential solar system, and give you an idea about how much it would cost in your situation.", "For a cost/savings estimate, get in touch with solar experts below: Error, group does not exist!", "Check your syntax!", "(ID: 2)References: [1] California Solar Statistics, [2] U. S. Energy Information Administration , [3] California Energy Commission, [4] U. S. Department of Energy.", "Author: Mathias Aarre Mæhlum Facebook Twitter Google Comments Gary Tulie says November 10, 2012 at 8:36 am When is the USA going to get its act together?", "In the UK and most or Europe there are no permitting fees and no inspection fees.", "Solar with a few exceptions (Historic buildings & commercial buildings) is considered permitted development without the need to apply for permission.", "The installers have to register and comply with agreed standards – are inspected on their first install, and thereafter only have occasional spot tests.", "As a result of this, Installed costs in Europe are around half those in the USA for domestic solar arrays Why can’t the USA at least simplify and standardise its permitting and inspection regime so that every install goes through a similar process?", "This could have a dramatic effect on installed cost – possibly as valuable as the current incentives!Reply DARA says September 30, 2014 at 11:41 pm Your numbers seem a bit old.", "Here’s some information about average solar prices in the US as of 2nd qtr 2014 (from SEIA – Solar Energy Industries Association): Year-over-year, the national average PV installed system price declined by 9% to $2.73/watt in Q2 2014.", "The average price of a residential PV installation in Q2 2014 was $3.92/watt, 41% lower than 2010.", "Since the second quarter of 2010, the average price of a solar panel has declined by 64%.", "Replyaleph says October 19, 2014 at 2:30 pm In considering payback time/cost what has to be considered is the % of off grid energy a solar installation provides.", "So, when a payback, say for, 9 years is quoted for a given solar system, is the assumption for 100% off grid?", "(Highly unlikely, 50% is a stretch) There needs to be a more precise explanation from marketers and academics, or establishment of a reference standard to enable consumers to make precisely informed financial decisions.", "Reply Arizona d00d says May 13, 2015 at 4:59 am Another problem, like most web pages I’ve read on this topic tonight, is that this article has not been updated to take into account the war that the utility companies are waging on net metering.", "Officially, it’s still supported by these utilities, but the costs are so high as to make it a joke now.", "Here in Arizona, the biggest utility, Arizona Public Service (APS), went so far as to buy (with dark money) seats this past election (Nov 2014) on the Arizona Corporation Commission, the body that’s supposed to regulate them; they now own 3 out of 5 seats total, including the chair.", "The point is that solar is no longer viable in these places until the costs for batteries come down so that even urban homes can disconnect from the grid.", "This is happening, mainly thanks to Elon Musk, but it’ll still be a few years before this becomes viable outside of expensive markets.", "Reply Wagner Caetano says May 19, 2015 at 5:53 pm Solar panels costs in the US is much lower than in Brazil.", "To import it we pay 60% import tax + 18% VAT on the total price (equipment + shipping).", "We have a big problem since last year with low reservoir level in hydro electric generation systems.", "God bless Brazilian politics that will not stop until this country become like Cuba or Venezuela.", "Reply Drew says May 27, 2015 at 4:49 pm The numbers really do speak for themselves when it comes to solar energy.", "All you need to do is take the plunge and you can start saving money.", "Thanks for sharing!Reply John Turner says June 23, 2015 at 11:50 am Nice, i like it!", "here you can find how to choose the right batterie for your solar power system https://www.patriotdirect.org/choosing-the-right-batteries/ and here are the components of an electrical solar power system https://www.patriotdirect.org/the-components-of-an-electrical-solar-power-system/Reply AWS Solar says July 19, 2015 at 2:03 am I was fortunate enough to have the best solar company in Los Angeles to install my solar system on my home and now by electrical bill it is very low.", "Reply Jon Mc says July 28, 2015 at 4:43 am The reason for the difference is that you’re quoting the cost of the entire installation per watt, whereas their chart is the cost of just the PV cells and modules, without the installation costs averaged in.", "Reply Joe Weil says July 28, 2015 at 7:30 am So who in these European communities is making sure that systems aren’t dumping dirty power onto the grid?", "The power systems in the USA have never been under the government other than oversight… even nuclear power.", "So there are hundreds of power grids under independent operation.", "Then there are the regulatory agencies… they need to get their cut of the clothe.", "Fifty states, thousands of counties and even more incorporated cities and townships.", "So a lot of it depends on the areas view of renewable energy.", "I think the article overplayed the costs involved for operation and the inverter is not separate from the system balance so toss those costs out… These systems are not complete without a power storage system to mitigate grid time… These would be something along the lines of the Tesla Power Wall, for example.", "These can dovetail off of the Balance system.", "Now you can run off of battery power during peak use time to mitigate the power companies tier one pricing.", "All this while the solar panels are feeding the grid helping out good ol’ Edison and lowering your ‘lectric bill or putting some change in your pocket.", "In the afternoon the batteries recharge and solar panels light your home or facility.", "At night you can run off of battery power until the sun comes up or the batteries draw done to their low limits.", "You might want to have a separate grid tie to keep critical items running, like refrigerators or AC… Until the sun comes up you would have to go back on the grid until the solar panels take over.", "Power brokers, Uncle Edison etc., like to buy power from large providers at large power amount prices.", "So the “incentive” that they pay to subsidize power bill or put change in your pocket will never reach a zero sum equality.", "So of you by power at 5 cents, you can bet your going to get 2.5 cents back for your contribution and at certain times you will be donating the power to Uncle Ed.", "I believe the optimum system can reach a zero sum with use and operation not including equipment capital and capital appreciation.", "As an Electrical Engineer I’m chomping at the bit for a solar panel with solid state battery as part of PV cell production process.", "When this happens the price of an independent grid tie will be very attractive.", "Reply Leave a Reply Your email address will not be published.", "Required fields are marked *Comment Name *Email *Website" ]
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http://www.garyfostermd.com/the-cost-of-cataract-surgery/
The Cost of Cataract Surgery
The Cost of Cataract Surgery August 20, 2013 by Ceatus Media Group Dr. Gary Foster – Fort Collins & Loveland, COWhat are the costs of Cataract Surgery? The cost of cataract surgery is an important topic because cataract surgery is the most commonly performed surgery in the world. A common question is, “Does Medicare cover cataract surgery?” Fortunately, it does. Many who have medical insurance make the mistake of believing this important procedure is not covered because they know they do not have “vision insurance.”Most major medical plans do cover cataract surgery costs when the cataract is “medically necessary.”Vision Insurance vs. Medical Insurance Vision insurance covers routine eye exams, glasses, and contact lenses. It does not generally cover medical eye problems. Regular medical insurance covers your regular medical care, including medical problems with your eyes like the cataract surgery costs. When is Cataract Surgery Medically Necessary? Most insurance companies consider your cataract ripe, or medically necessary, if your vision is 20/50 or worse with glasses AND your vision bothers you in real life situations (trouble seeing signs or reading, etc.). If your visual problems reach this stage, they are considered medically necessary and the cataract surgery costs are covered according to the details of the insurance plan. Cataract Symptoms (Cataract Glare)Cataracts cause glare. Another way your cataract can be considered medically necessary is if you bothered by glare. Your eye doctor will do a test to measure the effect of glare on your vision. It is call a “BAT” test where a bright light is shined at your eyes while you try to read the eye chart. This is intended to duplicate the effect of a headlight shining into your eyes at night. If your vision is 20/50 or worse during the BAT test AND you also notice glare bothering you in your real life, then most insurance companies will consider your cataracts as medically necessary and cover the costs of cataract surgery. The amount your insurance company will pay depends on the company. Medicare, for example, pays 80% of the cost of cataract surgery after you have met your deductible. If you have a Medicare supplemental plan, then they generally cover the other 20% of any Medicare approved cataract surgery costs after you have met the supplement’s deductible. The Cost of Cataract Surgery: The Total Number of Cataract Surgeries in the U. S. Medicare Cataract Eye Surgery Costs The Medicare cataract Eye Surgery costs add up to the single largest line item expenditure for Medicare. This should not be surprising if you consider that every senior citizen has the procedure twice, once for each eye. If you add up the cost of cataract surgery for everyone on Medicare, the total expenditure is enormous. The total cost of these procedures for the nation is estimated to increase dramatically over the next decade as the baby boomer generation enters Medicare and needs cataract surgery. Cost of Laser Cataract Surgery vs. Basic Cataract Surgery Costs The basic cataract surgery costs are covered by Medicare. The additional cataract surgery costs of laser cataract surgery are not covered and would be out of pocket expenses for the upgrade to decrease your astigmatism. There are additional benefits to laser cataract surgery of increased precision and decreased swelling. You will need to find out if your surgeon recommends cataract surgery laser for your eyes. Cost of intraocular lenses A lens implant ( intraocular lens) is provided by Medicare as part of basic eye procedures. If you prefer an advanced technology intraocular lens that provides benefits not covered by Medicare like a toric IOL or a Re STOR multifocal IOL, then your insurance would generally cover the standard cataract costs and you would pay an additional amount out of pocket to cover the costs of the higher technology lens implant. Average Cost of Cataract Surgery The average cost of Cataract surgery in a Medicare outpatient setting is generally around $2,500.00/eye for the surgeon, the out patient facility, and the anesthesia provider. Medicare would pay 80% or $2,000.00/eye and you would pay the remaining $500.00 out of pocket. If you have a supplement and you have already met your deductible for the year, then the supplement would cover the remaining $500.00/eye. You will need to check with your eye doctor to know the exact amounts in your region. The procedure costs more at hospitals than at privately owned surgery centers because Medicare allows hospitals to charge more for the same services. If you select an advanced technology upgrade like laser eye surgery, a toric lens, or a multifocal lens, then there would be additional out of pocket expenses to pay for the upgrades. The average cost for laser eye surgery with a multifocal lens in the U. S. is $3,500.00. Example 1 No Upgrade–Average Costs of Cataract Surgery Per Eye:$2,500 Average Cataract Cost – $2,000 Medicare Pays = $500 Out of Pocket – $500 Supplemental Insurance (if you have it) = $0 out of pocket Example 2 Laser/Multifocal or Accommodating lens Upgrade Costs Per Eye$2,500 Average Cataract Cost + $3,500 Upgrade Cost – $2,000 Medicare Pays – $500 Supplemental Insurance (If you have it) = $3,500 Out of Pocket Per Eye Weighting the Cataract Surgery Cost Against the Cost of Not Having Cataract Surgery Time Off Work Time off work or away from important activities is part of the cost of cataract surgery. Fortunately, cataract surgery recovery is usually quick and most can return to work within a day or so of the procedure. If there is a large difference between your two eyes after the surgery while you are waiting for your second eye to have the procedure, it can create some imbalance. This could create issues with depth perception. If you are involved in activities like climbing ladders etc. you might have to take more time off work. There are actions your eye doctor could take to minimize this if necessary. Cataract Surgery Cost The full total cataract surgery cost that you will bear will depend on how much of your surgery is covered by your insurance, the amount of your deductible, the amount you choose to spend to upgrade your cataract surgery experience with options like laser cataract removal and advanced technology intraocular lens implants, and the time you and your loved ones take off of work. All of these together make up the cataract surgery cost. It is also worth considering the potential costs of not having cataract surgery based on the risks and inconveniences of continuing with poorer vision and troubles with night driving. If you would like to learn more about the cost of cataract removal or the procedure, please schedule a consult with me or post your questions in the comments section. Filed Under: Cataract, Treatment Tagged With: cataract, cataract surgery, Cost Of Cataract Surgery, Medicare Comments Susan Shepard says: January 24, 2014 at 9:11 AMI have cataracts on both eyes. I have been told that I can not have implants because in 2001 I had lasik eye surgery on both eyes, Is this true? I don’t want to wear glasses after I have cataract surgery. Is there a different procedure? I am 68 years old. Thank you, Susan Shepard Gary Foster, M. D. says: January 25, 2014 at 4:15 PMSusan: You did not mention the specific IOL type you had in mind. I love LASIK and have had it done myself. Previous LASIK does not automatically disqualify a patient for any of the intraocular implants in my opinion. The special considerations are the following: 1. Quality of the LASIK ablation, 2. Quality of the tear film, and 3. Odds of hitting the refractive target. Let me explain each of these.1. If the LASIK ablation is normal and smooth then it does not disqualify multifocal IOLs (Re STOR), accommodating IOLs (crystalens), or toric IOLs. If the ablation is irregular, which would be rare with modern LASIK, then the multifocal lenses are probably a poor choice. These lenses tend to give very good reading, but they decrease contrast sensitivity a bit. If the cornea has any irregularity, it would also decrease contrast sensitivity. These could add up in the wrong direction and a patient might not be please with the quality of the vision. I don’t view the crystalens or the toric IOL as having specific contrast issues so they could be at least considered even if the LASIK ablation is not perfect, depending on the patients goals and the amount of imperfections present.2. Imperfect tear film (dry eyes). Dry eye can decrease the quality and contrast sensitivity of vision. If your eyes are dry, then the multifocal lenses are often not a good choice unless treating the dry eye easily corrects the problem.3. Laser eye surgery changes the shape of the cornea. This can fool some of the formulas we use to calculate which intraocular lens to place. A number of new formulas have evolved that have improved our accuracy and some practices have a new machine called the ORA that is improving our accuracy after LASIK even more. I have been using the ORA for over a year and have found it very helpful. Even with this best in the world technology, we have a lower chance of putting in an intraocular lens that is right on the money if you have had previous LASIK. If the goal is to get rid of glasses, then we have to hit very close to the target to make patients happy and there is a lower chance of achieving that post-LASIK. This doesn’t mean individuals post-LASIK shouldn’t have the lens, but it is a bit more complicated. Mono vision is another option. In this approach, one eye is set for distance and the other for near. This often decreases how much a patient needs to wear glasses after cataract surgery. Not everyone is comfortable with mono vision so it is helpful if they have already tried it with contact lenses to prove they are good mono vision candidates. Your eye doctor will take all of these variables into account as he/she recommends the lens that would give you the best chance of reaching your visual goals. Some doctors are more experienced with these lenses and helping LASIK patients have great results. It would be ideal to have a consult with the doctor in your area that has this type of experience so you can feel comfortable that you have carefully explored all your options. Garymaria oconnor says: March 1, 2014 at 6:24 AMI had surgery for retinal detachement over thirty years ago (Buckle?) I have a cataract in that eye. How does this previous surgery affect the cataract surgery risks. Gary Foster, M. D. says: March 3, 2014 at 8:05 PMMaria The great news is that, generally, the cataract surgery is just like any other cataract removal. However, there are occasions when the previous retinal surgery does affect the cataract surgery. The buckle squeezes the eye and makes it longer. This causes myopia and changes the power of the intraocular lens that a surgeon places. As a result, the intraocular lens power will be different in the eye that has the buckle from the eye that doesn’t. Most surgeons have stopped putting injections of anesthetic behind the eye for cataract surgery (retro-bulbar injection). If your surgeon still does retro-bulbar injections, there is a very small risk that the needle could hit the buckle and be deflected into the eye. If the retinal detachment was repaired with a vitrectomy rather than a buckle alone, there is a small chance that the movement of instruments inside the eye has weakened the posterior capsule that holds the cataract in place. If this has happened, a piece of cataract could fall backward into the jelly of they eye during cataract surgery. This would require a second surgery to have a retinal specialist removed the retained piece of cataract. If there has been a vitrectomy, then the structures inside the eye tend to move around more than in a standard case. This can make the surgery more difficult to perform. God Bless with your upcomming surgery Gary Foster Jude N. says: April 14, 2015 at 7:48 AMHi Dr. Foster, This post was helpful. On May 4 I will be having cataract surgery in my right eye. In Sept. 2014 I had two detachments in this eye. All in all I underwent laser, cryotherapy, vitrectomy, scleral buckle, and gas bubble with face down positioning for 5 weeks. The retina is holding but I have been treated for persistent CME, most recently with an injection of Kenalog. Needless to say, I am a bit apprehensive about more surgery but my vision is quite blurry so I know I need it. My opthomalogist explained the risk you described above but it was good to be able to read about it and process it a little better. Thanks for all the information you have posted here. Jude N. Gary Foster says: May 2, 2015 at 5:56 PMJude: Sorry for your troubles. God Bless with the decision. The worse your cataract becomes over time, the easier the decision gets. Raul de la Espriella says: March 15, 2014 at 6:56 PMThe whole article is OK but no COST ($$$$$$) appears on it. Take an example and tell me how much would it cost to remove the cataract using the different surgical procedures available. Thank you. Gary Foster, M. D. says: March 21, 2014 at 9:27 AMRaul, I have added some more specific numbers to the post. I hope it helps. Gary Peter Surprenat says: February 8, 2015 at 1:57 PMI have Medicare & supplement. I am looking at Cataract laser surgery in Houston with normal lens at an out of pocket costof $2000. It would be a private facility. Is this cost normal for the Houston area? Gary Foster says: February 19, 2015 at 10:22 PMPeter: If you are using the standard lens without any upgrades like astigmatism management/laser cataract surgery or ORA (intraoperative aberrometry), etc. the usually cataract surgery would be about $500 per eye out of pocket after Medicare (if you have already met your Medicare deductible) or $1,000 for both. If you have met your deductible for the supplemental insurance you have, it would generally cover the 1,000. You describe a $2,000 out of pocket which sounds high unless you have chosen some form of an upgrade. God Bless, Gary Foster Bob Perry says: March 20, 2014 at 2:17 PMI’ve had surgery on my right eye, for cataract. I need it on my left eye, what is my out of the pocket cost? Gary Foster, M. D. says: March 21, 2014 at 9:27 AMBob, I have added some more specific cost numbers to the article. I hope it helps. Gary John L says: April 30, 2014 at 5:45 AMHello Dr. Foster. I am a commercial pilot and the FAA requires me to have 20/20 distant vision in each eye separately, corrected or uncorrected, in order to carry paying passengers. My optometrist has advised I have a Cataract in the right eye which is limiting his ability to correct my distant vision in that eye by external means. He says he can obtain no better than 20/30 distant vision. He further advised me that Medicare uses the automobile driver’s distant vision standard of 20/40 as the determining factor with respect to authorizing payment for Cataract surgery and will therefore not cover mine until my eyesight degrades to 20/40 or worse. He said that since I am paid to fly ( as opposed to flying privately for pleasure which only requires 20/40 distant vision acuity), there may be an exception to the rule but he is personally unaware of one. What is your opinion? Is it is possible to have covered surgery and if so, what would I have to do in order to get a favorable ruling from Medicare? Thank you very much,John Gary Foster, M. D. says: April 30, 2014 at 4:22 PMJohn: Medicare is divided into regions in the U. S. Each of the Medicare carriers views these requirements a bit differently. I will speak from the perspective of my carrier which require that your vision be 20/50 or worse with some complaint of visual trouble in your daily life or that your glare test vision is 20/50 or worse and you have a complaint of glare affecting your daily living. You stated that you are best corrected at 20/30. If your vision is 20/50 or worse when a bright light is shined in your eyes (the “BAT” glare test) and you notice glare bothering you with night driving, etc. then you would qualify now for Medicare’s help with cataract surgery. If the BAT test has not been done, then checking that would be the next logical step for you. What if you are not 20/50 on the BAT test? With non-Medicare insurance, doctors can often write a letter and explain your extenuating circumstances and seek pre-authorization. Medicare does require preauthorization or have a mechanism for preauthorization. They just publish the strict guidelines and then threaten offenders. The doctors do the surgery they feel meets the guidelines, and if later Medicare audits the case and feels it was not medically necessary, they accuse the doctor of fraud and inflict overwhelming fines. This system put the onus for taking a chance to help you on your doctor to take all the risk or on you to pay cash. The good news is that if your vision has already dropped to 20/30 then most of the time your glare test will be worse than 20/50. All the Best Gary Foster Mary Bortz says: June 17, 2014 at 11:16 AMHi Dr. Foster, I am in need of Cataract surgery and I can’t even put drops in my eye or get an eyelash out. How comfortable are the patients made during this procedure and how aware will I be of the surgery? I am really worried about getting this procedure done and just can’t put it off any more. Thanks, Mary Gary Foster, M. D. says: June 17, 2014 at 9:14 PMMary, We can get you as groggy as you need to be for your comfort if your general health allows it. I have post on this. http://www.garyfostermd.com/anesthesia-for-cataract-removal-surgery/ God Bless, Gary Foster Melissa Brown says: June 23, 2014 at 6:05 PMDear Dr. Foster: I need cataract surgery and have been trying to find the approved Medicare fee schedule for costs. Are the example costs you list ($2000 – $2500) the fee rates for Medicare? Do they vary by region or State? I have Medicare and a high deductible Medigap and am trying to determine my share of this procedure. Sincerely,Melissa Brown Gary Foster, M. D. says: August 7, 2014 at 9:32 PMMelissa: They are the Medicare rates for the Colorado area. Amazingly, the rates do vary a bit in different regions of the country. God Bless, Gary Foster Mathews says: July 2, 2014 at 12:52 PMWhen cataract surgery is being done, is the patient awake? Can the eye being worked on “See” ? I might need surgery soon and looking for a good doctor and I am worried and stressed about the natural urge to close the eye and watching a scalpel up close Gary Foster, M. D. says: August 7, 2014 at 9:09 PMMathews: I do have a post on anesthesia for cataract surgery. http://www.garyfostermd.com/anesthesia-for-cataract-removal-surgery/ Generally, patients are awake but groggy during cataract surgery. Some want to receive light sedations so they can chat while others prefer to be much less aware. The microscope light is bright which makes it hard for you to see, and I am working too close for you to see any detail. A lid speculum is placed to hold your eye lids in a safe position so you don’t have to worry about blinking. The anti-anxiety medicines given by the anesthetists make the world seem pretty wonderful during cataract surgery for most patients. God Bless, Gary Foster Gary H says: July 27, 2014 at 1:01 PMDr. Foster,After being diagnosed as needing cataract surgery in both eyes, I was left with the impression that with the standard IOL, going forward I would just need the occasional use of a pair of drug-store readers to be happy. After the surgery on the left eye I quickly knew I had made a terrible mistake. I needed one pair to read, and one pair to work at computer, one to use to see the dials in the car…etc. When my doctor inquired about scheduling surgery on the right eye, I said that I would rather have the multifocal. He was quick to say that I cannot have one eye with standard and one eye with multi. This did not make much sense since after the first surgery they had no problem suggesting a multifocal contact lens to use in the right eye in the interim. Anyway, I developed at detached retina in the left eye after the surgery which caused me to hestitate on the second eye. I now feel comfortable enough to proceed but would still prefer to get the multifocal. Is my doctors refusal to correct with a multifocal in the right eye while I have the standard lens in the left legitimate? Gary Foster, M. D. says: August 6, 2014 at 8:35 PMGary: In the FDA trial for the Re STOR multifocal, 64% of patients could read without glasses with the implant in one eye while 94% could read with it in both eyes. If you choose to have the Re STOR in just one eye, it is possible that it would help with some of your near issues (64% chance in the study). We like to implant the multifocals in both eyes to increase the chance that a patient can read without glasses. Having said that, it is common for optometrists to put a standard contact lens in one eye and a multifocal contact lens in the other eye. I have a handful of patients with a standard lens in one eye, that have selected a multifocal in their second eye. I do not encourage it to patients for the reasons listed above, but have had good success since the patients that request it are above average motivated for better reading vision. The possibility also exists of removing the first implant and exchanging it with a multifocal implant if necessary. This carries some specific risks, depending on how long ago the surgery was done. Your surgeon could discuss the specifics of those risks based on your specific eye exam. As you know, the current U. S. multifocals have two places in focus. You are describing problems with three distances, far, intermediate, and near. You would need to find out which multifocal your surgeon would use to determine which parts of near vision it could address. Placing a single vision distance implant in your second eye is the most conservative option, but other options do exist depending on your eye and your individual goals. God Bless, Gary Foster Sabrina St Pierre says: July 31, 2014 at 2:22 PMHi Mr. Foster,I am writing to you about my husband Dennis St Pierre (age 49). He has cataracts in both eyes and is unable to work any more. We do not have the money to get him the surgery that he needs to correct them. I was reading some of your replies and thought I would write to you to see if you know anyone that lives in Florida that could help us with the coast. He has Medicaid right now and the only thing that they pay for is the surgery and not the licenses. With me being the only one working it is not something that we are able to save for. If you have any information for us that would be gratefully appreciated. Hope to hear from you soon. P. S. I am putting my phone # in case u have any quetions for me. Thank You, Sabrina St Pierre Gary Foster, M. D. says: August 7, 2014 at 9:38 PMSabrina: Sometimes the local Lions Club will help in cases of extreme need. Please contact me off line to let me know which part of Florida you live in. God Bless, Gary Foster Sandra K says: August 10, 2014 at 5:10 PMDr. Foster, I am scheduled to have cataract surgery soon on both eyes, two weeks apart. I am very interested in the multifocal lens since it has the best chance of not having to wear glasses for near, intermediate and far distance vision after the surgery. My doctor does not recommend the multifocal lens and will instead insert Crystalens due to my being a Type II diabetic. Is this a general guidance followed by most ophthalmologists even with controlled diabetic patients who have A1C in the normal range (5.5 – 6.0)? Thanks for your professional opinion. Gary Foster, M. D. says: August 20, 2014 at 10:08 PMSandra: Your doctor is taking a conservative path in avoiding a multifocal. If your diabetes worsened over the years and you developed changes in blood flow to your macula (central retina) or you developed macular edema, it would decrease your contras sensitivity. A multifocal lens also slightly decreases your contrast sensitivity. If you never developed these kinds of problems, then the multifocal would work as well for you as anyone else. Fortunately, you are aggressively controlling your blood sugars to decrease the chances of problems. By not having a multifocal lens, you are not taking the risk you are the one that ends up with diabetic eye problems and a multifocal. It is not unreasonable to choose the multifocal, but it would reflect a choice with greater potential risk. As such it would be considered a relative, rather than an absolute, contraindication. I haven’t examined your retina and I don’t know your age, which could both affect my recommendations, but it sounds like you are working with a doctor that makes decisions the right way. God Bless, Gary Foster Bruce says: August 28, 2014 at 10:51 PMDr. Foster: I had cataract surgery in both eyes with standard IOL’s. using the VICTUS laser prep. After the first surgery, about 6 weeks ago, my vision in the right eye was amazing; I could read and see everything super clear from a few inches to long distance. That has now changed to no longer being able to see up close but from about 24 inches to long distance which is okay with me. I don’t mind readers for close up. The left eye, however, has been blurry ever since surgery and the doctors say it “should get better”. I am concerned that it remains blurry over three weeks post surgery and is not nearly as clear as the right eye at all. I obviously no longer have the yellowish vision of the cataract, but the fogginess or being blurry leads me to question whether this could be that “secondary cataract” that affects a lot of patients and I am just not being told, hoping the situation will resolve itself. I presume the costs involved with the original surgery would cover this YAG Laser procedure to fix this if necessary? Thanks so much for your opinion. Bruce SDchryver, Ph. D. Gary Foster says: August 29, 2014 at 9:06 PMDr. SDchryver: The lack of near performance is anticipated with most “standard” IOL’s. The big question is the prescription for your second eye. If the eye corrects to 20/20 with a glasses prescription, then there are no visual quality issues. The prescriptive error could be corrected with glasses, contact lenses, IOL exchanges, LRI, or laser vision correction, depending on the type of prescriptive error. If your vision clears up a lot when you squint, it often means that you have some prescriptive error. If a manifest refraction doesn’t improve your eyesight to 20/20 then it is reasonable for you to ask your eye doctor why. The possibilities include resolving corneal edema, edema in the retina (cystoid macular edema), macular degeneration, dry eye, etc. It would be unusual for a secondary membrane to have formed this quickly. The cost of having a YAG laser to clear a secondary membrane are not included in the cataract surgery costs but are generally covered my major medical insurance including Medicare. God Bless, Gary Foster AJ says: October 12, 2014 at 8:43 PMDear Dr, I currently live in Florida, have type 2 diabetes, wear progressive lenses that work pretty well, 61 yrs old and I’ve been diagnosed with cataracts in both eyes. Vision in the left eye is noticeably weaker and I see a halo when I look at a light (headlamps, street lamp). During the daytime my vision is very good and I have no problems with driving. However, night driving is becoming more difficult with the glare of headlamps. Would you please allow me a few questions? 1. I have an appointment for an eye exam soon. Depending on the results, I’ll opt for laser cataract surgery. What are some critical questions that I should ask my ophthalmologist? 2. If I do the cataract surgery, what type of lens is best suited for me? I like to drive at night, but I also spend most of my time with computers and reading. 3. Since one eye at a time is done, would I still be able to use my current pair of progressives? 4. Assuming that cataract surgery is recommended and is successful for both eyes, would I still be able to use progressives for the near and intermediate vision? I’m seeing a post above that says the guy has to use different glasses for reading and for computers. 5. How soon after surgery will I be able to undertake strenuous and stressful tasks, such as vigorous exercise and flying in an aircraft (passenger). Let me add that if you were close by in Fl I would have certainly liked to have you examine my eyes. If there is any possibility of this, please let me know. P. S. I don’t have insurance, but have decided that I’ll source the funds and pay out of pocket. Thank you in advance, Doctor. Gary Foster says: October 14, 2014 at 6:58 PMAj: I only practice in Colorado and Wyoming. The following posts will answer a portion of your questions: 1. Diabetes and catarcts http://www.garyfostermd.com/diabetic-cataract-for-diabetes-and-cataract/ 2. Flying after cataract surgery http://www.garyfostermd.com/when-can-i-fly-after-cataract-surgery/ 3. Choosing an intraocular lens http://www.garyfostermd.com/cataract-surgery-and-choosing-intraocular-lens-iol/ 4. Questions to ask you cataract surgeon http://www.garyfostermd.com/cataract-surgery-and-choosing-intraocular-lens-iol/The best optical quality for those that drive a lot at night is a single vision lens if your astigmatism level is low or a toric lens if your astigmatism level is higher. You could wear a progressive lens for your computer and year functions if you have been a good progressive wearer in the past to avoid having several pairs of glasses. If you choose a multifocus lens to decrease or eliminate your need for reading glasses, you would be accepting some compromise on night driving quality. Your surgeons will be able to give you advice specific to your circumstances once he/she examines your eyes and better understands your visual potential. God Bless, Gary Foster Becky says: October 15, 2014 at 10:35 AMI cannot believe how awesome I can see the world around me ! The office staff was amazing and were there every step of the way to make me comfortable. I would highly recommend Dr. Foster for this surgery!Gary Foster says: October 16, 2014 at 2:50 PMBecky: Thank you for the kind words. I am very proud to work with the team at the eye center. God Bless, Gary Foster SB Fields says: October 27, 2014 at 6:43 PMHello, I had cataract surgery on Sept 17th. On the 25th, while glancing at my cell phone, a grey curtain-like shade dropped from the upper level to just below the mid range of my visual field (the operated eye). There was no pain. I thought it would continue all the way down. It stopped mid way and I thought I might be going blind. It lasted 5 or so mins. I was on my way to the eye Dr for a post op visit. Did not know if I could drive. But as I mentioned, it went away and has not returned. Have you ever heard of this happening, weather with or without surgery? What is it? Gary Foster says: December 16, 2014 at 9:26 PMSB: It is important that you discuss this with your eye doctor and your primary care physician and that they examine you and your eyes carefully with these symptoms in mind. A couple of potential causes include an ophthalmic migraine or a TIA (mini stroke) God Bless, Gary Foster Sharon Englehardt says: December 17, 2014 at 7:51 AMDr. I have cataracts in both eyes. The left eye is worse. I can still get 20/25 or so in right eye. The cataract in the left eye had rapidly gotten worse in the last six months. In the last two days it has progressed to the point that I cannot see out of it at all. The problem is I do not have the money for the surgery. I am 62 and started my SS early hoping medicare would cover it. I didn’t know you couldn’t get medicare until 65. I signed up for the Obama health care but the way I understand it I have to meet a $6600.00 deductible before anything is covered other than yearly routine screenings and Ck ups. Help, do you know where I can get help? I live close to Evansville, Indiana. Any info would be greatly appreciated! Thank You Gary Foster says: December 22, 2014 at 8:31 AMSharon: I am sorry that the bewildering world of insurance coverage is working against you. It is likely that the cataract surgery would cost less than your deductible. Many patients choose to have these types of procedures done early in the year so that as they meet their deductible, they can fully use their insurance for the rest of the year for any other lingering heal concerns. Your plight is about to become endemic as a huge wave of patients that have selected high deductible insurance plans begin to move through the health care system. If you qualify for Medicaid, you would not have the high deductible. Another option is to change to a lower deductible plan as you know that you will be using the insurance for the cataract surgery and then return to a higher deductible the following year in your final wait for Medicare which has low deductibles. Another option is to check with the local chapter of the Lions club, though they tend to only get involved in circumstances of significant visual distress and financial need. God Bless, Gary Foster Gary Murtaugh says: January 18, 2015 at 4:01 AMDr. Foster, I had cataract surgery on my left eye at the age of 50 with excellent results and 20/20 vision. Unforturnately, my right eye never developed one, and I’ve had to wear a contact lens in that eye due to my poor vision. I am now at the age where my eye is dry enough that a lens (daily wear moist) will fall out of my eye in the middle of the day due to excessive dryness from meds and age. Will Medicare pay for an IOL for that eye if it is the only correction I’ll can comfortably tolerate? Also if I have a monovision power IOL, how much correction is needed to accomodate +2.00 (subtracted from my -4.75). Is the correction less because the lens is inside the eye? Thank you. A fellow Gary. Gary Foster says: January 24, 2015 at 10:44 AMGary: You have become contact lens intolerant. If glasses don’t work because your eyes are so different you have a medical condition called anisometropia. This is caused by differences in the image sizes between the two eyes. Cataract surgery can be considered medically necessary for anisometripia if it is impacting your quality of life and ability to function in my opinion. LASIK on your un operated eye is another option to correct the anisometropia that you could consider with your surgeon. The formulas to calculate the correct IOL to place in your monovision eye take into account the fact that the IOL is inside your eye. A surgeon sets your desired outcome (-2.00) into the formula and it tells him/her what IOL to implant to have the best likelihood of achieving that goal. God Bless,Regina Shiner says: January 30, 2015 at 7:34 AMDr. Foster I was diagnosed with cataracts about a year ago.. my eye Doctor told me that Medicare does not pay for cataract surgery . Well we havent had the money for the surgery I no longer can drive plus I am extremely nearsighted…your saying Medicare does pay eighty percent …and she also said with the surgery I would no longer need glasses for distance ..is that true ? Thank you…Gary Foster says: February 19, 2015 at 9:49 AMRegina: It may be that last year your cataract was not bad enough to hit the standards where Medicare will pay, but that this year they have worsened enough that they fall within the guidelines. If your vision is 20/50 or worse and your vision bothers your or your vision is 20/50 or worse with the glare test and glare bothers you then you will likely fall within the guidelines where they will pay. If you don’t have much astigmatism and your surgeon selects the appropriate intraocular lens for distance then most have reasonable distance vision without glasses. God Bless, Gary Foster Diana says: February 9, 2015 at 6:47 PMYou mentioned about the cost of having laser cataract surgery with premium lens. What about just the laser surgery without the premium lens? Can I just have the laser surgery without the lens upgrade? I wonder if you could tell me about how much it would be. Thanks. Gary Foster says: February 20, 2015 at 9:53 AMDiana: The laser can be used to help cataract surgery without using a premium lens if there is a need for astigmatism correction. I currently charge $1,600 for that option. God Bless, Gary Fostermary mcclung says: March 10, 2015 at 9:01 PMDear Dr. Foster: I’m 76, scheduled for monofocal iol (catalyst laser technology) type surgery. Have Aetna-Medicare Ins. My surgeon wants me to pay him $1,500.00 before the surg. Would you know what $1,5?00.00 x-tra is for? The technician who took measurements indicated its for the catalyst machine!?. My ins. co. seyz ask him to send this bill to the ins. co.!? Am I up a creek with this problem? Please let me know what your thinking on this matter is. Thank you greatly. Mary Mc Clung [email protected] 330-753-9409Gary Foster says: March 11, 2015 at 1:29 PMMary: Insurance covers non-laser assisted cataract surgery. If you decide to not have the surgeon use the laser, then the 1,500 would disappear, but so would the laser’s contribution. If you are fine with that, then you would save the 1,500. If you prefer the laser to at least the tune of 1,500 then you would need to make that payment. Your insurance would still be making its normal contribution to the medical part of the surgery, but the laser part of the surgery to decrease astigmatism is elective and non-covered. The extra costs are to defer the cost of the laser, the ongoing royalty payments the surgeon pays each time he/she uses the laser, and the extra testing and surgeon/staff time that go in to laser surgical planning. In the end, you are either up the creek without the laser, or up the creek without the 1,500 God Bless, Gary Foster Michael Knor says: March 12, 2015 at 10:04 PMDear Dr. Foster My wife age 44 has cataracts in both eyes right eye correctable to 20/200 left eye correctable to 20/70 she is going to have the surgery (least expensive) as soon as we can afford it, since I have been researching it and asking everyone I can how there surgery was I have run in to a few people that say be very careful who does the surgery because they have floaters in there eye. Floaters being pieces of the old lens that weren’t removed I’m guessing. Is this a fairly common problem with cataract surgery? Or is it something else they are seeing in there eye? They describe it as like seeing a fly too close to make out what it is, and they move around. Thank you for reading and we appreciate your web sight! Michael Gary Foster says: March 22, 2015 at 9:35 PMMichael: The floaters your friends describe are most likely a posterior vitreous detachment (PVD). These are common an ultimate happen to all blessed with a long life. The chances of having a posterior vitreous detachment are about equal to your age. For example, a 75 year old has about a 75% chance that they have a PVD in a given eye. Cataract surgery can make the vitreous detach a few years earlier than it would have without the surgery. Choosing a good surgeon does matter, but the vitreous issue is a normal life event and usually independent of surgeon skill. I have a blog post on the subject that will explain in greater detail. http://www.garyfostermd.com/posterior-vitreous-detachment-pvd-and-posterior-vitreous-separation/ God Bless, Gary Foster Gary says: April 15, 2015 at 1:27 PMJust a word of encouragement to those fearful of having someone “poking around” in their eye. This is likely the simplest medical procedure you’ll ever undergo. 10 minutes and done. Having your teeth cleaned should be so simple and painless. The anesthetic takes you away from the world and while you might be conscious of a light shining in your eye, you won’t feel a thing and most likely you won’t remember anything later. In what seems like a minute or two you’re awake and heading out the door with your driver. I hope this helps those considering this procedure. I’ve just had both eyes done and the improvement in my vision and especially my night vision is simply incredible!Rhonda Boyd says: April 22, 2015 at 7:53 AMHi Doctor Foster, I will be coming to see you shortly in Laramie ( May). My question is, I am a 57 yr old insulin dependent diabetic that has in the past always had problems with anesthesia in that I have fluid imbalance and feelings of falling etc and have a horrible time with dizziness for months after procedures, I need to have both of my eye cataracts fixed as I have lost significant vision over the last six months. Because of my issues with anesthesia I wanted to know if it was possible to have both eyes taken care of at the same time? Look forward to seeing you soon, I have heard great reviews about you and your clinic.
[ "The Cost of Cataract Surgery August 20, 2013 by Ceatus Media Group Dr. Gary Foster – Fort Collins & Loveland, COWhat are the costs of Cataract Surgery?", "The cost of cataract surgery is an important topic because cataract surgery is the most commonly performed surgery in the world.", "A common question is, “Does Medicare cover cataract surgery?” Fortunately, it does.", "Many who have medical insurance make the mistake of believing this important procedure is not covered because they know they do not have “vision insurance.”Most major medical plans do cover cataract surgery costs when the cataract is “medically necessary.”Vision Insurance vs. Medical Insurance Vision insurance covers routine eye exams, glasses, and contact lenses.", "It does not generally cover medical eye problems.", "Regular medical insurance covers your regular medical care, including medical problems with your eyes like the cataract surgery costs.", "When is Cataract Surgery Medically Necessary?", "Most insurance companies consider your cataract ripe, or medically necessary, if your vision is 20/50 or worse with glasses AND your vision bothers you in real life situations (trouble seeing signs or reading, etc.).", "If your visual problems reach this stage, they are considered medically necessary and the cataract surgery costs are covered according to the details of the insurance plan.", "Cataract Symptoms (Cataract Glare)Cataracts cause glare.", "Another way your cataract can be considered medically necessary is if you bothered by glare.", "Your eye doctor will do a test to measure the effect of glare on your vision.", "It is call a “BAT” test where a bright light is shined at your eyes while you try to read the eye chart.", "This is intended to duplicate the effect of a headlight shining into your eyes at night.", "If your vision is 20/50 or worse during the BAT test AND you also notice glare bothering you in your real life, then most insurance companies will consider your cataracts as medically necessary and cover the costs of cataract surgery.", "The amount your insurance company will pay depends on the company.", "Medicare, for example, pays 80% of the cost of cataract surgery after you have met your deductible.", "If you have a Medicare supplemental plan, then they generally cover the other 20% of any Medicare approved cataract surgery costs after you have met the supplement’s deductible.", "The Cost of Cataract Surgery: The Total Number of Cataract Surgeries in the U. S. Medicare Cataract Eye Surgery Costs The Medicare cataract Eye Surgery costs add up to the single largest line item expenditure for Medicare.", "This should not be surprising if you consider that every senior citizen has the procedure twice, once for each eye.", "If you add up the cost of cataract surgery for everyone on Medicare, the total expenditure is enormous.", "The total cost of these procedures for the nation is estimated to increase dramatically over the next decade as the baby boomer generation enters Medicare and needs cataract surgery.", "Cost of Laser Cataract Surgery vs.", "Basic Cataract Surgery Costs The basic cataract surgery costs are covered by Medicare.", "The additional cataract surgery costs of laser cataract surgery are not covered and would be out of pocket expenses for the upgrade to decrease your astigmatism.", "There are additional benefits to laser cataract surgery of increased precision and decreased swelling.", "You will need to find out if your surgeon recommends cataract surgery laser for your eyes.", "Cost of intraocular lenses A lens implant ( intraocular lens) is provided by Medicare as part of basic eye procedures.", "If you prefer an advanced technology intraocular lens that provides benefits not covered by Medicare like a toric IOL or a Re STOR multifocal IOL, then your insurance would generally cover the standard cataract costs and you would pay an additional amount out of pocket to cover the costs of the higher technology lens implant.", "Average Cost of Cataract Surgery The average cost of Cataract surgery in a Medicare outpatient setting is generally around $2,500.00/eye for the surgeon, the out patient facility, and the anesthesia provider.", "Medicare would pay 80% or $2,000.00/eye and you would pay the remaining $500.00 out of pocket.", "If you have a supplement and you have already met your deductible for the year, then the supplement would cover the remaining $500.00/eye.", "You will need to check with your eye doctor to know the exact amounts in your region.", "The procedure costs more at hospitals than at privately owned surgery centers because Medicare allows hospitals to charge more for the same services.", "If you select an advanced technology upgrade like laser eye surgery, a toric lens, or a multifocal lens, then there would be additional out of pocket expenses to pay for the upgrades.", "The average cost for laser eye surgery with a multifocal lens in the U. S. is $3,500.00.", "Example 1 No Upgrade–Average Costs of Cataract Surgery Per Eye:$2,500 Average Cataract Cost – $2,000 Medicare Pays = $500 Out of Pocket – $500 Supplemental Insurance (if you have it) = $0 out of pocket Example 2 Laser/Multifocal or Accommodating lens Upgrade Costs Per Eye$2,500 Average Cataract Cost + $3,500 Upgrade Cost – $2,000 Medicare Pays – $500 Supplemental Insurance (If you have it) = $3,500 Out of Pocket Per Eye Weighting the Cataract Surgery Cost Against the Cost of Not Having Cataract Surgery Time Off Work Time off work or away from important activities is part of the cost of cataract surgery.", "Fortunately, cataract surgery recovery is usually quick and most can return to work within a day or so of the procedure.", "If there is a large difference between your two eyes after the surgery while you are waiting for your second eye to have the procedure, it can create some imbalance.", "This could create issues with depth perception.", "If you are involved in activities like climbing ladders etc.", "you might have to take more time off work.", "There are actions your eye doctor could take to minimize this if necessary.", "Cataract Surgery Cost The full total cataract surgery cost that you will bear will depend on how much of your surgery is covered by your insurance, the amount of your deductible, the amount you choose to spend to upgrade your cataract surgery experience with options like laser cataract removal and advanced technology intraocular lens implants, and the time you and your loved ones take off of work.", "All of these together make up the cataract surgery cost.", "It is also worth considering the potential costs of not having cataract surgery based on the risks and inconveniences of continuing with poorer vision and troubles with night driving.", "If you would like to learn more about the cost of cataract removal or the procedure, please schedule a consult with me or post your questions in the comments section.", "Filed Under: Cataract, Treatment Tagged With: cataract, cataract surgery, Cost Of Cataract Surgery, Medicare Comments Susan Shepard says: January 24, 2014 at 9:11 AMI have cataracts on both eyes.", "I have been told that I can not have implants because in 2001 I had lasik eye surgery on both eyes, Is this true?", "I don’t want to wear glasses after I have cataract surgery.", "Is there a different procedure?", "I am 68 years old.", "Thank you, Susan Shepard Gary Foster, M. D. says: January 25, 2014 at 4:15 PMSusan: You did not mention the specific IOL type you had in mind.", "I love LASIK and have had it done myself.", "Previous LASIK does not automatically disqualify a patient for any of the intraocular implants in my opinion.", "The special considerations are the following: 1.", "Quality of the LASIK ablation, 2.", "Quality of the tear film, and 3.", "Odds of hitting the refractive target.", "Let me explain each of these.1.", "If the LASIK ablation is normal and smooth then it does not disqualify multifocal IOLs (Re STOR), accommodating IOLs (crystalens), or toric IOLs.", "If the ablation is irregular, which would be rare with modern LASIK, then the multifocal lenses are probably a poor choice.", "These lenses tend to give very good reading, but they decrease contrast sensitivity a bit.", "If the cornea has any irregularity, it would also decrease contrast sensitivity.", "These could add up in the wrong direction and a patient might not be please with the quality of the vision.", "I don’t view the crystalens or the toric IOL as having specific contrast issues so they could be at least considered even if the LASIK ablation is not perfect, depending on the patients goals and the amount of imperfections present.2.", "Imperfect tear film (dry eyes).", "Dry eye can decrease the quality and contrast sensitivity of vision.", "If your eyes are dry, then the multifocal lenses are often not a good choice unless treating the dry eye easily corrects the problem.3.", "Laser eye surgery changes the shape of the cornea.", "This can fool some of the formulas we use to calculate which intraocular lens to place.", "A number of new formulas have evolved that have improved our accuracy and some practices have a new machine called the ORA that is improving our accuracy after LASIK even more.", "I have been using the ORA for over a year and have found it very helpful.", "Even with this best in the world technology, we have a lower chance of putting in an intraocular lens that is right on the money if you have had previous LASIK.", "If the goal is to get rid of glasses, then we have to hit very close to the target to make patients happy and there is a lower chance of achieving that post-LASIK.", "This doesn’t mean individuals post-LASIK shouldn’t have the lens, but it is a bit more complicated.", "Mono vision is another option.", "In this approach, one eye is set for distance and the other for near.", "This often decreases how much a patient needs to wear glasses after cataract surgery.", "Not everyone is comfortable with mono vision so it is helpful if they have already tried it with contact lenses to prove they are good mono vision candidates.", "Your eye doctor will take all of these variables into account as he/she recommends the lens that would give you the best chance of reaching your visual goals.", "Some doctors are more experienced with these lenses and helping LASIK patients have great results.", "It would be ideal to have a consult with the doctor in your area that has this type of experience so you can feel comfortable that you have carefully explored all your options.", "Garymaria oconnor says: March 1, 2014 at 6:24 AMI had surgery for retinal detachement over thirty years ago (Buckle?)", "I have a cataract in that eye.", "How does this previous surgery affect the cataract surgery risks.", "Gary Foster, M. D. says: March 3, 2014 at 8:05 PMMaria The great news is that, generally, the cataract surgery is just like any other cataract removal.", "However, there are occasions when the previous retinal surgery does affect the cataract surgery.", "The buckle squeezes the eye and makes it longer.", "This causes myopia and changes the power of the intraocular lens that a surgeon places.", "As a result, the intraocular lens power will be different in the eye that has the buckle from the eye that doesn’t.", "Most surgeons have stopped putting injections of anesthetic behind the eye for cataract surgery (retro-bulbar injection).", "If your surgeon still does retro-bulbar injections, there is a very small risk that the needle could hit the buckle and be deflected into the eye.", "If the retinal detachment was repaired with a vitrectomy rather than a buckle alone, there is a small chance that the movement of instruments inside the eye has weakened the posterior capsule that holds the cataract in place.", "If this has happened, a piece of cataract could fall backward into the jelly of they eye during cataract surgery.", "This would require a second surgery to have a retinal specialist removed the retained piece of cataract.", "If there has been a vitrectomy, then the structures inside the eye tend to move around more than in a standard case.", "This can make the surgery more difficult to perform.", "God Bless with your upcomming surgery Gary Foster Jude N. says: April 14, 2015 at 7:48 AMHi Dr. Foster, This post was helpful.", "On May 4 I will be having cataract surgery in my right eye.", "In Sept. 2014 I had two detachments in this eye.", "All in all I underwent laser, cryotherapy, vitrectomy, scleral buckle, and gas bubble with face down positioning for 5 weeks.", "The retina is holding but I have been treated for persistent CME, most recently with an injection of Kenalog.", "Needless to say, I am a bit apprehensive about more surgery but my vision is quite blurry so I know I need it.", "My opthomalogist explained the risk you described above but it was good to be able to read about it and process it a little better.", "Thanks for all the information you have posted here.", "Jude N. Gary Foster says: May 2, 2015 at 5:56 PMJude: Sorry for your troubles.", "God Bless with the decision.", "The worse your cataract becomes over time, the easier the decision gets.", "Raul de la Espriella says: March 15, 2014 at 6:56 PMThe whole article is OK but no COST ($$$$$$) appears on it.", "Take an example and tell me how much would it cost to remove the cataract using the different surgical procedures available.", "Thank you.", "Gary Foster, M. D. says: March 21, 2014 at 9:27 AMRaul, I have added some more specific numbers to the post.", "I hope it helps.", "Gary Peter Surprenat says: February 8, 2015 at 1:57 PMI have Medicare & supplement.", "I am looking at Cataract laser surgery in Houston with normal lens at an out of pocket costof $2000.", "It would be a private facility.", "Is this cost normal for the Houston area?", "Gary Foster says: February 19, 2015 at 10:22 PMPeter: If you are using the standard lens without any upgrades like astigmatism management/laser cataract surgery or ORA (intraoperative aberrometry), etc.", "the usually cataract surgery would be about $500 per eye out of pocket after Medicare (if you have already met your Medicare deductible) or $1,000 for both.", "If you have met your deductible for the supplemental insurance you have, it would generally cover the 1,000.", "You describe a $2,000 out of pocket which sounds high unless you have chosen some form of an upgrade.", "God Bless, Gary Foster Bob Perry says: March 20, 2014 at 2:17 PMI’ve had surgery on my right eye, for cataract.", "I need it on my left eye, what is my out of the pocket cost?", "Gary Foster, M. D. says: March 21, 2014 at 9:27 AMBob, I have added some more specific cost numbers to the article.", "I hope it helps.", "Gary John L says: April 30, 2014 at 5:45 AMHello Dr. Foster.", "I am a commercial pilot and the FAA requires me to have 20/20 distant vision in each eye separately, corrected or uncorrected, in order to carry paying passengers.", "My optometrist has advised I have a Cataract in the right eye which is limiting his ability to correct my distant vision in that eye by external means.", "He says he can obtain no better than 20/30 distant vision.", "He further advised me that Medicare uses the automobile driver’s distant vision standard of 20/40 as the determining factor with respect to authorizing payment for Cataract surgery and will therefore not cover mine until my eyesight degrades to 20/40 or worse.", "He said that since I am paid to fly ( as opposed to flying privately for pleasure which only requires 20/40 distant vision acuity), there may be an exception to the rule but he is personally unaware of one.", "What is your opinion?", "Is it is possible to have covered surgery and if so, what would I have to do in order to get a favorable ruling from Medicare?", "Thank you very much,John Gary Foster, M. D. says: April 30, 2014 at 4:22 PMJohn: Medicare is divided into regions in the U. S. Each of the Medicare carriers views these requirements a bit differently.", "I will speak from the perspective of my carrier which require that your vision be 20/50 or worse with some complaint of visual trouble in your daily life or that your glare test vision is 20/50 or worse and you have a complaint of glare affecting your daily living.", "You stated that you are best corrected at 20/30.", "If your vision is 20/50 or worse when a bright light is shined in your eyes (the “BAT” glare test) and you notice glare bothering you with night driving, etc.", "then you would qualify now for Medicare’s help with cataract surgery.", "If the BAT test has not been done, then checking that would be the next logical step for you.", "What if you are not 20/50 on the BAT test?", "With non-Medicare insurance, doctors can often write a letter and explain your extenuating circumstances and seek pre-authorization.", "Medicare does require preauthorization or have a mechanism for preauthorization.", "They just publish the strict guidelines and then threaten offenders.", "The doctors do the surgery they feel meets the guidelines, and if later Medicare audits the case and feels it was not medically necessary, they accuse the doctor of fraud and inflict overwhelming fines.", "This system put the onus for taking a chance to help you on your doctor to take all the risk or on you to pay cash.", "The good news is that if your vision has already dropped to 20/30 then most of the time your glare test will be worse than 20/50.", "All the Best Gary Foster Mary Bortz says: June 17, 2014 at 11:16 AMHi Dr. Foster, I am in need of Cataract surgery and I can’t even put drops in my eye or get an eyelash out.", "How comfortable are the patients made during this procedure and how aware will I be of the surgery?", "I am really worried about getting this procedure done and just can’t put it off any more.", "Thanks, Mary Gary Foster, M. D. says: June 17, 2014 at 9:14 PMMary, We can get you as groggy as you need to be for your comfort if your general health allows it.", "I have post on this.", "http://www.garyfostermd.com/anesthesia-for-cataract-removal-surgery/ God Bless, Gary Foster Melissa Brown says: June 23, 2014 at 6:05 PMDear Dr. Foster: I need cataract surgery and have been trying to find the approved Medicare fee schedule for costs.", "Are the example costs you list ($2000 – $2500) the fee rates for Medicare?", "Do they vary by region or State?", "I have Medicare and a high deductible Medigap and am trying to determine my share of this procedure.", "Sincerely,Melissa Brown Gary Foster, M. D. says: August 7, 2014 at 9:32 PMMelissa: They are the Medicare rates for the Colorado area.", "Amazingly, the rates do vary a bit in different regions of the country.", "God Bless, Gary Foster Mathews says: July 2, 2014 at 12:52 PMWhen cataract surgery is being done, is the patient awake?", "Can the eye being worked on “See” ?", "I might need surgery soon and looking for a good doctor and I am worried and stressed about the natural urge to close the eye and watching a scalpel up close Gary Foster, M. D. says: August 7, 2014 at 9:09 PMMathews: I do have a post on anesthesia for cataract surgery.", "http://www.garyfostermd.com/anesthesia-for-cataract-removal-surgery/ Generally, patients are awake but groggy during cataract surgery.", "Some want to receive light sedations so they can chat while others prefer to be much less aware.", "The microscope light is bright which makes it hard for you to see, and I am working too close for you to see any detail.", "A lid speculum is placed to hold your eye lids in a safe position so you don’t have to worry about blinking.", "The anti-anxiety medicines given by the anesthetists make the world seem pretty wonderful during cataract surgery for most patients.", "God Bless, Gary Foster Gary H says: July 27, 2014 at 1:01 PMDr.", "Foster,After being diagnosed as needing cataract surgery in both eyes, I was left with the impression that with the standard IOL, going forward I would just need the occasional use of a pair of drug-store readers to be happy.", "After the surgery on the left eye I quickly knew I had made a terrible mistake.", "I needed one pair to read, and one pair to work at computer, one to use to see the dials in the car…etc.", "When my doctor inquired about scheduling surgery on the right eye, I said that I would rather have the multifocal.", "He was quick to say that I cannot have one eye with standard and one eye with multi.", "This did not make much sense since after the first surgery they had no problem suggesting a multifocal contact lens to use in the right eye in the interim.", "Anyway, I developed at detached retina in the left eye after the surgery which caused me to hestitate on the second eye.", "I now feel comfortable enough to proceed but would still prefer to get the multifocal.", "Is my doctors refusal to correct with a multifocal in the right eye while I have the standard lens in the left legitimate?", "Gary Foster, M. D. says: August 6, 2014 at 8:35 PMGary: In the FDA trial for the Re STOR multifocal, 64% of patients could read without glasses with the implant in one eye while 94% could read with it in both eyes.", "If you choose to have the Re STOR in just one eye, it is possible that it would help with some of your near issues (64% chance in the study).", "We like to implant the multifocals in both eyes to increase the chance that a patient can read without glasses.", "Having said that, it is common for optometrists to put a standard contact lens in one eye and a multifocal contact lens in the other eye.", "I have a handful of patients with a standard lens in one eye, that have selected a multifocal in their second eye.", "I do not encourage it to patients for the reasons listed above, but have had good success since the patients that request it are above average motivated for better reading vision.", "The possibility also exists of removing the first implant and exchanging it with a multifocal implant if necessary.", "This carries some specific risks, depending on how long ago the surgery was done.", "Your surgeon could discuss the specifics of those risks based on your specific eye exam.", "As you know, the current U. S. multifocals have two places in focus.", "You are describing problems with three distances, far, intermediate, and near.", "You would need to find out which multifocal your surgeon would use to determine which parts of near vision it could address.", "Placing a single vision distance implant in your second eye is the most conservative option, but other options do exist depending on your eye and your individual goals.", "God Bless, Gary Foster Sabrina St Pierre says: July 31, 2014 at 2:22 PMHi Mr. Foster,I am writing to you about my husband Dennis St Pierre (age 49).", "He has cataracts in both eyes and is unable to work any more.", "We do not have the money to get him the surgery that he needs to correct them.", "I was reading some of your replies and thought I would write to you to see if you know anyone that lives in Florida that could help us with the coast.", "He has Medicaid right now and the only thing that they pay for is the surgery and not the licenses.", "With me being the only one working it is not something that we are able to save for.", "If you have any information for us that would be gratefully appreciated.", "Hope to hear from you soon.", "P. S. I am putting my phone # in case u have any quetions for me.", "Thank You, Sabrina St Pierre Gary Foster, M. D. says: August 7, 2014 at 9:38 PMSabrina: Sometimes the local Lions Club will help in cases of extreme need.", "Please contact me off line to let me know which part of Florida you live in.", "God Bless, Gary Foster Sandra K says: August 10, 2014 at 5:10 PMDr.", "Foster, I am scheduled to have cataract surgery soon on both eyes, two weeks apart.", "I am very interested in the multifocal lens since it has the best chance of not having to wear glasses for near, intermediate and far distance vision after the surgery.", "My doctor does not recommend the multifocal lens and will instead insert Crystalens due to my being a Type II diabetic.", "Is this a general guidance followed by most ophthalmologists even with controlled diabetic patients who have A1C in the normal range (5.5 – 6.0)?", "Thanks for your professional opinion.", "Gary Foster, M. D. says: August 20, 2014 at 10:08 PMSandra: Your doctor is taking a conservative path in avoiding a multifocal.", "If your diabetes worsened over the years and you developed changes in blood flow to your macula (central retina) or you developed macular edema, it would decrease your contras sensitivity.", "A multifocal lens also slightly decreases your contrast sensitivity.", "If you never developed these kinds of problems, then the multifocal would work as well for you as anyone else.", "Fortunately, you are aggressively controlling your blood sugars to decrease the chances of problems.", "By not having a multifocal lens, you are not taking the risk you are the one that ends up with diabetic eye problems and a multifocal.", "It is not unreasonable to choose the multifocal, but it would reflect a choice with greater potential risk.", "As such it would be considered a relative, rather than an absolute, contraindication.", "I haven’t examined your retina and I don’t know your age, which could both affect my recommendations, but it sounds like you are working with a doctor that makes decisions the right way.", "God Bless, Gary Foster Bruce says: August 28, 2014 at 10:51 PMDr.", "Foster: I had cataract surgery in both eyes with standard IOL’s.", "using the VICTUS laser prep.", "After the first surgery, about 6 weeks ago, my vision in the right eye was amazing; I could read and see everything super clear from a few inches to long distance.", "That has now changed to no longer being able to see up close but from about 24 inches to long distance which is okay with me.", "I don’t mind readers for close up.", "The left eye, however, has been blurry ever since surgery and the doctors say it “should get better”.", "I am concerned that it remains blurry over three weeks post surgery and is not nearly as clear as the right eye at all.", "I obviously no longer have the yellowish vision of the cataract, but the fogginess or being blurry leads me to question whether this could be that “secondary cataract” that affects a lot of patients and I am just not being told, hoping the situation will resolve itself.", "I presume the costs involved with the original surgery would cover this YAG Laser procedure to fix this if necessary?", "Thanks so much for your opinion.", "Bruce SDchryver, Ph.", "D. Gary Foster says: August 29, 2014 at 9:06 PMDr.", "SDchryver: The lack of near performance is anticipated with most “standard” IOL’s.", "The big question is the prescription for your second eye.", "If the eye corrects to 20/20 with a glasses prescription, then there are no visual quality issues.", "The prescriptive error could be corrected with glasses, contact lenses, IOL exchanges, LRI, or laser vision correction, depending on the type of prescriptive error.", "If your vision clears up a lot when you squint, it often means that you have some prescriptive error.", "If a manifest refraction doesn’t improve your eyesight to 20/20 then it is reasonable for you to ask your eye doctor why.", "The possibilities include resolving corneal edema, edema in the retina (cystoid macular edema), macular degeneration, dry eye, etc.", "It would be unusual for a secondary membrane to have formed this quickly.", "The cost of having a YAG laser to clear a secondary membrane are not included in the cataract surgery costs but are generally covered my major medical insurance including Medicare.", "God Bless, Gary Foster AJ says: October 12, 2014 at 8:43 PMDear Dr, I currently live in Florida, have type 2 diabetes, wear progressive lenses that work pretty well, 61 yrs old and I’ve been diagnosed with cataracts in both eyes.", "Vision in the left eye is noticeably weaker and I see a halo when I look at a light (headlamps, street lamp).", "During the daytime my vision is very good and I have no problems with driving.", "However, night driving is becoming more difficult with the glare of headlamps.", "Would you please allow me a few questions?", "1.", "I have an appointment for an eye exam soon.", "Depending on the results, I’ll opt for laser cataract surgery.", "What are some critical questions that I should ask my ophthalmologist?", "2.", "If I do the cataract surgery, what type of lens is best suited for me?", "I like to drive at night, but I also spend most of my time with computers and reading.", "3.", "Since one eye at a time is done, would I still be able to use my current pair of progressives?", "4.", "Assuming that cataract surgery is recommended and is successful for both eyes, would I still be able to use progressives for the near and intermediate vision?", "I’m seeing a post above that says the guy has to use different glasses for reading and for computers.", "5.", "How soon after surgery will I be able to undertake strenuous and stressful tasks, such as vigorous exercise and flying in an aircraft (passenger).", "Let me add that if you were close by in Fl I would have certainly liked to have you examine my eyes.", "If there is any possibility of this, please let me know.", "P. S. I don’t have insurance, but have decided that I’ll source the funds and pay out of pocket.", "Thank you in advance, Doctor.", "Gary Foster says: October 14, 2014 at 6:58 PMAj: I only practice in Colorado and Wyoming.", "The following posts will answer a portion of your questions: 1.", "Diabetes and catarcts http://www.garyfostermd.com/diabetic-cataract-for-diabetes-and-cataract/ 2.", "Flying after cataract surgery http://www.garyfostermd.com/when-can-i-fly-after-cataract-surgery/ 3.", "Choosing an intraocular lens http://www.garyfostermd.com/cataract-surgery-and-choosing-intraocular-lens-iol/ 4.", "Questions to ask you cataract surgeon http://www.garyfostermd.com/cataract-surgery-and-choosing-intraocular-lens-iol/The best optical quality for those that drive a lot at night is a single vision lens if your astigmatism level is low or a toric lens if your astigmatism level is higher.", "You could wear a progressive lens for your computer and year functions if you have been a good progressive wearer in the past to avoid having several pairs of glasses.", "If you choose a multifocus lens to decrease or eliminate your need for reading glasses, you would be accepting some compromise on night driving quality.", "Your surgeons will be able to give you advice specific to your circumstances once he/she examines your eyes and better understands your visual potential.", "God Bless, Gary Foster Becky says: October 15, 2014 at 10:35 AMI cannot believe how awesome I can see the world around me !", "The office staff was amazing and were there every step of the way to make me comfortable.", "I would highly recommend Dr. Foster for this surgery!Gary Foster says: October 16, 2014 at 2:50 PMBecky: Thank you for the kind words.", "I am very proud to work with the team at the eye center.", "God Bless, Gary Foster SB Fields says: October 27, 2014 at 6:43 PMHello, I had cataract surgery on Sept 17th.", "On the 25th, while glancing at my cell phone, a grey curtain-like shade dropped from the upper level to just below the mid range of my visual field (the operated eye).", "There was no pain.", "I thought it would continue all the way down.", "It stopped mid way and I thought I might be going blind.", "It lasted 5 or so mins.", "I was on my way to the eye Dr for a post op visit.", "Did not know if I could drive.", "But as I mentioned, it went away and has not returned.", "Have you ever heard of this happening, weather with or without surgery?", "What is it?", "Gary Foster says: December 16, 2014 at 9:26 PMSB: It is important that you discuss this with your eye doctor and your primary care physician and that they examine you and your eyes carefully with these symptoms in mind.", "A couple of potential causes include an ophthalmic migraine or a TIA (mini stroke) God Bless, Gary Foster Sharon Englehardt says: December 17, 2014 at 7:51 AMDr.", "I have cataracts in both eyes.", "The left eye is worse.", "I can still get 20/25 or so in right eye.", "The cataract in the left eye had rapidly gotten worse in the last six months.", "In the last two days it has progressed to the point that I cannot see out of it at all.", "The problem is I do not have the money for the surgery.", "I am 62 and started my SS early hoping medicare would cover it.", "I didn’t know you couldn’t get medicare until 65.", "I signed up for the Obama health care but the way I understand it I have to meet a $6600.00 deductible before anything is covered other than yearly routine screenings and Ck ups.", "Help, do you know where I can get help?", "I live close to Evansville, Indiana.", "Any info would be greatly appreciated!", "Thank You Gary Foster says: December 22, 2014 at 8:31 AMSharon: I am sorry that the bewildering world of insurance coverage is working against you.", "It is likely that the cataract surgery would cost less than your deductible.", "Many patients choose to have these types of procedures done early in the year so that as they meet their deductible, they can fully use their insurance for the rest of the year for any other lingering heal concerns.", "Your plight is about to become endemic as a huge wave of patients that have selected high deductible insurance plans begin to move through the health care system.", "If you qualify for Medicaid, you would not have the high deductible.", "Another option is to change to a lower deductible plan as you know that you will be using the insurance for the cataract surgery and then return to a higher deductible the following year in your final wait for Medicare which has low deductibles.", "Another option is to check with the local chapter of the Lions club, though they tend to only get involved in circumstances of significant visual distress and financial need.", "God Bless, Gary Foster Gary Murtaugh says: January 18, 2015 at 4:01 AMDr.", "Foster, I had cataract surgery on my left eye at the age of 50 with excellent results and 20/20 vision.", "Unforturnately, my right eye never developed one, and I’ve had to wear a contact lens in that eye due to my poor vision.", "I am now at the age where my eye is dry enough that a lens (daily wear moist) will fall out of my eye in the middle of the day due to excessive dryness from meds and age.", "Will Medicare pay for an IOL for that eye if it is the only correction I’ll can comfortably tolerate?", "Also if I have a monovision power IOL, how much correction is needed to accomodate +2.00 (subtracted from my -4.75).", "Is the correction less because the lens is inside the eye?", "Thank you.", "A fellow Gary.", "Gary Foster says: January 24, 2015 at 10:44 AMGary: You have become contact lens intolerant.", "If glasses don’t work because your eyes are so different you have a medical condition called anisometropia.", "This is caused by differences in the image sizes between the two eyes.", "Cataract surgery can be considered medically necessary for anisometripia if it is impacting your quality of life and ability to function in my opinion.", "LASIK on your un operated eye is another option to correct the anisometropia that you could consider with your surgeon.", "The formulas to calculate the correct IOL to place in your monovision eye take into account the fact that the IOL is inside your eye.", "A surgeon sets your desired outcome (-2.00) into the formula and it tells him/her what IOL to implant to have the best likelihood of achieving that goal.", "God Bless,Regina Shiner says: January 30, 2015 at 7:34 AMDr.", "Foster I was diagnosed with cataracts about a year ago.. my eye Doctor told me that Medicare does not pay for cataract surgery .", "Well we havent had the money for the surgery I no longer can drive plus I am extremely nearsighted…your saying Medicare does pay eighty percent …and she also said with the surgery I would no longer need glasses for distance ..is that true ?", "Thank you…Gary Foster says: February 19, 2015 at 9:49 AMRegina: It may be that last year your cataract was not bad enough to hit the standards where Medicare will pay, but that this year they have worsened enough that they fall within the guidelines.", "If your vision is 20/50 or worse and your vision bothers your or your vision is 20/50 or worse with the glare test and glare bothers you then you will likely fall within the guidelines where they will pay.", "If you don’t have much astigmatism and your surgeon selects the appropriate intraocular lens for distance then most have reasonable distance vision without glasses.", "God Bless, Gary Foster Diana says: February 9, 2015 at 6:47 PMYou mentioned about the cost of having laser cataract surgery with premium lens.", "What about just the laser surgery without the premium lens?", "Can I just have the laser surgery without the lens upgrade?", "I wonder if you could tell me about how much it would be.", "Thanks.", "Gary Foster says: February 20, 2015 at 9:53 AMDiana: The laser can be used to help cataract surgery without using a premium lens if there is a need for astigmatism correction.", "I currently charge $1,600 for that option.", "God Bless, Gary Fostermary mcclung says: March 10, 2015 at 9:01 PMDear Dr. Foster: I’m 76, scheduled for monofocal iol (catalyst laser technology) type surgery.", "Have Aetna-Medicare Ins.", "My surgeon wants me to pay him $1,500.00 before the surg.", "Would you know what $1,5?00.00 x-tra is for?", "The technician who took measurements indicated its for the catalyst machine!?.", "My ins.", "co. seyz ask him to send this bill to the ins.", "co.!?", "Am I up a creek with this problem?", "Please let me know what your thinking on this matter is.", "Thank you greatly.", "Mary Mc Clung [email protected] 330-753-9409Gary Foster says: March 11, 2015 at 1:29 PMMary: Insurance covers non-laser assisted cataract surgery.", "If you decide to not have the surgeon use the laser, then the 1,500 would disappear, but so would the laser’s contribution.", "If you are fine with that, then you would save the 1,500.", "If you prefer the laser to at least the tune of 1,500 then you would need to make that payment.", "Your insurance would still be making its normal contribution to the medical part of the surgery, but the laser part of the surgery to decrease astigmatism is elective and non-covered.", "The extra costs are to defer the cost of the laser, the ongoing royalty payments the surgeon pays each time he/she uses the laser, and the extra testing and surgeon/staff time that go in to laser surgical planning.", "In the end, you are either up the creek without the laser, or up the creek without the 1,500 God Bless, Gary Foster Michael Knor says: March 12, 2015 at 10:04 PMDear Dr. Foster My wife age 44 has cataracts in both eyes right eye correctable to 20/200 left eye correctable to 20/70 she is going to have the surgery (least expensive) as soon as we can afford it, since I have been researching it and asking everyone I can how there surgery was I have run in to a few people that say be very careful who does the surgery because they have floaters in there eye.", "Floaters being pieces of the old lens that weren’t removed I’m guessing.", "Is this a fairly common problem with cataract surgery?", "Or is it something else they are seeing in there eye?", "They describe it as like seeing a fly too close to make out what it is, and they move around.", "Thank you for reading and we appreciate your web sight!", "Michael Gary Foster says: March 22, 2015 at 9:35 PMMichael: The floaters your friends describe are most likely a posterior vitreous detachment (PVD).", "These are common an ultimate happen to all blessed with a long life.", "The chances of having a posterior vitreous detachment are about equal to your age.", "For example, a 75 year old has about a 75% chance that they have a PVD in a given eye.", "Cataract surgery can make the vitreous detach a few years earlier than it would have without the surgery.", "Choosing a good surgeon does matter, but the vitreous issue is a normal life event and usually independent of surgeon skill.", "I have a blog post on the subject that will explain in greater detail.", "http://www.garyfostermd.com/posterior-vitreous-detachment-pvd-and-posterior-vitreous-separation/ God Bless, Gary Foster Gary says: April 15, 2015 at 1:27 PMJust a word of encouragement to those fearful of having someone “poking around” in their eye.", "This is likely the simplest medical procedure you’ll ever undergo.", "10 minutes and done.", "Having your teeth cleaned should be so simple and painless.", "The anesthetic takes you away from the world and while you might be conscious of a light shining in your eye, you won’t feel a thing and most likely you won’t remember anything later.", "In what seems like a minute or two you’re awake and heading out the door with your driver.", "I hope this helps those considering this procedure.", "I’ve just had both eyes done and the improvement in my vision and especially my night vision is simply incredible!Rhonda Boyd says: April 22, 2015 at 7:53 AMHi Doctor Foster, I will be coming to see you shortly in Laramie ( May).", "My question is, I am a 57 yr old insulin dependent diabetic that has in the past always had problems with anesthesia in that I have fluid imbalance and feelings of falling etc and have a horrible time with dizziness for months after procedures, I need to have both of my eye cataracts fixed as I have lost significant vision over the last six months.", "Because of my issues with anesthesia I wanted to know if it was possible to have both eyes taken care of at the same time?", "Look forward to seeing you soon, I have heard great reviews about you and your clinic." ]
D188843
http://www.everydayhealth.com/drugs/metoprolol
What Is Metoprolol (Lopressor)?
"What Is Metoprolol (Lopressor)?34 Reviews | Get Coupons Metoprolol is the generic form of the brand-name drug Lopressor, prescribed to treat high blood pressure and prevent angina (chest pain). Metoprolol is a type of medication called a beta blocker. It works by relaxing blood vessels and slowing heart rate, which improves blood flow and lowers blood pressure. Metoprolol can also improve the likelihood of survival after a heart attack. Doctors prescribe the long-acting form of the drug (Toprol XL) to treat heart failure. In some cases, a doctor may prescribe metoprolol for an irregular heartbeat. A 2013 study found that, when used with amiodarone (another heart medication), metoprolol could effectively prevent atrial fibrillation (a type of rhythm disorder of the heart) after heart surgery. Sometimes metoprolol is used to treat conditions other than heart problems, including migraine headaches or movement disorders caused by drugs for treating mental illness. The Food and Drug Administration (FDA) approved metoprolol in 1978 under the brand name Lopressor. Today, it's still a widely used drug: Doctors write more than 27 million prescriptions for the drug each year. Metoprolol Warnings Metoprolol controls high blood pressure and chest pain, but it's not a cure for these conditions. It may also take a few weeks before you experience the full benefits of the drug. If you have certain allergies, your reactions may be worse while you are taking metoprolol. You also might not respond to your usual dose of epinephrine. People with asthma, a slow heart rate, or heart failure should not use beta blockers, including metoprolol. Doctors should prescribe this drug with caution for older people and those with diabetes. Before taking metoprolol, be sure to tell your doctor if you have a slow heart rate or problems with blood circulation. Your doctor also needs to know if you have any of the following: Asthma or another lung condition Liver disease Diabetes Hyperthyroidism (an overactive thyroid)Congestive heart failure Certain types of irregular heartbeats You should also let your doctor know if you have pheochromocytoma, a rare tumor that develops on a gland near the kidneys that can cause high blood pressure and a fast heartbeat. Let your doctor know if you have any type of surgery planned, including dental surgery. Metoprolol for Anxiety Like many other beta blockers, metoprolol is sometimes used off-label to control anxiety, including occasional performance anxiety and various anxiety disorders. Talk to your doctor before taking metoprolol or any other drug for anxiety. There may be another medication that's safer and better suited to manage your anxiety. Metoprolol and Pregnancy Let your doctor know if you are pregnant, might become pregnant, or are breastfeeding before taking metoprolol. There's not enough evidence to say that metoprolol is safe during pregnancy, and pregnant women should take it only if there is a clear need. Metoprolol could also pass into breast milk, so ask your doctor about breastfeeding before taking metoprolol. There's no evidence that metoprolol is safe or effective in children younger than 6 years old. Metoprolol Coupons and Prices Looking to save money on a prescription for Metoprolol? Single Care, a leading online service for prescription, dental, and vision discounts, has partnered with most major pharmacies around the country to help you save up to 80 percent off prescription costs. Click on ""Free Coupon"" below and sign up to get your free Single Care pharmacy savings card. You'll receive a coupon by email or text to get the best price at a local participating pharmacy near you. Back to Top Metoprolol Side Effects Common side effects of metoprolol include: Dizziness or lightheadedness Tiredness Depression Nausea Dry mouth Stomach pain Vomiting Gas or bloating Heartburn Constipation Rash or itching Cold hands and feet Runny nose Serious side effects can also occur. If you have any of these side effects, stop taking metoprolol and call your doctor right away: Shortness of breath Wheezing Swelling of the hands, feet, ankles, or lower legs Unusual weight gain Fainting Rapid, pounding, or irregular heartbeat Back to Top Metoprolol Interactions Many drugs may affect the way metoprolol works, and metoprolol could also affect how other drugs work. It's very important to let your doctor know about everything you are taking, even illegal drugs and any over-the-counter (OTC) vitamins, herbs, or dietary supplements. Types of drugs that interact with metoprolol include: Antidepressants including bupropion ( Wellbutrin ), fluoxetine ( Prozac, Sarafem), and paroxetine (Paxil)Antimalaria drugs such as hydroxychloroquine Medications used to treat heartburn or other stomach conditions, such as cimetidine (Tagamet) and ranitidine ( Zantac)Some heart medications, including clonidine (Catapres), propafenone (Rythmol), and quinidine (Quinaglute, Quinidex)Antihistamines like diphenhydramine ( Benadryl)Certain HIV drugs, including ritonavir (Norvir)Some antifungal medications, including terbinafine ( Lamisil)Certain drugs used to treat mental illness, including thioridazine (Mellaril)Metoprolol and Alcohol You should avoid drinking alcohol while taking metoprolol. Alcohol can make the side effect of drowsiness worse. Other Metoprolol Interactions It's important to know that metoprolol could make you feel sleepy. Don't drive or operate machinery until you know how the drug affects you. Your doctor may also tell you to stick to a low-sodium diet. Be sure to follow these instructions carefully. Back to Top Metoprolol Dosage Metoprolol is available as a tablet in standard doses of 50 and 100 milligrams (mg). The drug is also available as an extended-release tablet in doses of 25, 50, 100, and 200 mg, in both the generic form and under the brand names Lopressor and Toprol XL. Usually, the first dose of metoprolol is 100 mg a day taken in either one or two doses. Your doctor may gradually increase this dose. For people taking the long-acting Toprol XL tablets, the initial dose ranges from 25 to 100 mg once a day. Although you can split the long-acting tablets, swallow the pills whole. Don't crush or chew metoprolol. Metoprolol Overdose Do not take more metoprolol than your doctor has prescribed. If you do take too much of the drug, symptoms of a metoprolol overdose may include: Dizziness Fainting Trouble breathing or swallowing Swelling of the hands, feet, ankles, or lower legs If you or someone else has symptoms of an overdose, call a poison control center at 1-800-222-1222. If someone collapses or isn't breathing, call 911. Missed Dose of Metoprolol Don't stop taking metoprolol without talking to your doctor. If you suddenly stop taking the drug, you may develop rebound high blood pressure. Your doctor should decrease your dose of the drug gradually. If you accidentally miss a dose of metoprolol, take the missed dose as soon as you remember it. If it's almost time for your next dose, however, skip the missed dose. Don't make up for a missed dose by taking twice as much at one time. Back to Top "
[ "\"What Is Metoprolol (Lopressor)?34 Reviews | Get Coupons Metoprolol is the generic form of the brand-name drug Lopressor, prescribed to treat high blood pressure and prevent angina (chest pain).", "Metoprolol is a type of medication called a beta blocker.", "It works by relaxing blood vessels and slowing heart rate, which improves blood flow and lowers blood pressure.", "Metoprolol can also improve the likelihood of survival after a heart attack.", "Doctors prescribe the long-acting form of the drug (Toprol XL) to treat heart failure.", "In some cases, a doctor may prescribe metoprolol for an irregular heartbeat.", "A 2013 study found that, when used with amiodarone (another heart medication), metoprolol could effectively prevent atrial fibrillation (a type of rhythm disorder of the heart) after heart surgery.", "Sometimes metoprolol is used to treat conditions other than heart problems, including migraine headaches or movement disorders caused by drugs for treating mental illness.", "The Food and Drug Administration (FDA) approved metoprolol in 1978 under the brand name Lopressor.", "Today, it's still a widely used drug: Doctors write more than 27 million prescriptions for the drug each year.", "Metoprolol Warnings Metoprolol controls high blood pressure and chest pain, but it's not a cure for these conditions.", "It may also take a few weeks before you experience the full benefits of the drug.", "If you have certain allergies, your reactions may be worse while you are taking metoprolol.", "You also might not respond to your usual dose of epinephrine.", "People with asthma, a slow heart rate, or heart failure should not use beta blockers, including metoprolol.", "Doctors should prescribe this drug with caution for older people and those with diabetes.", "Before taking metoprolol, be sure to tell your doctor if you have a slow heart rate or problems with blood circulation.", "Your doctor also needs to know if you have any of the following: Asthma or another lung condition Liver disease Diabetes Hyperthyroidism (an overactive thyroid)Congestive heart failure Certain types of irregular heartbeats You should also let your doctor know if you have pheochromocytoma, a rare tumor that develops on a gland near the kidneys that can cause high blood pressure and a fast heartbeat.", "Let your doctor know if you have any type of surgery planned, including dental surgery.", "Metoprolol for Anxiety Like many other beta blockers, metoprolol is sometimes used off-label to control anxiety, including occasional performance anxiety and various anxiety disorders.", "Talk to your doctor before taking metoprolol or any other drug for anxiety.", "There may be another medication that's safer and better suited to manage your anxiety.", "Metoprolol and Pregnancy Let your doctor know if you are pregnant, might become pregnant, or are breastfeeding before taking metoprolol.", "There's not enough evidence to say that metoprolol is safe during pregnancy, and pregnant women should take it only if there is a clear need.", "Metoprolol could also pass into breast milk, so ask your doctor about breastfeeding before taking metoprolol.", "There's no evidence that metoprolol is safe or effective in children younger than 6 years old.", "Metoprolol Coupons and Prices Looking to save money on a prescription for Metoprolol?", "Single Care, a leading online service for prescription, dental, and vision discounts, has partnered with most major pharmacies around the country to help you save up to 80 percent off prescription costs.", "Click on \"\"Free Coupon\"\" below and sign up to get your free Single Care pharmacy savings card.", "You'll receive a coupon by email or text to get the best price at a local participating pharmacy near you.", "Back to Top Metoprolol Side Effects Common side effects of metoprolol include: Dizziness or lightheadedness Tiredness Depression Nausea Dry mouth Stomach pain Vomiting Gas or bloating Heartburn Constipation Rash or itching Cold hands and feet Runny nose Serious side effects can also occur.", "If you have any of these side effects, stop taking metoprolol and call your doctor right away: Shortness of breath Wheezing Swelling of the hands, feet, ankles, or lower legs Unusual weight gain Fainting Rapid, pounding, or irregular heartbeat Back to Top Metoprolol Interactions Many drugs may affect the way metoprolol works, and metoprolol could also affect how other drugs work.", "It's very important to let your doctor know about everything you are taking, even illegal drugs and any over-the-counter (OTC) vitamins, herbs, or dietary supplements.", "Types of drugs that interact with metoprolol include: Antidepressants including bupropion ( Wellbutrin ), fluoxetine ( Prozac, Sarafem), and paroxetine (Paxil)Antimalaria drugs such as hydroxychloroquine Medications used to treat heartburn or other stomach conditions, such as cimetidine (Tagamet) and ranitidine ( Zantac)Some heart medications, including clonidine (Catapres), propafenone (Rythmol), and quinidine (Quinaglute, Quinidex)Antihistamines like diphenhydramine ( Benadryl)Certain HIV drugs, including ritonavir (Norvir)Some antifungal medications, including terbinafine ( Lamisil)Certain drugs used to treat mental illness, including thioridazine (Mellaril)Metoprolol and Alcohol You should avoid drinking alcohol while taking metoprolol.", "Alcohol can make the side effect of drowsiness worse.", "Other Metoprolol Interactions It's important to know that metoprolol could make you feel sleepy.", "Don't drive or operate machinery until you know how the drug affects you.", "Your doctor may also tell you to stick to a low-sodium diet.", "Be sure to follow these instructions carefully.", "Back to Top Metoprolol Dosage Metoprolol is available as a tablet in standard doses of 50 and 100 milligrams (mg).", "The drug is also available as an extended-release tablet in doses of 25, 50, 100, and 200 mg, in both the generic form and under the brand names Lopressor and Toprol XL.", "Usually, the first dose of metoprolol is 100 mg a day taken in either one or two doses.", "Your doctor may gradually increase this dose.", "For people taking the long-acting Toprol XL tablets, the initial dose ranges from 25 to 100 mg once a day.", "Although you can split the long-acting tablets, swallow the pills whole.", "Don't crush or chew metoprolol.", "Metoprolol Overdose Do not take more metoprolol than your doctor has prescribed.", "If you do take too much of the drug, symptoms of a metoprolol overdose may include: Dizziness Fainting Trouble breathing or swallowing Swelling of the hands, feet, ankles, or lower legs If you or someone else has symptoms of an overdose, call a poison control center at 1-800-222-1222.", "If someone collapses or isn't breathing, call 911.", "Missed Dose of Metoprolol Don't stop taking metoprolol without talking to your doctor.", "If you suddenly stop taking the drug, you may develop rebound high blood pressure.", "Your doctor should decrease your dose of the drug gradually.", "If you accidentally miss a dose of metoprolol, take the missed dose as soon as you remember it.", "If it's almost time for your next dose, however, skip the missed dose.", "Don't make up for a missed dose by taking twice as much at one time.", "Back to Top \"" ]
D122583
http://www.homeadvisor.com/cost/fencing/
Guide to Fencing Prices & Estimating Costs
Average Fencing Prices Fencing is priced by the linear foot. This cost should be relatively consistent for a certain material but may vary with different fencing heights. Typically, wood is the cheapest fencing material while wrought iron is the most expensive outright. In addition to price, each fencing type offers different positive and negative features. Return to Top Wood Wood is one of the most commonly used fencing materials, and it can last a long time if treated correctly. Wooden fences are often made from pine, redwood, cedar, or other woods that are resilient when wet. Though it usually has a natural look, wooden fencing can be stained or painted any color. Pros and Cons Pros: Inexpensive and can last for years with appropriate treatment. Cons: Requires regular upkeep and staining. Average price per foot: $5 to $10 Return to Top Metal or Chain Link Steel is one of the most durable fencing types. It easily withstands abuse, but it may be susceptible to rust in certain environments. Chain link is one of the most affordable fencing types. Since it's made for function instead of form, it's great for delineating property lines or keeping in pets, but it doesn't make for a particularly attractive border. Pros and Cons Pros: Durable, affordable, and effective. Cons: Generally the least attractive fencing type and may be susceptible to rust. Average price per foot: $5 to $15 Return to Top Vinyl Vinyl fencing is affordable, lightweight, durable and easy to install. It is not a good material for security fencing, however, as it can't withstand attempts to cut through the fence. Some homeowners also consider vinyl fencing to be unattractive. Some of this type of fencing mimics the look of wood, but most vinyl fences resemble plastic. Pros and Cons Pros: Easy installation. Cons: Not appropriate for security fencing. Average price per foot: $20 Return to Top Aluminum Aluminum offers an attractive, lightweight alternative to other kinds of metal fencing, including the heavyweight wrought iron. Aluminum also tends to be one of the most affordable types of metal fencing, and it's also durable, which means you'll spend less on upkeep in the long run. Pros and Cons Pros: Won't rust, and requires little repair or upkeep. Cons: Not the most secure type of fencing. Average price per foot: $20 to $30 Return to Top Wrought Iron Not only is wrought iron the most secure type of fencing, but it's also considered to be the most traditionally beautiful. This heavy-duty material also makes for a very effective fence that will keep your yard secure from unwanted human, animal, and other guests. Since wrought iron fencing is highly customized for each job, chances are that it will be a perfect fit. Pros and Cons Pros: Can last for a lifetime. Cons: One of the most expensive types of fencing. Average price per foot: $20 to $100 Return to Top Barbed Wire Barbed wire fencing is usually used to keep livestock -- cows, horses, etc. -- confined in pastures or on ranches. It's sometimes used with woven wire fencing to prevent large animals from breaking it down when they get rowdy or excited. For smaller animals, it's good at keeping them from digging underneath to get out. For farming or crop areas, it protects against large animals from getting in and destroying the crops. Pros and Cons: Pros: Secure, inexpensive, good for farmland and ranches. Cons: Potentially dangerous for kids and can be expensive if you use a lot of additional supplies. Average price per foot: $15 to $20 Return to Top Electric/Invisible Electric fences are great for containing your pets and it's more economical than erecting other fences. It's a great way to train your pet and protects them from getting hurt or potentially hurting someone. It's a good way to not compromise the beauty of your landscape with a fence and still keep your pet safe. It's considered a humane form of training as well. Pros and Cons: Pros: Affordable, allots flexibility in landscape, and still effective for pet training Cons: Can be painful for the dog while they train, considered punishment for the pet, and some types of fencing involves digging up the yard. Average price per foot: $1 to $3 per foot Return to Top How to Estimate Your Fencing Costs Most homeowners choose to work with a fencing contractor due to the level of skilled labor required for installing a fence. Before making first contact with a fencing professional, though, start to get an idea of the costs involved. Be sure to estimate the basic material costs in advance, and compare those calculations with the total project estimates from a professional. Choose Look and Quality: These components are subject to the homeowner's preferences and the project budget. Determine the best fencing look for the site, whether it's basic chain link, smart wood or elegant wrought iron, and opt for a level of quality appropriate for the budget. Measure Accurately: Only a legal survey can determine the precise property line around which to construct a fence. Refer to this official document when calculating fencing measurements and dimensions. Find an Expert: Not all fencing experts are created equal, and some have more experience or better reviews than others. Be sure to read reviews from trusted resources or fellow homeowners to find the best contractor for the job. Get Quotes: Most experts recommend getting three estimates for any fencing work you're considering. If you only solicit an estimate from one contractor, you'll have no way of knowing how that measures up against other local fencing contractors. Obtaining estimates from three different contractors, however, will give you a more accurate picture of the fencing materials and labor cost range in your area. Return to Top Fencing Installation Considerations Along with material costs, labor costs for fencing installation can also vary. Though some labor costs may depend on the particular contractor and his or her skill level, many considerations are more straightforward. The following are some of the most common factors that influence labor costs. Permits: Installing a new fence almost always requires a permit from the local authorities due to the property modification. Determine what kinds of permits are necessary, which authority grants them and who will file for them. Some contractors will file themselves while others depend on the homeowner to complete this administrative task. Utilities: Requesting that local utility companies locate their respective lines within the proposed fencing area is another administrative task to complete before installation begins. Be sure to ascertain whether the contractor will take the responsibility for contacting and scheduling appointments for gas, power and water utilities. Grading: Uneven land or higher grade areas mean that contractors can mean tough working conditions for contractors. It also means that fence materials and installation won't be straightforward. Instead, contractors need to customize fencing components to fit the grade. Certain types of fencing are more or less suited to uneven land and high grades, so be sure to get an expert opinion. Ground condition: Ground condition and type can vary even in the same yard area. Though fencing professionals can work with most ground conditions and experienced professionals may even be able to anticipate where challenging ground lies, some ground types may require more work or equipment than others. Rocky, wet or clay ground areas, for instance, may increase project costs. Job complexity: Pre-existing structures, trees, and other materials on the project site can impact the complexity of the job and its final cost. Be sure to understand the job complexity and timeline before signing on with a fencing professional. Other considerations and potential benefits or drawbacks to keep in mind when installing a fence are: Property value: When determining whether or not to install a fence, think about your neighborhood. If all the other houses in your area have fences, then it's likely going to increase the value. If none of the other houses have a fence though, it's going to stand out and probably decrease the value. HOA: Homeowner associations sometimes have specific outlines about what kind of fencing you can have. That's because it has to match the rest of the neighborhood. This includes materials, depth and height of the fence. You need to be ready to meet those standards and have a budget prepared. Return on investment: Fencing usually provides a good return on investment, if you follow the above mentioned guides. You also shouldn't spend more on a fence than the value of your home. Akin to a bathroom remodel, you shouldn't spend more than 5% of your home's value on a fence -- probably lean more towards 1% of your home's value. Neighboring fences: If the fences neighboring your property are made of wood, and you install a brick fence, your home is going to stand out -- and not in a good way. Try to have your fencing blend in as much as possible. It will appeal more to potential buyers. Security: You want a fence that's secure, so think about making it at least 6-feet tall so it's not easy for people to climb over. Chain link is also not very secure versus wood planks or brick. Pick a material that complements your home while keeping your home safe. Pets & children: Akin to security, you want to keep your pets and children safe. Enclosing your yard with a fence keeps them from wandering away. Make sure you plant the fence deep so animals can't easily dig out underneath it. You also don't want it too short so dogs can't jump over it, and children can't easily climb over, either. Return to Top Conclusion There's a lot to keep in mind when you install a fence. The material you choose will determine a lot about how your house and exterior look to potential buyers. It will also determine how safe your home is for children and pets, along with how secure it is against potential burglars. You have to keep all of this in mind, so consult with a fencing contractor and any HOAs so you don't end up installing the wrong fence. You want to make an investment that lasts with as little maintenance and repairs as needed. Return to Top Help us improve this article
[ "Average Fencing Prices Fencing is priced by the linear foot.", "This cost should be relatively consistent for a certain material but may vary with different fencing heights.", "Typically, wood is the cheapest fencing material while wrought iron is the most expensive outright.", "In addition to price, each fencing type offers different positive and negative features.", "Return to Top Wood Wood is one of the most commonly used fencing materials, and it can last a long time if treated correctly.", "Wooden fences are often made from pine, redwood, cedar, or other woods that are resilient when wet.", "Though it usually has a natural look, wooden fencing can be stained or painted any color.", "Pros and Cons Pros: Inexpensive and can last for years with appropriate treatment.", "Cons: Requires regular upkeep and staining.", "Average price per foot: $5 to $10 Return to Top Metal or Chain Link Steel is one of the most durable fencing types.", "It easily withstands abuse, but it may be susceptible to rust in certain environments.", "Chain link is one of the most affordable fencing types.", "Since it's made for function instead of form, it's great for delineating property lines or keeping in pets, but it doesn't make for a particularly attractive border.", "Pros and Cons Pros: Durable, affordable, and effective.", "Cons: Generally the least attractive fencing type and may be susceptible to rust.", "Average price per foot: $5 to $15 Return to Top Vinyl Vinyl fencing is affordable, lightweight, durable and easy to install.", "It is not a good material for security fencing, however, as it can't withstand attempts to cut through the fence.", "Some homeowners also consider vinyl fencing to be unattractive.", "Some of this type of fencing mimics the look of wood, but most vinyl fences resemble plastic.", "Pros and Cons Pros: Easy installation.", "Cons: Not appropriate for security fencing.", "Average price per foot: $20 Return to Top Aluminum Aluminum offers an attractive, lightweight alternative to other kinds of metal fencing, including the heavyweight wrought iron.", "Aluminum also tends to be one of the most affordable types of metal fencing, and it's also durable, which means you'll spend less on upkeep in the long run.", "Pros and Cons Pros: Won't rust, and requires little repair or upkeep.", "Cons: Not the most secure type of fencing.", "Average price per foot: $20 to $30 Return to Top Wrought Iron Not only is wrought iron the most secure type of fencing, but it's also considered to be the most traditionally beautiful.", "This heavy-duty material also makes for a very effective fence that will keep your yard secure from unwanted human, animal, and other guests.", "Since wrought iron fencing is highly customized for each job, chances are that it will be a perfect fit.", "Pros and Cons Pros: Can last for a lifetime.", "Cons: One of the most expensive types of fencing.", "Average price per foot: $20 to $100 Return to Top Barbed Wire Barbed wire fencing is usually used to keep livestock -- cows, horses, etc.", "-- confined in pastures or on ranches.", "It's sometimes used with woven wire fencing to prevent large animals from breaking it down when they get rowdy or excited.", "For smaller animals, it's good at keeping them from digging underneath to get out.", "For farming or crop areas, it protects against large animals from getting in and destroying the crops.", "Pros and Cons: Pros: Secure, inexpensive, good for farmland and ranches.", "Cons: Potentially dangerous for kids and can be expensive if you use a lot of additional supplies.", "Average price per foot: $15 to $20 Return to Top Electric/Invisible Electric fences are great for containing your pets and it's more economical than erecting other fences.", "It's a great way to train your pet and protects them from getting hurt or potentially hurting someone.", "It's a good way to not compromise the beauty of your landscape with a fence and still keep your pet safe.", "It's considered a humane form of training as well.", "Pros and Cons: Pros: Affordable, allots flexibility in landscape, and still effective for pet training Cons: Can be painful for the dog while they train, considered punishment for the pet, and some types of fencing involves digging up the yard.", "Average price per foot: $1 to $3 per foot Return to Top How to Estimate Your Fencing Costs Most homeowners choose to work with a fencing contractor due to the level of skilled labor required for installing a fence.", "Before making first contact with a fencing professional, though, start to get an idea of the costs involved.", "Be sure to estimate the basic material costs in advance, and compare those calculations with the total project estimates from a professional.", "Choose Look and Quality: These components are subject to the homeowner's preferences and the project budget.", "Determine the best fencing look for the site, whether it's basic chain link, smart wood or elegant wrought iron, and opt for a level of quality appropriate for the budget.", "Measure Accurately: Only a legal survey can determine the precise property line around which to construct a fence.", "Refer to this official document when calculating fencing measurements and dimensions.", "Find an Expert: Not all fencing experts are created equal, and some have more experience or better reviews than others.", "Be sure to read reviews from trusted resources or fellow homeowners to find the best contractor for the job.", "Get Quotes: Most experts recommend getting three estimates for any fencing work you're considering.", "If you only solicit an estimate from one contractor, you'll have no way of knowing how that measures up against other local fencing contractors.", "Obtaining estimates from three different contractors, however, will give you a more accurate picture of the fencing materials and labor cost range in your area.", "Return to Top Fencing Installation Considerations Along with material costs, labor costs for fencing installation can also vary.", "Though some labor costs may depend on the particular contractor and his or her skill level, many considerations are more straightforward.", "The following are some of the most common factors that influence labor costs.", "Permits: Installing a new fence almost always requires a permit from the local authorities due to the property modification.", "Determine what kinds of permits are necessary, which authority grants them and who will file for them.", "Some contractors will file themselves while others depend on the homeowner to complete this administrative task.", "Utilities: Requesting that local utility companies locate their respective lines within the proposed fencing area is another administrative task to complete before installation begins.", "Be sure to ascertain whether the contractor will take the responsibility for contacting and scheduling appointments for gas, power and water utilities.", "Grading: Uneven land or higher grade areas mean that contractors can mean tough working conditions for contractors.", "It also means that fence materials and installation won't be straightforward.", "Instead, contractors need to customize fencing components to fit the grade.", "Certain types of fencing are more or less suited to uneven land and high grades, so be sure to get an expert opinion.", "Ground condition: Ground condition and type can vary even in the same yard area.", "Though fencing professionals can work with most ground conditions and experienced professionals may even be able to anticipate where challenging ground lies, some ground types may require more work or equipment than others.", "Rocky, wet or clay ground areas, for instance, may increase project costs.", "Job complexity: Pre-existing structures, trees, and other materials on the project site can impact the complexity of the job and its final cost.", "Be sure to understand the job complexity and timeline before signing on with a fencing professional.", "Other considerations and potential benefits or drawbacks to keep in mind when installing a fence are: Property value: When determining whether or not to install a fence, think about your neighborhood.", "If all the other houses in your area have fences, then it's likely going to increase the value.", "If none of the other houses have a fence though, it's going to stand out and probably decrease the value.", "HOA: Homeowner associations sometimes have specific outlines about what kind of fencing you can have.", "That's because it has to match the rest of the neighborhood.", "This includes materials, depth and height of the fence.", "You need to be ready to meet those standards and have a budget prepared.", "Return on investment: Fencing usually provides a good return on investment, if you follow the above mentioned guides.", "You also shouldn't spend more on a fence than the value of your home.", "Akin to a bathroom remodel, you shouldn't spend more than 5% of your home's value on a fence -- probably lean more towards 1% of your home's value.", "Neighboring fences: If the fences neighboring your property are made of wood, and you install a brick fence, your home is going to stand out -- and not in a good way.", "Try to have your fencing blend in as much as possible.", "It will appeal more to potential buyers.", "Security: You want a fence that's secure, so think about making it at least 6-feet tall so it's not easy for people to climb over.", "Chain link is also not very secure versus wood planks or brick.", "Pick a material that complements your home while keeping your home safe.", "Pets & children: Akin to security, you want to keep your pets and children safe.", "Enclosing your yard with a fence keeps them from wandering away.", "Make sure you plant the fence deep so animals can't easily dig out underneath it.", "You also don't want it too short so dogs can't jump over it, and children can't easily climb over, either.", "Return to Top Conclusion There's a lot to keep in mind when you install a fence.", "The material you choose will determine a lot about how your house and exterior look to potential buyers.", "It will also determine how safe your home is for children and pets, along with how secure it is against potential burglars.", "You have to keep all of this in mind, so consult with a fencing contractor and any HOAs so you don't end up installing the wrong fence.", "You want to make an investment that lasts with as little maintenance and repairs as needed.", "Return to Top Help us improve this article" ]
D52970
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acre
Acre
"From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedianavigation search This article is about unit of area measure. For other uses, see Acre (disambiguation). This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (May 2017) ( Learn how and when to remove this template message)This article possibly contains original research. Please improve it by verifying the claims made and adding inline citations. Statements consisting only of original research should be removed. (December 2017) ( Learn how and when to remove this template message)Acre Comparison of some Imperial and metric units of area Unit information Unit system US customary units Unit of Area Symbol acre Unit conversions1 acre in ... ... is equal to ... SI units 4,046.9 m 2The acre is a unit of land area used in the imperial and US customary systems. It is defined as the area of 1 chain by 1 furlong (66 by 660 feet), which is exactly equal to 1⁄ 640 of a square mile, 43,560 square feet, approximately 4,047 m 2, or about 40% of a hectare. The acre is commonly used in many countries, including the United Kingdom, the United States, Canada, India, Ghana, and others. The international symbol of the acre is ac. The most commonly used acre today is the international acre. In the United States both the international acre and the US survey acre are in use, but differ by only two parts per million; see below. The most common use of the acre is to measure tracts of land. One international acre is defined as exactly 4,046.856 422 4 square metres. An acre was defined in the Middle Ages as the area of land that could be ploughed in one day by a yoke of oxen. Contents [ hide ]1 Description2 Differences between international and US survey acres3 Use4 South Asia5 Equivalence to other units of area6 Historical origin7 Legacy acres8 See also9 References10 External links Description [ edit]One acre equals 0.0015625 square miles, 4,840 square yards, 43,560 square feet [1] or about 4,047 square metres (0.4047 hectares) (see below). While all modern variants of the acre contain 4,840 square yards, there are alternative definitions of a yard, so the exact size of an acre depends on which yard it is based. Originally, an acre was understood as a selion of land sized at forty perches (660 ft, or 1 furlong) long and four perches (66 ft) wide; [2] this may have also been understood as an approximation of the amount of land a yoke of oxen could plough in one day. A square enclosing one acre is approximately 69.57 yards, or 208 feet 9 inches (63.63 metres) on a side. As a unit of measure, an acre has no prescribed shape; any area of 43,560 square feet is an acre. Differences between international and US survey acres [ edit]In the international yard and pound agreement of 1959 the United States and five countries of the Commonwealth of Nations defined the international yard to be exactly 0.9144 metres. [3] Consequently, the international acre is exactly 4,046.856 422 4 square metres. Both the international acre and the US survey acre contain 1⁄ 640 of a square mile or 4,840 square yards, but alternative definitions of a yard are used (see survey foot and survey yard ), so the exact size of an acre depends upon which yard it is based. The US survey acre is about 4,046.872 609 874 252 square metres; its exact value ( 4046 13,525,42615,499,969 m 2) is based on an inch defined by 1 metre = 39.37 inches exactly, as established by the Mendenhall Order. Surveyors in the United States use both international and survey feet, and consequently, both varieties of acre. [4]Since the difference between the US survey acre and international acre is only about a quarter of the size of an A4 sheet of paper (0.016 square metres, 160 square centimetres or 24.8 square inches), it is usually not important which one is being discussed. Areas are seldom measured with sufficient accuracy for the different definitions to be detectable. [5]Use [ edit]The acre is commonly used by Antigua and Barbuda, [6] American Samoa, [7] the Bahamas, [8] Belize, [9] the British Virgin Islands, [10] the Cayman Islands, [11] Canada, [12] Dominica, [13] the Falkland Islands, [14] Grenada, [15] Ghana, [16] Guam, [17] the Northern Mariana Islands, [18] India, [ citation needed] Sri Lanka, [ citation needed] Bangladesh, [ citation needed] Nepal, [ citation needed] Ireland, [19] Jamaica, [20] Montserrat, [21] Myanmar, [ citation needed] Pakistan, [ citation needed] Samoa, [22] St. Lucia, [23] St. Helena, [24] St. Kitts and Nevis, [25] St. Vincent and the Grenadines, [26] Turks and Caicos, [27] the United Kingdom, the United States [ citation needed] and the US Virgin Islands. [28]South Asia [ edit]In India, residential plots are measured in cents or decimal, which is one hundredth of an acre, or 435.60 square feet (40.469 m 2 ). In Sri Lanka the division of an acre into 160 perches or 4 roods is common. [29]Equivalence to other units of area [ edit]1 international acre is equal to the following metric units:0.40468564224 hectare (A square with 100 m sides has an area of 1 hectare. )4,046.8564224 square metres1 United States survey acre is equal to:0.404687261 hectare4,046.87261 square metres (1 square kilometre is equal to 247.105 acres)1 acre (both variants) is equal to the following customary units:66 feet × 660 feet (43,560 square feet)10 square chains (1 chain = 66 feet = 22 yards = 4 rods = 100 links)1 acre is approximately 208.71 feet × 208.71 feet (a square)4,840 square yards43,560 square feet160 perches. A perch is equal to a square rod (1 square rod is 0.00625 acre)4 roods A furlong by a chain (furlong 220 yards, chain 22 yards)40 rods by 4 rods, 160 rods 2 (historically fencing was often sold in 40 rod lengths [ citation needed]) 1⁄ 640 (0.0015625) square mile (1 square mile is equal to 640 acres)Perhaps the easiest way for US residents to envision an acre is as a rectangle measuring 88 yards by 55 yards ( 1⁄ 10 of 880 yards by 1⁄ 16 of 880 yards), about 9⁄ 10 the size of a standard American football field. The area of one acre (red) superposed on an American football field (green) and association football (soccer) pitch (blue). To be more exact, one acre is 90.75% of a 100-yd-long by 53.33-yd-wide American football field (without the end zones ). The full field, including the end zones, covers about 1.32 acres (0.53 ha). For residents of other countries, the acre might be envisioned as approximately half of a 105-m-long by 68-m-wide association football (soccer) pitch. It may also be remembered as 44,000 square feet, less 1%. Historical origin [ edit]Farm-derived units of measurement: The rod is a historical unit of length equal to 5 1⁄ 2 yards. It may have originated from the typical length of a mediaeval ox-goad. There are 4 rods in one chain. The furlong (meaning furrow length) was the distance a team of oxen could plough without resting. This was standardised to be exactly 40 rods or 10 chains. An acre was the amount of land tillable by one man behind one ox in one day. Traditional acres were long and narrow due to the difficulty in turning the plough and the value of river front access. An oxgang was the amount of land tillable by one ox in a ploughing season. This could vary from village to village, but was typically around 15 acres. A virgate was the amount of land tillable by two oxen in a ploughing season. A carucate was the amount of land tillable by a team of eight oxen in a ploughing season. This was equal to 8 oxgangs or 4 virgates. The word ""acre"" is derived from Old English æcer originally meaning ""open field"", cognate to west coast Norwegian ækre and Swedish åker, German Acker, Dutch akker, Latin ager, Sanskrit ajr, and Greek αγρός ( agros ). In English, it was historically spelled aker. The acre was roughly the amount of land tillable by a yoke of oxen in one day. [30] This explains one definition as the area of a rectangle with sides of length one chain and one furlong. A long, narrow strip of land is more efficient to plough than a square plot, since the plough does not have to be turned so often. The word ""furlong"" itself derives from the fact that it is one furrow long. Before the enactment of the metric system, many countries in Europe used their own official acres. These were differently sized in different countries, for instance, the historical French acre was 4,221 square metres, whereas in Germany as many variants of ""acre"" existed as there were German states. Statutory values for the acre were enacted in England, and subsequently, the United Kingdom, by acts of: Edward IEdward IIIHenry VIIIGeorge IVQueen Victoria – the British Weights and Measures Act of 1878 defined it as containing 4,840 square yards. Historically, the size of farms and landed estates in the United Kingdom was usually expressed in acres (or acres, roods, and perches ), even if the number of acres was so large that it might conveniently have been expressed in square miles. For example, a certain landowner might have been said to own 32,000 acres of land, not 50 square miles of land. The acre is related to the square mile, with 640 acres making up one square mile. One mile is 5280 feet (1760 yards). In western Canada and the western United States, divisions of land area were typically based on the square mile, and fractions thereof. If the square mile is divided into quarters, each quarter has a side length of 1⁄ 2 mile (880 yards) and is 1⁄ 4 square mile in area, or 160 acres. These subunits would typically then again be divided into quarters, with each side being 1⁄ 4 mile long, and being 1⁄ 16 of a square mile in area, or 40 acres. In the United States, farmland was typically divided as such, and the phrase ""the back 40"" would refer to the 40-acre parcel to the back of the farm. Most of the Canadian Prairie Provinces and the US Midwest are on square-mile grids for surveying purposes. Legacy acres [ edit]Customary acre – The customary acre was a measure of roughly similar size to the acre described above, but it was subject to considerable local variation similar to the variation found in carucates, virgates, bovates, nooks, and farundels. However, there were more ancient measures that were also farthingales. These may have been multiples of the customary acre, rather than the statute acre. Builder's acre – In US construction and real estate development, an area of 40,000 square feet. Used to simplify math and for marketing, it is nearly 10% smaller than a survey acre. Scottish acre, one of a number of obsolete Scottish units of measurement Irish acre = 7,840 square yards Cheshire acre = 10,240 square yards [31]stremma or Greek acre ≈ 10,000 square Greek feet, but now set at exactly 1,000 square metres (a similar unit was the zeugarion) [32]dunam or Turkish acre ≈ 1,600 square Turkish paces, but now set at exactly 1,000 square metres (a similar unit was the çift) [32]actus quadratus or Roman acre ≈ 14,400 square Roman feet (about 1,260 square metres)God's Acre – a synonym for a churchyard. [33]See also [ edit]Acre-foot Anthropic units Conversion of units French arpent – also used in Louisiana as length and area unit of measure Jugeruma Morgen (""morning"") of land is usually set at 2⁄ 3 of a Tagwerk (""day work"") of ploughing with an ox Public Land Survey System Quarter acre Section (United States land surveying)Spanish customary units References [ edit]^ National Institute of Standards and Technology (n.d.) General Tables of Units of Measurement Archived 26 November 2006 at the Wayback Machine.^ Klein, Herbert Arthur (3 December 2012). The Science of Measurement: A Historical Survey. Courier Corporation. p. 76. ISBN 978-0-486-14497-9. Retrieved 29 June 2015.^ National Bureau of Standards. (1959). Refinement of Values for the Yard and the Pound.^ National Geodetic Survey, (January 1991), "" Policy of the National Geodetic Survey Concerning Units of Measure for the State Plane Coordinate System of 1983.^ Minimum Standard Detail Requirements For ALTA/ACSM Land Title Surveys Archived 4 September 2013 at the Wayback Machine .. Federick, MD: American Congress on Surveying and Mapping. 2011. [The standard uses ""precision"" in a sense more typically used for ""accuracy""; the stated maximum allowable ""precision"" (page 3) is 2 cm and 50 parts per million. An instrument consistently measuring 2 cm short would measure the area of a one international acre square, 63.614907 m on a side, as 4044.3 square metres, 2.6 square metres less than the true value, a far greater discrepancy than the difference between the international and survey acres. ]^ ""Gov't Gifts 'Bakka' With Half-Acre Land | Antigua Observer Newspaper"". web.archive.org. Archived from the original on 4 October 2013. Retrieved 14 February 2014.^ ""National Park of American Samoa completes two successful forest projects | Samoa News"". Samoa News.com. Retrieved 14 February 2014.^ The Nassau Guardian. thenassauguardian.com http://www.thenassauguardian.com/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=41147&Itemid=2. Retrieved 14 February 2014. Missing or empty |title= ( help)^ ""2,225-acre Cobia farm proposed near Lark and Bugle Cayes | Amandala Newspaper"". amandala.com.bz. Retrieved 14 February 2014.^ ""Work continues on development"". bvibeacon.com. Retrieved 14 February 2014.^ ""Kai drama over 50-acre development :: cay Compass.com"". compasscayman.com. Retrieved 14 February 2014.^ ""Canada Farms and Ranches for sale, Canada Acreage for Sale, Canada Lots for Sale at Land Watch.com"". landwatch.com. Retrieved 16 January 2016.^ ""Dominica not meeting quota for international banana markets | Dominica News Online"". dominicanewsonline.com. Retrieved 14 February 2014.^ ""Farm Yarns with Elaine – Farm yarns with Elaine Turner – Part 13"". penguin-news.com. Archived from the original on 24 September 2015. Retrieved 14 February 2014.^ ""Grenada Broadcast – George Grant – THE GRENADA SPICES INDUSTRY"". grenadabroadcast.com. Archived from the original on 4 October 2013. Retrieved 14 February 2014.^ Ofori-Atta, Prince. ""Mortgages in Ghana: Snapping up an acre of Accra real estate | News & Analysis"". www.theafricareport.com. Retrieved 2018-03-31.^ ""Local News | Pacific Daily News"". guampdn.com. Archived from the original on 1 October 2013. Retrieved 14 February 2014.^ Saipan Tribune. Saipan Tribune.com https://web.archive.org/web/20131017024119/http://www.saipantribune.com/newsstory.aspx?cat=15&news ID=126803. Archived from the original on 17 October 2013. Retrieved 14 February 2014. Missing or empty |title= ( help)^ ""Irish Statute Book, Metrology Act 1996, pp22"". Retrieved 21 August 2017.^""Tropicrop%20Mushrooms%20Ltd%20v%20Saint%20Thomas%20Parish%20Council%2C%20etal.pdf"" (PDF).^ ""Beresford Allen of St. Peters Montserrat is a Wanted Man! | The Montserrat Reporter"". themontserratreporter.com. Retrieved 14 February 2014.^ ""Conflicting stories about Nu'u estate"". samoaobserver.ws. Retrieved 14 February 2014.^ ""The Voice – The national newspaper of St. Lucia since 1885"". thevoiceslu.com. Archived from the original on 4 October 2013. Retrieved 14 February 2014.^ ""FEATURE: We built an island dream on our own St Helena | St Helena Online"". sthelenaonline.org. Archived from the original on 21 October 2013. Retrieved 14 February 2014.^ ""SIDF Sinks SKN Passport Money into Christophe Harbour :: The St. Kitts-Nevis Observer"". thestkittsnevisobserver.com. Archived from the original on 4 October 2013. Retrieved 14 February 2014.^ ""PM vows to spend rest of life seeking reparations – I-Witness News"". iwnsvg.com. Retrieved 14 February 2014.^ ""Government gets $8million from Emerald Cay sale"". suntci.com. Retrieved 14 February 2014.^ ""Proposed dolphin facility will enclose about 2 acres of Water Bay – News – Virgin Islands Daily News"". m.virginislandsdailynews.com. Archived from the original on 22 October 2013. Retrieved 14 February 2014.^ ""SRI LANKA"". webcache.googleusercontent.com. Archived from the original on 14 January 2016. Retrieved 14 February 2014.^ ""acre, n."". Oxford English Dictionary. December 2011.^ Holland, Robert. (1886). A glossary of words used in the County of Chester. London: Trübner for the English Dialect Society. p. 3.^ a b Malcolm, Noel (1999). Kosovo: A Short History. Harper Perennial. ISBN 978-0-06-097775-7.^ ""God's Acre – Definition of God's acre by Merriam-Webster"". External links [ edit]Wikisource has the text of the 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica article Acre (land measure). The Units of Measurement Regulations 1995 (United Kingdom)Cockeyed.com presents ""How much is inside an acre? ""Categories: Customary units of measurement in the United States Imperial units Real estate Surveying Units of area "
[ "\"From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedianavigation search This article is about unit of area measure.", "For other uses, see Acre (disambiguation).", "This article needs additional citations for verification.", "Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources.", "Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.", "(May 2017) ( Learn how and when to remove this template message)This article possibly contains original research.", "Please improve it by verifying the claims made and adding inline citations.", "Statements consisting only of original research should be removed.", "(December 2017) ( Learn how and when to remove this template message)Acre Comparison of some Imperial and metric units of area Unit information Unit system US customary units Unit of Area Symbol acre Unit conversions1 acre in ... ... is equal to ... SI units 4,046.9 m 2The acre is a unit of land area used in the imperial and US customary systems.", "It is defined as the area of 1 chain by 1 furlong (66 by 660 feet), which is exactly equal to 1⁄ 640 of a square mile, 43,560 square feet, approximately 4,047 m 2, or about 40% of a hectare.", "The acre is commonly used in many countries, including the United Kingdom, the United States, Canada, India, Ghana, and others.", "The international symbol of the acre is ac.", "The most commonly used acre today is the international acre.", "In the United States both the international acre and the US survey acre are in use, but differ by only two parts per million; see below.", "The most common use of the acre is to measure tracts of land.", "One international acre is defined as exactly 4,046.856 422 4 square metres.", "An acre was defined in the Middle Ages as the area of land that could be ploughed in one day by a yoke of oxen.", "Contents [ hide ]1 Description2 Differences between international and US survey acres3 Use4 South Asia5 Equivalence to other units of area6 Historical origin7 Legacy acres8 See also9 References10 External links Description [ edit]One acre equals 0.0015625 square miles, 4,840 square yards, 43,560 square feet [1] or about 4,047 square metres (0.4047 hectares) (see below).", "While all modern variants of the acre contain 4,840 square yards, there are alternative definitions of a yard, so the exact size of an acre depends on which yard it is based.", "Originally, an acre was understood as a selion of land sized at forty perches (660 ft, or 1 furlong) long and four perches (66 ft) wide; [2] this may have also been understood as an approximation of the amount of land a yoke of oxen could plough in one day.", "A square enclosing one acre is approximately 69.57 yards, or 208 feet 9 inches (63.63 metres) on a side.", "As a unit of measure, an acre has no prescribed shape; any area of 43,560 square feet is an acre.", "Differences between international and US survey acres [ edit]In the international yard and pound agreement of 1959 the United States and five countries of the Commonwealth of Nations defined the international yard to be exactly 0.9144 metres.", "[3] Consequently, the international acre is exactly 4,046.856 422 4 square metres.", "Both the international acre and the US survey acre contain 1⁄ 640 of a square mile or 4,840 square yards, but alternative definitions of a yard are used (see survey foot and survey yard ), so the exact size of an acre depends upon which yard it is based.", "The US survey acre is about 4,046.872 609 874 252 square metres; its exact value ( 4046 13,525,42615,499,969 m 2) is based on an inch defined by 1 metre = 39.37 inches exactly, as established by the Mendenhall Order.", "Surveyors in the United States use both international and survey feet, and consequently, both varieties of acre.", "[4]Since the difference between the US survey acre and international acre is only about a quarter of the size of an A4 sheet of paper (0.016 square metres, 160 square centimetres or 24.8 square inches), it is usually not important which one is being discussed.", "Areas are seldom measured with sufficient accuracy for the different definitions to be detectable.", "[5]Use [ edit]The acre is commonly used by Antigua and Barbuda, [6] American Samoa, [7] the Bahamas, [8] Belize, [9] the British Virgin Islands, [10] the Cayman Islands, [11] Canada, [12] Dominica, [13] the Falkland Islands, [14] Grenada, [15] Ghana, [16] Guam, [17] the Northern Mariana Islands, [18] India, [ citation needed] Sri Lanka, [ citation needed] Bangladesh, [ citation needed] Nepal, [ citation needed] Ireland, [19] Jamaica, [20] Montserrat, [21] Myanmar, [ citation needed] Pakistan, [ citation needed] Samoa, [22] St. Lucia, [23] St. Helena, [24] St. Kitts and Nevis, [25] St. Vincent and the Grenadines, [26] Turks and Caicos, [27] the United Kingdom, the United States [ citation needed] and the US Virgin Islands.", "[28]South Asia [ edit]In India, residential plots are measured in cents or decimal, which is one hundredth of an acre, or 435.60 square feet (40.469 m 2 ).", "In Sri Lanka the division of an acre into 160 perches or 4 roods is common.", "[29]Equivalence to other units of area [ edit]1 international acre is equal to the following metric units:0.40468564224 hectare (A square with 100 m sides has an area of 1 hectare.", ")4,046.8564224 square metres1 United States survey acre is equal to:0.404687261 hectare4,046.87261 square metres (1 square kilometre is equal to 247.105 acres)1 acre (both variants) is equal to the following customary units:66 feet × 660 feet (43,560 square feet)10 square chains (1 chain = 66 feet = 22 yards = 4 rods = 100 links)1 acre is approximately 208.71 feet × 208.71 feet (a square)4,840 square yards43,560 square feet160 perches.", "A perch is equal to a square rod (1 square rod is 0.00625 acre)4 roods A furlong by a chain (furlong 220 yards, chain 22 yards)40 rods by 4 rods, 160 rods 2 (historically fencing was often sold in 40 rod lengths [ citation needed]) 1⁄ 640 (0.0015625) square mile (1 square mile is equal to 640 acres)Perhaps the easiest way for US residents to envision an acre is as a rectangle measuring 88 yards by 55 yards ( 1⁄ 10 of 880 yards by 1⁄ 16 of 880 yards), about 9⁄ 10 the size of a standard American football field.", "The area of one acre (red) superposed on an American football field (green) and association football (soccer) pitch (blue).", "To be more exact, one acre is 90.75% of a 100-yd-long by 53.33-yd-wide American football field (without the end zones ).", "The full field, including the end zones, covers about 1.32 acres (0.53 ha).", "For residents of other countries, the acre might be envisioned as approximately half of a 105-m-long by 68-m-wide association football (soccer) pitch.", "It may also be remembered as 44,000 square feet, less 1%.", "Historical origin [ edit]Farm-derived units of measurement: The rod is a historical unit of length equal to 5 1⁄ 2 yards.", "It may have originated from the typical length of a mediaeval ox-goad.", "There are 4 rods in one chain.", "The furlong (meaning furrow length) was the distance a team of oxen could plough without resting.", "This was standardised to be exactly 40 rods or 10 chains.", "An acre was the amount of land tillable by one man behind one ox in one day.", "Traditional acres were long and narrow due to the difficulty in turning the plough and the value of river front access.", "An oxgang was the amount of land tillable by one ox in a ploughing season.", "This could vary from village to village, but was typically around 15 acres.", "A virgate was the amount of land tillable by two oxen in a ploughing season.", "A carucate was the amount of land tillable by a team of eight oxen in a ploughing season.", "This was equal to 8 oxgangs or 4 virgates.", "The word \"\"acre\"\" is derived from Old English æcer originally meaning \"\"open field\"\", cognate to west coast Norwegian ækre and Swedish åker, German Acker, Dutch akker, Latin ager, Sanskrit ajr, and Greek αγρός ( agros ).", "In English, it was historically spelled aker.", "The acre was roughly the amount of land tillable by a yoke of oxen in one day.", "[30] This explains one definition as the area of a rectangle with sides of length one chain and one furlong.", "A long, narrow strip of land is more efficient to plough than a square plot, since the plough does not have to be turned so often.", "The word \"\"furlong\"\" itself derives from the fact that it is one furrow long.", "Before the enactment of the metric system, many countries in Europe used their own official acres.", "These were differently sized in different countries, for instance, the historical French acre was 4,221 square metres, whereas in Germany as many variants of \"\"acre\"\" existed as there were German states.", "Statutory values for the acre were enacted in England, and subsequently, the United Kingdom, by acts of: Edward IEdward IIIHenry VIIIGeorge IVQueen Victoria – the British Weights and Measures Act of 1878 defined it as containing 4,840 square yards.", "Historically, the size of farms and landed estates in the United Kingdom was usually expressed in acres (or acres, roods, and perches ), even if the number of acres was so large that it might conveniently have been expressed in square miles.", "For example, a certain landowner might have been said to own 32,000 acres of land, not 50 square miles of land.", "The acre is related to the square mile, with 640 acres making up one square mile.", "One mile is 5280 feet (1760 yards).", "In western Canada and the western United States, divisions of land area were typically based on the square mile, and fractions thereof.", "If the square mile is divided into quarters, each quarter has a side length of 1⁄ 2 mile (880 yards) and is 1⁄ 4 square mile in area, or 160 acres.", "These subunits would typically then again be divided into quarters, with each side being 1⁄ 4 mile long, and being 1⁄ 16 of a square mile in area, or 40 acres.", "In the United States, farmland was typically divided as such, and the phrase \"\"the back 40\"\" would refer to the 40-acre parcel to the back of the farm.", "Most of the Canadian Prairie Provinces and the US Midwest are on square-mile grids for surveying purposes.", "Legacy acres [ edit]Customary acre – The customary acre was a measure of roughly similar size to the acre described above, but it was subject to considerable local variation similar to the variation found in carucates, virgates, bovates, nooks, and farundels.", "However, there were more ancient measures that were also farthingales.", "These may have been multiples of the customary acre, rather than the statute acre.", "Builder's acre – In US construction and real estate development, an area of 40,000 square feet.", "Used to simplify math and for marketing, it is nearly 10% smaller than a survey acre.", "Scottish acre, one of a number of obsolete Scottish units of measurement Irish acre = 7,840 square yards Cheshire acre = 10,240 square yards [31]stremma or Greek acre ≈ 10,000 square Greek feet, but now set at exactly 1,000 square metres (a similar unit was the zeugarion) [32]dunam or Turkish acre ≈ 1,600 square Turkish paces, but now set at exactly 1,000 square metres (a similar unit was the çift) [32]actus quadratus or Roman acre ≈ 14,400 square Roman feet (about 1,260 square metres)God's Acre – a synonym for a churchyard.", "[33]See also [ edit]Acre-foot Anthropic units Conversion of units French arpent – also used in Louisiana as length and area unit of measure Jugeruma Morgen (\"\"morning\"\") of land is usually set at 2⁄ 3 of a Tagwerk (\"\"day work\"\") of ploughing with an ox Public Land Survey System Quarter acre Section (United States land surveying)Spanish customary units References [ edit]^ National Institute of Standards and Technology (n.d.) General Tables of Units of Measurement Archived 26 November 2006 at the Wayback Machine.^ Klein, Herbert Arthur (3 December 2012).", "The Science of Measurement: A Historical Survey.", "Courier Corporation.", "p. 76.", "ISBN 978-0-486-14497-9.", "Retrieved 29 June 2015.^ National Bureau of Standards.", "(1959).", "Refinement of Values for the Yard and the Pound.^ National Geodetic Survey, (January 1991), \"\" Policy of the National Geodetic Survey Concerning Units of Measure for the State Plane Coordinate System of 1983.^ Minimum Standard Detail Requirements For ALTA/ACSM Land Title Surveys Archived 4 September 2013 at the Wayback Machine .. Federick, MD: American Congress on Surveying and Mapping.", "2011.", "[The standard uses \"\"precision\"\" in a sense more typically used for \"\"accuracy\"\"; the stated maximum allowable \"\"precision\"\" (page 3) is 2 cm and 50 parts per million.", "An instrument consistently measuring 2 cm short would measure the area of a one international acre square, 63.614907 m on a side, as 4044.3 square metres, 2.6 square metres less than the true value, a far greater discrepancy than the difference between the international and survey acres.", "]^ \"\"Gov't Gifts 'Bakka' With Half-Acre Land | Antigua Observer Newspaper\"\".", "web.archive.org.", "Archived from the original on 4 October 2013.", "Retrieved 14 February 2014.^ \"\"National Park of American Samoa completes two successful forest projects | Samoa News\"\".", "Samoa News.com.", "Retrieved 14 February 2014.^ The Nassau Guardian.", "thenassauguardian.com http://www.thenassauguardian.com/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=41147&Itemid=2.", "Retrieved 14 February 2014.", "Missing or empty |title= ( help)^ \"\"2,225-acre Cobia farm proposed near Lark and Bugle Cayes | Amandala Newspaper\"\".", "amandala.com.bz.", "Retrieved 14 February 2014.^ \"\"Work continues on development\"\".", "bvibeacon.com.", "Retrieved 14 February 2014.^ \"\"Kai drama over 50-acre development :: cay Compass.com\"\".", "compasscayman.com.", "Retrieved 14 February 2014.^ \"\"Canada Farms and Ranches for sale, Canada Acreage for Sale, Canada Lots for Sale at Land Watch.com\"\".", "landwatch.com.", "Retrieved 16 January 2016.^ \"\"Dominica not meeting quota for international banana markets | Dominica News Online\"\".", "dominicanewsonline.com.", "Retrieved 14 February 2014.^ \"\"Farm Yarns with Elaine – Farm yarns with Elaine Turner – Part 13\"\".", "penguin-news.com.", "Archived from the original on 24 September 2015.", "Retrieved 14 February 2014.^ \"\"Grenada Broadcast – George Grant – THE GRENADA SPICES INDUSTRY\"\".", "grenadabroadcast.com.", "Archived from the original on 4 October 2013.", "Retrieved 14 February 2014.^ Ofori-Atta, Prince.", "\"\"Mortgages in Ghana: Snapping up an acre of Accra real estate | News & Analysis\"\".", "www.theafricareport.com.", "Retrieved 2018-03-31.^ \"\"Local News | Pacific Daily News\"\".", "guampdn.com.", "Archived from the original on 1 October 2013.", "Retrieved 14 February 2014.^ Saipan Tribune.", "Saipan Tribune.com https://web.archive.org/web/20131017024119/http://www.saipantribune.com/newsstory.aspx?cat=15&news ID=126803.", "Archived from the original on 17 October 2013.", "Retrieved 14 February 2014.", "Missing or empty |title= ( help)^ \"\"Irish Statute Book, Metrology Act 1996, pp22\"\".", "Retrieved 21 August 2017.^\"\"Tropicrop%20Mushrooms%20Ltd%20v%20Saint%20Thomas%20Parish%20Council%2C%20etal.pdf\"\" (PDF).^ \"\"Beresford Allen of St. Peters Montserrat is a Wanted Man!", "| The Montserrat Reporter\"\".", "themontserratreporter.com.", "Retrieved 14 February 2014.^ \"\"Conflicting stories about Nu'u estate\"\".", "samoaobserver.ws.", "Retrieved 14 February 2014.^ \"\"The Voice – The national newspaper of St. Lucia since 1885\"\".", "thevoiceslu.com.", "Archived from the original on 4 October 2013.", "Retrieved 14 February 2014.^ \"\"FEATURE: We built an island dream on our own St Helena | St Helena Online\"\".", "sthelenaonline.org.", "Archived from the original on 21 October 2013.", "Retrieved 14 February 2014.^ \"\"SIDF Sinks SKN Passport Money into Christophe Harbour :: The St. Kitts-Nevis Observer\"\".", "thestkittsnevisobserver.com.", "Archived from the original on 4 October 2013.", "Retrieved 14 February 2014.^ \"\"PM vows to spend rest of life seeking reparations – I-Witness News\"\".", "iwnsvg.com.", "Retrieved 14 February 2014.^ \"\"Government gets $8million from Emerald Cay sale\"\".", "suntci.com.", "Retrieved 14 February 2014.^ \"\"Proposed dolphin facility will enclose about 2 acres of Water Bay – News – Virgin Islands Daily News\"\".", "m.virginislandsdailynews.com.", "Archived from the original on 22 October 2013.", "Retrieved 14 February 2014.^ \"\"SRI LANKA\"\".", "webcache.googleusercontent.com.", "Archived from the original on 14 January 2016.", "Retrieved 14 February 2014.^ \"\"acre, n.\"\".", "Oxford English Dictionary.", "December 2011.^ Holland, Robert.", "(1886).", "A glossary of words used in the County of Chester.", "London: Trübner for the English Dialect Society.", "p. 3.^ a b Malcolm, Noel (1999).", "Kosovo: A Short History.", "Harper Perennial.", "ISBN 978-0-06-097775-7.^ \"\"God's Acre – Definition of God's acre by Merriam-Webster\"\".", "External links [ edit]Wikisource has the text of the 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica article Acre (land measure).", "The Units of Measurement Regulations 1995 (United Kingdom)Cockeyed.com presents \"\"How much is inside an acre?", "\"\"Categories: Customary units of measurement in the United States Imperial units Real estate Surveying Units of area \"" ]
D198461
http://www.mayoclinic.org/tests-procedures/hemoglobin-test/basics/results/PRC-20015022
Overview
Overview A hemoglobin test measures the amount of hemoglobin in your blood. Hemoglobin is a protein in your red blood cells that carries oxygen to your body's organs and tissues and transports carbon dioxide from your organs and tissues back to your lungs. If a hemoglobin test reveals that your hemoglobin level is lower than normal, it means you have a low red blood cell count (anemia). Anemia can have many different causes, including vitamin deficiencies, bleeding and chronic diseases. If a hemoglobin test shows a higher than normal level, there are several potential causes — the blood disorder polycythemia vera, living at a high altitude, smoking and dehydration. Why it's done You may have a hemoglobin test for several reasons: To check your overall health. Your doctor may test your hemoglobin as part of a complete blood count during a routine medical examination to monitor your general health and to screen for a variety of disorders, such as anemia. To diagnose a medical condition. Your doctor may suggest a hemoglobin test if you're experiencing weakness, fatigue, shortness of breath or dizziness. These signs and symptoms may point to anemia or polycythemia vera. A hemoglobin test may help diagnose these or other medical conditions. To monitor a medical condition. If you've been diagnosed with anemia or polycythemia vera, your doctor may use a hemoglobin test to monitor your condition and guide treatment. Request an Appointment at Mayo Clinic How you prepare If your blood sample is being tested only for hemoglobin, you can eat and drink normally before the test. If your blood sample will be used for other tests, you may need to fast for a certain amount of time before the sample is taken. Your doctor will give you specific instructions. What you can expect For a hemoglobin test, a member of your health care team takes a sample of blood by pricking your fingertip or inserting a needle into a vein in your arm. For infants, the sample may be obtained by pricking the heel. The blood sample is sent to a lab for analysis. You can return to your usual activities immediately after the sample is taken. Results The normal range for hemoglobin is: For men, 13.5 to 17.5 grams per deciliter For women, 12.0 to 15.5 grams per deciliter Normal ranges for children vary with age and sex. The range for a normal hemoglobin level may differ from one medical practice to another. Lower than normal results If your hemoglobin level is lower than normal, you have anemia. There are many forms of anemia, each with different causes, which can include: Iron deficiency Vitamin B-12 deficiency Folate deficiency Bleeding Cancers that affect the bone marrow, such as leukemia Kidney disease Liver disease Hypothyroidism Thalassemia — a genetic disorder that causes low levels of hemoglobin and red blood cells If you've been previously diagnosed with anemia, a hemoglobin level that's lower than normal may indicate a need to alter your treatment plan. Higher than normal results If your hemoglobin level is higher than normal, it may be the result of: Polycythemia vera — a blood disorder in which your bone marrow makes too many red blood cells Lung disease Dehydration Living at a high altitude Heavy smoking Burns Excessive vomiting Extreme physical exercise If you've been previously diagnosed with polycythemia vera, an elevated hemoglobin level may indicate a need to alter your treatment plan. If your hemoglobin level is below or above normal, your doctor may want to evaluate the hemoglobin test results along with those of other tests, or additional tests may be necessary, to determine next steps. For specifics about what your hemoglobin test results mean, talk to your doctor. By Mayo Clinic Staff Request an Appointment at Mayo Clinic Dec. 22, 2017Share on: Facebook Twitter References Hemoglobin test About Advertisement Mayo Clinic does not endorse companies or products. Advertising revenue supports our not-for-profit mission. Advertising & Sponsorship Policy Opportunities Ad Choices Mayo Clinic Marketplace Check out these best-sellers and special offers on books and newsletters from Mayo Clinic. FREE TRIAL – Mayo Clinic Health Letter Best Treatment Strategies for Arthritis Mayo Clinic on Digestive Health Effective Home Remedies from Mayo Clinic The Mayo Clinic Diet Online PRC-20257447Patient Care & Health Information Tests & Procedures Hemoglobin test
[ "Overview A hemoglobin test measures the amount of hemoglobin in your blood.", "Hemoglobin is a protein in your red blood cells that carries oxygen to your body's organs and tissues and transports carbon dioxide from your organs and tissues back to your lungs.", "If a hemoglobin test reveals that your hemoglobin level is lower than normal, it means you have a low red blood cell count (anemia).", "Anemia can have many different causes, including vitamin deficiencies, bleeding and chronic diseases.", "If a hemoglobin test shows a higher than normal level, there are several potential causes — the blood disorder polycythemia vera, living at a high altitude, smoking and dehydration.", "Why it's done You may have a hemoglobin test for several reasons: To check your overall health.", "Your doctor may test your hemoglobin as part of a complete blood count during a routine medical examination to monitor your general health and to screen for a variety of disorders, such as anemia.", "To diagnose a medical condition.", "Your doctor may suggest a hemoglobin test if you're experiencing weakness, fatigue, shortness of breath or dizziness.", "These signs and symptoms may point to anemia or polycythemia vera.", "A hemoglobin test may help diagnose these or other medical conditions.", "To monitor a medical condition.", "If you've been diagnosed with anemia or polycythemia vera, your doctor may use a hemoglobin test to monitor your condition and guide treatment.", "Request an Appointment at Mayo Clinic How you prepare If your blood sample is being tested only for hemoglobin, you can eat and drink normally before the test.", "If your blood sample will be used for other tests, you may need to fast for a certain amount of time before the sample is taken.", "Your doctor will give you specific instructions.", "What you can expect For a hemoglobin test, a member of your health care team takes a sample of blood by pricking your fingertip or inserting a needle into a vein in your arm.", "For infants, the sample may be obtained by pricking the heel.", "The blood sample is sent to a lab for analysis.", "You can return to your usual activities immediately after the sample is taken.", "Results The normal range for hemoglobin is: For men, 13.5 to 17.5 grams per deciliter For women, 12.0 to 15.5 grams per deciliter Normal ranges for children vary with age and sex.", "The range for a normal hemoglobin level may differ from one medical practice to another.", "Lower than normal results If your hemoglobin level is lower than normal, you have anemia.", "There are many forms of anemia, each with different causes, which can include: Iron deficiency Vitamin B-12 deficiency Folate deficiency Bleeding Cancers that affect the bone marrow, such as leukemia Kidney disease Liver disease Hypothyroidism Thalassemia — a genetic disorder that causes low levels of hemoglobin and red blood cells If you've been previously diagnosed with anemia, a hemoglobin level that's lower than normal may indicate a need to alter your treatment plan.", "Higher than normal results If your hemoglobin level is higher than normal, it may be the result of: Polycythemia vera — a blood disorder in which your bone marrow makes too many red blood cells Lung disease Dehydration Living at a high altitude Heavy smoking Burns Excessive vomiting Extreme physical exercise If you've been previously diagnosed with polycythemia vera, an elevated hemoglobin level may indicate a need to alter your treatment plan.", "If your hemoglobin level is below or above normal, your doctor may want to evaluate the hemoglobin test results along with those of other tests, or additional tests may be necessary, to determine next steps.", "For specifics about what your hemoglobin test results mean, talk to your doctor.", "By Mayo Clinic Staff Request an Appointment at Mayo Clinic Dec. 22, 2017Share on: Facebook Twitter References Hemoglobin test About Advertisement Mayo Clinic does not endorse companies or products.", "Advertising revenue supports our not-for-profit mission.", "Advertising & Sponsorship Policy Opportunities Ad Choices Mayo Clinic Marketplace Check out these best-sellers and special offers on books and newsletters from Mayo Clinic.", "FREE TRIAL – Mayo Clinic Health Letter Best Treatment Strategies for Arthritis Mayo Clinic on Digestive Health Effective Home Remedies from Mayo Clinic The Mayo Clinic Diet Online PRC-20257447Patient Care & Health Information Tests & Procedures Hemoglobin test" ]
D39703
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Igneous_rock
Igneous rock
"From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedianavigation search Geologic provinces of the World ( USGS )Shield Platform Orogen Basin Large igneous province Extended crust Oceanic crust : 0–20 Ma20–65 Ma>65 Ma Igneous rock (derived from the Latin word ignis meaning fire), or magmatic rock, is one of the three main rock types, the others being sedimentary and metamorphic. Igneous rock is formed through the cooling and solidification of magma or lava. The magma can be derived from partial melts of existing rocks in either a planet 's mantle or crust. Typically, the melting is caused by one or more of three processes: an increase in temperature, a decrease in pressure, or a change in composition. Solidification into rock occurs either below the surface as intrusive rocks or on the surface as extrusive rocks. Igneous rock may form with crystallization to form granular, crystalline rocks, or without crystallization to form natural glasses. Contents [ hide ]1 Geological significance2 Geological setting2.1 Intrusive2.2 Extrusive3 Classification3.1 Texture3.2 Chemical classification and petrology3.3 History of classification4 Mineralogical classification4.1 Example of classification5 Magma origination5.1 Decompression5.2 Effects of water and carbon dioxide5.3 Temperature increase5.4 Magma evolution6 Etymology7 See also8 Notes9 References10 Additional Reading11 External links Geological significance Igneous and metamorphic rocks make up 90–95% of the top 16 km of the Earth's crust by volume. [1] Igneous rocks form about 15% of the Earth's current land surface. [note 1] Most of the Earth's oceanic crust is made of igneous rock. Igneous rocks are also geologically important because:their minerals and global chemistry give information about the composition of the mantle, from which some igneous rocks are extracted, and the temperature and pressure conditions that allowed this extraction, and/or of other pre-existing rock that melted;their absolute ages can be obtained from various forms of radiometric dating and thus can be compared to adjacent geological strata, allowing a time sequence of events;their features are usually characteristic of a specific tectonic environment, allowing tectonic reconstitutions (see plate tectonics );in some special circumstances they host important mineral deposits ( ores ): for example, tungsten, tin, and uranium are commonly associated with granites and diorites, whereas ores of chromium and platinum are commonly associated with gabbros. Geological setting Forming of igneous rock In terms of modes of occurrence, igneous rocks can be either intrusive (plutonic and hypabyssal) or extrusive ( volcanic ). Intrusive Close-up of granite (an intrusive igneous rock) exposed in Chennai, India. Intrusive igneous rocks are formed from magma that cools and solidifies within the crust of a planet, surrounded by pre-existing rock (called country rock ); the magma cools slowly and, as a result, these rocks are coarse-grained. The mineral grains in such rocks can generally be identified with the naked eye. Intrusive rocks can also be classified according to the shape and size of the intrusive body and its relation to the other formations into which it intrudes. Typical intrusive formations are batholiths, stocks, laccoliths, sills and dikes. When the magma solidifies within the earth's crust, it cools slowly forming coarse textured rocks, such as granite, gabbro, or diorite. The central cores of major mountain ranges consist of intrusive igneous rocks, usually granite. When exposed by erosion, these cores (called batholiths) may occupy huge areas of the Earth's surface. Intrusive igneous rocks that form at depth within the crust are termed plutonic (or abyssal) rocks and are usually coarse-grained. Intrusive igneous rocks that form near the surface are termed subvolcanic or hypabyssal rocks and they are usually medium-grained. Hypabyssal rocks are less common than plutonic or volcanic rocks and often form dikes, sills, laccoliths, lopoliths, or phacoliths. Extrusive Extrusive igneous rock is made from lava released by volcanoes Sample of basalt (an extrusive igneous rock), found in Massachusetts Extrusive igneous rocks, also known as volcanic rocks, are formed at the crust's surface as a result of the partial melting of rocks within the mantle and crust. Extrusive igneous rocks cool and solidify quicker than intrusive igneous rocks. They are formed by the cooling of molten magma on the earth's surface. The magma, which is brought to the surface through fissures or volcanic eruptions, solidifies at a faster rate. Hence such rocks are smooth, crystalline and fine-grained. Basalt is a common extrusive igneous rock and forms lava flows, lava sheets and lava plateaus. Some kinds of basalt solidify to form long polygonal columns. The Giant's Causeway in Antrim, Northern Ireland is an example. The molten rock, with or without suspended crystals and gas bubbles, is called magma. It rises because it is less dense than the rock from which it was created. When magma reaches the surface from beneath water or air, it is called lava. Eruptions of volcanoes into air are termed subaerial, whereas those occurring underneath the ocean are termed submarine. Black smokers and mid-ocean ridge basalt are examples of submarine volcanic activity. The volume of extrusive rock erupted annually by volcanoes varies with plate tectonic setting. Extrusive rock is produced in the following proportions: [3]divergent boundary: 73%convergent boundary ( subduction zone ): 15%hotspot: 12%. Magma that erupts from a volcano behaves according to its viscosity, determined by temperature, composition, crystal content and the amount of silica. High-temperature magma, most of which is basaltic in composition, behaves in a manner similar to thick oil and, as it cools, treacle. Long, thin basalt flows with pahoehoe surfaces are common. Intermediate composition magma, such as andesite, tends to form cinder cones of intermingled ash, tuff and lava, and may have a viscosity similar to thick, cold molasses or even rubber when erupted. Felsic magma, such as rhyolite, is usually erupted at low temperature and is up to 10,000 times as viscous as basalt. Volcanoes with rhyolitic magma commonly erupt explosively, and rhyolitic lava flows are typically of limited extent and have steep margins, because the magma is so viscous. Felsic and intermediate magmas that erupt often do so violently, with explosions driven by the release of dissolved gases—typically water vapour, but also carbon dioxide. Explosively erupted pyroclastic material is called tephra and includes tuff, agglomerate and ignimbrite. Fine volcanic ash is also erupted and forms ash tuff deposits, which can often cover vast areas. Because lava usually cools and crystallizes rapidly, it is usually fine-grained. If the cooling has been so rapid as to prevent the formation of even small crystals after extrusion, the resulting rock may be mostly glass (such as the rock obsidian ). If the cooling of the lava happened more slowly, the rock would be coarse-grained. Because the minerals are mostly fine-grained, it is much more difficult to distinguish between the different types of extrusive igneous rocks than between different types of intrusive igneous rocks. Generally, the mineral constituents of fine-grained extrusive igneous rocks can only be determined by examination of thin sections of the rock under a microscope, so only an approximate classification can usually be made in the field. Classification Igneous rocks are classified according to mode of occurrence, texture, mineralogy, chemical composition, and the geometry of the igneous body. The classification of the many types of different igneous rocks can provide us with important information about the conditions under which they formed. Two important variables used for the classification of igneous rocks are particle size, which largely depends on the cooling history, and the mineral composition of the rock. Feldspars, quartz or feldspathoids, olivines, pyroxenes, amphiboles, and micas are all important minerals in the formation of almost all igneous rocks, and they are basic to the classification of these rocks. All other minerals present are regarded as nonessential in almost all igneous rocks and are called accessory minerals. Types of igneous rocks with other essential minerals are very rare, and these rare rocks include those with essential carbonates. In a simplified classification, igneous rock types are separated on the basis of the type of feldspar present, the presence or absence of quartz, and in rocks with no feldspar or quartz, the type of iron or magnesium minerals present. Rocks containing quartz (silica in composition) are silica-oversaturated. Rocks with feldspathoids are silica-undersaturated, because feldspathoids cannot coexist in a stable association with quartz. Igneous rocks that have crystals large enough to be seen by the naked eye are called phaneritic; those with crystals too small to be seen are called aphanitic. Generally speaking, phaneritic implies an intrusive origin; aphanitic an extrusive one. An igneous rock with larger, clearly discernible crystals embedded in a finer-grained matrix is termed porphyry. Porphyritic texture develops when some of the crystals grow to considerable size before the main mass of the magma crystallizes as finer-grained, uniform material. Igneous rocks are classified on the basis of texture and composition. Texture refers to the size, shape, and arrangement of the mineral grains or crystals of which the rock is composed. Texture Gabbro specimen showing phaneritic texture; Rock Creek Canyon, eastern Sierra Nevada, California; scale bar is 2.0 cm. Main article: Rock microstructure Texture is an important criterion for the naming of volcanic rocks. The texture of volcanic rocks, including the size, shape, orientation, and distribution of mineral grains and the intergrain relationships, will determine whether the rock is termed a tuff, a pyroclastic lava or a simple lava. However, the texture is only a subordinate part of classifying volcanic rocks, as most often there needs to be chemical information gleaned from rocks with extremely fine-grained groundmass or from airfall tuffs, which may be formed from volcanic ash. Textural criteria are less critical in classifying intrusive rocks where the majority of minerals will be visible to the naked eye or at least using a hand lens, magnifying glass or microscope. Plutonic rocks also tend to be less texturally varied and less prone to gaining structural fabrics. Textural terms can be used to differentiate different intrusive phases of large plutons, for instance porphyritic margins to large intrusive bodies, porphyry stocks and subvolcanic dikes (apophyses). Mineralogical classification is most often used to classify plutonic rocks. Chemical classifications are preferred to classify volcanic rocks, with phenocryst species used as a prefix, e.g. ""olivine-bearing picrite"" or ""orthoclase-phyric rhyolite"".see also List of rock textures and Igneous textures Basic classification scheme for igneous rocks on their mineralogy. If the approximate volume fractions of minerals in the rock are known, the rock name and silica content can be read off the diagram. This is not an exact method, because the classification of igneous rocks also depends on other components than silica, yet in most cases it is a good first guess. Chemical classification and petrology Total alkali versus silica classification scheme (TAS) as proposed in Le Maitre's 2002 Igneous Rocks - A classification and glossary of terms [4]: 237Igneous rocks can be classified according to chemical or mineralogical parameters. Chemical: total alkali-silica content ( TAS diagram) for volcanic rock classification used when modal or mineralogic data is unavailable:felsic igneous rocks containing a high silica content, greater than 63% Si O 2 (examples granite and rhyolite ),intermediate igneous rocks containing between 52–63% Si O 2 (example andesite and dacite ),mafic igneous rocks have low silica 45–52% and typically high iron – magnesium content (example gabbro and basalt ),ultramafic rock igneous rocks with less than 45% silica (examples picrite, komatiite and peridotite ),alkalic igneous rocks with 5–15% alkali (K 2 O + Na 2 O) content or with a molar ratio of alkali to silica greater than 1:6 (examples phonolite and trachyte ). Chemical classification also extends to differentiating rocks that are chemically similar according to the TAS diagram, for instance: Ultrapotassic – rocks containing molar K 2 O/Na 2 O >3. Peralkaline – rocks containing molar (K 2 O + Na 2 O)/Al 2 O 3 >1. Peraluminous – rocks containing molar (K 2 O + Na 2 O)/Al 2 O 3 <1. An idealized mineralogy (the normative mineralogy) can be calculated from the chemical composition, and the calculation is useful for rocks too fine-grained or too altered for identification of minerals that crystallized from the melt. For instance, normative quartz classifies a rock as silica-oversaturated; an example is rhyolite. In an older terminology, silica oversaturated rocks were called silicic or acidic where the Si O 2 was greater than 66% and the family term quartzolite was applied to the most silicic. A normative feldspathoid classifies a rock as silica-undersaturated; an example is nephelinite. History of classification In 1902, a group of American petrographers proposed that all existing classifications of igneous rocks should be discarded and replaced by a ""quantitative"" classification based on chemical analysis. They showed how vague, and often unscientific, much of the existing terminology was and argued that as the chemical composition of an igneous rock was its most fundamental characteristic, it should be elevated to prime position. Geological occurrence, structure, mineralogical constitution—the hitherto accepted criteria for the discrimination of rock species—were relegated to the background. The completed rock analysis is first to be interpreted in terms of the rock-forming minerals which might be expected to be formed when the magma crystallizes, e.g., quartz feldspars, olivine, akermannite, Feldspathoids, magnetite, corundum, and so on, and the rocks are divided into groups strictly according to the relative proportion of these minerals to one another. [5] [6]Mineralogical classification For volcanic rocks, mineralogy is important in classifying and naming lavas. The most important criterion is the phenocryst species, followed by the groundmass mineralogy. Often, where the groundmass is aphanitic, chemical classification must be used to properly identify a volcanic rock. Mineralogic contents – felsic versus maficfelsic rock, highest content of silicon, with predominance of quartz, alkali feldspar and/or feldspathoids: the felsic minerals; these rocks (e.g., granite, rhyolite) are usually light coloured, and have low density.mafic rock, lesser content of silicon relative to felsic rocks, with predominance of mafic minerals pyroxenes, olivines and calcic plagioclase; these rocks (example, basalt, gabbro) are usually dark coloured, and have a higher density than felsic rocks.ultramafic rock, lowest content of silicon, with more than 90% of mafic minerals (e.g., dunite ). For intrusive, plutonic and usually phaneritic igneous rocks (where all minerals are visible at least via microscope), the mineralogy is used to classify the rock. This usually occurs on ternary diagrams, where the relative proportions of three minerals are used to classify the rock. The following table is a simple subdivision of igneous rocks according to both their composition and mode of occurrence. Composition Mode of occurrence Felsic Intermediate Mafic Ultramafic Intrusive Granite Diorite Gabbro Peridotite Extrusive Rhyolite Andesite Basalt Komatiite For a more detailed classification see QAPF diagram. Example of classification Granite is an igneous intrusive rock (crystallized at depth), with felsic composition (rich in silica and predominately quartz plus potassium-rich feldspar plus sodium-rich plagioclase) and phaneritic, subeuhedral texture (minerals are visible to the unaided eye and commonly some of them retain original crystallographic shapes). Magma origination The Earth's crust averages about 35 kilometers thick under the continents, but averages only some 7–10 kilometers beneath the oceans. The continental crust is composed primarily of sedimentary rocks resting on a crystalline basement formed of a great variety of metamorphic and igneous rocks, including granulite and granite. Oceanic crust is composed primarily of basalt and gabbro. Both continental and oceanic crust rest on peridotite of the mantle. Rocks may melt in response to a decrease in pressure, to a change in composition (such as an addition of water), to an increase in temperature, or to a combination of these processes. Other mechanisms, such as melting from a meteorite impact, are less important today, but impacts during the accretion of the Earth led to extensive melting, and the outer several hundred kilometers of our early Earth was probably an ocean of magma. Impacts of large meteorites in the last few hundred million years have been proposed as one mechanism responsible for the extensive basalt magmatism of several large igneous provinces. Decompression Decompression melting occurs because of a decrease in pressure. [7]The solidus temperatures of most rocks (the temperatures below which they are completely solid) increase with increasing pressure in the absence of water. Peridotite at depth in the Earth's mantle may be hotter than its solidus temperature at some shallower level. If such rock rises during the convection of solid mantle, it will cool slightly as it expands in an adiabatic process, but the cooling is only about 0.3 °C per kilometer. Experimental studies of appropriate peridotite samples document that the solidus temperatures increase by 3 °C to 4 °C per kilometer. If the rock rises far enough, it will begin to melt. Melt droplets can coalesce into larger volumes and be intruded upwards. This process of melting from the upward movement of solid mantle is critical in the evolution of the Earth. Decompression melting creates the ocean crust at mid-ocean ridges. It also causes volcanism in intraplate regions, such as Europe, Africa and the Pacific sea floor. There, it is variously attributed either to the rise of mantle plumes (the ""Plume hypothesis"") or to intraplate extension (the ""Plate hypothesis""). [8]Effects of water and carbon dioxide The change of rock composition most responsible for the creation of magma is the addition of water. Water lowers the solidus temperature of rocks at a given pressure. For example, at a depth of about 100 kilometers, peridotite begins to melt near 800 °C in the presence of excess water, but near or above about 1,500 °C in the absence of water. [9] Water is driven out of the oceanic lithosphere in subduction zones, and it causes melting in the overlying mantle. Hydrous magmas composed of basalt and andesite are produced directly and indirectly as results of dehydration during the subduction process. Such magmas, and those derived from them, build up island arcs such as those in the Pacific Ring of Fire. These magmas form rocks of the calc-alkaline series, an important part of the continental crust. The addition of carbon dioxide is relatively a much less important cause of magma formation than the addition of water, but genesis of some silica-undersaturated magmas has been attributed to the dominance of carbon dioxide over water in their mantle source regions. In the presence of carbon dioxide, experiments document that the peridotite solidus temperature decreases by about 200 °C in a narrow pressure interval at pressures corresponding to a depth of about 70 km. At greater depths, carbon dioxide can have more effect: at depths to about 200 km, the temperatures of initial melting of a carbonated peridotite composition were determined to be 450 °C to 600 °C lower than for the same composition with no carbon dioxide. [10] Magmas of rock types such as nephelinite, carbonatite, and kimberlite are among those that may be generated following an influx of carbon dioxide into mantle at depths greater than about 70 km. Temperature increase Increase in temperature is the most typical mechanism for formation of magma within continental crust. Such temperature increases can occur because of the upward intrusion of magma from the mantle. Temperatures can also exceed the solidus of a crustal rock in continental crust thickened by compression at a plate boundary. The plate boundary between the Indian and Asian continental masses provides a well-studied example, as the Tibetan Plateau just north of the boundary has crust about 80 kilometers thick, roughly twice the thickness of normal continental crust. Studies of electrical resistivity deduced from magnetotelluric data have detected a layer that appears to contain silicate melt and that stretches for at least 1,000 kilometers within the middle crust along the southern margin of the Tibetan Plateau. [11] Granite and rhyolite are types of igneous rock commonly interpreted as products of the melting of continental crust because of increases in temperature. Temperature increases also may contribute to the melting of lithosphere dragged down in a subduction zone. Magma evolution Schematic diagrams showing the principles behind fractional crystallisation in a magma. While cooling, the magma evolves in composition because different minerals crystallize from the melt. 1: olivine crystallizes; 2: olivine and pyroxene crystallize; 3: pyroxene and plagioclase crystallize; 4: plagioclase crystallizes. At the bottom of the magma reservoir, a cumulate rock forms. Main article: Igneous differentiation Most magmas only entirely melt for small parts of their histories. More typically, they are mixes of melt and crystals, and sometimes also of gas bubbles. Melt, crystals, and bubbles usually have different densities, and so they can separate as magmas evolve. As magma cools, minerals typically crystallize from the melt at different temperatures ( fractional crystallization ). As minerals crystallize, the composition of the residual melt typically changes. If crystals separate from the melt, then the residual melt will differ in composition from the parent magma. For instance, a magma of gabbroic composition can produce a residual melt of granitic composition if early formed crystals are separated from the magma. Gabbro may have a liquidus temperature near 1,200 °C, and the derivative granite-composition melt may have a liquidus temperature as low as about 700 °C. Incompatible elements are concentrated in the last residues of magma during fractional crystallization and in the first melts produced during partial melting: either process can form the magma that crystallizes to pegmatite, a rock type commonly enriched in incompatible elements. Bowen's reaction series is important for understanding the idealised sequence of fractional crystallisation of a magma. Magma composition can be determined by processes other than partial melting and fractional crystallization. For instance, magmas commonly interact with rocks they intrude, both by melting those rocks and by reacting with them. Magmas of different compositions can mix with one another. In rare cases, melts can separate into two immiscible melts of contrasting compositions. There are relatively few minerals that are important in the formation of common igneous rocks, because the magma from which the minerals crystallize is rich in only certain elements: silicon, oxygen, aluminium, sodium, potassium, calcium, iron, and magnesium. These are the elements that combine to form the silicate minerals, which account for over ninety percent of all igneous rocks. The chemistry of igneous rocks is expressed differently for major and minor elements and for trace elements. Contents of major and minor elements are conventionally expressed as weight percent oxides (e.g., 51% Si O 2, and 1.50% Ti O 2 ). Abundances of trace elements are conventionally expressed as parts per million by weight (e.g., 420 ppm Ni, and 5.1 ppm Sm). The term ""trace element"" is typically used for elements present in most rocks at abundances less than 100 ppm or so, but some trace elements may be present in some rocks at abundances exceeding 1,000 ppm. The diversity of rock compositions has been defined by a huge mass of analytical data—over 230,000 rock analyses can be accessed on the web through a site sponsored by the U. S. National Science Foundation (see the External Link to Earth Chem). Etymology The word "" igneous "" is derived from the Latin ignis, meaning ""of fire"". Volcanic rocks are named after Vulcan, the Roman name for the god of fire. Intrusive rocks are also called ""plutonic"" rocks, named after Pluto, the Roman god of the underworld. See also Large igneous province List of rock types Metamorphic rock Migmatite Petrology Sedimentary rock Notes^ 15% is the arithmetic sum of the area for intrusive plutonic rock (7%) plus the area for extrusive volcanic rock (8%). [2]References^ Prothero, Donald R.; Schwab, Fred (2004). Sedimentary geology : an introduction to sedimentary rocks and stratigraphy (2nd ed.). New York: Freeman. p. 12. ISBN 978-0-7167-3905-0.^ Wilkinson, Bruce H.; Mc Elroy, Brandon J.; Kesler, Stephen E.; Peters, Shanan E.; Rothman, Edward D. (2008). ""Global geologic maps are tectonic speedometers—Rates of rock cycling from area-age frequencies"". Geological Society of America Bulletin. 121 (5–6): 760–779. doi: 10.1130/B26457.1.^ Fisher, R. V. & Schmincke H.-U., (1984) Pyroclastic Rocks, Berlin, Springer-Verlag^ Ridley, W. I., 2012, Petrology of Igneous Rocks, Volcanogenic Massive Sulfide Occurrence Model, USGS Scientific Report 2010-5070-C, Chapter 15.^ Cross, W. et al. (1903) Quantitative Classification of Igneous Rocks, Chicago, University of Chicago Press^ One or more of the preceding sentences incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain : Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). ""Petrology"". Encyclopædia Britannica. 21 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. 323–333.^ Geoff C. Brown; C. J. Hawkesworth; R. C. L. Wilson (1992). Understanding the Earth (2nd ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 93. ISBN 0-521-42740-1.^ Foulger, G. R. (2010). Plates vs. Plumes: A Geological Controversy. Wiley-Blackwell. ISBN 978-1-4051-6148-0.^ T. L. Grove, N. Chatterjee, S. W. Parman, and E. Medard, (2006) The influence of H 2 O on mantle wedge melting. Earth and Planetary Science Letters, v. 249, p. 74-89^ R. Dasgupta and M. M. Hirschmann (2007) Effect of variable carbonate concentration on the solidus of mantle peridotite. American Mineralogist, v. 92, p. 370-379^ M. J. Unsworth et al. (2005) Crustal rheology of the Himalaya and Southern Tibet inferred from magnetotelluric data. Nature, v. 438, p. 78-81Additional Reading R. W. Le Maitre (editor) (2002) Igneous Rocks: A Classification and Glossary of Terms, Recommendations of the International Union of Geological Sciences, Subcommission of the Systematics of Igneous Rocks., Cambridge, Cambridge University Press ISBN 0-521-66215-XExternal links The Wikibook Historical Geology has a page on the topic of: Igneous rocks and stratigraphy The Wikibook Historical Geology has a page on the topic of: Igneous rocks USGS Igneous Rocks Igneous rock classification flowchart Igneous Rocks Tour, an introduction to Igneous Rocks The IUGS systematics of igneous rocks Wikimedia Commons has media related to Igneous rocks. [ hide]v t e Common igneous rocks classified by silicon dioxide content Type Ultramafic <45% Si O 2Mafic 45–52% Si O 2Intermediate 52–63% Si O 2Intermediate – felsic 63–69% Si O 2Felsic >69% Si O 2Volcanic rocks: Subvolcanic rocks: Plutonic rocks: Komatiite, Picrite basalt Kimberlite, Lamproite Peridotite Basalt Diabase (Dolerite)Gabbro Andesite Micro diorite Diorite Dacite Micro granodiorite Granodiorite Rhyolite Micro granite, Aplite Granite Authority control GND: 4036974-2 NDL: 00565095Categories: Igneous rocks Igneous petrology Volcanology "
[ "\"From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedianavigation search Geologic provinces of the World ( USGS )Shield Platform Orogen Basin Large igneous province Extended crust Oceanic crust : 0–20 Ma20–65 Ma>65 Ma Igneous rock (derived from the Latin word ignis meaning fire), or magmatic rock, is one of the three main rock types, the others being sedimentary and metamorphic.", "Igneous rock is formed through the cooling and solidification of magma or lava.", "The magma can be derived from partial melts of existing rocks in either a planet 's mantle or crust.", "Typically, the melting is caused by one or more of three processes: an increase in temperature, a decrease in pressure, or a change in composition.", "Solidification into rock occurs either below the surface as intrusive rocks or on the surface as extrusive rocks.", "Igneous rock may form with crystallization to form granular, crystalline rocks, or without crystallization to form natural glasses.", "Contents [ hide ]1 Geological significance2 Geological setting2.1 Intrusive2.2 Extrusive3 Classification3.1 Texture3.2 Chemical classification and petrology3.3 History of classification4 Mineralogical classification4.1 Example of classification5 Magma origination5.1 Decompression5.2 Effects of water and carbon dioxide5.3 Temperature increase5.4 Magma evolution6 Etymology7 See also8 Notes9 References10 Additional Reading11 External links Geological significance Igneous and metamorphic rocks make up 90–95% of the top 16 km of the Earth's crust by volume.", "[1] Igneous rocks form about 15% of the Earth's current land surface.", "[note 1] Most of the Earth's oceanic crust is made of igneous rock.", "Igneous rocks are also geologically important because:their minerals and global chemistry give information about the composition of the mantle, from which some igneous rocks are extracted, and the temperature and pressure conditions that allowed this extraction, and/or of other pre-existing rock that melted;their absolute ages can be obtained from various forms of radiometric dating and thus can be compared to adjacent geological strata, allowing a time sequence of events;their features are usually characteristic of a specific tectonic environment, allowing tectonic reconstitutions (see plate tectonics );in some special circumstances they host important mineral deposits ( ores ): for example, tungsten, tin, and uranium are commonly associated with granites and diorites, whereas ores of chromium and platinum are commonly associated with gabbros.", "Geological setting Forming of igneous rock In terms of modes of occurrence, igneous rocks can be either intrusive (plutonic and hypabyssal) or extrusive ( volcanic ).", "Intrusive Close-up of granite (an intrusive igneous rock) exposed in Chennai, India.", "Intrusive igneous rocks are formed from magma that cools and solidifies within the crust of a planet, surrounded by pre-existing rock (called country rock ); the magma cools slowly and, as a result, these rocks are coarse-grained.", "The mineral grains in such rocks can generally be identified with the naked eye.", "Intrusive rocks can also be classified according to the shape and size of the intrusive body and its relation to the other formations into which it intrudes.", "Typical intrusive formations are batholiths, stocks, laccoliths, sills and dikes.", "When the magma solidifies within the earth's crust, it cools slowly forming coarse textured rocks, such as granite, gabbro, or diorite.", "The central cores of major mountain ranges consist of intrusive igneous rocks, usually granite.", "When exposed by erosion, these cores (called batholiths) may occupy huge areas of the Earth's surface.", "Intrusive igneous rocks that form at depth within the crust are termed plutonic (or abyssal) rocks and are usually coarse-grained.", "Intrusive igneous rocks that form near the surface are termed subvolcanic or hypabyssal rocks and they are usually medium-grained.", "Hypabyssal rocks are less common than plutonic or volcanic rocks and often form dikes, sills, laccoliths, lopoliths, or phacoliths.", "Extrusive Extrusive igneous rock is made from lava released by volcanoes Sample of basalt (an extrusive igneous rock), found in Massachusetts Extrusive igneous rocks, also known as volcanic rocks, are formed at the crust's surface as a result of the partial melting of rocks within the mantle and crust.", "Extrusive igneous rocks cool and solidify quicker than intrusive igneous rocks.", "They are formed by the cooling of molten magma on the earth's surface.", "The magma, which is brought to the surface through fissures or volcanic eruptions, solidifies at a faster rate.", "Hence such rocks are smooth, crystalline and fine-grained.", "Basalt is a common extrusive igneous rock and forms lava flows, lava sheets and lava plateaus.", "Some kinds of basalt solidify to form long polygonal columns.", "The Giant's Causeway in Antrim, Northern Ireland is an example.", "The molten rock, with or without suspended crystals and gas bubbles, is called magma.", "It rises because it is less dense than the rock from which it was created.", "When magma reaches the surface from beneath water or air, it is called lava.", "Eruptions of volcanoes into air are termed subaerial, whereas those occurring underneath the ocean are termed submarine.", "Black smokers and mid-ocean ridge basalt are examples of submarine volcanic activity.", "The volume of extrusive rock erupted annually by volcanoes varies with plate tectonic setting.", "Extrusive rock is produced in the following proportions: [3]divergent boundary: 73%convergent boundary ( subduction zone ): 15%hotspot: 12%.", "Magma that erupts from a volcano behaves according to its viscosity, determined by temperature, composition, crystal content and the amount of silica.", "High-temperature magma, most of which is basaltic in composition, behaves in a manner similar to thick oil and, as it cools, treacle.", "Long, thin basalt flows with pahoehoe surfaces are common.", "Intermediate composition magma, such as andesite, tends to form cinder cones of intermingled ash, tuff and lava, and may have a viscosity similar to thick, cold molasses or even rubber when erupted.", "Felsic magma, such as rhyolite, is usually erupted at low temperature and is up to 10,000 times as viscous as basalt.", "Volcanoes with rhyolitic magma commonly erupt explosively, and rhyolitic lava flows are typically of limited extent and have steep margins, because the magma is so viscous.", "Felsic and intermediate magmas that erupt often do so violently, with explosions driven by the release of dissolved gases—typically water vapour, but also carbon dioxide.", "Explosively erupted pyroclastic material is called tephra and includes tuff, agglomerate and ignimbrite.", "Fine volcanic ash is also erupted and forms ash tuff deposits, which can often cover vast areas.", "Because lava usually cools and crystallizes rapidly, it is usually fine-grained.", "If the cooling has been so rapid as to prevent the formation of even small crystals after extrusion, the resulting rock may be mostly glass (such as the rock obsidian ).", "If the cooling of the lava happened more slowly, the rock would be coarse-grained.", "Because the minerals are mostly fine-grained, it is much more difficult to distinguish between the different types of extrusive igneous rocks than between different types of intrusive igneous rocks.", "Generally, the mineral constituents of fine-grained extrusive igneous rocks can only be determined by examination of thin sections of the rock under a microscope, so only an approximate classification can usually be made in the field.", "Classification Igneous rocks are classified according to mode of occurrence, texture, mineralogy, chemical composition, and the geometry of the igneous body.", "The classification of the many types of different igneous rocks can provide us with important information about the conditions under which they formed.", "Two important variables used for the classification of igneous rocks are particle size, which largely depends on the cooling history, and the mineral composition of the rock.", "Feldspars, quartz or feldspathoids, olivines, pyroxenes, amphiboles, and micas are all important minerals in the formation of almost all igneous rocks, and they are basic to the classification of these rocks.", "All other minerals present are regarded as nonessential in almost all igneous rocks and are called accessory minerals.", "Types of igneous rocks with other essential minerals are very rare, and these rare rocks include those with essential carbonates.", "In a simplified classification, igneous rock types are separated on the basis of the type of feldspar present, the presence or absence of quartz, and in rocks with no feldspar or quartz, the type of iron or magnesium minerals present.", "Rocks containing quartz (silica in composition) are silica-oversaturated.", "Rocks with feldspathoids are silica-undersaturated, because feldspathoids cannot coexist in a stable association with quartz.", "Igneous rocks that have crystals large enough to be seen by the naked eye are called phaneritic; those with crystals too small to be seen are called aphanitic.", "Generally speaking, phaneritic implies an intrusive origin; aphanitic an extrusive one.", "An igneous rock with larger, clearly discernible crystals embedded in a finer-grained matrix is termed porphyry.", "Porphyritic texture develops when some of the crystals grow to considerable size before the main mass of the magma crystallizes as finer-grained, uniform material.", "Igneous rocks are classified on the basis of texture and composition.", "Texture refers to the size, shape, and arrangement of the mineral grains or crystals of which the rock is composed.", "Texture Gabbro specimen showing phaneritic texture; Rock Creek Canyon, eastern Sierra Nevada, California; scale bar is 2.0 cm.", "Main article: Rock microstructure Texture is an important criterion for the naming of volcanic rocks.", "The texture of volcanic rocks, including the size, shape, orientation, and distribution of mineral grains and the intergrain relationships, will determine whether the rock is termed a tuff, a pyroclastic lava or a simple lava.", "However, the texture is only a subordinate part of classifying volcanic rocks, as most often there needs to be chemical information gleaned from rocks with extremely fine-grained groundmass or from airfall tuffs, which may be formed from volcanic ash.", "Textural criteria are less critical in classifying intrusive rocks where the majority of minerals will be visible to the naked eye or at least using a hand lens, magnifying glass or microscope.", "Plutonic rocks also tend to be less texturally varied and less prone to gaining structural fabrics.", "Textural terms can be used to differentiate different intrusive phases of large plutons, for instance porphyritic margins to large intrusive bodies, porphyry stocks and subvolcanic dikes (apophyses).", "Mineralogical classification is most often used to classify plutonic rocks.", "Chemical classifications are preferred to classify volcanic rocks, with phenocryst species used as a prefix, e.g.", "\"\"olivine-bearing picrite\"\" or \"\"orthoclase-phyric rhyolite\"\".see also List of rock textures and Igneous textures Basic classification scheme for igneous rocks on their mineralogy.", "If the approximate volume fractions of minerals in the rock are known, the rock name and silica content can be read off the diagram.", "This is not an exact method, because the classification of igneous rocks also depends on other components than silica, yet in most cases it is a good first guess.", "Chemical classification and petrology Total alkali versus silica classification scheme (TAS) as proposed in Le Maitre's 2002 Igneous Rocks - A classification and glossary of terms [4]: 237Igneous rocks can be classified according to chemical or mineralogical parameters.", "Chemical: total alkali-silica content ( TAS diagram) for volcanic rock classification used when modal or mineralogic data is unavailable:felsic igneous rocks containing a high silica content, greater than 63% Si O 2 (examples granite and rhyolite ),intermediate igneous rocks containing between 52–63% Si O 2 (example andesite and dacite ),mafic igneous rocks have low silica 45–52% and typically high iron – magnesium content (example gabbro and basalt ),ultramafic rock igneous rocks with less than 45% silica (examples picrite, komatiite and peridotite ),alkalic igneous rocks with 5–15% alkali (K 2 O + Na 2 O) content or with a molar ratio of alkali to silica greater than 1:6 (examples phonolite and trachyte ).", "Chemical classification also extends to differentiating rocks that are chemically similar according to the TAS diagram, for instance: Ultrapotassic – rocks containing molar K 2 O/Na 2 O >3.", "Peralkaline – rocks containing molar (K 2 O + Na 2 O)/Al 2 O 3 >1.", "Peraluminous – rocks containing molar (K 2 O + Na 2 O)/Al 2 O 3 <1.", "An idealized mineralogy (the normative mineralogy) can be calculated from the chemical composition, and the calculation is useful for rocks too fine-grained or too altered for identification of minerals that crystallized from the melt.", "For instance, normative quartz classifies a rock as silica-oversaturated; an example is rhyolite.", "In an older terminology, silica oversaturated rocks were called silicic or acidic where the Si O 2 was greater than 66% and the family term quartzolite was applied to the most silicic.", "A normative feldspathoid classifies a rock as silica-undersaturated; an example is nephelinite.", "History of classification In 1902, a group of American petrographers proposed that all existing classifications of igneous rocks should be discarded and replaced by a \"\"quantitative\"\" classification based on chemical analysis.", "They showed how vague, and often unscientific, much of the existing terminology was and argued that as the chemical composition of an igneous rock was its most fundamental characteristic, it should be elevated to prime position.", "Geological occurrence, structure, mineralogical constitution—the hitherto accepted criteria for the discrimination of rock species—were relegated to the background.", "The completed rock analysis is first to be interpreted in terms of the rock-forming minerals which might be expected to be formed when the magma crystallizes, e.g., quartz feldspars, olivine, akermannite, Feldspathoids, magnetite, corundum, and so on, and the rocks are divided into groups strictly according to the relative proportion of these minerals to one another.", "[5] [6]Mineralogical classification For volcanic rocks, mineralogy is important in classifying and naming lavas.", "The most important criterion is the phenocryst species, followed by the groundmass mineralogy.", "Often, where the groundmass is aphanitic, chemical classification must be used to properly identify a volcanic rock.", "Mineralogic contents – felsic versus maficfelsic rock, highest content of silicon, with predominance of quartz, alkali feldspar and/or feldspathoids: the felsic minerals; these rocks (e.g., granite, rhyolite) are usually light coloured, and have low density.mafic rock, lesser content of silicon relative to felsic rocks, with predominance of mafic minerals pyroxenes, olivines and calcic plagioclase; these rocks (example, basalt, gabbro) are usually dark coloured, and have a higher density than felsic rocks.ultramafic rock, lowest content of silicon, with more than 90% of mafic minerals (e.g., dunite ).", "For intrusive, plutonic and usually phaneritic igneous rocks (where all minerals are visible at least via microscope), the mineralogy is used to classify the rock.", "This usually occurs on ternary diagrams, where the relative proportions of three minerals are used to classify the rock.", "The following table is a simple subdivision of igneous rocks according to both their composition and mode of occurrence.", "Composition Mode of occurrence Felsic Intermediate Mafic Ultramafic Intrusive Granite Diorite Gabbro Peridotite Extrusive Rhyolite Andesite Basalt Komatiite For a more detailed classification see QAPF diagram.", "Example of classification Granite is an igneous intrusive rock (crystallized at depth), with felsic composition (rich in silica and predominately quartz plus potassium-rich feldspar plus sodium-rich plagioclase) and phaneritic, subeuhedral texture (minerals are visible to the unaided eye and commonly some of them retain original crystallographic shapes).", "Magma origination The Earth's crust averages about 35 kilometers thick under the continents, but averages only some 7–10 kilometers beneath the oceans.", "The continental crust is composed primarily of sedimentary rocks resting on a crystalline basement formed of a great variety of metamorphic and igneous rocks, including granulite and granite.", "Oceanic crust is composed primarily of basalt and gabbro.", "Both continental and oceanic crust rest on peridotite of the mantle.", "Rocks may melt in response to a decrease in pressure, to a change in composition (such as an addition of water), to an increase in temperature, or to a combination of these processes.", "Other mechanisms, such as melting from a meteorite impact, are less important today, but impacts during the accretion of the Earth led to extensive melting, and the outer several hundred kilometers of our early Earth was probably an ocean of magma.", "Impacts of large meteorites in the last few hundred million years have been proposed as one mechanism responsible for the extensive basalt magmatism of several large igneous provinces.", "Decompression Decompression melting occurs because of a decrease in pressure.", "[7]The solidus temperatures of most rocks (the temperatures below which they are completely solid) increase with increasing pressure in the absence of water.", "Peridotite at depth in the Earth's mantle may be hotter than its solidus temperature at some shallower level.", "If such rock rises during the convection of solid mantle, it will cool slightly as it expands in an adiabatic process, but the cooling is only about 0.3 °C per kilometer.", "Experimental studies of appropriate peridotite samples document that the solidus temperatures increase by 3 °C to 4 °C per kilometer.", "If the rock rises far enough, it will begin to melt.", "Melt droplets can coalesce into larger volumes and be intruded upwards.", "This process of melting from the upward movement of solid mantle is critical in the evolution of the Earth.", "Decompression melting creates the ocean crust at mid-ocean ridges.", "It also causes volcanism in intraplate regions, such as Europe, Africa and the Pacific sea floor.", "There, it is variously attributed either to the rise of mantle plumes (the \"\"Plume hypothesis\"\") or to intraplate extension (the \"\"Plate hypothesis\"\").", "[8]Effects of water and carbon dioxide The change of rock composition most responsible for the creation of magma is the addition of water.", "Water lowers the solidus temperature of rocks at a given pressure.", "For example, at a depth of about 100 kilometers, peridotite begins to melt near 800 °C in the presence of excess water, but near or above about 1,500 °C in the absence of water.", "[9] Water is driven out of the oceanic lithosphere in subduction zones, and it causes melting in the overlying mantle.", "Hydrous magmas composed of basalt and andesite are produced directly and indirectly as results of dehydration during the subduction process.", "Such magmas, and those derived from them, build up island arcs such as those in the Pacific Ring of Fire.", "These magmas form rocks of the calc-alkaline series, an important part of the continental crust.", "The addition of carbon dioxide is relatively a much less important cause of magma formation than the addition of water, but genesis of some silica-undersaturated magmas has been attributed to the dominance of carbon dioxide over water in their mantle source regions.", "In the presence of carbon dioxide, experiments document that the peridotite solidus temperature decreases by about 200 °C in a narrow pressure interval at pressures corresponding to a depth of about 70 km.", "At greater depths, carbon dioxide can have more effect: at depths to about 200 km, the temperatures of initial melting of a carbonated peridotite composition were determined to be 450 °C to 600 °C lower than for the same composition with no carbon dioxide.", "[10] Magmas of rock types such as nephelinite, carbonatite, and kimberlite are among those that may be generated following an influx of carbon dioxide into mantle at depths greater than about 70 km.", "Temperature increase Increase in temperature is the most typical mechanism for formation of magma within continental crust.", "Such temperature increases can occur because of the upward intrusion of magma from the mantle.", "Temperatures can also exceed the solidus of a crustal rock in continental crust thickened by compression at a plate boundary.", "The plate boundary between the Indian and Asian continental masses provides a well-studied example, as the Tibetan Plateau just north of the boundary has crust about 80 kilometers thick, roughly twice the thickness of normal continental crust.", "Studies of electrical resistivity deduced from magnetotelluric data have detected a layer that appears to contain silicate melt and that stretches for at least 1,000 kilometers within the middle crust along the southern margin of the Tibetan Plateau.", "[11] Granite and rhyolite are types of igneous rock commonly interpreted as products of the melting of continental crust because of increases in temperature.", "Temperature increases also may contribute to the melting of lithosphere dragged down in a subduction zone.", "Magma evolution Schematic diagrams showing the principles behind fractional crystallisation in a magma.", "While cooling, the magma evolves in composition because different minerals crystallize from the melt.", "1: olivine crystallizes; 2: olivine and pyroxene crystallize; 3: pyroxene and plagioclase crystallize; 4: plagioclase crystallizes.", "At the bottom of the magma reservoir, a cumulate rock forms.", "Main article: Igneous differentiation Most magmas only entirely melt for small parts of their histories.", "More typically, they are mixes of melt and crystals, and sometimes also of gas bubbles.", "Melt, crystals, and bubbles usually have different densities, and so they can separate as magmas evolve.", "As magma cools, minerals typically crystallize from the melt at different temperatures ( fractional crystallization ).", "As minerals crystallize, the composition of the residual melt typically changes.", "If crystals separate from the melt, then the residual melt will differ in composition from the parent magma.", "For instance, a magma of gabbroic composition can produce a residual melt of granitic composition if early formed crystals are separated from the magma.", "Gabbro may have a liquidus temperature near 1,200 °C, and the derivative granite-composition melt may have a liquidus temperature as low as about 700 °C.", "Incompatible elements are concentrated in the last residues of magma during fractional crystallization and in the first melts produced during partial melting: either process can form the magma that crystallizes to pegmatite, a rock type commonly enriched in incompatible elements.", "Bowen's reaction series is important for understanding the idealised sequence of fractional crystallisation of a magma.", "Magma composition can be determined by processes other than partial melting and fractional crystallization.", "For instance, magmas commonly interact with rocks they intrude, both by melting those rocks and by reacting with them.", "Magmas of different compositions can mix with one another.", "In rare cases, melts can separate into two immiscible melts of contrasting compositions.", "There are relatively few minerals that are important in the formation of common igneous rocks, because the magma from which the minerals crystallize is rich in only certain elements: silicon, oxygen, aluminium, sodium, potassium, calcium, iron, and magnesium.", "These are the elements that combine to form the silicate minerals, which account for over ninety percent of all igneous rocks.", "The chemistry of igneous rocks is expressed differently for major and minor elements and for trace elements.", "Contents of major and minor elements are conventionally expressed as weight percent oxides (e.g., 51% Si O 2, and 1.50% Ti O 2 ).", "Abundances of trace elements are conventionally expressed as parts per million by weight (e.g., 420 ppm Ni, and 5.1 ppm Sm).", "The term \"\"trace element\"\" is typically used for elements present in most rocks at abundances less than 100 ppm or so, but some trace elements may be present in some rocks at abundances exceeding 1,000 ppm.", "The diversity of rock compositions has been defined by a huge mass of analytical data—over 230,000 rock analyses can be accessed on the web through a site sponsored by the U. S. National Science Foundation (see the External Link to Earth Chem).", "Etymology The word \"\" igneous \"\" is derived from the Latin ignis, meaning \"\"of fire\"\".", "Volcanic rocks are named after Vulcan, the Roman name for the god of fire.", "Intrusive rocks are also called \"\"plutonic\"\" rocks, named after Pluto, the Roman god of the underworld.", "See also Large igneous province List of rock types Metamorphic rock Migmatite Petrology Sedimentary rock Notes^ 15% is the arithmetic sum of the area for intrusive plutonic rock (7%) plus the area for extrusive volcanic rock (8%).", "[2]References^ Prothero, Donald R.; Schwab, Fred (2004).", "Sedimentary geology : an introduction to sedimentary rocks and stratigraphy (2nd ed.).", "New York: Freeman.", "p. 12.", "ISBN 978-0-7167-3905-0.^ Wilkinson, Bruce H.; Mc Elroy, Brandon J.; Kesler, Stephen E.; Peters, Shanan E.; Rothman, Edward D. (2008).", "\"\"Global geologic maps are tectonic speedometers—Rates of rock cycling from area-age frequencies\"\".", "Geological Society of America Bulletin.", "121 (5–6): 760–779.", "doi: 10.1130/B26457.1.^ Fisher, R. V. & Schmincke H.-U., (1984) Pyroclastic Rocks, Berlin, Springer-Verlag^ Ridley, W. I., 2012, Petrology of Igneous Rocks, Volcanogenic Massive Sulfide Occurrence Model, USGS Scientific Report 2010-5070-C, Chapter 15.^ Cross, W. et al.", "(1903) Quantitative Classification of Igneous Rocks, Chicago, University of Chicago Press^ One or more of the preceding sentences incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain : Chisholm, Hugh, ed.", "(1911).", "\"\"Petrology\"\".", "Encyclopædia Britannica.", "21 (11th ed.).", "Cambridge University Press.", "pp.", "323–333.^ Geoff C. Brown; C. J. Hawkesworth; R. C. L. Wilson (1992).", "Understanding the Earth (2nd ed.).", "Cambridge University Press.", "p. 93.", "ISBN 0-521-42740-1.^ Foulger, G. R. (2010).", "Plates vs. Plumes: A Geological Controversy.", "Wiley-Blackwell.", "ISBN 978-1-4051-6148-0.^ T. L. Grove, N. Chatterjee, S. W. Parman, and E. Medard, (2006) The influence of H 2 O on mantle wedge melting.", "Earth and Planetary Science Letters, v. 249, p. 74-89^ R. Dasgupta and M. M. Hirschmann (2007) Effect of variable carbonate concentration on the solidus of mantle peridotite.", "American Mineralogist, v. 92, p. 370-379^ M. J. Unsworth et al.", "(2005) Crustal rheology of the Himalaya and Southern Tibet inferred from magnetotelluric data.", "Nature, v. 438, p. 78-81Additional Reading R. W. Le Maitre (editor) (2002) Igneous Rocks: A Classification and Glossary of Terms, Recommendations of the International Union of Geological Sciences, Subcommission of the Systematics of Igneous Rocks., Cambridge, Cambridge University Press ISBN 0-521-66215-XExternal links The Wikibook Historical Geology has a page on the topic of: Igneous rocks and stratigraphy The Wikibook Historical Geology has a page on the topic of: Igneous rocks USGS Igneous Rocks Igneous rock classification flowchart Igneous Rocks Tour, an introduction to Igneous Rocks The IUGS systematics of igneous rocks Wikimedia Commons has media related to Igneous rocks.", "[ hide]v t e Common igneous rocks classified by silicon dioxide content Type Ultramafic <45% Si O 2Mafic 45–52% Si O 2Intermediate 52–63% Si O 2Intermediate – felsic 63–69% Si O 2Felsic >69% Si O 2Volcanic rocks: Subvolcanic rocks: Plutonic rocks: Komatiite, Picrite basalt Kimberlite, Lamproite Peridotite Basalt Diabase (Dolerite)Gabbro Andesite Micro diorite Diorite Dacite Micro granodiorite Granodiorite Rhyolite Micro granite, Aplite Granite Authority control GND: 4036974-2 NDL: 00565095Categories: Igneous rocks Igneous petrology Volcanology \"" ]
D31538
http://www.history.com/topics/black-history/civil-rights-act
Civil Rights Act of 1964
Civil Rights Act of 1964After years of struggle and setbacks, advocates for equality celebrate the passage of sweeping legislation that prohibits racial discrimination.
[ "Civil Rights Act of 1964After years of struggle and setbacks, advocates for equality celebrate the passage of sweeping legislation that prohibits racial discrimination." ]
D109805
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microsoft
Microsoft
"From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedianavigation search Microsoft Corporation Building 17 on the Microsoft Redmond campus in Redmond, Washington Type Public Traded as NASDAQ : MSFTNASDAQ-100 component DJIA component S&P 100 component S&P 500 component ISIN US5949181045Industry Computer software Computer hardware Consumer electronics Social networking service Cloud computing Video games Internet Corporate venture capital Founded April 4, 1975; 43 years ago in Albuquerque, New Mexico, U. S. Founders Bill Gates Paul Allen Headquarters Microsoft Redmond campus, Redmond, Washington, U. S. Area served Worldwide Key people John W. Thompson ( Chairman)Brad Smith ( President and CLO)Satya Nadella ( CEO)Bill Gates ( Technical advisor)Products Windows Office Servers Skype Visual Studio Dynamics Xbox Surface Mobile more... Services Azure Bing Linked In MSDNOffice 365 One Drive Outlook.com Tech Net Wallet Windows Store Windows Update Xbox Live Revenue US$ 89.95 billion [1] (2017)Operating income US$22.27 billion [1] (2017)Net income US$21.20 billion [1] (2017)Total assets US$241.08 billion [1] (2017)Total equity US$72.39 billion [1] (2017)Number of employees 124,000 [1] (2016)Subsidiaries List of Microsoft subsidiaries Website microsoft .com Microsoft Corporation ( / ˈ m aɪ k r ə ˌ s ɒ f t /, [2] [3] abbreviated as MS) is an American multinational technology company with headquarters in Redmond, Washington. It develops, manufactures, licenses, supports and sells computer software, consumer electronics, personal computers, and services. Its best known software products are the Microsoft Windows line of operating systems, the Microsoft Office suite, and the Internet Explorer and Edge web browsers. Its flagship hardware products are the Xbox video game consoles and the Microsoft Surface lineup of touchscreen personal computers. As of 2016, it is the world's largest software maker by revenue, [4] and one of the world's most valuable companies. [5] The word ""Microsoft"" is a portmanteau of ""microcomputer"" and ""software"". [6]Microsoft was founded by Paul Allen and Bill Gates on April 4, 1975, to develop and sell BASIC interpreters for the Altair 8800. It rose to dominate the personal computer operating system market with MS-DOS in the mid-1980s, followed by Microsoft Windows. The company's 1986 initial public offering (IPO), and subsequent rise in its share price, created three billionaires and an estimated 12,000 millionaires among Microsoft employees. Since the 1990s, it has increasingly diversified from the operating system market and has made a number of corporate acquisitions —their largest being the acquisition of Linked In for $26.2 billion in December 2016, [7] followed by Skype Technologies for $8.5 billion in May 2011. [8]As of 2015, Microsoft is market-dominant in the IBM PC-compatible operating system market and the office software suite market, although it has lost the majority of the overall operating system market to Android. [9] The company also produces a wide range of other consumer and enterprise software for desktops and servers, including Internet search (with Bing ), the digital services market (through MSN ), mixed reality ( Holo Lens ), cloud computing ( Azure) and software development ( Visual Studio ). Steve Ballmer replaced Gates as CEO in 2000, and later envisioned a ""devices and services"" strategy. [10] This began with the acquisition of Danger Inc. in 2008, [11] entering the personal computer production market for the first time in June 2012 with the launch of the Microsoft Surface line of tablet computers; and later forming Microsoft Mobile through the acquisition of Nokia 's devices and services division. Since Satya Nadella took over as CEO in 2014, the company has scaled back on hardware and has instead focused on cloud computing, a move that helped the company's shares reach its highest value since December 1999. [12] [13]Contents [ hide ]1 History1.1 1972–1985: The founding of Microsoft1.2 1985–1994: Windows and Office1.3 1995–2007: Foray into the Web, Windows 95, Windows XP, and Xbox1.4 2007–2011: Microsoft Azure, Windows Vista, Windows 7, and Microsoft Stores1.5 2011–2014: Windows 8/8.1, Xbox One, Outlook.com, and Surface devices1.6 2014–present: Windows 10, Windows 10 Mobile, Microsoft Edge and Holo Lens1.6.1 Corporate affairs1.6.2 Products1.6.3 Services2 Business units3 Corporate affairs3.1 Board of Directors3.2 Financial3.3 Marketing3.4 Layoffs3.5 United States government4 Corporate identity4.1 Corporate culture4.2 Environment4.3 Headquarters4.4 Flagship stores4.5 Logo4.6 Sponsorship5 References6 External links History Main articles: History of Microsoft, History of Microsoft Windows, and Timeline of Microsoft1972–1985: The founding of Microsoft Paul Allen and Bill Gates pose for the camera on October 19, 1981, in a sea of PCs after signing a pivotal contract with IBM. [14]: 228Childhood friends Paul Allen and Bill Gates sought to make a successful business utilizing their shared skills in computer programming. [15] In 1972 they founded their first company, named Traf-O-Data, which sold a rudimentary computer to track and analyze automobile traffic data. While Gates enrolled at Harvard, Allen pursued a degree in computer science at Washington State University, though he later dropped out of school to work at Honeywell. [16] The January 1975 issue of Popular Electronics featured Micro Instrumentation and Telemetry Systems 's (MITS) Altair 8800microcomputer, [17] which inspired Allen to suggest that they could program a BASICinterpreter for the device. After a call from Gates claiming to have a working interpreter, MITS requested a demonstration. Since they didn't yet have one, Allen worked on a simulator for the Altair while Gates developed the interpreter. Although they developed the interpreter on a simulator and not the actual device, it worked flawlessly when they (in March 1975) demonstrated the interpreter to MITS in Albuquerque, New Mexico. MITS agreed to distribute it, marketing it as Altair BASIC. [14]: 108, 112–114 Gates and Allen officially established Microsoft on April 4, 1975, with Gates as the CEO. [18] The original name of ""Micro-Soft"" was suggested by Allen. [19] [20] In August 1977 the company formed an agreement with ASCII Magazine in Japan, resulting in its first international office, "" ASCII Microsoft "". [21] Microsoft moved to a new home in Bellevue, Washington in January 1979. [18]Microsoft entered the operating system (OS) business in 1980 with its own version of Unix, called Xenix. [22] However, it was MS-DOS that solidified the company's dominance. After negotiations with Digital Research failed, IBM awarded a contract to Microsoft in November 1980 to provide a version of the CP/M OS, which was set to be used in the upcoming IBM Personal Computer (IBM PC). [23] For this deal, Microsoft purchased a CP/M clone called 86-DOS from Seattle Computer Products, which it branded as MS-DOS, though IBM rebranded it to PC DOS. Following the release of the IBM PC in August 1981, Microsoft retained ownership of MS-DOS. Since IBM had copyrighted the IBM PC BIOS, other companies had to reverse engineer it in order for non-IBM hardware to run as IBM PC compatibles, but no such restriction applied to the operating systems. Due to various factors, such as MS-DOS's available software selection, Microsoft eventually became the leading PC operating systems vendor. [24] [25]: 210 The company expanded into new markets with the release of the Microsoft Mouse in 1983, as well as with a publishing division named Microsoft Press. [14]: 232 Paul Allen resigned from Microsoft in 1983 after developing Hodgkin's disease. [26] Allen claimed that Gates wanted to dilute his share in the company when he was diagnosed with Hodgkin’s disease because he didn’t think he was working hard enough. [27] After leaving Microsoft, Allen lost billions of dollars on ill-conceived or mistimed technology investments. He later invested in low-tech sectors, sports teams, and commercial real estate. [28]1985–1994: Windows and Office Windows 1.0 was released on November 20, 1985 as the first version of the Microsoft Windows line Timeline of Windows Despite having begun jointly developing a new operating system, OS/2, with IBM in August 1985, [29] Microsoft released Microsoft Windows, a graphical extension for MS-DOS, on November 20. [14]: 242–243, 246 Microsoft moved its headquarters to Redmond on February 26, 1986, and on March 13 went public, [30] with the resulting rise in stock making an estimated four billionaires and 12,000 millionaires from Microsoft employees. [31] Microsoft released its version of OS/2 to original equipment manufacturers (OEMs) on April 2, 1987. [14] In 1990, due to the partnership with IBM, the Federal Trade Commission set its eye on Microsoft for possible collusion, marking the beginning of over a decade of legal clashes with the U. S. government. [32]: 243–244 Meanwhile, the company was at work on a 32-bit OS, Microsoft Windows NT, which was heavily based on their copy of the OS/2 code. It shipped on July 21, 1993, with a new modular kernel and the Win32 application programming interface (API), making porting from 16-bit (MS-DOS-based) Windows easier. Once Microsoft informed IBM of NT, the OS/2 partnership deteriorated. [33]In 1990, Microsoft introduced its office suite, Microsoft Office. The suite bundled separate productivity applications, such as Microsoft Word and Microsoft Excel. [14]: 301 On May 22, Microsoft launched Windows 3.0, featuring streamlined user interface graphics and improved protected mode capability for the Intel 386 processor. [34] Both Office and Windows became dominant in their respective areas. [35] [36]On July 27, 1994, the U. S. Department of Justice, Antitrust Division filed a Competitive Impact Statement that said, in part: ""Beginning in 1988, and continuing until July 15, 1994, Microsoft induced many OEMs to execute anti-competitive ""per processor"" licenses. Under a per processor license, an OEM pays Microsoft a royalty for each computer it sells containing a particular microprocessor, whether the OEM sells the computer with a Microsoft operating system or a non-Microsoft operating system. In effect, the royalty payment to Microsoft when no Microsoft product is being used acts as a penalty, or tax, on the OEM's use of a competing PC operating system. Since 1988, Microsoft's use of per processor licenses has increased."" [37]1995–2007: Foray into the Web, Windows 95, Windows XP, and Xbox Microsoft released the first installment in the Xbox series of consoles in 2001. The Xbox, graphically powerful compared to its rivals, featured a standard PC's 733 MHz Intel Pentium III processor. Following Bill Gates's internal ""Internet Tidal Wave memo"" on May 26, 1995, Microsoft began to redefine its offerings and expand its product line into computer networking and the World Wide Web. [38] The company released Windows 95 on August 24, 1995, featuring pre-emptive multitasking, a completely new user interface with a novel start button, and 32-bit compatibility; similar to NT, it provided the Win32 API. [39] [40]: 20 Windows 95 came bundled with the online service MSN (which was at first intended to be a competitor to the Internet), and (for OEMs) Internet Explorer, a web browser. Internet Explorer was not bundled with the retail Windows 95 boxes because the boxes were printed before the team finished the web browser, and instead was included in the Windows 95 Plus! pack. [41] Branching out into new markets in 1996, Microsoft and General Electric 's NBC unit created a new 24/7 cable news channel, MSNBC. [42] Microsoft created Windows CE 1.0, a new OS designed for devices with low memory and other constraints, such as personal digital assistants. [43] In October 1997, the Justice Department filed a motion in the Federal District Court, stating that Microsoft violated an agreement signed in 1994 and asked the court to stop the bundling of Internet Explorer with Windows. [14]: 323–324In 1996, Microsoft released Windows CE, a version of the operating system meant for personal digital assistants and other tiny computers. On January 13, 2000, Bill Gates handed over the CEO position to Steve Ballmer, an old college friend of Gates and employee of the company since 1980, while creating a new position for himself as Chief Software Architect. [14]: 111, 228 [18] Various companies including Microsoft formed the Trusted Computing Platform Alliance in October 1999 to (among other things) increase security and protect intellectual property through identifying changes in hardware and software. Critics decried the alliance as a way to enforce indiscriminate restrictions over how consumers use software, and over how computers behave, and as a form of digital rights management: for example the scenario where a computer is not only secured for its owner, but also secured against its owner as well. [44] [45] On April 3, 2000, a judgment was handed down in the case of United States v. Microsoft, [46] calling the company an ""abusive monopoly."" [47] Microsoft later settled with the U. S. Department of Justice in 2004. [30] On October 25, 2001, Microsoft released Windows XP, unifying the mainstream and NT lines of OS under the NT codebase. [48] The company released the Xbox later that year, entering the game console market dominated by Sony and Nintendo. [49] In March 2004 the European Union brought antitrust legal action against the company, citing it abused its dominance with the Windows OS, resulting in a judgment of €497 million ($613 million) and requiring Microsoft to produce new versions of Windows XP without Windows Media Player: Windows XP Home Edition N and Windows XP Professional N. [50] [51] In November 2005, the Xbox 360 was released. There were two versions, a no-frills version for $299.99 and a bells-and-whistles version for $399.99. [52]2007–2011: Microsoft Azure, Windows Vista, Windows 7, and Microsoft Stores CEO Steve Ballmer at the MIX event in 2008. In an interview about his management style in 2005, he mentioned that his first priority was to get the people he delegates to in order. Ballmer also emphasized the need to continue pursuing new technologies even if initial attempts fail, citing the original attempts with Windows as an example. [53]Released in January 2007, the next version of Windows, Vista, focused on features, security and a redesigned user interface dubbed Aero. [54] [55] Microsoft Office 2007, released at the same time, featured a "" Ribbon "" user interface which was a significant departure from its predecessors. Relatively strong sales of both products helped to produce a record profit in 2007. [56] The European Union imposed another fine of €899 million ($1.4 billion) for Microsoft's lack of compliance with the March 2004 judgment on February 27, 2008, saying that the company charged rivals unreasonable prices for key information about its workgroup and backoffice servers. Microsoft stated that it was in compliance and that ""these fines are about the past issues that have been resolved"". [57] 2007 also saw the creation of a multi-core unit at Microsoft, following the steps of server companies such as Sun and IBM. [58]Gates retired from his role as Chief Software Architect on June 27, 2008, a decision announced in June 2006, while retaining other positions related to the company in addition to being an advisor for the company on key projects. [59] [60]Azure Services Platform, the company's entry into the cloud computing market for Windows, launched on October 27, 2008. [61] On February 12, 2009, Microsoft announced its intent to open a chain of Microsoft-branded retail stores, and on October 22, 2009 the first retail Microsoft Store opened in Scottsdale, Arizona; the same day Windows 7 was officially released to the public. Windows 7's focus was on refining Vista with ease of use features and performance enhancements, rather than a large reworking of Windows. [62] [63] [64]As the smartphone industry boomed in 2007, Microsoft had struggled to keep up with its rivals Apple and Google in providing a modern smartphone operating system. As a result, in 2010 Microsoft revamped their aging flagship mobile operating system, Windows Mobile, replacing it with the new Windows Phone OS. Microsoft implemented a new strategy for the software industry that had them working more closely with smartphone manufacturers, such as Nokia, and providing a consistent user experience across all smartphones using the Windows Phone OS. It used a new user interface design language, codenamed ""Metro"", which prominently used simple shapes, typography and iconography, utilizing the concept of minimalism. Microsoft is a founding member of the Open Networking Foundation started on March 23, 2011. Fellow founders were Google, HP Networking, Yahoo, Verizon, Deutsche Telekom and 17 other companies. This nonprofit organization is focused on providing support for a new cloud computing initiative called Software-Defined Networking. [65] The initiative is meant to speed innovation through simple software changes in telecommunications networks, wireless networks, data centers and other networking areas. [66]2011–2014: Windows 8/8.1, Xbox One, Outlook.com, and Surface devices Start screen on Windows 8.1Surface Pro 3, part of the Surface series of laplets by Microsoft Xbox One console Xbox 360 Kinect sensor Following the release of Windows Phone, Microsoft undertook a gradual rebranding of its product range throughout 2011 and 2012, with the corporation's logos, products, services and websites adopting the principles and concepts of the Metro design language. [67] Microsoft unveiled Windows 8, an operating system designed to power both personal computers and tablet computers, in Taipei in June 2011. [68] A developer preview was released on September 13, which was subsequently replaced by a consumer preview on February 29, 2012 and released to the public in May. [69] The Surface was unveiled on June 18, becoming the first computer in the company's history to have its hardware made by Microsoft. [70] [71] On June 25, Microsoft paid US$1.2 billion to buy the social network Yammer. [72] On July 31, they launched the Outlook.com webmail service to compete with Gmail. [73] On September 4, 2012, Microsoft released Windows Server 2012. [74]In July 2012, Microsoft sold its 50% stake in MSNBC.com, which it had run as a joint venture with NBC since 1996. [75] On October 1, Microsoft announced its intention to launch a news operation, part of a new-look MSN, with Windows 8 later in the month. [76] On October 26, 2012, Microsoft launched Windows 8 and the Microsoft Surface. [71] [77] Three days later, Windows Phone 8 was launched. [78] To cope with the potential for an increase in demand for products and services, Microsoft opened a number of ""holiday stores"" across the U. S. to complement the increasing number of ""bricks-and-mortar"" Microsoft Stores that opened in 2012. [79] On March 29, 2013, Microsoft launched a Patent Tracker. [80]The Kinect, a motion-sensing input device made by Microsoft and designed as a video game controller, first introduced in November 2010, was upgraded for the 2013 release of the Xbox One video game console. Kinect's capabilities were revealed in May 2013: an ultra-wide 1080p camera, function in the dark due to an infrared sensor, higher-end processing power and new software, the ability to distinguish between fine movements (such as a thumb movements), and determining a user's heart rate by looking at their face. [81] Microsoft filed a patent application in 2011 that suggests that the corporation may use the Kinect camera system to monitor the behavior of television viewers as part of a plan to make the viewing experience more interactive. On July 19, 2013, Microsoft stocks suffered its biggest one-day percentage sell-off since the year 2000, after its fourth-quarter report raised concerns among the investors on the poor showings of both Windows 8 and the Surface tablet. Microsoft suffered a loss of more than US$32 billion. [82]In line with the maturing PC business, in July 2013, Microsoft announced that it would reorganize the business into four new business divisions: Operating System, Apps, Cloud, and Devices. All previous divisions will be diluted into new divisions without any workforce cut. [83] On September 3, 2013, Microsoft agreed to buy Nokia 's mobile unit for $7 billion, [84] following Amy Hood taking the role of CFO. [85]2014–present: Windows 10, Windows 10 Mobile, Microsoft Edge and Holo Lens John W. Thompson has been appointed the chairman of Microsoft, taking over from Bill Gates. Corporate affairs On February 4, 2014, Steve Ballmer stepped down as CEO of Microsoft and was succeeded by Satya Nadella, who previously led Microsoft's Cloud and Enterprise division. [86] On the same day, John W. Thompson took on the role of chairman, in place of Bill Gates, who continued to participate as a technology advisor. [87] Thompson became the second chairman in Microsoft’s history. [88]On April 25, 2014, Microsoft acquired Nokia Devices and Services for $7.2 billion. [89] This new subsidiary was renamed Microsoft Mobile Oy. [90] In May 2016, the company announced its laying off 1,850 workers, taking an impairment and restructuring charge of $950 million. During the previous summer of 2015 the company lost $7.6 billion related to its mobile-phone business, firing 7,800 employees. [91]On September 15, 2014, Microsoft acquired the video game development company Mojang, best known for Minecraft, for $2.5 billion. [92] On June 8, 2017, Microsoft acquired Hexadite, an Israeli security firm, for $100 million. [93] [94] As of 2017, the company is organised into three operating business units, and four operating development or engineering units. Products On January 21, 2015, Microsoft announced the release of their first Interactive whiteboard, Microsoft Surface Hub. [95] On July 29, 2015, Windows 10 was released, [96] with its server sibling, Windows Server 2016, released in September 2016. In Q1 2015, Microsoft was the third largest maker of mobile phones, selling 33 million units (7.2% of all). While a large majority (at least 75%) of them do not run any version of Windows Phone – those other phones are not categorized as smartphones by Gartner – in the same time frame 8 million Windows smartphones (2.5% of all smartphones) were made by all manufacturers (but mostly by Microsoft). [97] Microsoft's share of the U. S. smartphone market in January 2016 was 2.7%. [98]On March 1, 2016, Microsoft announced the merger of its PC and Xbox divisions, with Phil Spencer announcing that Universal Windows Platform (UWP) apps would be the focus for Microsoft's gaming in the future. [99] On January 24, 2017, Microsoft showcased Intune for Education at the BETT 2017 education technology conference in London. [100] Intune for Education is a new cloud-based application and device management service for the education sector. [101] Microsoft planned to launch a preview of Intune for Education ""in the coming weeks"", with general availability scheduled for spring 2017, priced at $30 per device, or through volume licensing agreements. [102]Services In June 2016, Microsoft announced a project named Microsoft Azure Information Protection. It aims to help enterprises protect their data as it moves between servers and devices. [103] In November 2016, Microsoft joined the Linux Foundation as a Platinum member during Microsoft’s Connect (); developer event in New York. [104] The cost of each Platinum membership is US$500,000 per year. [105] Some analysts deemed this unthinkable ten years prior, however, as in 2001 then-CEO Steve Ballmer called Linux ""cancer"". [106]Business units See also: Microsoft engineering groups This section needs expansion. You can help by adding to it. (January 2018)Corporate affairs See also: Criticism of Microsoft and Embrace, extend, and extinguish Board of Directors The company is run by a board of directors made up of mostly company outsiders, as is customary for publicly traded companies. Members of the board of directors as of January 2016 are John W. Thompson, Bill Gates, Teri L. List-Stoll, Mason Morfit, Satya Nadella, Charles Noski, Helmut Panke, Sandi Peterson, Charles W. Scharf, John W. Stanton, and Padmasree Warrior. [107] Board members are elected every year at the annual shareholders' meeting using a majority vote system. There are five committees within the board which oversee more specific matters. These committees include the Audit Committee, which handles accounting issues with the company including auditing and reporting; the Compensation Committee, which approves compensation for the CEO and other employees of the company; the Finance Committee, which handles financial matters such as proposing mergers and acquisitions; the Governance and Nominating Committee, which handles various corporate matters including nomination of the board; and the Antitrust Compliance Committee, which attempts to prevent company practices from violating antitrust laws. [108]Financial Five year history graph of NASDAQ : MSFT stock on July 17, 2013 [109]When Microsoft went public and launched its initial public offering (IPO) in 1986, the opening stock price was $21; after the trading day, the price closed at $27.75. As of July 2010, with the company's nine stock splits, any IPO shares would be multiplied by 288; if one were to buy the IPO today given the splits and other factors, it would cost about 9 cents. [14]: 235–236 [110] [111] The stock price peaked in 1999 at around $119 ($60.928 adjusting for splits). [112] The company began to offer a dividend on January 16, 2003, starting at eight cents per share for the fiscal year followed by a dividend of sixteen cents per share the subsequent year, switching from yearly to quarterly dividends in 2005 with eight cents a share per quarter and a special one-time payout of three dollars per share for the second quarter of the fiscal year. [112] [113] Though the company had subsequent increases in dividend payouts, the price of Microsoft's stock remained steady for years. [113] [114]Standard and Poor's and Moody's have both given a AAA rating to Microsoft, whose assets were valued at $41 billion as compared to only $8.5 billion in unsecured debt. Consequently, in February 2011 Microsoft released a corporate bond amounting to $2.25 billion with relatively low borrowing rates compared to government bonds. [115] For the first time in 20 years Apple Inc. surpassed Microsoft in Q1 2011 quarterly profits and revenues due to a slowdown in PC sales and continuing huge losses in Microsoft's Online Services Division (which contains its search engine Bing ). Microsoft profits were $5.2 billion, while Apple Inc. profits were $6 billion, on revenues of $14.5 billion and $24.7 billion respectively. [116] Microsoft's Online Services Division has been continuously loss-making since 2006 and in Q1 2011 it lost $726 million. This follows a loss of $2.5 billion for the year 2010. [117]On July 20, 2012, Microsoft posted its first quarterly loss ever, despite earning record revenues for the quarter and fiscal year, with a net loss of $492 million due to a writedown related to the advertising company a Quantive, which had been acquired for $6.2 billion back in 2007. [118] As of January 2014, Microsoft's market capitalization stood at $314B, [119] making it the 8th largest company in the world by market capitalization. [120] On November 14, 2014, Microsoft overtook Exxon Mobil to become the 2nd most valuable company by market capitalization, behind only Apple Inc. Its total market value was over $410B — with the stock price hitting $50.04 a share, the highest since early 2000. [121] In 2015, Reuters reported that Microsoft Corp had earnings abroad of $76.4 billion which were untaxed by the IRS. Under U. S. law corporations don't pay income tax on overseas profits until the profits are brought into the United States. [122]Marketing Windows 8 Launch Event in Akihabara, Tokyo on October 25, 2012In 2004, Microsoft commissioned research firms to do independent studies comparing the total cost of ownership (TCO) of Windows Server 2003 to Linux; the firms concluded that companies found Windows easier to administrate than Linux, thus those using Windows would administrate faster resulting in lower costs for their company (i.e. lower TCO). [123] This spurred a wave of related studies; a study by the Yankee Group concluded that upgrading from one version of Windows Server to another costs a fraction of the switching costs from Windows Server to Linux, although companies surveyed noted the increased security and reliability of Linux servers and concern about being locked into using Microsoft products. [124] Another study, released by the Open Source Development Labs, claimed that the Microsoft studies were ""simply outdated and one-sided"" and their survey concluded that the TCO of Linux was lower due to Linux administrators managing more servers on average and other reasons. [125]As part of the ""Get the Facts"" campaign, Microsoft highlighted the . NET trading platform that it had developed in partnership with Accenture for the London Stock Exchange, claiming that it provided "" five nines "" reliability. After suffering extended downtime and unreliability [126] [127] the LSE announced in 2009 that it was planning to drop its Microsoft solution and switch to a Linux-based one in 2010. [128] [129]In 2012, Microsoft hired a political pollster named Mark Penn, whom the New York Times called ""famous for bulldozing"" his political opponents [130] as Executive Vice-President, Advertising and Strategy. Penn created a series of negative ads targeting one of Microsoft's chief competitors, Google. The ads, called "" Scroogled "", attempt to make the case that Google is ""screwing"" consumers with search results rigged to favor Google's paid advertisers, that Gmail violates the privacy of its users to place ad results related to the content of their emails and shopping results which favor Google products. Tech publications like Tech Crunch have been highly critical of the ad campaign, [131] while Google employees have embraced it. [132]Layoffs Main article: Criticism of Microsoft In July 2014, Microsoft announced plans to lay off 18,000 employees. Microsoft employed 127,104 people as of June 5, 2014, making this about a 14 percent reduction of its workforce as the biggest Microsoft lay off ever. This included 12,500 professional and factory personnel. Previously, Microsoft has laid off 5,800 jobs in 2009 in line with US financial crisis. [133] [134] In September 2014, Microsoft laid off 2,100 people, including 747 people in the Seattle-Redmond area, where the company is headquartered. The firings came as a second wave of the layoffs that were previously announced. This brings the total number to over 15,000 out of the 18,000 expected cuts. [135] In October 2014, Microsoft revealed that it was almost done with the elimination of 18,000 employees which was its largest ever layoff sweep. [136] In July 2015, Microsoft announced another 7,800 job cuts in the next several months. [137] In May 2016, Microsoft announced another 1,850 job cuts mostly in (Nokia) mobile phone division. As a result, the company will record an impairment and restructuring charge of approximately $950 million, of which approximately $200 million will relate to severance payments. [138]United States government Main article: Criticism of Microsoft Microsoft provides information about reported bugs in their software to intelligence agencies of the United States government, prior to the public release of the fix. A Microsoft spokesperson has stated that the corporation runs several programs that facilitate the sharing of such information with the U. S. government. [139] Following media reports about PRISM, NSA's massive electronic surveillance program, in May 2013, several technology companies were identified as participants, including Microsoft. [140] According to leaks of said program, Microsoft joined the PRISM program in 2007. [141] However, in June 2013, an official statement from Microsoft flatly denied their participation in the program: We provide customer data only when we receive a legally binding order or subpoena to do so, and never on a voluntary basis. In addition we only ever comply with orders for requests about specific accounts or identifiers. If the government has a broader voluntary national security program to gather customer data, we don't participate in it. [142]During the first six months in 2013, Microsoft had received requests that affected between 15,000 and 15,999 accounts. [143] In December 2013, the company made statement to further emphasize the fact that they take their customers' privacy and data protection very seriously, even saying that ""government snooping potentially now constitutes an "" advanced persistent threat ,"" alongside sophisticated malware and cyber attacks"". [144] The statement also marked the beginning of three-part program to enhance Microsoft's encryption and transparency efforts. On July 1, 2014, as part of this program they opened the first (of many) Microsoft Transparency Center, that provides ""participating governments with the ability to review source code for our key products, assure themselves of their software integrity, and confirm there are no "" back doors ."" [145] Microsoft has also argued that the United States Congress should enact strong privacy regulations to protect consumer data. [146]In April 2016, the company sued the U. S. government, arguing that secrecy orders were preventing the company from disclosing warrants to customers in violation of the company's and customers' rights. Microsoft argued that it was unconstitutional for the government to indefinitely ban Microsoft from informing its users that the government was requesting their emails and other documents, and that the Fourth Amendment made it so people or businesses had the right to know if the government searches or seizes their property. On October 23, 2017, Microsoft said it would drop the lawsuit as a result of a policy change by the Department of Justice (Do J). The Do J had “changed data request rules on alerting internet users about agencies accessing their information.” The new policy mandated defined periods of time for secrecy orders from the government. [147]Corporate identity Corporate culture The Commons, located on the campus of the company's headquarters in Redmond Building 92, home of the Microsoft Visitor Center Technical reference for developers and articles for various Microsoft magazines such as Microsoft Systems Journal (MSJ) are available through the Microsoft Developer Network (MSDN). MSDN also offers subscriptions for companies and individuals, and the more expensive subscriptions usually offer access to pre-release beta versions of Microsoft software. [148] [149] In April 2004 Microsoft launched a community site for developers and users, titled Channel 9, that provides a wiki and an Internet forum. [150] Another community site that provides daily videocasts and other services, On10.net, launched on March 3, 2006. [151] Free technical support is traditionally provided through online Usenet newsgroups, and Compu Serve in the past, monitored by Microsoft employees; there can be several newsgroups for a single product. Helpful people can be elected by peers or Microsoft employees for Microsoft Most Valuable Professional (MVP) status, which entitles them to a sort of special social status and possibilities for awards and other benefits. [152]Noted for its internal lexicon, the expression ""eating our own dog food"" is used to describe the policy of using pre-release and beta versions of products inside Microsoft in an effort to test them in ""real-world"" situations. [153] This is usually shortened to just ""dog food"" and is used as noun, verb, and adjective. Another bit of jargon, FYIFV or FYIV (""Fuck You, I'm [Fully] Vested""), is used by an employee to indicate they are financially independent and can avoid work anytime they wish. [154] The company is also known for its hiring process, mimicked in other organizations and dubbed the "" Microsoft interview "", which is notorious for off-the-wall questions such as ""Why is a manhole cover round?"". [155]Microsoft is an outspoken opponent of the cap on H1B visas, which allow companies in the U. S. to employ certain foreign workers. Bill Gates claims the cap on H1B visas makes it difficult to hire employees for the company, stating ""I'd certainly get rid of the H1B cap"" in 2005. [156] Critics of H1B visas argue that relaxing the limits would result in increased unemployment for U. S. citizens due to H1B workers working for lower salaries. [157] The Human Rights Campaign Corporate Equality Index, a report of how progressive the organization deems company policies towards LGBT (lesbian, gay, bisexual and transsexual) employees, rated Microsoft as 87% from 2002 to 2004 and as 100% from 2005 to 2010 after they allowed gender expression. [158]Environment In 2011, Greenpeace released a report rating the top ten big brands in cloud computing on their sources of electricity for their data centers. At the time, data centers consumed up to 2% of all global electricity and this amount was projected to increase. Phil Radford of Greenpeace said ""we are concerned that this new explosion in electricity use could lock us into old, polluting energy sources instead of the clean energy available today,"" [159] and called on ""Amazon, Microsoft and other leaders of the information-technology industry must embrace clean energy to power their cloud-based data centers."" [160] In 2013, Microsoft agreed to buy power generated by a Texas wind project to power one of its data centers. [161] Microsoft is ranked on the 17th place in Greenpeace 's Guide to Greener Electronics (16th Edition) that ranks 18 electronics manufacturers according to their policies on toxic chemicals, recycling and climate change. [162] Microsoft's timeline for phasing out brominated flame retardant (BFRs) and phthalates in all products is 2012 but its commitment to phasing out PVC is not clear. As of January 2011, it has no products that are completely free from PVC and BFRs. [163]Microsoft's main U. S. campus received a silver certification from the Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design (LEED) program in 2008, and it installed over 2,000 solar panels on top of its buildings in its Silicon Valley campus, generating approximately 15 percent of the total energy needed by the facilities in April 2005. [164] Microsoft makes use of alternative forms of transit. It created one of the world's largest private bus systems, the ""Connector"", to transport people from outside the company; for on-campus transportation, the ""Shuttle Connect"" uses a large fleet of hybrid cars to save fuel. The company also subsidises regional public transport, provided by Sound Transit and King County Metro, as an incentive. [164] [165] In February 2010 however, Microsoft took a stance against adding additional public transport and high-occupancy vehicle (HOV) lanes to the State Route 520 and its floating bridge connecting Redmond to Seattle; the company did not want to delay the construction any further. [166] Microsoft was ranked number 1 in the list of the World's Best Multinational Workplaces by the Great Place to Work Institute in 2011. [167]Headquarters The corporate headquarters, informally known as the Microsoft Redmond campus, is located at One Microsoft Way in Redmond, Washington. Microsoft initially moved onto the grounds of the campus on February 26, 1986, weeks before the company went public on March 13. The headquarters has since experienced multiple expansions since its establishment. It is estimated to encompass over 8 million ft 2 (750,000 m 2) of office space and 30,000–40,000 employees. [168] Additional offices are located in Bellevue and Issaquah (90,000 employees worldwide). The company is planning to upgrade its Mountain View, California campus on a grand scale. The company has occupied this campus since 1981. The company is planning to buy the 32-acre campus. [169] The plans submitted involve expanding the campus by 25%. It is expected that it will take three years to complete the expansion. If approved, construction will start in early 2017. [169] Microsoft operates an East Coast headquarters in Charlotte, North Carolina. [170]Flagship stores Toronto Microsoft Store On October 26, 2015, the company opened its flagship retail location on Fifth Avenue in New York City. The location features a five-story glass storefront and is 22,270 square feet. [171] As per company executives, Microsoft had been on the lookout for a flagship location since 2009. [172] The company's retail locations are part of a greater strategy to help build a connection with its consumers. The opening of the store coincided with the launch of the Surface Book and Surface Pro 4. [173] On November 12, 2015, Microsoft opened a second flagship store, located in Sydney's Pitt Street Mall. [174]Logo Microsoft adopted the so-called "" Pac-Man Logo"", designed by Scott Baker, in 1987. Baker stated ""The new logo, in Helvetica italic typeface, has a slash between the o and s to emphasize the ""soft"" part of the name and convey motion and speed."" [175] Dave Norris ran an internal joke campaign to save the old logo, which was green, in all uppercase, and featured a fanciful letter O, nicknamed the blibbet, but it was discarded. [176] Microsoft's logo with the tagline "" Your potential. Our passion. "" – below the main corporate name – is based on a slogan Microsoft used in 2008. In 2002, the company started using the logo in the United States and eventually started a television campaign with the slogan, changed from the previous tagline of "" Where do you want to go today? "" [177] [178] [179] During the private MGX (Microsoft Global Exchange) conference in 2010, Microsoft unveiled the company's next tagline, ""Be What's Next."" [180] They also had a slogan/tagline ""Making it all make sense."" [181]On August 23, 2012, Microsoft unveiled a new corporate logo at the opening of its 23rd Microsoft store in Boston, indicating the company's shift of focus from the classic style to the tile-centric modern interface, which it uses/will use on the Windows Phone platform, Xbox 360, Windows 8 and the upcoming Office Suites. [182] The new logo also includes four squares with the colors of the then-current Windows logo which have been used to represent Microsoft's four major products: Windows (blue), Office (red), Xbox (green) and Bing (yellow). [183] The logo resembles the opening of one of the commercials for Windows 95. 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[ "\"From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedianavigation search Microsoft Corporation Building 17 on the Microsoft Redmond campus in Redmond, Washington Type Public Traded as NASDAQ : MSFTNASDAQ-100 component DJIA component S&P 100 component S&P 500 component ISIN US5949181045Industry Computer software Computer hardware Consumer electronics Social networking service Cloud computing Video games Internet Corporate venture capital Founded April 4, 1975; 43 years ago in Albuquerque, New Mexico, U. S. Founders Bill Gates Paul Allen Headquarters Microsoft Redmond campus, Redmond, Washington, U. S. Area served Worldwide Key people John W. Thompson ( Chairman)Brad Smith ( President and CLO)Satya Nadella ( CEO)Bill Gates ( Technical advisor)Products Windows Office Servers Skype Visual Studio Dynamics Xbox Surface Mobile more... Services Azure Bing Linked In MSDNOffice 365 One Drive Outlook.com Tech Net Wallet Windows Store Windows Update Xbox Live Revenue US$ 89.95 billion [1] (2017)Operating income US$22.27 billion [1] (2017)Net income US$21.20 billion [1] (2017)Total assets US$241.08 billion [1] (2017)Total equity US$72.39 billion [1] (2017)Number of employees 124,000 [1] (2016)Subsidiaries List of Microsoft subsidiaries Website microsoft .com Microsoft Corporation ( / ˈ m aɪ k r ə ˌ s ɒ f t /, [2] [3] abbreviated as MS) is an American multinational technology company with headquarters in Redmond, Washington.", "It develops, manufactures, licenses, supports and sells computer software, consumer electronics, personal computers, and services.", "Its best known software products are the Microsoft Windows line of operating systems, the Microsoft Office suite, and the Internet Explorer and Edge web browsers.", "Its flagship hardware products are the Xbox video game consoles and the Microsoft Surface lineup of touchscreen personal computers.", "As of 2016, it is the world's largest software maker by revenue, [4] and one of the world's most valuable companies.", "[5] The word \"\"Microsoft\"\" is a portmanteau of \"\"microcomputer\"\" and \"\"software\"\".", "[6]Microsoft was founded by Paul Allen and Bill Gates on April 4, 1975, to develop and sell BASIC interpreters for the Altair 8800.", "It rose to dominate the personal computer operating system market with MS-DOS in the mid-1980s, followed by Microsoft Windows.", "The company's 1986 initial public offering (IPO), and subsequent rise in its share price, created three billionaires and an estimated 12,000 millionaires among Microsoft employees.", "Since the 1990s, it has increasingly diversified from the operating system market and has made a number of corporate acquisitions —their largest being the acquisition of Linked In for $26.2 billion in December 2016, [7] followed by Skype Technologies for $8.5 billion in May 2011.", "[8]As of 2015, Microsoft is market-dominant in the IBM PC-compatible operating system market and the office software suite market, although it has lost the majority of the overall operating system market to Android.", "[9] The company also produces a wide range of other consumer and enterprise software for desktops and servers, including Internet search (with Bing ), the digital services market (through MSN ), mixed reality ( Holo Lens ), cloud computing ( Azure) and software development ( Visual Studio ).", "Steve Ballmer replaced Gates as CEO in 2000, and later envisioned a \"\"devices and services\"\" strategy.", "[10] This began with the acquisition of Danger Inc. in 2008, [11] entering the personal computer production market for the first time in June 2012 with the launch of the Microsoft Surface line of tablet computers; and later forming Microsoft Mobile through the acquisition of Nokia 's devices and services division.", "Since Satya Nadella took over as CEO in 2014, the company has scaled back on hardware and has instead focused on cloud computing, a move that helped the company's shares reach its highest value since December 1999.", "[12] [13]Contents [ hide ]1 History1.1 1972–1985: The founding of Microsoft1.2 1985–1994: Windows and Office1.3 1995–2007: Foray into the Web, Windows 95, Windows XP, and Xbox1.4 2007–2011: Microsoft Azure, Windows Vista, Windows 7, and Microsoft Stores1.5 2011–2014: Windows 8/8.1, Xbox One, Outlook.com, and Surface devices1.6 2014–present: Windows 10, Windows 10 Mobile, Microsoft Edge and Holo Lens1.6.1 Corporate affairs1.6.2 Products1.6.3 Services2 Business units3 Corporate affairs3.1 Board of Directors3.2 Financial3.3 Marketing3.4 Layoffs3.5 United States government4 Corporate identity4.1 Corporate culture4.2 Environment4.3 Headquarters4.4 Flagship stores4.5 Logo4.6 Sponsorship5 References6 External links History Main articles: History of Microsoft, History of Microsoft Windows, and Timeline of Microsoft1972–1985: The founding of Microsoft Paul Allen and Bill Gates pose for the camera on October 19, 1981, in a sea of PCs after signing a pivotal contract with IBM.", "[14]: 228Childhood friends Paul Allen and Bill Gates sought to make a successful business utilizing their shared skills in computer programming.", "[15] In 1972 they founded their first company, named Traf-O-Data, which sold a rudimentary computer to track and analyze automobile traffic data.", "While Gates enrolled at Harvard, Allen pursued a degree in computer science at Washington State University, though he later dropped out of school to work at Honeywell.", "[16] The January 1975 issue of Popular Electronics featured Micro Instrumentation and Telemetry Systems 's (MITS) Altair 8800microcomputer, [17] which inspired Allen to suggest that they could program a BASICinterpreter for the device.", "After a call from Gates claiming to have a working interpreter, MITS requested a demonstration.", "Since they didn't yet have one, Allen worked on a simulator for the Altair while Gates developed the interpreter.", "Although they developed the interpreter on a simulator and not the actual device, it worked flawlessly when they (in March 1975) demonstrated the interpreter to MITS in Albuquerque, New Mexico.", "MITS agreed to distribute it, marketing it as Altair BASIC.", "[14]: 108, 112–114 Gates and Allen officially established Microsoft on April 4, 1975, with Gates as the CEO.", "[18] The original name of \"\"Micro-Soft\"\" was suggested by Allen.", "[19] [20] In August 1977 the company formed an agreement with ASCII Magazine in Japan, resulting in its first international office, \"\" ASCII Microsoft \"\".", "[21] Microsoft moved to a new home in Bellevue, Washington in January 1979.", "[18]Microsoft entered the operating system (OS) business in 1980 with its own version of Unix, called Xenix.", "[22] However, it was MS-DOS that solidified the company's dominance.", "After negotiations with Digital Research failed, IBM awarded a contract to Microsoft in November 1980 to provide a version of the CP/M OS, which was set to be used in the upcoming IBM Personal Computer (IBM PC).", "[23] For this deal, Microsoft purchased a CP/M clone called 86-DOS from Seattle Computer Products, which it branded as MS-DOS, though IBM rebranded it to PC DOS.", "Following the release of the IBM PC in August 1981, Microsoft retained ownership of MS-DOS.", "Since IBM had copyrighted the IBM PC BIOS, other companies had to reverse engineer it in order for non-IBM hardware to run as IBM PC compatibles, but no such restriction applied to the operating systems.", "Due to various factors, such as MS-DOS's available software selection, Microsoft eventually became the leading PC operating systems vendor.", "[24] [25]: 210 The company expanded into new markets with the release of the Microsoft Mouse in 1983, as well as with a publishing division named Microsoft Press.", "[14]: 232 Paul Allen resigned from Microsoft in 1983 after developing Hodgkin's disease.", "[26] Allen claimed that Gates wanted to dilute his share in the company when he was diagnosed with Hodgkin’s disease because he didn’t think he was working hard enough.", "[27] After leaving Microsoft, Allen lost billions of dollars on ill-conceived or mistimed technology investments.", "He later invested in low-tech sectors, sports teams, and commercial real estate.", "[28]1985–1994: Windows and Office Windows 1.0 was released on November 20, 1985 as the first version of the Microsoft Windows line Timeline of Windows Despite having begun jointly developing a new operating system, OS/2, with IBM in August 1985, [29] Microsoft released Microsoft Windows, a graphical extension for MS-DOS, on November 20.", "[14]: 242–243, 246 Microsoft moved its headquarters to Redmond on February 26, 1986, and on March 13 went public, [30] with the resulting rise in stock making an estimated four billionaires and 12,000 millionaires from Microsoft employees.", "[31] Microsoft released its version of OS/2 to original equipment manufacturers (OEMs) on April 2, 1987.", "[14] In 1990, due to the partnership with IBM, the Federal Trade Commission set its eye on Microsoft for possible collusion, marking the beginning of over a decade of legal clashes with the U. S. government.", "[32]: 243–244 Meanwhile, the company was at work on a 32-bit OS, Microsoft Windows NT, which was heavily based on their copy of the OS/2 code.", "It shipped on July 21, 1993, with a new modular kernel and the Win32 application programming interface (API), making porting from 16-bit (MS-DOS-based) Windows easier.", "Once Microsoft informed IBM of NT, the OS/2 partnership deteriorated.", "[33]In 1990, Microsoft introduced its office suite, Microsoft Office.", "The suite bundled separate productivity applications, such as Microsoft Word and Microsoft Excel.", "[14]: 301 On May 22, Microsoft launched Windows 3.0, featuring streamlined user interface graphics and improved protected mode capability for the Intel 386 processor.", "[34] Both Office and Windows became dominant in their respective areas.", "[35] [36]On July 27, 1994, the U. S. Department of Justice, Antitrust Division filed a Competitive Impact Statement that said, in part: \"\"Beginning in 1988, and continuing until July 15, 1994, Microsoft induced many OEMs to execute anti-competitive \"\"per processor\"\" licenses.", "Under a per processor license, an OEM pays Microsoft a royalty for each computer it sells containing a particular microprocessor, whether the OEM sells the computer with a Microsoft operating system or a non-Microsoft operating system.", "In effect, the royalty payment to Microsoft when no Microsoft product is being used acts as a penalty, or tax, on the OEM's use of a competing PC operating system.", "Since 1988, Microsoft's use of per processor licenses has increased.\"\"", "[37]1995–2007: Foray into the Web, Windows 95, Windows XP, and Xbox Microsoft released the first installment in the Xbox series of consoles in 2001.", "The Xbox, graphically powerful compared to its rivals, featured a standard PC's 733 MHz Intel Pentium III processor.", "Following Bill Gates's internal \"\"Internet Tidal Wave memo\"\" on May 26, 1995, Microsoft began to redefine its offerings and expand its product line into computer networking and the World Wide Web.", "[38] The company released Windows 95 on August 24, 1995, featuring pre-emptive multitasking, a completely new user interface with a novel start button, and 32-bit compatibility; similar to NT, it provided the Win32 API.", "[39] [40]: 20 Windows 95 came bundled with the online service MSN (which was at first intended to be a competitor to the Internet), and (for OEMs) Internet Explorer, a web browser.", "Internet Explorer was not bundled with the retail Windows 95 boxes because the boxes were printed before the team finished the web browser, and instead was included in the Windows 95 Plus!", "pack.", "[41] Branching out into new markets in 1996, Microsoft and General Electric 's NBC unit created a new 24/7 cable news channel, MSNBC.", "[42] Microsoft created Windows CE 1.0, a new OS designed for devices with low memory and other constraints, such as personal digital assistants.", "[43] In October 1997, the Justice Department filed a motion in the Federal District Court, stating that Microsoft violated an agreement signed in 1994 and asked the court to stop the bundling of Internet Explorer with Windows.", "[14]: 323–324In 1996, Microsoft released Windows CE, a version of the operating system meant for personal digital assistants and other tiny computers.", "On January 13, 2000, Bill Gates handed over the CEO position to Steve Ballmer, an old college friend of Gates and employee of the company since 1980, while creating a new position for himself as Chief Software Architect.", "[14]: 111, 228 [18] Various companies including Microsoft formed the Trusted Computing Platform Alliance in October 1999 to (among other things) increase security and protect intellectual property through identifying changes in hardware and software.", "Critics decried the alliance as a way to enforce indiscriminate restrictions over how consumers use software, and over how computers behave, and as a form of digital rights management: for example the scenario where a computer is not only secured for its owner, but also secured against its owner as well.", "[44] [45] On April 3, 2000, a judgment was handed down in the case of United States v. Microsoft, [46] calling the company an \"\"abusive monopoly.\"\"", "[47] Microsoft later settled with the U. S. Department of Justice in 2004.", "[30] On October 25, 2001, Microsoft released Windows XP, unifying the mainstream and NT lines of OS under the NT codebase.", "[48] The company released the Xbox later that year, entering the game console market dominated by Sony and Nintendo.", "[49] In March 2004 the European Union brought antitrust legal action against the company, citing it abused its dominance with the Windows OS, resulting in a judgment of €497 million ($613 million) and requiring Microsoft to produce new versions of Windows XP without Windows Media Player: Windows XP Home Edition N and Windows XP Professional N. [50] [51] In November 2005, the Xbox 360 was released.", "There were two versions, a no-frills version for $299.99 and a bells-and-whistles version for $399.99.", "[52]2007–2011: Microsoft Azure, Windows Vista, Windows 7, and Microsoft Stores CEO Steve Ballmer at the MIX event in 2008.", "In an interview about his management style in 2005, he mentioned that his first priority was to get the people he delegates to in order.", "Ballmer also emphasized the need to continue pursuing new technologies even if initial attempts fail, citing the original attempts with Windows as an example.", "[53]Released in January 2007, the next version of Windows, Vista, focused on features, security and a redesigned user interface dubbed Aero.", "[54] [55] Microsoft Office 2007, released at the same time, featured a \"\" Ribbon \"\" user interface which was a significant departure from its predecessors.", "Relatively strong sales of both products helped to produce a record profit in 2007.", "[56] The European Union imposed another fine of €899 million ($1.4 billion) for Microsoft's lack of compliance with the March 2004 judgment on February 27, 2008, saying that the company charged rivals unreasonable prices for key information about its workgroup and backoffice servers.", "Microsoft stated that it was in compliance and that \"\"these fines are about the past issues that have been resolved\"\".", "[57] 2007 also saw the creation of a multi-core unit at Microsoft, following the steps of server companies such as Sun and IBM.", "[58]Gates retired from his role as Chief Software Architect on June 27, 2008, a decision announced in June 2006, while retaining other positions related to the company in addition to being an advisor for the company on key projects.", "[59] [60]Azure Services Platform, the company's entry into the cloud computing market for Windows, launched on October 27, 2008.", "[61] On February 12, 2009, Microsoft announced its intent to open a chain of Microsoft-branded retail stores, and on October 22, 2009 the first retail Microsoft Store opened in Scottsdale, Arizona; the same day Windows 7 was officially released to the public.", "Windows 7's focus was on refining Vista with ease of use features and performance enhancements, rather than a large reworking of Windows.", "[62] [63] [64]As the smartphone industry boomed in 2007, Microsoft had struggled to keep up with its rivals Apple and Google in providing a modern smartphone operating system.", "As a result, in 2010 Microsoft revamped their aging flagship mobile operating system, Windows Mobile, replacing it with the new Windows Phone OS.", "Microsoft implemented a new strategy for the software industry that had them working more closely with smartphone manufacturers, such as Nokia, and providing a consistent user experience across all smartphones using the Windows Phone OS.", "It used a new user interface design language, codenamed \"\"Metro\"\", which prominently used simple shapes, typography and iconography, utilizing the concept of minimalism.", "Microsoft is a founding member of the Open Networking Foundation started on March 23, 2011.", "Fellow founders were Google, HP Networking, Yahoo, Verizon, Deutsche Telekom and 17 other companies.", "This nonprofit organization is focused on providing support for a new cloud computing initiative called Software-Defined Networking.", "[65] The initiative is meant to speed innovation through simple software changes in telecommunications networks, wireless networks, data centers and other networking areas.", "[66]2011–2014: Windows 8/8.1, Xbox One, Outlook.com, and Surface devices Start screen on Windows 8.1Surface Pro 3, part of the Surface series of laplets by Microsoft Xbox One console Xbox 360 Kinect sensor Following the release of Windows Phone, Microsoft undertook a gradual rebranding of its product range throughout 2011 and 2012, with the corporation's logos, products, services and websites adopting the principles and concepts of the Metro design language.", "[67] Microsoft unveiled Windows 8, an operating system designed to power both personal computers and tablet computers, in Taipei in June 2011.", "[68] A developer preview was released on September 13, which was subsequently replaced by a consumer preview on February 29, 2012 and released to the public in May.", "[69] The Surface was unveiled on June 18, becoming the first computer in the company's history to have its hardware made by Microsoft.", "[70] [71] On June 25, Microsoft paid US$1.2 billion to buy the social network Yammer.", "[72] On July 31, they launched the Outlook.com webmail service to compete with Gmail.", "[73] On September 4, 2012, Microsoft released Windows Server 2012.", "[74]In July 2012, Microsoft sold its 50% stake in MSNBC.com, which it had run as a joint venture with NBC since 1996.", "[75] On October 1, Microsoft announced its intention to launch a news operation, part of a new-look MSN, with Windows 8 later in the month.", "[76] On October 26, 2012, Microsoft launched Windows 8 and the Microsoft Surface.", "[71] [77] Three days later, Windows Phone 8 was launched.", "[78] To cope with the potential for an increase in demand for products and services, Microsoft opened a number of \"\"holiday stores\"\" across the U. S. to complement the increasing number of \"\"bricks-and-mortar\"\" Microsoft Stores that opened in 2012.", "[79] On March 29, 2013, Microsoft launched a Patent Tracker.", "[80]The Kinect, a motion-sensing input device made by Microsoft and designed as a video game controller, first introduced in November 2010, was upgraded for the 2013 release of the Xbox One video game console.", "Kinect's capabilities were revealed in May 2013: an ultra-wide 1080p camera, function in the dark due to an infrared sensor, higher-end processing power and new software, the ability to distinguish between fine movements (such as a thumb movements), and determining a user's heart rate by looking at their face.", "[81] Microsoft filed a patent application in 2011 that suggests that the corporation may use the Kinect camera system to monitor the behavior of television viewers as part of a plan to make the viewing experience more interactive.", "On July 19, 2013, Microsoft stocks suffered its biggest one-day percentage sell-off since the year 2000, after its fourth-quarter report raised concerns among the investors on the poor showings of both Windows 8 and the Surface tablet.", "Microsoft suffered a loss of more than US$32 billion.", "[82]In line with the maturing PC business, in July 2013, Microsoft announced that it would reorganize the business into four new business divisions: Operating System, Apps, Cloud, and Devices.", "All previous divisions will be diluted into new divisions without any workforce cut.", "[83] On September 3, 2013, Microsoft agreed to buy Nokia 's mobile unit for $7 billion, [84] following Amy Hood taking the role of CFO.", "[85]2014–present: Windows 10, Windows 10 Mobile, Microsoft Edge and Holo Lens John W. Thompson has been appointed the chairman of Microsoft, taking over from Bill Gates.", "Corporate affairs On February 4, 2014, Steve Ballmer stepped down as CEO of Microsoft and was succeeded by Satya Nadella, who previously led Microsoft's Cloud and Enterprise division.", "[86] On the same day, John W. Thompson took on the role of chairman, in place of Bill Gates, who continued to participate as a technology advisor.", "[87] Thompson became the second chairman in Microsoft’s history.", "[88]On April 25, 2014, Microsoft acquired Nokia Devices and Services for $7.2 billion.", "[89] This new subsidiary was renamed Microsoft Mobile Oy.", "[90] In May 2016, the company announced its laying off 1,850 workers, taking an impairment and restructuring charge of $950 million.", "During the previous summer of 2015 the company lost $7.6 billion related to its mobile-phone business, firing 7,800 employees.", "[91]On September 15, 2014, Microsoft acquired the video game development company Mojang, best known for Minecraft, for $2.5 billion.", "[92] On June 8, 2017, Microsoft acquired Hexadite, an Israeli security firm, for $100 million.", "[93] [94] As of 2017, the company is organised into three operating business units, and four operating development or engineering units.", "Products On January 21, 2015, Microsoft announced the release of their first Interactive whiteboard, Microsoft Surface Hub.", "[95] On July 29, 2015, Windows 10 was released, [96] with its server sibling, Windows Server 2016, released in September 2016.", "In Q1 2015, Microsoft was the third largest maker of mobile phones, selling 33 million units (7.2% of all).", "While a large majority (at least 75%) of them do not run any version of Windows Phone – those other phones are not categorized as smartphones by Gartner – in the same time frame 8 million Windows smartphones (2.5% of all smartphones) were made by all manufacturers (but mostly by Microsoft).", "[97] Microsoft's share of the U. S. smartphone market in January 2016 was 2.7%.", "[98]On March 1, 2016, Microsoft announced the merger of its PC and Xbox divisions, with Phil Spencer announcing that Universal Windows Platform (UWP) apps would be the focus for Microsoft's gaming in the future.", "[99] On January 24, 2017, Microsoft showcased Intune for Education at the BETT 2017 education technology conference in London.", "[100] Intune for Education is a new cloud-based application and device management service for the education sector.", "[101] Microsoft planned to launch a preview of Intune for Education \"\"in the coming weeks\"\", with general availability scheduled for spring 2017, priced at $30 per device, or through volume licensing agreements.", "[102]Services In June 2016, Microsoft announced a project named Microsoft Azure Information Protection.", "It aims to help enterprises protect their data as it moves between servers and devices.", "[103] In November 2016, Microsoft joined the Linux Foundation as a Platinum member during Microsoft’s Connect (); developer event in New York.", "[104] The cost of each Platinum membership is US$500,000 per year.", "[105] Some analysts deemed this unthinkable ten years prior, however, as in 2001 then-CEO Steve Ballmer called Linux \"\"cancer\"\".", "[106]Business units See also: Microsoft engineering groups This section needs expansion.", "You can help by adding to it.", "(January 2018)Corporate affairs See also: Criticism of Microsoft and Embrace, extend, and extinguish Board of Directors The company is run by a board of directors made up of mostly company outsiders, as is customary for publicly traded companies.", "Members of the board of directors as of January 2016 are John W. Thompson, Bill Gates, Teri L. List-Stoll, Mason Morfit, Satya Nadella, Charles Noski, Helmut Panke, Sandi Peterson, Charles W. Scharf, John W. Stanton, and Padmasree Warrior.", "[107] Board members are elected every year at the annual shareholders' meeting using a majority vote system.", "There are five committees within the board which oversee more specific matters.", "These committees include the Audit Committee, which handles accounting issues with the company including auditing and reporting; the Compensation Committee, which approves compensation for the CEO and other employees of the company; the Finance Committee, which handles financial matters such as proposing mergers and acquisitions; the Governance and Nominating Committee, which handles various corporate matters including nomination of the board; and the Antitrust Compliance Committee, which attempts to prevent company practices from violating antitrust laws.", "[108]Financial Five year history graph of NASDAQ : MSFT stock on July 17, 2013 [109]When Microsoft went public and launched its initial public offering (IPO) in 1986, the opening stock price was $21; after the trading day, the price closed at $27.75.", "As of July 2010, with the company's nine stock splits, any IPO shares would be multiplied by 288; if one were to buy the IPO today given the splits and other factors, it would cost about 9 cents.", "[14]: 235–236 [110] [111] The stock price peaked in 1999 at around $119 ($60.928 adjusting for splits).", "[112] The company began to offer a dividend on January 16, 2003, starting at eight cents per share for the fiscal year followed by a dividend of sixteen cents per share the subsequent year, switching from yearly to quarterly dividends in 2005 with eight cents a share per quarter and a special one-time payout of three dollars per share for the second quarter of the fiscal year.", "[112] [113] Though the company had subsequent increases in dividend payouts, the price of Microsoft's stock remained steady for years.", "[113] [114]Standard and Poor's and Moody's have both given a AAA rating to Microsoft, whose assets were valued at $41 billion as compared to only $8.5 billion in unsecured debt.", "Consequently, in February 2011 Microsoft released a corporate bond amounting to $2.25 billion with relatively low borrowing rates compared to government bonds.", "[115] For the first time in 20 years Apple Inc. surpassed Microsoft in Q1 2011 quarterly profits and revenues due to a slowdown in PC sales and continuing huge losses in Microsoft's Online Services Division (which contains its search engine Bing ).", "Microsoft profits were $5.2 billion, while Apple Inc. profits were $6 billion, on revenues of $14.5 billion and $24.7 billion respectively.", "[116] Microsoft's Online Services Division has been continuously loss-making since 2006 and in Q1 2011 it lost $726 million.", "This follows a loss of $2.5 billion for the year 2010.", "[117]On July 20, 2012, Microsoft posted its first quarterly loss ever, despite earning record revenues for the quarter and fiscal year, with a net loss of $492 million due to a writedown related to the advertising company a Quantive, which had been acquired for $6.2 billion back in 2007.", "[118] As of January 2014, Microsoft's market capitalization stood at $314B, [119] making it the 8th largest company in the world by market capitalization.", "[120] On November 14, 2014, Microsoft overtook Exxon Mobil to become the 2nd most valuable company by market capitalization, behind only Apple Inc. Its total market value was over $410B — with the stock price hitting $50.04 a share, the highest since early 2000.", "[121] In 2015, Reuters reported that Microsoft Corp had earnings abroad of $76.4 billion which were untaxed by the IRS.", "Under U. S. law corporations don't pay income tax on overseas profits until the profits are brought into the United States.", "[122]Marketing Windows 8 Launch Event in Akihabara, Tokyo on October 25, 2012In 2004, Microsoft commissioned research firms to do independent studies comparing the total cost of ownership (TCO) of Windows Server 2003 to Linux; the firms concluded that companies found Windows easier to administrate than Linux, thus those using Windows would administrate faster resulting in lower costs for their company (i.e.", "lower TCO).", "[123] This spurred a wave of related studies; a study by the Yankee Group concluded that upgrading from one version of Windows Server to another costs a fraction of the switching costs from Windows Server to Linux, although companies surveyed noted the increased security and reliability of Linux servers and concern about being locked into using Microsoft products.", "[124] Another study, released by the Open Source Development Labs, claimed that the Microsoft studies were \"\"simply outdated and one-sided\"\" and their survey concluded that the TCO of Linux was lower due to Linux administrators managing more servers on average and other reasons.", "[125]As part of the \"\"Get the Facts\"\" campaign, Microsoft highlighted the .", "NET trading platform that it had developed in partnership with Accenture for the London Stock Exchange, claiming that it provided \"\" five nines \"\" reliability.", "After suffering extended downtime and unreliability [126] [127] the LSE announced in 2009 that it was planning to drop its Microsoft solution and switch to a Linux-based one in 2010.", "[128] [129]In 2012, Microsoft hired a political pollster named Mark Penn, whom the New York Times called \"\"famous for bulldozing\"\" his political opponents [130] as Executive Vice-President, Advertising and Strategy.", "Penn created a series of negative ads targeting one of Microsoft's chief competitors, Google.", "The ads, called \"\" Scroogled \"\", attempt to make the case that Google is \"\"screwing\"\" consumers with search results rigged to favor Google's paid advertisers, that Gmail violates the privacy of its users to place ad results related to the content of their emails and shopping results which favor Google products.", "Tech publications like Tech Crunch have been highly critical of the ad campaign, [131] while Google employees have embraced it.", "[132]Layoffs Main article: Criticism of Microsoft In July 2014, Microsoft announced plans to lay off 18,000 employees.", "Microsoft employed 127,104 people as of June 5, 2014, making this about a 14 percent reduction of its workforce as the biggest Microsoft lay off ever.", "This included 12,500 professional and factory personnel.", "Previously, Microsoft has laid off 5,800 jobs in 2009 in line with US financial crisis.", "[133] [134] In September 2014, Microsoft laid off 2,100 people, including 747 people in the Seattle-Redmond area, where the company is headquartered.", "The firings came as a second wave of the layoffs that were previously announced.", "This brings the total number to over 15,000 out of the 18,000 expected cuts.", "[135] In October 2014, Microsoft revealed that it was almost done with the elimination of 18,000 employees which was its largest ever layoff sweep.", "[136] In July 2015, Microsoft announced another 7,800 job cuts in the next several months.", "[137] In May 2016, Microsoft announced another 1,850 job cuts mostly in (Nokia) mobile phone division.", "As a result, the company will record an impairment and restructuring charge of approximately $950 million, of which approximately $200 million will relate to severance payments.", "[138]United States government Main article: Criticism of Microsoft Microsoft provides information about reported bugs in their software to intelligence agencies of the United States government, prior to the public release of the fix.", "A Microsoft spokesperson has stated that the corporation runs several programs that facilitate the sharing of such information with the U. S. government.", "[139] Following media reports about PRISM, NSA's massive electronic surveillance program, in May 2013, several technology companies were identified as participants, including Microsoft.", "[140] According to leaks of said program, Microsoft joined the PRISM program in 2007.", "[141] However, in June 2013, an official statement from Microsoft flatly denied their participation in the program: We provide customer data only when we receive a legally binding order or subpoena to do so, and never on a voluntary basis.", "In addition we only ever comply with orders for requests about specific accounts or identifiers.", "If the government has a broader voluntary national security program to gather customer data, we don't participate in it.", "[142]During the first six months in 2013, Microsoft had received requests that affected between 15,000 and 15,999 accounts.", "[143] In December 2013, the company made statement to further emphasize the fact that they take their customers' privacy and data protection very seriously, even saying that \"\"government snooping potentially now constitutes an \"\" advanced persistent threat ,\"\" alongside sophisticated malware and cyber attacks\"\".", "[144] The statement also marked the beginning of three-part program to enhance Microsoft's encryption and transparency efforts.", "On July 1, 2014, as part of this program they opened the first (of many) Microsoft Transparency Center, that provides \"\"participating governments with the ability to review source code for our key products, assure themselves of their software integrity, and confirm there are no \"\" back doors .\"\"", "[145] Microsoft has also argued that the United States Congress should enact strong privacy regulations to protect consumer data.", "[146]In April 2016, the company sued the U. S. government, arguing that secrecy orders were preventing the company from disclosing warrants to customers in violation of the company's and customers' rights.", "Microsoft argued that it was unconstitutional for the government to indefinitely ban Microsoft from informing its users that the government was requesting their emails and other documents, and that the Fourth Amendment made it so people or businesses had the right to know if the government searches or seizes their property.", "On October 23, 2017, Microsoft said it would drop the lawsuit as a result of a policy change by the Department of Justice (Do J).", "The Do J had “changed data request rules on alerting internet users about agencies accessing their information.” The new policy mandated defined periods of time for secrecy orders from the government.", "[147]Corporate identity Corporate culture The Commons, located on the campus of the company's headquarters in Redmond Building 92, home of the Microsoft Visitor Center Technical reference for developers and articles for various Microsoft magazines such as Microsoft Systems Journal (MSJ) are available through the Microsoft Developer Network (MSDN).", "MSDN also offers subscriptions for companies and individuals, and the more expensive subscriptions usually offer access to pre-release beta versions of Microsoft software.", "[148] [149] In April 2004 Microsoft launched a community site for developers and users, titled Channel 9, that provides a wiki and an Internet forum.", "[150] Another community site that provides daily videocasts and other services, On10.net, launched on March 3, 2006.", "[151] Free technical support is traditionally provided through online Usenet newsgroups, and Compu Serve in the past, monitored by Microsoft employees; there can be several newsgroups for a single product.", "Helpful people can be elected by peers or Microsoft employees for Microsoft Most Valuable Professional (MVP) status, which entitles them to a sort of special social status and possibilities for awards and other benefits.", "[152]Noted for its internal lexicon, the expression \"\"eating our own dog food\"\" is used to describe the policy of using pre-release and beta versions of products inside Microsoft in an effort to test them in \"\"real-world\"\" situations.", "[153] This is usually shortened to just \"\"dog food\"\" and is used as noun, verb, and adjective.", "Another bit of jargon, FYIFV or FYIV (\"\"Fuck You, I'm [Fully] Vested\"\"), is used by an employee to indicate they are financially independent and can avoid work anytime they wish.", "[154] The company is also known for its hiring process, mimicked in other organizations and dubbed the \"\" Microsoft interview \"\", which is notorious for off-the-wall questions such as \"\"Why is a manhole cover round?\"\".", "[155]Microsoft is an outspoken opponent of the cap on H1B visas, which allow companies in the U. S. to employ certain foreign workers.", "Bill Gates claims the cap on H1B visas makes it difficult to hire employees for the company, stating \"\"I'd certainly get rid of the H1B cap\"\" in 2005.", "[156] Critics of H1B visas argue that relaxing the limits would result in increased unemployment for U. S. citizens due to H1B workers working for lower salaries.", "[157] The Human Rights Campaign Corporate Equality Index, a report of how progressive the organization deems company policies towards LGBT (lesbian, gay, bisexual and transsexual) employees, rated Microsoft as 87% from 2002 to 2004 and as 100% from 2005 to 2010 after they allowed gender expression.", "[158]Environment In 2011, Greenpeace released a report rating the top ten big brands in cloud computing on their sources of electricity for their data centers.", "At the time, data centers consumed up to 2% of all global electricity and this amount was projected to increase.", "Phil Radford of Greenpeace said \"\"we are concerned that this new explosion in electricity use could lock us into old, polluting energy sources instead of the clean energy available today,\"\" [159] and called on \"\"Amazon, Microsoft and other leaders of the information-technology industry must embrace clean energy to power their cloud-based data centers.\"\"", "[160] In 2013, Microsoft agreed to buy power generated by a Texas wind project to power one of its data centers.", "[161] Microsoft is ranked on the 17th place in Greenpeace 's Guide to Greener Electronics (16th Edition) that ranks 18 electronics manufacturers according to their policies on toxic chemicals, recycling and climate change.", "[162] Microsoft's timeline for phasing out brominated flame retardant (BFRs) and phthalates in all products is 2012 but its commitment to phasing out PVC is not clear.", "As of January 2011, it has no products that are completely free from PVC and BFRs.", "[163]Microsoft's main U. S. campus received a silver certification from the Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design (LEED) program in 2008, and it installed over 2,000 solar panels on top of its buildings in its Silicon Valley campus, generating approximately 15 percent of the total energy needed by the facilities in April 2005.", "[164] Microsoft makes use of alternative forms of transit.", "It created one of the world's largest private bus systems, the \"\"Connector\"\", to transport people from outside the company; for on-campus transportation, the \"\"Shuttle Connect\"\" uses a large fleet of hybrid cars to save fuel.", "The company also subsidises regional public transport, provided by Sound Transit and King County Metro, as an incentive.", "[164] [165] In February 2010 however, Microsoft took a stance against adding additional public transport and high-occupancy vehicle (HOV) lanes to the State Route 520 and its floating bridge connecting Redmond to Seattle; the company did not want to delay the construction any further.", "[166] Microsoft was ranked number 1 in the list of the World's Best Multinational Workplaces by the Great Place to Work Institute in 2011.", "[167]Headquarters The corporate headquarters, informally known as the Microsoft Redmond campus, is located at One Microsoft Way in Redmond, Washington.", "Microsoft initially moved onto the grounds of the campus on February 26, 1986, weeks before the company went public on March 13.", "The headquarters has since experienced multiple expansions since its establishment.", "It is estimated to encompass over 8 million ft 2 (750,000 m 2) of office space and 30,000–40,000 employees.", "[168] Additional offices are located in Bellevue and Issaquah (90,000 employees worldwide).", "The company is planning to upgrade its Mountain View, California campus on a grand scale.", "The company has occupied this campus since 1981.", "The company is planning to buy the 32-acre campus.", "[169] The plans submitted involve expanding the campus by 25%.", "It is expected that it will take three years to complete the expansion.", "If approved, construction will start in early 2017.", "[169] Microsoft operates an East Coast headquarters in Charlotte, North Carolina.", "[170]Flagship stores Toronto Microsoft Store On October 26, 2015, the company opened its flagship retail location on Fifth Avenue in New York City.", "The location features a five-story glass storefront and is 22,270 square feet.", "[171] As per company executives, Microsoft had been on the lookout for a flagship location since 2009.", "[172] The company's retail locations are part of a greater strategy to help build a connection with its consumers.", "The opening of the store coincided with the launch of the Surface Book and Surface Pro 4.", "[173] On November 12, 2015, Microsoft opened a second flagship store, located in Sydney's Pitt Street Mall.", "[174]Logo Microsoft adopted the so-called \"\" Pac-Man Logo\"\", designed by Scott Baker, in 1987.", "Baker stated \"\"The new logo, in Helvetica italic typeface, has a slash between the o and s to emphasize the \"\"soft\"\" part of the name and convey motion and speed.\"\"", "[175] Dave Norris ran an internal joke campaign to save the old logo, which was green, in all uppercase, and featured a fanciful letter O, nicknamed the blibbet, but it was discarded.", "[176] Microsoft's logo with the tagline \"\" Your potential.", "Our passion. \"\"", "– below the main corporate name – is based on a slogan Microsoft used in 2008.", "In 2002, the company started using the logo in the United States and eventually started a television campaign with the slogan, changed from the previous tagline of \"\" Where do you want to go today? \"\"", "[177] [178] [179] During the private MGX (Microsoft Global Exchange) conference in 2010, Microsoft unveiled the company's next tagline, \"\"Be What's Next.\"\"", "[180] They also had a slogan/tagline \"\"Making it all make sense.\"\"", "[181]On August 23, 2012, Microsoft unveiled a new corporate logo at the opening of its 23rd Microsoft store in Boston, indicating the company's shift of focus from the classic style to the tile-centric modern interface, which it uses/will use on the Windows Phone platform, Xbox 360, Windows 8 and the upcoming Office Suites.", "[182] The new logo also includes four squares with the colors of the then-current Windows logo which have been used to represent Microsoft's four major products: Windows (blue), Office (red), Xbox (green) and Bing (yellow).", "[183] The logo resembles the opening of one of the commercials for Windows 95.", "[184] [185]1975–19801980–19821982–19871987–20122012–present1975–1980: First Microsoft logo, in 19751980–1982: Second Microsoft logo, in 19801982–1987: Third Microsoft logo, in 19821987–2012: Microsoft \"\" Pac-Man \"\" logo, designed by Scott Baker and used from 1987 to 2012 [177] [178]2012–present: Fifth Microsoft logo, introduced on August 23, 2012 [186]Sponsorship The company was the official jersey sponsor of Finland's national basketball team at the 2015 Euro Basket.", "[187]References^ a b c d e f \"\"Microsoft Form 10-K, Fiscal Year Ended June 30, 2017\"\".", "sec.gov.", "U. 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B9.", "Retrieved July 18, 2010.^ \"\"MSFT stock performance and split info\"\".", "Morningstar, Inc. 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S. corporate profits held overseas top $2.1 trillion: study\"\".", "Reuters.^ Bishop, Todd (January 27, 2004).", "\"\"Studies on Linux help their patron: Microsoft\"\".", "Seattle Post-Intelligencer.", "Hearst Seattle Media, LLC.", "Retrieved July 16, 2010.^ Foley, Mary Jo (March 24, 2004).", "\"\"Yankee Independently Pits Windows TCO vs. Linux TCO\"\".", "e Week.", "Archived from the original on January 4, 2013.", "Retrieved July 14, 2010.^ Jaques, Robert (February 13, 2006).", "\"\"Linux fans hit back at Microsoft TCO claims\"\".", "vnunet.com.", "Archived from the original on July 24, 2008.", "Retrieved August 18, 2008.^ Mason, Rowena (September 10, 2008).", "\"\"Seven-hour LSE blackout caused by double glitch\"\".", "London: The Telegraph.^ \"\"London Stock Exchange trading hit by technical glitch\"\".", "BBC News Online.", "BBC.", "November 26, 2009.^ Williams, David M. (October 8, 2009).", "\"\"London Stock Exchange gets the facts and dumps Windows for Linux\"\".", "ITWire.^ \"\"London Stock Exchange Rejects .", "NET For Open Source\"\".", "Slashdot.", "October 6, 2009.^ Wingfield, Nick (December 14, 2012).", "\"\"Microsoft Battles Google by Hiring Political Brawler Mark Penn\"\".", "The New York Times.^ \"\"Scroogled: Why So Negative, Microsoft?\"\".", "Tech Crunch.", "February 10, 2013.", "Retrieved April 18, 2014.^ Hill, Kashmir (November 21, 2013).", "\"\"Googlers Love Microsoft's 'Scroogled' Gear.", "Mug and Shirts Sell Out\"\".", "Forbes.^ \"\"Microsoft to cut up to 18,000 jobs over next year\"\".", "July 17, 2014.^ \"\"Microsoft Layoffs Greater Than Expected: Up to 18,000 Jobs Being Cut\"\".", "Gamespot.", "Retrieved August 10, 2014.^ By Alex Wilhelm, Tech Crunch. \"\"", "Lays Off 2,100 More Employees .\"\"", "September 18, 2014.", "September 18, 2014.^ Perez, Juan Carlos (October 29, 2014).", "\"\"Microsoft is 'almost' done with its largest-ever layoff sweep\"\".", "Computerworld.", "IDG.^ Souppouris, Aaron.", "\"\"Microsoft plans 7,800 layoffs, $7.8 billion Nokia write-down\"\".", "Retrieved July 8, 2014.^ Corp., Microsoft.", "\"\"Microsoft announces streamlining of smartphone hardware business\"\".", "Retrieved November 8, 2016.^ \"\"U. S. Agencies Said to Swap Data With Thousands of Firms\"\".", "Bloomberg.^ Neal, Ryan W. (July 11, 2013).", "\"\"Snowden Reveals Microsoft PRISM Cooperation: Helped NSA Decrypt Emails, Chats, Skype Conversations\"\".", "International Business Times.^ Greenwald, Glenn; Mac Askill, Ewen (June 7, 2013).", "\"\"NSA Prism program taps in to user data of Apple, Google and others\"\".", "The Guardian.", "Guardian News and Media Limited.", "Retrieved April 26, 2014.^ Johnson, Kevin; Martin, Scott; O'Donnell, Jayne; Winter, Michael (June 15, 2013).", "\"\"Reports: NSA Siphons Data from 9 Major Net Firms\"\".", "USA Today.", "Retrieved June 6, 2013.^ \"\"Microsoft, Facebook, Google and Yahoo release US surveillance requests\"\".", "The Guardian.", "February 3, 2014.^ Smith, Brad (December 4, 2013).", "\"\"Protecting customer data from government snooping\"\".", "The Official Microsoft Blog.", "Retrieved January 1, 2015.^ Thomlinson, Matt (July 1, 2014).", "\"\"Advancing our encryption and transparency efforts\"\".", "Microsoft on the Issues.", "Retrieved January 1, 2015.^ Heiner, David.", "\"\"Request for Comment: Big Data and Consumer Privacy in the Internet Economy\"\" (PDF).", "National Telecommunications and Information Administration.", "Microsoft.", "Retrieved August 12, 2014.^ \"\"Microsoft drops lawsuit after U. S. government revises data request transparency rules\"\", Venture Beat, Reuters, October 24, 2017^ \"\"MSDN Subscription FAQ\"\".", "Microsoft.", "Retrieved July 3, 2006.^ \"\"Microsoft Systems Journal Homepage\"\".", "Microsoft.", "April 15, 2004.", "Retrieved August 18, 2008.^ Hobson, Neville (April 11, 2005).", "\"\"Microsoft's Channel 9 And Cultural Rules\"\".", "Web Pro News.", "i Entry Inc. Archived from the original on April 20, 2008.", "Retrieved July 3, 2006.^ \"\"On10.net homepage\"\".", "Microsoft.", "Archived from the original on April 28, 2006.", "Retrieved May 4, 2006.^ Bray, Hiawatha (June 13, 2005).", "\"\"Somehow, Usenet lumbers on\"\".", "The Boston Globe.", "Archived from the original on March 22, 2009.", "Retrieved July 3, 2006.^ \"\"Microsoft tests its own dog food\"\".", "ZDNet.", "CBS Interactive.", "July 21, 2003.", "Archived from the original on January 8, 2007.", "Retrieved October 9, 2005.^ Heileman, John (November 2000).", "\"\"The Truth, The Whole Truth, and Nothing But The Truth\"\".", "Wired.", "Condé Nast.", "Archived from the original on July 24, 2008.", "Retrieved September 30, 2007.^ Poundstone, William (May 21, 2003).", "\"\"Square Manhole Covers and Crazy Questions\"\".", "G4TV.com.", "Archived from the original on November 14, 2005.", "Retrieved July 1, 2006.^ Mark, Roy (April 27, 2005).", "\"\"Gates Rakes Congress on H1B Visa Cap\"\".", "internetnews.com.", "Retrieved August 18, 2008.^ \"\"Bill Gates Targets Visa Rules for Tech Workers\"\".", "NPR.", "March 12, 2008.", "Retrieved July 6, 2010.^ \"\"Corporate Equality Index Archive\"\".", "Human Rights Campaign Foundation.", "Archived from the original on July 3, 2010.", "Retrieved July 17, 2010.^ \"\"Dirty Data Report Card\"\" (PDF).", "Greenpeace.", "Retrieved August 22, 2013.^ \"\"Amazon, Microsoft: Let's keep 'the cloud' clean\"\", Phil Radford^ \"\"Microsoft looks to boost eco credentials with wind-powered data centre\"\", Suzanne Goldenberg^ \"\"Guide to Greener Electronics – Greenpeace International (16th Edition)\"\".", "Greenpeace International.", "Archived from the original on March 31, 2012.", "Retrieved April 3, 2012.^ \"\"Ranking tables October 2010 – Greenpeace International\"\" (PDF).", "Greenpeace International.", "Retrieved January 24, 2011.^ a b Mills, Elinor (June 6, 2008).", "\"\"Microsoft vs. Google: Who's greener?\"\".", "CNET.", "CBS Interactive.", "Retrieved July 3, 2010.^ \"\"Fostering Alternative Ways to Commute at Microsoft\"\".", "Microsoft.", "Archived from the original on May 1, 2008.^ \"\"Seattle hires consultant to look at 520 bridge plan\"\".", "King5 Television News.", "February 23, 2010.", "Archived from the original on February 26, 2010.", "Retrieved July 3, 2010.^ Tu, Janet I.", "(October 28, 2011).", "\"\"Microsoft Pri0 | Microsoft named best multinational workplace\"\".", "Seattle Times Newspaper.", "Retrieved November 3, 2011.^ Fast Facts About Microsoft Archived August 9, 2007, at the Wayback Machine .. Microsoft.com.", "Retrieved on August 25, 2013.^ a b \"\"Microsoft Seeks to Buy, Expand Longtime Silicon Valley Campus – Co Star Group\"\".", "www.costar.com.", "Retrieved January 22, 2016.^ \"\"Microsoft East Coast Headquarters - Safway Services\"\".", "safway.com.^ \"\"Your First Look at Microsoft's Massive New Flagship Store\"\".", "Wired.", "Condé Nast.", "Retrieved October 27, 2015.^ Morris, Keiko.", "\"\"Microsoft Opens Flagship Store on Fifth Avenue\"\".", "Wall Street Journal.", "ISSN 0099-9660.", "Retrieved October 27, 2015.^ \"\"Microsoft opens the doors to its New York City flagship store\"\".", "The Verge.", "Retrieved October 27, 2015.^ Chanthadavong, Aimee (April 21, 2015).", "\"\"Microsoft to open flagship store in Sydney\"\".^ Jha, Lakshman (2008).", "Customer Relationship Management: A Strategic Approach.", "Global India Publications.", "p. 218.", "ISBN 978-81-907211-2-7.^ Osterman, Larry (July 14, 2005).", "\"\"Remember the blibbet\"\".", "Larry Osterman's Web Log.", "Microsoft.", "Retrieved August 18, 2008.^ a b \"\"The Rise and Rise of the Redmond Empire\"\".", "Wired.", "Condé Nast.", "December 1998.", "Retrieved August 18, 2008.^ a b Schmelzer, Randi (January 9, 2006).", "\"\"Mc Cann Thinks Local for Global Microsoft\"\".", "Adweek.", "Retrieved August 18, 2008.^ Reimer, Jeremy (January 23, 2006).", "\"\"Microsoft set to launch new marketing campaign\"\".", "Ars Technica.", "Condé Nast Digital.", "Retrieved August 18, 2008.^ Topolsky, Joshua (July 22, 2010).", "\"\"New Microsoft brand logos, company tagline revealed at MGX event?", "(update: no new logos, tagline is a go)\"\".", "Engadget.", "AOL.", "Retrieved August 2, 2012.^ Info World Media Group, Inc. (1991).", "Info World.", "Info World Media Group, Inc. p. 26.^ Meisner, Jeffrey (August 23, 2012).", "\"\"Microsoft Unveils a New Look\"\".", "The Official Microsoft Blog.", "Archived from the original on August 25, 2012.", "Retrieved August 23, 2012.^ Eric, Steven H. (August 23, 2012).", "\"\"NEW MICROSOFT LOGO REVEALED\"\".", "Flapship.com.", "Archived from the original on August 25, 2012.", "Retrieved August 23, 2012.^ \"\"Microsoft's new logo has ties to the past\"\".^ \"\"Microsoft's logo is not new, it's from 1995\"\".^ \"\"Microsoft Unveils a New Look\"\".", "Microsoft.", "August 2012.", "Archived from the original on August 25, 2012.", "Retrieved August 23, 2012.^ Finland | Euro Basket 2015 Archived September 28, 2015, at the Wayback Machine ., FIBA.com, Retrieved September 27, 2015.", "External links Find more about Microsoft at Wikipedia's sister projects Media from Wikimedia Commons News from Wikinews Quotations from Wikiquote Learning resources from Wikiversity Official website Business data for Microsoft Corporation: Google Finance Yahoo!", "Finance Reuters SEC filings Microsoft companies grouped at Open Corporates Microsoft portal Xbox portal Information technology portal Companies portal Seattle portal United States portal [ show]v t e Microsoft [ show]Links to related articles Authority control World Cat Identities VIAF: 148809628 LCCN: n86810571 ISNI: 0000 0001 2181 3404 GND: 5003949-0SELIBR: 347184 SUDOC: 030109434 BNF: cb120673486 (data) ULAN: 500333090NLA: 35928074 NDL: 00322150 NKC: kn20020321575 BNE: XX121178Coordinates: 47°38′23″N 122°7′42″WCategories: Companies in the NASDAQ-100 Index Companies listed on NASDAQ Microsoft1975 establishments in New Mexico American companies established in 1975 Business software companies Cloud computing providers Companies based in Redmond, Washington Companies in the Dow Jones Industrial Average Companies in the PRISM network Computer companies established in 1975 Computer hardware companies CRM software companies Electronics companies established in 1975 Electronics companies of the United States ERP software companies Information technology companies of the United States Internet companies of the United States Mobile phone manufacturers Multinational companies headquartered in the United States Software companies based in Washington (state) Software companies established in 1975Supply chain software companies Technology companies established in 1975 Web service providers1980s initial public offerings \"" ]
D57836
http://www.marthastewart.com/354061/perfect-hard-boiled-eggs
How to Make Perfect Hard-Boiled Eggs
Martha Stewart Quick & Easy Recipes How to Make Perfect Hard-Boiled Eggs How to Make Perfect Hard-Boiled Eggs4874Get a perfect hard-boiled egg every time with these simple tips. With hard-boiled eggs in the refrigerator, you always have the components of a satisfying meal. Source: Martha Stewart Baby, n/a 2000Makes 1 dozen Yield The Food Newsletter Great tips & recipes delivered to your inbox. Sign Me Up Ingredients12 large eggs, room temperature Directions1. Place eggs in a large saucepan. Cover them with cool water by 1 inch. Slowly bring water to a boil over medium heat; when the water has reached a boil, cover and remove from heat. Let sit 12 minutes.2. Transfer eggs to a colander; place under cool running water to stop the cooking. Eggs can be peeled and served immediately. Watch: Simple Tips on How to Peel a Hard-Boiled Egg Similar Recipes Potato and Onion Frittata Easy Poached Eggs Foolproof Hard-Cooked Eggs Quick Deviled Eggs Martha's Soft-Boiled Eggs Creamy Deviled Eggs Hard-Cooked Eggs with Seasoned Salts Easy Soft-Boiled Egg Hard-Boiled Egg Whites with Avocado Southwestern Omelet Roasted Red Pepper and Kale Frittata Poached Egg with Rice and Edamame White Bean and Sage Patties Hard-Cooked Egg with Mustard Avocado with Pink Grapefruit and Lime Chris Fischer's Perfect Eggs Chilaquiles Egg Bake Poached Eggs with Roasted Tomatoes Soft-Cooked Eggs with Coriander Salt Tortilla Espanola Soft-Boiled Egg with Mashed Peas on Toast Citrus Salad with Cashews and Mint Eggs with Mushrooms and Spinach Southwestern Breakfast Hash Potato and Onion Frittata Easy Poached Eggs Foolproof Hard-Cooked Eggs Quick Deviled Eggs Reviews4874How would you rate this recipe? Error loading comments. I'm in the mood for:dinnerthat's quick See Recipes Recipes by Ingredient Hard-Boiled Eggs Cooking techniques
[ "Martha Stewart Quick & Easy Recipes How to Make Perfect Hard-Boiled Eggs How to Make Perfect Hard-Boiled Eggs4874Get a perfect hard-boiled egg every time with these simple tips.", "With hard-boiled eggs in the refrigerator, you always have the components of a satisfying meal.", "Source: Martha Stewart Baby, n/a 2000Makes 1 dozen Yield The Food Newsletter Great tips & recipes delivered to your inbox.", "Sign Me Up Ingredients12 large eggs, room temperature Directions1.", "Place eggs in a large saucepan.", "Cover them with cool water by 1 inch.", "Slowly bring water to a boil over medium heat; when the water has reached a boil, cover and remove from heat.", "Let sit 12 minutes.2.", "Transfer eggs to a colander; place under cool running water to stop the cooking.", "Eggs can be peeled and served immediately.", "Watch: Simple Tips on How to Peel a Hard-Boiled Egg Similar Recipes Potato and Onion Frittata Easy Poached Eggs Foolproof Hard-Cooked Eggs Quick Deviled Eggs Martha's Soft-Boiled Eggs Creamy Deviled Eggs Hard-Cooked Eggs with Seasoned Salts Easy Soft-Boiled Egg Hard-Boiled Egg Whites with Avocado Southwestern Omelet Roasted Red Pepper and Kale Frittata Poached Egg with Rice and Edamame White Bean and Sage Patties Hard-Cooked Egg with Mustard Avocado with Pink Grapefruit and Lime Chris Fischer's Perfect Eggs Chilaquiles Egg Bake Poached Eggs with Roasted Tomatoes Soft-Cooked Eggs with Coriander Salt Tortilla Espanola Soft-Boiled Egg with Mashed Peas on Toast Citrus Salad with Cashews and Mint Eggs with Mushrooms and Spinach Southwestern Breakfast Hash Potato and Onion Frittata Easy Poached Eggs Foolproof Hard-Cooked Eggs Quick Deviled Eggs Reviews4874How would you rate this recipe?", "Error loading comments.", "I'm in the mood for:dinnerthat's quick See Recipes Recipes by Ingredient Hard-Boiled Eggs Cooking techniques" ]
D27504
http://www.behmdesign.com/garage-building-cost.aspx
Frequently Asked Questions
Frequently Asked Questions How much does it cost to build a new garage? Is it okay to contact you by phone for questions I might have? I have heard that buying plans from internet is risky – would I be wasting my money if I buy your plans? The dimensions that are shown on the product page – are they for footprint or are roof overhangs included? You offer a package of (4) sets of plans. Is it possible to save money and buy just (1) set? Canadian and US building codes are not the same publication – can we use your plans in Canada? Can I buy Behm Design garage plans through one of those broker type plans companies on the web? Will Behm Design plans be suitable for our building permit application? Are Behm Design plans wet-stamp certified? I like one of your plans for my project – but this area requires that engineering – can you provide that? Other plans companies have told me that all plans need to be certified by a state engineer wherever they will be used? Is this true? Are garage plans from Behm Design guaranteed? I’d like my plan customized a bit. Is that available with your plans? Do your plans have a foundation plan and details? I want to site-build the roof trusses like they used to do years ago. Do your garage plans show how to build the roof trusses on-site?
[ "Frequently Asked Questions How much does it cost to build a new garage?", "Is it okay to contact you by phone for questions I might have?", "I have heard that buying plans from internet is risky – would I be wasting my money if I buy your plans?", "The dimensions that are shown on the product page – are they for footprint or are roof overhangs included?", "You offer a package of (4) sets of plans.", "Is it possible to save money and buy just (1) set?", "Canadian and US building codes are not the same publication – can we use your plans in Canada?", "Can I buy Behm Design garage plans through one of those broker type plans companies on the web?", "Will Behm Design plans be suitable for our building permit application?", "Are Behm Design plans wet-stamp certified?", "I like one of your plans for my project – but this area requires that engineering – can you provide that?", "Other plans companies have told me that all plans need to be certified by a state engineer wherever they will be used?", "Is this true?", "Are garage plans from Behm Design guaranteed?", "I’d like my plan customized a bit.", "Is that available with your plans?", "Do your plans have a foundation plan and details?", "I want to site-build the roof trusses like they used to do years ago.", "Do your garage plans show how to build the roof trusses on-site?" ]
D141937
http://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/yeast-infection/basics/causes/CON-20035129
Overview
Print Overview A vaginal yeast infection is a fungal infection that causes irritation, discharge and intense itchiness of the vagina and the vulva — the tissues at the vaginal opening. It's a type of vaginitis, or inflammation of the vagina. Vaginal yeast infection (also called vaginal candidiasis) affects up to 3 out of 4 women at some point in their lifetimes. Many women experience at least two episodes. Although a vaginal yeast infection isn't considered a sexually transmitted infection, you can spread the fungus through mouth to genital contact. Medications can effectively treat vaginal yeast infections. If you have recurrent yeast infections — four or more within a year — you may need a longer treatment course and a maintenance plan. Symptoms Yeast infection symptoms can range from mild to moderate and include: Itching and irritation in the vagina and the tissues at the vaginal opening (vulva)A burning sensation, especially during intercourse or while urinating Redness and swelling of the vulva Vaginal pain and soreness Vaginal rash Watery vaginal discharge Thick, white, odor-free vaginal discharge with a cottage cheese appearance Complicated yeast infection You might have a complicated yeast infection if: You have severe symptoms, such as extensive redness, swelling and itching that leads to tears or cracks (fissures) or sores You have four or more yeast infections in a year Your infection is caused by a type of candida other than Candida albicans You're pregnant You have uncontrolled diabetes Your immune system is weakened because of certain medications or conditions such as HIV infection When to see a doctor Make an appointment with your doctor if: This is the first time you've had yeast infection symptoms You're not sure whether you have a yeast infection Your symptoms don't disappear after treating with over-the-counter antifungal vaginal creams or suppositories You develop other symptoms Request an Appointment at Mayo Clinic Causes The fungus candida causes a vaginal yeast infection. Your vagina naturally contains a balanced mix of yeast, including candida, and bacteria. Lactobacillus bacteria produce acid, which prevents yeast overgrowth. That balance can be disrupted and lead to a yeast infection. Too much yeast in your vagina causes vaginal itching, burning and other classic signs and symptoms of a yeast infection. Overgrowth of yeast can result from: Antibiotic use, which decreases lactobacillus bacteria in your vagina and changes the p H of your vagina Pregnancy Uncontrolled diabetes Impaired immune system Taking oral contraceptives or hormone therapy, which increases estrogen levels Candida albicans is the most common type of fungus to cause yeast infections. Sometimes, other types of candida fungus are to blame. Common treatments usually cure a Candida albicans infection. Yeast infections caused by other types of candida fungus can be more difficult to treat, and need more aggressive therapies. A yeast infection might happen after certain sexual activities, especially oral-genital sexual contact. However, a yeast infection isn't considered a sexually transmitted infection. Even women who aren't sexually active can develop yeast infections. Risk factors Factors that increase your risk of developing a yeast infection include: Antibiotic use. Yeast infections are common in women who take antibiotics. Broad-spectrum antibiotics, which kill a range of bacteria, also kill healthy bacteria in your vagina, leading to overgrowth of yeast organisms. Increased estrogen levels. Yeast infections are more common in women with an increased estrogen level. This can include women who are pregnant, or those who are taking high-dose estrogen birth control pills or estrogen hormone therapy. Uncontrolled diabetes. Women with diabetes who have poorly controlled blood sugar levels are at greater risk of yeast infections than women with well-controlled diabetes. Impaired immune system. Women with lowered immunity — such as from corticosteroid therapy or HIV infection — are more likely to get yeast infections. Sexual activity. Although yeast infections aren't considered sexually transmitted infections, sexual contact can spread the candida fungus. Prevention To reduce your risk of vaginal yeast infections: Wear cotton underwear and loose-fitting pants or skirts. Avoid tight-fitting underwear or pantyhose. Immediately change out of wet clothes, such as swimsuits or workout attire. Stay out of hot tubs and very hot baths. Avoid unnecessary antibiotic use, such as for colds or other viral infections. By Mayo Clinic Staff Request an Appointment at Mayo Clinic Diagnosis & treatment Sept. 18, 2015Print Share on: Facebook Twitter References Related Vagina Vaginal discharge Yeast infection (vaginal)Symptoms & causes Diagnosis & treatment Advertisement Mayo Clinic does not endorse companies or products. Advertising revenue supports our not-for-profit mission. Advertising & Sponsorship Policy Opportunities Ad Choices Mayo Clinic Marketplace Check out these best-sellers and special offers on books and newsletters from Mayo Clinic. FREE TRIAL – Mayo Clinic Health Letter Stop Osteoporosis in Its Tracks Improve Your Hearing and Balance Best Treatment Strategies for Arthritis The Mayo Clinic Diet Online CON-20378983Patient Care & Health Information Diseases & Conditions Yeast infection (vaginal)
[ "Print Overview A vaginal yeast infection is a fungal infection that causes irritation, discharge and intense itchiness of the vagina and the vulva — the tissues at the vaginal opening.", "It's a type of vaginitis, or inflammation of the vagina.", "Vaginal yeast infection (also called vaginal candidiasis) affects up to 3 out of 4 women at some point in their lifetimes.", "Many women experience at least two episodes.", "Although a vaginal yeast infection isn't considered a sexually transmitted infection, you can spread the fungus through mouth to genital contact.", "Medications can effectively treat vaginal yeast infections.", "If you have recurrent yeast infections — four or more within a year — you may need a longer treatment course and a maintenance plan.", "Symptoms Yeast infection symptoms can range from mild to moderate and include: Itching and irritation in the vagina and the tissues at the vaginal opening (vulva)A burning sensation, especially during intercourse or while urinating Redness and swelling of the vulva Vaginal pain and soreness Vaginal rash Watery vaginal discharge Thick, white, odor-free vaginal discharge with a cottage cheese appearance Complicated yeast infection You might have a complicated yeast infection if: You have severe symptoms, such as extensive redness, swelling and itching that leads to tears or cracks (fissures) or sores You have four or more yeast infections in a year Your infection is caused by a type of candida other than Candida albicans You're pregnant You have uncontrolled diabetes Your immune system is weakened because of certain medications or conditions such as HIV infection When to see a doctor Make an appointment with your doctor if: This is the first time you've had yeast infection symptoms You're not sure whether you have a yeast infection Your symptoms don't disappear after treating with over-the-counter antifungal vaginal creams or suppositories You develop other symptoms Request an Appointment at Mayo Clinic Causes The fungus candida causes a vaginal yeast infection.", "Your vagina naturally contains a balanced mix of yeast, including candida, and bacteria.", "Lactobacillus bacteria produce acid, which prevents yeast overgrowth.", "That balance can be disrupted and lead to a yeast infection.", "Too much yeast in your vagina causes vaginal itching, burning and other classic signs and symptoms of a yeast infection.", "Overgrowth of yeast can result from: Antibiotic use, which decreases lactobacillus bacteria in your vagina and changes the p H of your vagina Pregnancy Uncontrolled diabetes Impaired immune system Taking oral contraceptives or hormone therapy, which increases estrogen levels Candida albicans is the most common type of fungus to cause yeast infections.", "Sometimes, other types of candida fungus are to blame.", "Common treatments usually cure a Candida albicans infection.", "Yeast infections caused by other types of candida fungus can be more difficult to treat, and need more aggressive therapies.", "A yeast infection might happen after certain sexual activities, especially oral-genital sexual contact.", "However, a yeast infection isn't considered a sexually transmitted infection.", "Even women who aren't sexually active can develop yeast infections.", "Risk factors Factors that increase your risk of developing a yeast infection include: Antibiotic use.", "Yeast infections are common in women who take antibiotics.", "Broad-spectrum antibiotics, which kill a range of bacteria, also kill healthy bacteria in your vagina, leading to overgrowth of yeast organisms.", "Increased estrogen levels.", "Yeast infections are more common in women with an increased estrogen level.", "This can include women who are pregnant, or those who are taking high-dose estrogen birth control pills or estrogen hormone therapy.", "Uncontrolled diabetes.", "Women with diabetes who have poorly controlled blood sugar levels are at greater risk of yeast infections than women with well-controlled diabetes.", "Impaired immune system.", "Women with lowered immunity — such as from corticosteroid therapy or HIV infection — are more likely to get yeast infections.", "Sexual activity.", "Although yeast infections aren't considered sexually transmitted infections, sexual contact can spread the candida fungus.", "Prevention To reduce your risk of vaginal yeast infections: Wear cotton underwear and loose-fitting pants or skirts.", "Avoid tight-fitting underwear or pantyhose.", "Immediately change out of wet clothes, such as swimsuits or workout attire.", "Stay out of hot tubs and very hot baths.", "Avoid unnecessary antibiotic use, such as for colds or other viral infections.", "By Mayo Clinic Staff Request an Appointment at Mayo Clinic Diagnosis & treatment Sept. 18, 2015Print Share on: Facebook Twitter References Related Vagina Vaginal discharge Yeast infection (vaginal)Symptoms & causes Diagnosis & treatment Advertisement Mayo Clinic does not endorse companies or products.", "Advertising revenue supports our not-for-profit mission.", "Advertising & Sponsorship Policy Opportunities Ad Choices Mayo Clinic Marketplace Check out these best-sellers and special offers on books and newsletters from Mayo Clinic.", "FREE TRIAL – Mayo Clinic Health Letter Stop Osteoporosis in Its Tracks Improve Your Hearing and Balance Best Treatment Strategies for Arthritis The Mayo Clinic Diet Online CON-20378983Patient Care & Health Information Diseases & Conditions Yeast infection (vaginal)" ]
D138178
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Game_of_Thrones_episodes
List of Game of Thrones episodes
"From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedianavigation search Game of Thrones is an American fantasy drama television series created by David Benioff and D. B. Weiss. The series is based on the A Song of Ice and Fire novels by author George R. R. Martin. The series takes place on the fictional continents of Westeros and Essos and chronicles the power struggles among noble families as they fight for control of the Iron Throne of the Seven Kingdoms. The series starts when House Stark, led by Lord Eddard ""Ned"" Stark ( Sean Bean) is drawn into schemes against King Robert Baratheon ( Mark Addy) when the Hand of the King Jon Arryn (Robert's chief advisor) dies mysteriously. [1]The series premiered on April 17, 2011, on HBO. David Benioff and D. B. Weiss both serve as executive producers along with Carolyn Strauss, Frank Doelger, Bernadette Caulfield and George R. R. Martin. [2] [3] Filming for the series has taken place in a number of locations, including Croatia, Northern Ireland, Iceland and Spain. [4] [5] [6] Episodes are broadcast on Sunday at 9:00 pm Eastern Time, [7] [8] and the episodes are between 50 and 81 minutes in length. [9] The first seven seasons are available on DVD and Blu-ray. As of August 27, 2017, 67 episodes of Game of Thrones have aired, concluding the seventh season. The series will conclude with its eighth season, which will consist of six episodes and is set to air in 2019. [10] [11] [12] The show's episodes have won numerous awards including two Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Drama Series. [3]Contents [ hide ]1 Series overview2 Episodes2.1 Season 1 (2011)2.2 Season 2 (2012)2.3 Season 3 (2013)2.4 Season 4 (2014)2.5 Season 5 (2015)2.6 Season 6 (2016)2.7 Season 7 (2017)2.8 Season 83 Home media releases4 Ratings5 References6 External links Series overview [ edit]Season Episodes Originally aired Avg. U. S. viewers (millions)First aired Last aired1 10 April 17, 2011 June 19, 2011 2.52 [13]2 10 April 1, 2012 June 3, 2012 3.80 [13]3 10 March 31, 2013 June 9, 2013 4.97 [14]4 10 April 6, 2014 June 15, 2014 6.84 [15]5 10 April 12, 2015 June 14, 2015 6.88 [16]6 10 April 24, 2016 June 26, 2016 7.69 [17]7 7 July 16, 2017 August 27, 2017 10.26 [18]8 6 2019 [12] 2019 [12] TBAEpisodes [ edit]Season 1 (2011) [ edit]Main article: Game of Thrones (season 1)No. overall No. in season Title Directed by Written by Original air date U. S. viewers (millions)1 1 "" Winter Is Coming "" Tim Van Patten David Benioff & D. B. Weiss April 17, 2011 2.22 [19]2 2 "" The Kingsroad "" Tim Van Patten David Benioff & D. B. Weiss April 24, 2011 2.20 [20]3 3 "" Lord Snow "" Brian Kirk David Benioff & D. B. Weiss May 1, 2011 2.44 [21]4 4 "" Cripples, Bastards, and Broken Things "" Brian Kirk Bryan Cogman May 8, 2011 2.45 [22]5 5 "" The Wolf and the Lion "" Brian Kirk David Benioff & D. B. Weiss May 15, 2011 2.58 [23]6 6 "" A Golden Crown ""Daniel Minahan Story by : David Benioff & D. B. Weiss Teleplay by : Jane Espenson and David Benioff & D. B. Weiss May 22, 2011 2.44 [24]7 7 "" You Win or You Die "" Daniel Minahan David Benioff & D. B. Weiss May 29, 2011 2.40 [25]8 8 "" The Pointy End "" Daniel Minahan George R. R. Martin June 5, 2011 2.72 [26]9 9 "" Baelor "" Alan Taylor David Benioff & D. B. Weiss June 12, 2011 2.66 [27]10 10 "" Fire and Blood "" Alan Taylor David Benioff & D. B. Weiss June 19, 2011 3.04 [28]Season 2 (2012) [ edit]Main article: Game of Thrones (season 2)No. overall No. in season Title Directed by Written by Original air date U. S. viewers (millions)11 1 "" The North Remembers "" Alan Taylor David Benioff & D. B. Weiss April 1, 2012 3.86 [29]12 2 "" The Night Lands "" Alan Taylor David Benioff & D. B. Weiss April 8, 2012 3.76 [30]13 3 "" What Is Dead May Never Die ""Alik Sakharov Bryan Cogman April 15, 2012 3.77 [31]14 4 "" Garden of Bones "" David Petrarca Vanessa Taylor April 22, 2012 3.65 [32]15 5 "" The Ghost of Harrenhal "" David Petrarca David Benioff & D. B. Weiss April 29, 2012 3.90 [33]16 6 "" The Old Gods and the New ""David Nutter Vanessa Taylor May 6, 2012 3.88 [34]17 7 "" A Man Without Honor "" David Nutter David Benioff & D. B. Weiss May 13, 2012 3.69 [35]18 8 "" The Prince of Winterfell "" Alan Taylor David Benioff & D. B. Weiss May 20, 2012 3.86 [36]19 9 "" Blackwater "" Neil Marshall George R. R. Martin May 27, 2012 3.38 [37]20 10 "" Valar Morghulis "" Alan Taylor David Benioff & D. B. Weiss June 3, 2012 4.20 [38]Season 3 (2013) [ edit]Main article: Game of Thrones (season 3)No. overall No. in season Title Directed by Written by Original air date U. S. viewers (millions)21 1 "" Valar Dohaeris "" Daniel Minahan David Benioff & D. B. Weiss March 31, 2013 4.37 [39]22 2 "" Dark Wings, Dark Words "" Daniel Minahan Vanessa Taylor April 7, 2013 4.27 [40]23 3 "" Walk of Punishment "" David Benioff David Benioff & D. B. Weiss April 14, 2013 4.72 [41]24 4 "" And Now His Watch Is Ended ""Alex Graves David Benioff & D. B. Weiss April 21, 2013 4.87 [42]25 5 "" Kissed by Fire "" Alex Graves Bryan Cogman April 28, 2013 5.35 [43]26 6 "" The Climb "" Alik Sakharov David Benioff & D. B. Weiss May 5, 2013 5.50 [44]27 7 "" The Bear and the Maiden Fair "" Michelle Mac Laren George R. R. Martin May 12, 2013 4.84 [45]28 8 "" Second Sons "" Michelle Mac Laren David Benioff & D. B. Weiss May 19, 2013 5.13 [46]29 9 "" The Rains of Castamere ""David Nutter David Benioff & D. B. Weiss June 2, 2013 5.22 [47]30 10 "" Mhysa "" David Nutter David Benioff & D. B. Weiss June 9, 2013 5.39 [48]Season 4 (2014) [ edit]Main article: Game of Thrones (season 4)No. overall No. in season Title Directed by Written by Original air date U. S. viewers (millions)31 1 "" Two Swords "" D. B. Weiss David Benioff & D. B. Weiss April 6, 2014 6.64 [49]32 2 "" The Lion and the Rose "" Alex Graves George R. R. Martin April 13, 2014 6.31 [50]33 3 "" Breaker of Chains "" Alex Graves David Benioff & D. B. Weiss April 20, 2014 6.59 [51]34 4 "" Oathkeeper "" Michelle Mac Laren Bryan Cogman April 27, 2014 6.95 [52]35 5 "" First of His Name "" Michelle Mac Laren David Benioff & D. B. Weiss May 4, 2014 7.16 [53]36 6 "" The Laws of Gods and Men ""Alik Sakharov Bryan Cogman May 11, 2014 6.40 [54]37 7 "" Mockingbird "" Alik Sakharov David Benioff & D. B. Weiss May 18, 2014 7.20 [55]38 8 "" The Mountain and the Viper "" Alex Graves David Benioff & D. B. Weiss June 1, 2014 7.17 [56]39 9 "" The Watchers on the Wall ""Neil Marshall David Benioff & D. B. Weiss June 8, 2014 6.95 [57]40 10 "" The Children "" Alex Graves David Benioff & D. B. Weiss June 15, 2014 7.09 [58]Season 5 (2015) [ edit]Main article: Game of Thrones (season 5)No. overall No. in season Title Directed by Written by Original air date U. S. viewers (millions)41 1 "" The Wars to Come "" Michael Slovis David Benioff & D. B. Weiss April 12, 2015 8.00 [59]42 2 "" The House of Black and White "" Michael Slovis David Benioff & D. B. Weiss April 19, 2015 6.81 [60]43 3 "" High Sparrow "" Mark Mylod David Benioff & D. B. Weiss April 26, 2015 6.71 [61]44 4 "" Sons of the Harpy "" Mark Mylod Dave Hill May 3, 2015 6.82 [62]45 5 "" Kill the Boy "" Jeremy Podeswa Bryan Cogman May 10, 2015 6.56 [63]46 6 "" Unbowed, Unbent, Unbroken "" Jeremy Podeswa Bryan Cogman May 17, 2015 6.24 [64]47 7 "" The Gift "" Miguel Sapochnik David Benioff & D. B. Weiss May 24, 2015 5.40 [65]48 8 "" Hardhome "" Miguel Sapochnik David Benioff & D. B. Weiss May 31, 2015 7.01 [66]49 9 "" The Dance of Dragons "" David Nutter David Benioff & D. B. Weiss June 7, 2015 7.14 [67]50 10 "" Mother's Mercy "" David Nutter David Benioff & D. B. Weiss June 14, 2015 8.11 [68]Season 6 (2016) [ edit]Main article: Game of Thrones (season 6)No. overall No. in season Title Directed by Written by Original air date U. S. viewers (millions)51 1 "" The Red Woman "" Jeremy Podeswa David Benioff & D. B. Weiss April 24, 2016 7.94 [69]52 2 "" Home "" Jeremy Podeswa Dave Hill May 1, 2016 7.29 [70]53 3 "" Oathbreaker "" Daniel Sackheim David Benioff & D. B. Weiss May 8, 2016 7.28 [71]54 4 "" Book of the Stranger "" Daniel Sackheim David Benioff & D. B. Weiss May 15, 2016 7.82 [72]55 5 "" The Door "" Jack Bender David Benioff & D. B. Weiss May 22, 2016 7.89 [73]56 6 "" Blood of My Blood "" Jack Bender Bryan Cogman May 29, 2016 6.71 [74]57 7 "" The Broken Man "" Mark Mylod Bryan Cogman June 5, 2016 7.80 [75]58 8 "" No One "" Mark Mylod David Benioff & D. B. Weiss June 12, 2016 7.60 [76]59 9 "" Battle of the Bastards "" Miguel Sapochnik David Benioff & D. B. Weiss June 19, 2016 7.66 [77]60 10 "" The Winds of Winter "" Miguel Sapochnik David Benioff & D. B. Weiss June 26, 2016 8.89 [78]Season 7 (2017) [ edit]Main article: Game of Thrones (season 7)No. overall No. in season Title Directed by Written by Original air date U. S. viewers (millions)61 1 "" Dragonstone ""Jeremy Podeswa David Benioff & D. B. Weiss July 16, 2017 10.11 [79]62 2 "" Stormborn "" Mark Mylod Bryan Cogman July 23, 2017 9.27 [80]63 3 "" The Queen's Justice "" Mark Mylod David Benioff & D. B. Weiss July 30, 2017 9.25 [81]64 4 "" The Spoils of War ""Matt Shakman David Benioff & D. B. Weiss August 6, 2017 10.17 [82]65 5 "" Eastwatch "" Matt Shakman Dave Hill August 13, 2017 10.72 [83]66 6 "" Beyond the Wall ""Alan Taylor David Benioff & D. B. Weiss August 20, 2017 10.24 [84]67 7 "" The Dragon and the Wolf "" Jeremy Podeswa David Benioff & D. B. Weiss August 27, 2017 12.07 [85]Season 8 [ edit]Main article: Game of Thrones (season 8)No. overall No. in season Title Directed by [86] [87]Written by [88]Original air date [12]U. S. viewers (millions)68 1 TBA David Nutter Dave Hill 2019 TBD69 2 TBA David Nutter Bryan Cogman 2019 TBD70 3 TBA Miguel Sapochnik David Benioff & D. B. Weiss 2019 TBD71 4 TBA David Nutter David Benioff & D. B. Weiss 2019 TBD72 5 TBA Miguel Sapochnik David Benioff & D. B. Weiss 2019 TBD73 6TBADavid Benioff & D. B. Weiss David Benioff & D. B. Weiss 2019TBDHome media releases [ edit]Season Episodes DVD release date Region 1 Region 2 Region 41 10 March 6, 2012 [89] March 5, 2012 [90] August 10, 2012 [91]2 10 February 19, 2013 [92] March 4, 2013 [93] March 6, 2013 [94]3 10 February 18, 2014 [95] February 17, 2014 [96] February 19, 2014 [97]4 10 February 17, 2015 [98] February 16, 2015 [99] February 18, 2015 [100]5 10 March 15, 2016 [101] March 14, 2016 [102] March 16, 2016 [103]6 10 November 15, 2016 [104] November 14, 2016 [105] November 16, 2016 [106]7 7 December 12, 2017 [107] December 11, 2017 [108] December 11, 2017 [109]Ratings [ edit]Game of Thrones : U. S. viewers per episode (millions)Season Ep. 1 Ep. 2 Ep. 3 Ep. 4 Ep. 5 Ep. 6 Ep. 7 Ep. 8 Ep. 9 Ep. 10 Average1 2.22 2.20 2.44 2.45 2.58 2.44 2.40 2.72 2.66 3.04 2.52 [110]2 3.86 3.76 3.77 3.65 3.90 3.88 3.69 3.86 3.38 4.20 3.80 [110]3 4.37 4.27 4.72 4.87 5.35 5.50 4.84 5.13 5.22 5.39 4.97 [111]4 6.64 6.31 6.59 6.95 7.16 6.40 7.20 7.17 6.95 7.09 6.84 [112]5 8.00 6.81 6.71 6.82 6.56 6.24 5.40 7.01 7.14 8.11 6.88 [113]6 7.94 7.29 7.28 7.82 7.89 6.71 7.80 7.60 7.66 8.89 7.69 [114]7 10.11 9.27 9.25 10.17 10.72 10.24 12.07 N/A 10.26 [115]Source: Nielsen Media Research [116] [110] [111] [112] [113] [114] [115]References [ edit]^ Fowler, Matt (April 8, 2011). ""Game of Thrones: ""Winter is Coming"" Review"". IGN. Archived from the original on August 17, 2012. Retrieved September 22, 2016.^ Fleming, Michael (January 16, 2007). ""HBO turns Fire into fantasy series"". Variety. Archived from the original on May 16, 2012. Retrieved September 3, 2016.^ a b ""Game of Thrones"". Emmys.com. 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Archived from the original on June 10, 2016. Retrieved June 16, 2015.^ Porter, Rick (April 26, 2016). ""Sunday cable ratings: 'Game of Thrones' opens slightly lower, still dominant"". TV by the Numbers. Archived from the original on September 1, 2016. Retrieved April 26, 2016.^ Porter, Rick (May 3, 2016). ""Sunday cable ratings: 'Game of Thrones' slips, 'Kardashians' premiere steady"". TV by the Numbers. Archived from the original on September 1, 2016. Retrieved May 3, 2016.^ Porter, Rick (May 10, 2016). ""Sunday cable ratings: 'Game of Thrones' (very) steady with episode 3"". TV by the Numbers. Archived from the original on September 1, 2016. Retrieved May 10, 2016.^ Porter, Rick (May 17, 2016). ""Sunday cable ratings: 'Game of Thrones' rises, 'Fear the Walking Dead' falls"". TV by the Numbers. Archived from the original on September 1, 2016. Retrieved May 17, 2016.^ Porter, Rick (May 24, 2016). 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External links [ edit]Official website Game of Thrones – The Viewers Guide on HBO.com Making Game of Thrones on HBO.com List of Game of Thrones episodes on IMDb List of Game of Thrones episodes at TV.com Game of Thrones at Rotten Tomatoes [ show]v t e George R. R. Martin 's A Song of Ice and Fire [ show]v t e Game of Thrones episodes Categories: Game of Thrones episodes Lists of American drama television series episodes Lists of fantasy television series episodes "
[ "\"From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedianavigation search Game of Thrones is an American fantasy drama television series created by David Benioff and D. B. Weiss.", "The series is based on the A Song of Ice and Fire novels by author George R. R. Martin.", "The series takes place on the fictional continents of Westeros and Essos and chronicles the power struggles among noble families as they fight for control of the Iron Throne of the Seven Kingdoms.", "The series starts when House Stark, led by Lord Eddard \"\"Ned\"\" Stark ( Sean Bean) is drawn into schemes against King Robert Baratheon ( Mark Addy) when the Hand of the King Jon Arryn (Robert's chief advisor) dies mysteriously.", "[1]The series premiered on April 17, 2011, on HBO.", "David Benioff and D. B. Weiss both serve as executive producers along with Carolyn Strauss, Frank Doelger, Bernadette Caulfield and George R. R. Martin.", "[2] [3] Filming for the series has taken place in a number of locations, including Croatia, Northern Ireland, Iceland and Spain.", "[4] [5] [6] Episodes are broadcast on Sunday at 9:00 pm Eastern Time, [7] [8] and the episodes are between 50 and 81 minutes in length.", "[9] The first seven seasons are available on DVD and Blu-ray.", "As of August 27, 2017, 67 episodes of Game of Thrones have aired, concluding the seventh season.", "The series will conclude with its eighth season, which will consist of six episodes and is set to air in 2019.", "[10] [11] [12] The show's episodes have won numerous awards including two Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Drama Series.", "[3]Contents [ hide ]1 Series overview2 Episodes2.1 Season 1 (2011)2.2 Season 2 (2012)2.3 Season 3 (2013)2.4 Season 4 (2014)2.5 Season 5 (2015)2.6 Season 6 (2016)2.7 Season 7 (2017)2.8 Season 83 Home media releases4 Ratings5 References6 External links Series overview [ edit]Season Episodes Originally aired Avg.", "U. S. viewers (millions)First aired Last aired1 10 April 17, 2011 June 19, 2011 2.52 [13]2 10 April 1, 2012 June 3, 2012 3.80 [13]3 10 March 31, 2013 June 9, 2013 4.97 [14]4 10 April 6, 2014 June 15, 2014 6.84 [15]5 10 April 12, 2015 June 14, 2015 6.88 [16]6 10 April 24, 2016 June 26, 2016 7.69 [17]7 7 July 16, 2017 August 27, 2017 10.26 [18]8 6 2019 [12] 2019 [12] TBAEpisodes [ edit]Season 1 (2011) [ edit]Main article: Game of Thrones (season 1)No.", "overall No.", "in season Title Directed by Written by Original air date U. S. viewers (millions)1 1 \"\" Winter Is Coming \"\" Tim Van Patten David Benioff & D. B. Weiss April 17, 2011 2.22 [19]2 2 \"\" The Kingsroad \"\" Tim Van Patten David Benioff & D. B. Weiss April 24, 2011 2.20 [20]3 3 \"\" Lord Snow \"\" Brian Kirk David Benioff & D. B. Weiss May 1, 2011 2.44 [21]4 4 \"\" Cripples, Bastards, and Broken Things \"\" Brian Kirk Bryan Cogman May 8, 2011 2.45 [22]5 5 \"\" The Wolf and the Lion \"\" Brian Kirk David Benioff & D. B. Weiss May 15, 2011 2.58 [23]6 6 \"\" A Golden Crown \"\"Daniel Minahan Story by : David Benioff & D. B. Weiss Teleplay by : Jane Espenson and David Benioff & D. B. Weiss May 22, 2011 2.44 [24]7 7 \"\" You Win or You Die \"\" Daniel Minahan David Benioff & D. B. Weiss May 29, 2011 2.40 [25]8 8 \"\" The Pointy End \"\" Daniel Minahan George R. R. Martin June 5, 2011 2.72 [26]9 9 \"\" Baelor \"\" Alan Taylor David Benioff & D. B. Weiss June 12, 2011 2.66 [27]10 10 \"\" Fire and Blood \"\" Alan Taylor David Benioff & D. B. Weiss June 19, 2011 3.04 [28]Season 2 (2012) [ edit]Main article: Game of Thrones (season 2)No.", "overall No.", "in season Title Directed by Written by Original air date U. S. viewers (millions)11 1 \"\" The North Remembers \"\" Alan Taylor David Benioff & D. B. Weiss April 1, 2012 3.86 [29]12 2 \"\" The Night Lands \"\" Alan Taylor David Benioff & D. B. Weiss April 8, 2012 3.76 [30]13 3 \"\" What Is Dead May Never Die \"\"Alik Sakharov Bryan Cogman April 15, 2012 3.77 [31]14 4 \"\" Garden of Bones \"\" David Petrarca Vanessa Taylor April 22, 2012 3.65 [32]15 5 \"\" The Ghost of Harrenhal \"\" David Petrarca David Benioff & D. B. Weiss April 29, 2012 3.90 [33]16 6 \"\" The Old Gods and the New \"\"David Nutter Vanessa Taylor May 6, 2012 3.88 [34]17 7 \"\" A Man Without Honor \"\" David Nutter David Benioff & D. B. Weiss May 13, 2012 3.69 [35]18 8 \"\" The Prince of Winterfell \"\" Alan Taylor David Benioff & D. B. Weiss May 20, 2012 3.86 [36]19 9 \"\" Blackwater \"\" Neil Marshall George R. R. Martin May 27, 2012 3.38 [37]20 10 \"\" Valar Morghulis \"\" Alan Taylor David Benioff & D. B. Weiss June 3, 2012 4.20 [38]Season 3 (2013) [ edit]Main article: Game of Thrones (season 3)No.", "overall No.", "in season Title Directed by Written by Original air date U. S. viewers (millions)21 1 \"\" Valar Dohaeris \"\" Daniel Minahan David Benioff & D. B. Weiss March 31, 2013 4.37 [39]22 2 \"\" Dark Wings, Dark Words \"\" Daniel Minahan Vanessa Taylor April 7, 2013 4.27 [40]23 3 \"\" Walk of Punishment \"\" David Benioff David Benioff & D. B. Weiss April 14, 2013 4.72 [41]24 4 \"\" And Now His Watch Is Ended \"\"Alex Graves David Benioff & D. B. Weiss April 21, 2013 4.87 [42]25 5 \"\" Kissed by Fire \"\" Alex Graves Bryan Cogman April 28, 2013 5.35 [43]26 6 \"\" The Climb \"\" Alik Sakharov David Benioff & D. B. Weiss May 5, 2013 5.50 [44]27 7 \"\" The Bear and the Maiden Fair \"\" Michelle Mac Laren George R. R. Martin May 12, 2013 4.84 [45]28 8 \"\" Second Sons \"\" Michelle Mac Laren David Benioff & D. B. Weiss May 19, 2013 5.13 [46]29 9 \"\" The Rains of Castamere \"\"David Nutter David Benioff & D. B. Weiss June 2, 2013 5.22 [47]30 10 \"\" Mhysa \"\" David Nutter David Benioff & D. B. Weiss June 9, 2013 5.39 [48]Season 4 (2014) [ edit]Main article: Game of Thrones (season 4)No.", "overall No.", "in season Title Directed by Written by Original air date U. S. viewers (millions)31 1 \"\" Two Swords \"\" D. B. Weiss David Benioff & D. B. Weiss April 6, 2014 6.64 [49]32 2 \"\" The Lion and the Rose \"\" Alex Graves George R. R. Martin April 13, 2014 6.31 [50]33 3 \"\" Breaker of Chains \"\" Alex Graves David Benioff & D. B. Weiss April 20, 2014 6.59 [51]34 4 \"\" Oathkeeper \"\" Michelle Mac Laren Bryan Cogman April 27, 2014 6.95 [52]35 5 \"\" First of His Name \"\" Michelle Mac Laren David Benioff & D. B. Weiss May 4, 2014 7.16 [53]36 6 \"\" The Laws of Gods and Men \"\"Alik Sakharov Bryan Cogman May 11, 2014 6.40 [54]37 7 \"\" Mockingbird \"\" Alik Sakharov David Benioff & D. B. Weiss May 18, 2014 7.20 [55]38 8 \"\" The Mountain and the Viper \"\" Alex Graves David Benioff & D. B. Weiss June 1, 2014 7.17 [56]39 9 \"\" The Watchers on the Wall \"\"Neil Marshall David Benioff & D. B. Weiss June 8, 2014 6.95 [57]40 10 \"\" The Children \"\" Alex Graves David Benioff & D. B. Weiss June 15, 2014 7.09 [58]Season 5 (2015) [ edit]Main article: Game of Thrones (season 5)No.", "overall No.", "in season Title Directed by Written by Original air date U. S. viewers (millions)41 1 \"\" The Wars to Come \"\" Michael Slovis David Benioff & D. B. Weiss April 12, 2015 8.00 [59]42 2 \"\" The House of Black and White \"\" Michael Slovis David Benioff & D. B. Weiss April 19, 2015 6.81 [60]43 3 \"\" High Sparrow \"\" Mark Mylod David Benioff & D. B. Weiss April 26, 2015 6.71 [61]44 4 \"\" Sons of the Harpy \"\" Mark Mylod Dave Hill May 3, 2015 6.82 [62]45 5 \"\" Kill the Boy \"\" Jeremy Podeswa Bryan Cogman May 10, 2015 6.56 [63]46 6 \"\" Unbowed, Unbent, Unbroken \"\" Jeremy Podeswa Bryan Cogman May 17, 2015 6.24 [64]47 7 \"\" The Gift \"\" Miguel Sapochnik David Benioff & D. B. Weiss May 24, 2015 5.40 [65]48 8 \"\" Hardhome \"\" Miguel Sapochnik David Benioff & D. B. Weiss May 31, 2015 7.01 [66]49 9 \"\" The Dance of Dragons \"\" David Nutter David Benioff & D. B. Weiss June 7, 2015 7.14 [67]50 10 \"\" Mother's Mercy \"\" David Nutter David Benioff & D. B. Weiss June 14, 2015 8.11 [68]Season 6 (2016) [ edit]Main article: Game of Thrones (season 6)No.", "overall No.", "in season Title Directed by Written by Original air date U. S. viewers (millions)51 1 \"\" The Red Woman \"\" Jeremy Podeswa David Benioff & D. B. Weiss April 24, 2016 7.94 [69]52 2 \"\" Home \"\" Jeremy Podeswa Dave Hill May 1, 2016 7.29 [70]53 3 \"\" Oathbreaker \"\" Daniel Sackheim David Benioff & D. B. Weiss May 8, 2016 7.28 [71]54 4 \"\" Book of the Stranger \"\" Daniel Sackheim David Benioff & D. B. Weiss May 15, 2016 7.82 [72]55 5 \"\" The Door \"\" Jack Bender David Benioff & D. B. Weiss May 22, 2016 7.89 [73]56 6 \"\" Blood of My Blood \"\" Jack Bender Bryan Cogman May 29, 2016 6.71 [74]57 7 \"\" The Broken Man \"\" Mark Mylod Bryan Cogman June 5, 2016 7.80 [75]58 8 \"\" No One \"\" Mark Mylod David Benioff & D. B. Weiss June 12, 2016 7.60 [76]59 9 \"\" Battle of the Bastards \"\" Miguel Sapochnik David Benioff & D. B. Weiss June 19, 2016 7.66 [77]60 10 \"\" The Winds of Winter \"\" Miguel Sapochnik David Benioff & D. B. Weiss June 26, 2016 8.89 [78]Season 7 (2017) [ edit]Main article: Game of Thrones (season 7)No.", "overall No.", "in season Title Directed by Written by Original air date U. S. viewers (millions)61 1 \"\" Dragonstone \"\"Jeremy Podeswa David Benioff & D. B. Weiss July 16, 2017 10.11 [79]62 2 \"\" Stormborn \"\" Mark Mylod Bryan Cogman July 23, 2017 9.27 [80]63 3 \"\" The Queen's Justice \"\" Mark Mylod David Benioff & D. B. Weiss July 30, 2017 9.25 [81]64 4 \"\" The Spoils of War \"\"Matt Shakman David Benioff & D. B. Weiss August 6, 2017 10.17 [82]65 5 \"\" Eastwatch \"\" Matt Shakman Dave Hill August 13, 2017 10.72 [83]66 6 \"\" Beyond the Wall \"\"Alan Taylor David Benioff & D. B. Weiss August 20, 2017 10.24 [84]67 7 \"\" The Dragon and the Wolf \"\" Jeremy Podeswa David Benioff & D. B. Weiss August 27, 2017 12.07 [85]Season 8 [ edit]Main article: Game of Thrones (season 8)No.", "overall No.", "in season Title Directed by [86] [87]Written by [88]Original air date [12]U. S. viewers (millions)68 1 TBA David Nutter Dave Hill 2019 TBD69 2 TBA David Nutter Bryan Cogman 2019 TBD70 3 TBA Miguel Sapochnik David Benioff & D. B. Weiss 2019 TBD71 4 TBA David Nutter David Benioff & D. B. Weiss 2019 TBD72 5 TBA Miguel Sapochnik David Benioff & D. B. Weiss 2019 TBD73 6TBADavid Benioff & D. B. Weiss David Benioff & D. B. Weiss 2019TBDHome media releases [ edit]Season Episodes DVD release date Region 1 Region 2 Region 41 10 March 6, 2012 [89] March 5, 2012 [90] August 10, 2012 [91]2 10 February 19, 2013 [92] March 4, 2013 [93] March 6, 2013 [94]3 10 February 18, 2014 [95] February 17, 2014 [96] February 19, 2014 [97]4 10 February 17, 2015 [98] February 16, 2015 [99] February 18, 2015 [100]5 10 March 15, 2016 [101] March 14, 2016 [102] March 16, 2016 [103]6 10 November 15, 2016 [104] November 14, 2016 [105] November 16, 2016 [106]7 7 December 12, 2017 [107] December 11, 2017 [108] December 11, 2017 [109]Ratings [ edit]Game of Thrones : U. S. viewers per episode (millions)Season Ep.", "1 Ep.", "2 Ep.", "3 Ep.", "4 Ep.", "5 Ep.", "6 Ep.", "7 Ep.", "8 Ep.", "9 Ep.", "10 Average1 2.22 2.20 2.44 2.45 2.58 2.44 2.40 2.72 2.66 3.04 2.52 [110]2 3.86 3.76 3.77 3.65 3.90 3.88 3.69 3.86 3.38 4.20 3.80 [110]3 4.37 4.27 4.72 4.87 5.35 5.50 4.84 5.13 5.22 5.39 4.97 [111]4 6.64 6.31 6.59 6.95 7.16 6.40 7.20 7.17 6.95 7.09 6.84 [112]5 8.00 6.81 6.71 6.82 6.56 6.24 5.40 7.01 7.14 8.11 6.88 [113]6 7.94 7.29 7.28 7.82 7.89 6.71 7.80 7.60 7.66 8.89 7.69 [114]7 10.11 9.27 9.25 10.17 10.72 10.24 12.07 N/A 10.26 [115]Source: Nielsen Media Research [116] [110] [111] [112] [113] [114] [115]References [ edit]^ Fowler, Matt (April 8, 2011).", "\"\"Game of Thrones: \"\"Winter is Coming\"\" Review\"\".", "IGN.", "Archived from the original on August 17, 2012.", "Retrieved September 22, 2016.^ Fleming, Michael (January 16, 2007).", "\"\"HBO turns Fire into fantasy series\"\".", "Variety.", "Archived from the original on May 16, 2012.", "Retrieved 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Does It Air Tonight?\"\".", "Heavy.com.", "Archived from the original on August 21, 2016.", "Retrieved September 9, 2016.^ \"\"Game of Thrones\"\".", "HBO.", "Retrieved September 3, 2016.^ Hibberd, James (July 30, 2016).", "\"\"Game of Thrones: HBO confirms season 8 will be last\"\".", "Entertainment Weekly.", "Archived from the original on September 1, 2016.", "Retrieved July 30, 2016.^ Wagmeister, Elizabeth (March 12, 2017). \"\"", "' Game of Thrones': 10 Behind-the-Scenes Secrets We Learned From the SXSW Panel\"\".", "Variety.", "Archived from the original on March 12, 2017.", "Retrieved March 12, 2017.^ a b c d \"\"Game of Thrones Will Return in 2019\"\".", "HBO.", "Retrieved January 4, 2018.", "Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; name \"\"Airing2019\"\" defined multiple times with different content (see the help page ).^ a b \"\"Game of Thrones: Season Two Ratings\"\".", "TV Series Finale.", "June 11, 2012.", "Archived from the original on September 1, 2016.", "Retrieved April 18, 2016.^ \"\"Game of Thrones: Season Three Ratings\"\".", "TV Series Finale.", "June 12, 2013.", "Archived from the original on September 1, 2016.", "Retrieved April 18, 2016.^ \"\"Game of Thrones: Season Four Ratings\"\".", "TV Series Finale.", "June 18, 2014.", "Archived from the original on September 1, 2016.", "Retrieved April 18, 2016.^ \"\"Game of Thrones: Season Five Ratings\"\".", "TV Series Finale.", "June 16, 2015.", "Archived from the original on September 1, 2016.", "Retrieved April 18, 2016.^ \"\"Game of Thrones: Season Six Ratings\"\".", "TV Series Finale.", "June 28, 2016.", "Archived from the original on September 1, 2016.", "Retrieved June 28, 2016.^ \"\" ' Game of Thrones' Season 7 finale smashes more records for HBO\"\".", "TV Series Finale.", "August 28, 2017.", "Retrieved August 28, 2017.^ Seidman, Robert (April 19, 2011).", "\"\"Sunday Cable Ratings: NBA, 'Storage Wars,' 'Ax Men,' 'Khloe & Lamar' + 'The Killing,' 'Breakout Kings,' 'Sam Axe,' 'Game of Thrones' & Much More\"\".", "TV by the Numbers.", "Archived from the original on August 17, 2016.", "Retrieved April 20, 2011.^ Gorman, Bill (April 26, 2011).", "\"\"Sunday Cable Ratings: NBA, 'Khloe & Lamar,' 'The Killing,' 'Breakout Kings,' 'Housewives,' 'Game of Thrones' & Much More\"\".", "TV by the Numbers.", "Archived from the original on August 17, 2016.", "Retrieved April 27, 2011.^ Seidman, Robert (May 3, 2011).", "\"\"Sunday Cable Ratings: More 'Death of Bin Laden' Ratings; 'Khloe & Lamar,' 'Law & Order: CI,' 'In Plain Sight,' 'Army Wives,' 'Housewives,' 'Game of Thrones' & Much More\"\".", "TV by the Numbers.", "Archived from the original on August 17, 2016.", "Retrieved May 4, 2011.^ Gorman, Bill (May 10, 2011).", "\"\"Sunday Cable Ratings: Bulls/Hawks Tops + 'Law & Order: CI,' 'In Plain Sight,' 'Army Wives,' 'Housewives,' 'Game of Thrones' & Much More\"\".", "TV by the Numbers.", "Archived from the original on August 17, 2016.", "Retrieved May 10, 2011.^ Seidman, Robert (May 18, 2011).", "\"\"Sunday Cable Ratings: Heat/Bulls Slam Dunks + 'Law & Order: CI,' 'In Plain Sight,' 'Army Wives,' 'Housewives,' 'Game of Thrones' & Much More\"\".", "TV by the Numbers.", "Archived from the original on May 13, 2016.", "Retrieved May 18, 2011.^ Gorman, Bill (May 24, 2011).", "\"\"Sunday Cable Ratings: Heat/Bulls Scores Big + 'Law & Order: CI,' 'In Plain Sight,' 'Army Wives,' 'Housewives,' 'Game of Thrones' & Much More\"\".", "TV by the Numbers.", "Archived from the original on August 17, 2016.", "Retrieved May 25, 2011.^ Gorman, Bill (June 1, 2011).", "\"\"Sunday Cable Ratings: 'My Big Fat Gypsy Wedding,' 'Game of Thrones,' 'The Killing' & More\"\".", "TV by the Numbers.", "Archived from the original on May 13, 2016.", "Retrieved June 1, 2011.^ Gorman, Bill (June 7, 2011).", "\"\"Sunday Cable Ratings: 'MTV Movie Awards' Leads Night, 'Game of Thrones' Series High, 'Real Housewives,' 'ABDC' & Lots More\"\".", "TV by the Numbers.", "Archived from the original on August 17, 2016.", "Retrieved June 8, 2011.^ Gorman, Bill (June 14, 2011).", "\"\"Sunday Cable Ratings: 'Game of Thrones', 'Real Housewives,' 'Kardashians,' 'In Plain Sight,' 'Army Wives' & More\"\".", "TV by the Numbers.", "Archived from the original on August 17, 2016.", "Retrieved June 14, 2011.^ Seidman, Robert (June 21, 2011).", "\"\"Sunday Cable Ratings: 'Falling Skies,' 'Game of Thrones', 'The Killing,' 'In Plain Sight,' 'Law & Order: CI,' 'The Glades' and Much More\"\".", "TV by the Numbers.", "Archived from the original on August 17, 2016.", "Retrieved June 22, 2011.^ Seidman, Robert (April 3, 2012).", "\"\"Sunday Cable Ratings:'Game of Thrones' Returns To Series High; + 'Khloe & Lamar,' 'The Killing', 'Mad Men, 'Army Wives' & More\"\".", "TV by the Numbers.", "Archived from the original on March 4, 2016.", "Retrieved April 3, 2012.^ Bibel, Sara (April 10, 2012).", "\"\"Sunday Cable Ratings: 'Game of Thrones' Leads + Atlanta 'Housewives,' 'Mad Men,' 'Khloe & Lamar,' 'Army Wives,' 'The Client List' & Much More\"\".", "TV by the Numbers.", "Archived from the original on September 1, 2016.", "Retrieved April 10, 2012.^ Kondolojy, Amanda (April 17, 2012).", "\"\"Sunday Cable Ratings: 'Game of Thrones,' + 'Real Housewives ATL' 'Mad Men,' 'Khloe & Lamar,' 'The Client List' & More\"\".", "TV by the Numbers.", "Archived from the original on September 1, 2016.", "Retrieved April 17, 2012.^ Kondolojy, Amanda (April 24, 2012).", "\"\"Sunday Cable Ratings: 'Game of Thrones,' + 'Real Housewives ATL' 'Mad Men,' 'Khloe & Lamar,' 'The Client List' & More\"\".", "TV by the Numbers.", "Archived from the original on March 4, 2016.", "Retrieved April 24, 2012.^ Bibel, Sara (May 1, 2012).", "\"\"Sunday Cable Ratings: 'Game of Thrones' Rises, Ties NBA Playoffs + 'Real Housewives,' 'The Client List,' 'Army Wives,' 'Mad Men' & More\"\".", "TV by the Numbers.", "Archived from the original on September 1, 2016.", "Retrieved May 1, 2012.^ Kondolojy, Amanda (May 8, 2012).", "\"\"Sunday Cable Ratings: NBA Playoffs + 'Game of Thrones', 'The Client List', 'Army Wives,' 'Khloe & Lamar', 'Mad Men' + More\"\".", "TV by the Numbers.", "Archived from the original on May 27, 2016.", "Retrieved May 8, 2012.^ Bibel, Sara (May 15, 2012).", "\"\"Sunday Cable Ratings: 'Game Of Thrones' Tops, 'Real Housewives NJ,' 'The Client List,' 'Khloe & Lamar,' 'Army Wives' & More\"\".", "TV by the Numbers.", "Archived from the original on September 1, 2016.", "Retrieved May 15, 2012.^ Kondolojy, Amanda (May 22, 2012).", "\"\"Sunday Cable Ratings: NBA Playoffs, + 'Game of Thrones', 'Keeping Up With the Kardashians', 'Ax Men', 'The Client List', 'Sister Wives', + More\"\".", "TV by the Numbers.", "Archived from the original on September 1, 2016.", "Retrieved May 22, 2012.^ Bibel, Sara (May 30, 2012).", "\"\"Sunday Cable Ratings: NBA Playoffs Win Night, 'Game of Thrones', 'Mad Men', 'Keeping Up With the Kardashians', 'Girls', 'Pawn Stars', & More\"\".", "TV by the Numbers.", "Archived from the original on June 10, 2016.", "Retrieved May 30, 2012.^ Kondolojy, Amanda (June 5, 2012).", "\"\"Sunday Cable Ratings: NBA Playoffs + 'Game of Thrones' Finale, MTV Movie Awards, 'Sister Wives', 'The Glades', 'Longmire' + More\"\".", "TV by the Numbers.", "Archived from the original on September 1, 2016.", "Retrieved June 5, 2012.^ Bibel, Sara (April 2, 2013).", "\"\"Sunday Cable Ratings: 'The Walking Dead' Wins Night, 'Game of Thrones', 'The Bible', 'Vikings', 'Shameless', 'The Client List' & More\"\".", "TV by the Numbers.", "Archived from the original on September 1, 2016.", "Retrieved April 2, 2013.^ Kondolojy, Amanda (April 9, 2013).", "\"\"Sunday Cable Ratings: 'Game of Thrones' Wins Night + 'Real Housewives of Atlanta', 'Kourtney & Kim Take Miami', 'Vikings', 'Mad Men' & More\"\".", "TV by the Numbers.", "Archived from the original on September 1, 2016.", "Retrieved April 9, 2013.^ Bibel, Sara (April 16, 2013).", "\"\"Sunday Cable Ratings: 'Game of Thrones' Wins Night, 'MTV Movie Awards', 'Vikings', 'Mad Men','The Client List', 'Veep' & More\"\".", "TV by the Numbers.", "Archived from the original on September 1, 2016.", "Retrieved April 16, 2013.^ Kondolojy, Amanda (April 23, 2013).", "\"\"Sunday Cable Ratings: 'Game of Thrones' Wins Night, 'NBA Playoffs', 'Real Housewives of Atlanta', 'Vikings' & More\"\".", "TV by the Numbers.", "Archived from the original on September 1, 2016.", "Retrieved April 23, 2013.^ Bibel, Sara (April 30, 2013).", "\"\"Sunday Cable Ratings: 'Game of Thrones' Wins Night, NBA Playoffs, 'Vikings', 'The Client List', 'Mad Men', 'Veep' & More\"\".", "TV by the Numbers.", "Archived from the original on September 1, 2016.", "Retrieved April 30, 2013.^ Kondolojy, Amanda (May 7, 2013).", "\"\"Sunday Cable Ratings: 'Game of Thrones' Wins Night + 'Ax Men', 'Mad Men', 'Army Wives', 'The Client List' & More\"\".", "TV by the Numbers.", "Archived from the original on September 1, 2016.", "Retrieved May 7, 2013.^ Kondolojy, Amanda (May 14, 2013).", "\"\"Sunday Cable Ratings: 'Game of Thrones' Wins Night + 'Breaking Amish', 'Mad Men', 'Long Island Medium', 'River Monsters' & More\"\".", "TV by the Numbers.", "Archived from the original on September 1, 2016.", "Retrieved May 14, 2013.^ Bibel, Sara (May 21, 2013).", "\"\"Sunday Cable Ratings:'Game of Thrones' Wins Night, 'North America', 'Mad Men', 'Veep', 'The Client List' & More\"\".", "TV by the Numbers.", "Archived from the original on September 1, 2016.", "Retrieved May 21, 2013.^ Kondolojy, Amanda (June 4, 2013).", "\"\"Sunday Cable Ratings: 'Game of Thrones' Wins Night + 'Keeping Up With the Kardashians', 'Real Housewives of New Jersey', 'Breaking Amish', 'Mad Men' & More\"\".", "TV by the Numbers.", "Archived from the original on September 1, 2016.", "Retrieved June 4, 2013.^ Bibel, Sara (June 11, 2013).", "\"\"Sunday Cable Ratings: 'Game of Thrones' Wins Night, 'Falling Skies', 'Mad Men', 'Army Wives', 'Veep', 'The Client List' & More\"\".", "TV by the Numbers.", "Archived from the original on September 1, 2016.", "Retrieved June 10, 2013.^ Kondolojy, Amanda (April 8, 2014).", "\"\"Sunday Cable Ratings: 'Game of Thrones' Wins Night + 'The Real Housewives of Atlanta', 'Silicon Valley', 'Married to Medicine' & More\"\".", "TV by the Numbers.", "Archived from the original on September 1, 2016.", "Retrieved April 8, 2014.^ Bibel, Sara (April 15, 2014).", "\"\"Sunday Cable Ratings: 'Game of Thrones' Wins Night, 'Real Housewives of Atlanta', 'MTV Movie Awards', 'Silicon Valley', 'Mad Men', 'Drop Dead Diva' & More\"\".", "TV by the Numbers.", "Archived from the original on September 1, 2016.", "Retrieved April 15, 2014.^ Kondolojy, Amanda (April 22, 2014).", "\"\"Sunday Cable Ratings: 'Game of Thrones' Wins Night, + NBA Playoffs, 'Real Housewives of Atlanta', 'Naked and Afraid' & More\"\".", "TV by the Numbers.", "Archived from the original on September 1, 2016.", "Retrieved April 22, 2014.^ Bibel, Sara (April 29, 2014).", "\"\"Sunday Cable Ratings: 'Game of Thrones' Wins Night, NBA Playoffs, 'Real Housewives of Atlanta', 'Mad Men', 'Devious Maids' & More\"\".", "TV by the Numbers.", "Archived from the original on September 1, 2016.", "Retrieved April 29, 2014.^ Kondolojy, Amanda (May 6, 2014).", "\"\"Sunday Cable Ratings: 'Game of Thrones' Wins Night, + 'Real Housewives of Atlanta', 'Married to Medicine', 'Silicon Valley' & More\"\".", "TV by the Numbers.", "Archived from the original on September 1, 2016.", "Retrieved May 6, 2014.^ Bibel, Sara (May 13, 2014).", "\"\"Sunday Cable Ratings: 'Game of Thrones' Wins Night, NBA Playoffs, 'Silicon Valley', 'Bar Rescue', 'Real Housewives of Atlanta', 'Mad Men' & More\"\".", "TV by the Numbers.", "Archived from the original on September 1, 2016.", "Retrieved May 13, 2014.^ Kondolojy, Amanda (May 20, 2014).", "\"\"Sunday Cable Ratings: 'Game of Thrones' Wins Night + 'Silicon Valley', 'Real Housewives of Atlanta', 'River Monsters', 'Married to Medicine' & More\"\".", "TV by the Numbers.", "Archived from the original on September 1, 2016.", "Retrieved May 20, 2014.^ Kondolojy, Amanda (June 3, 2014).", "\"\"Sunday Cable Ratings: 'Game of Thrones' Wins Night + NHL Conference Finals, 'Real Housewives of Atlanta: Kandi's Wedding', 'Silicon Valley' & Moreh\"\".", "TV by the Numbers.", "Archived from the original on September 1, 2016.", "Retrieved June 3, 2014.^ Bibel, Sara (June 10, 2014).", "\"\"Sunday Cable Ratings: 'Game of Thrones' Wins Night, 'Keeping Up With the Kardashians', 'Devious Maids', 'Veep', 'Turn' & More\"\".", "TV by the Numbers.", "Archived from the original on September 1, 2016.", "Retrieved June 10, 2014.^ Kondolojy, Amanda (June 17, 2014).", "\"\"Sunday Cable Ratings: 'Game of Thrones' Wins Night + World Cup Soccer, 'Keeping up with the Kardashians', NASCAR & More\"\".", "TV by the Numbers.", "Archived from the original on June 2, 2016.", "Retrieved June 17, 2014.^ Bibel, Sara (April 14, 2015).", "\"\"Sunday Cable Ratings: 'Game of Thrones' Wins Night, 'Silicon Valley', 'MTV Movie Awards', 'Mad Men', 'Veep', 'The Royals' & More\"\".", "TV by the Numbers.", "Archived from the original on September 1, 2016.", "Retrieved April 14, 2015.^ Kondolojy, Amanda (April 21, 2015).", "\"\"Sunday Cable Ratings: 'Game of Thrones' Tops Night + NBA Playoffs, 'Real Housewives of Atlanta,' 'Naked and Afraid' & More\"\".", "TV by the Numbers.", "Archived from the original on September 1, 2016.", "Retrieved April 21, 2015.^ Bibel, Sara (April 28, 2015).", "\"\"Sunday Cable Ratings: 'Game of Thrones' Wins Night, NBA Playoffs, 'Real Housewives of Atlanta', 'Silicon Valley', 'Mad Men' & More\"\".", "TV by the Numbers.", "Archived from the original on September 1, 2016.", "Retrieved April 28, 2015.^ Kondolojy, Amanda (May 5, 2015).", "\"\"Sunday Cable Ratings: 'Game of Thrones' Tops Night + 'Real Housewives of Atlanta', 'Silicon Valley' & More\"\".", "TV by the Numbers.", "Archived from the original on September 1, 2016.", "Retrieved May 5, 2015.^ Bibel, Sara (May 12, 2015).", "\"\"Sunday Cable Ratings: 'Game of Thrones' Wins Night, NBA Playoffs, 'Silicon Valley', 'Mad Men', 'The Royals', 'Veep' & More\"\".", "TV by the Numbers.", "Archived from the original on September 1, 2016.", "Retrieved May 12, 2015.^ Kondolojy, Amanda (May 19, 2015).", "\"\"Sunday Cable Ratings: 'Game of Thrones' Tops Night + 'Keeping Up With the Kardashians', 'Mad Men' & More\"\".", "TV by the Numbers.", "Archived from the original on September 1, 2016.", "Retrieved May 19, 2015.^ Bibel, Sara (May 27, 2015).", "\"\"Sunday Cable Ratings: NBA Conference Finals Win Night, 'Game of Thrones', 'Silicon Valley', 'Keeping Up With the Kardashians', 'Veep' & More\"\".", "TV by the Numbers.", "Archived from the original on September 1, 2016.", "Retrieved May 27, 2015.^ Kondolojy, Amanda (June 2, 2015).", "\"\"Sunday Cable Ratings: 'Game of Thrones' Tops Night + 'Keeping Up With the Kardashians', 'Silicon Valley', 'Naked and Afraid' & More\"\".", "TV by the Numbers.", "Archived from the original on September 1, 2016.", "Retrieved June 2, 2015.^ Bibel, Sara (June 9, 2015).", "\"\"Sunday Cable Ratings: 'Game of Thrones' Wins Night, 'Silicon Valley', 'Naked & Afraid', 'Married to Medicine', 'Veep' & More\"\".", "TV by the Numbers.", "Archived from the original on September 1, 2016.", "Retrieved June 9, 2015.^ Kondolojy, Amanda (June 16, 2015).", "\"\"Sunday Cable Ratings: 'Game of Thrones' Tops Night + 'Silicon Valley', NASCAR, 'Botched' & More\"\".", "TV by the Numbers.", "Archived from the original on June 10, 2016.", "Retrieved June 16, 2015.^ Porter, Rick (April 26, 2016).", "\"\"Sunday cable ratings: 'Game of Thrones' opens slightly lower, still dominant\"\".", "TV by the Numbers.", "Archived from the original on September 1, 2016.", "Retrieved April 26, 2016.^ Porter, Rick (May 3, 2016).", "\"\"Sunday cable ratings: 'Game of Thrones' slips, 'Kardashians' premiere steady\"\".", "TV by the Numbers.", "Archived from the original on September 1, 2016.", "Retrieved May 3, 2016.^ Porter, Rick (May 10, 2016).", "\"\"Sunday cable ratings: 'Game of Thrones' (very) steady with episode 3\"\".", "TV by the Numbers.", "Archived from the original on September 1, 2016.", "Retrieved May 10, 2016.^ Porter, Rick (May 17, 2016).", "\"\"Sunday cable ratings: 'Game of Thrones' rises, 'Fear the Walking Dead' falls\"\".", "TV by the Numbers.", "Archived from the original on September 1, 2016.", "Retrieved May 17, 2016.^ Porter, Rick (May 24, 2016).", "\"\"Sunday cable ratings: 'Preacher' has decent debut, 'Game of Thrones' ties season high\"\".", "TV by the Numbers.", "Archived from the original on September 1, 2016.", "Retrieved May 24, 2016.^ Porter, Rick (June 1, 2016).", "\"\"Sunday cable ratings: 'Game of Thrones' hits season low on Memorial Day weekend\"\".", "TV by the Numbers.", "Archived from the original on September 1, 2016.", "Retrieved June 1, 2016.^ Porter, Rick (June 7, 2016).", "\"\"Sunday cable ratings: 'Game of Thrones' back to usual numbers, 'Preacher' holds up\"\".", "TV by the Numbers.", "Archived from the original on August 28, 2016.", "Retrieved June 7, 2016.^ Porter, Rick (June 14, 2016).", "\"\"Sunday cable ratings: 'Game of Thrones' and 'Silicon Valley' hold steady\"\".", "TV by the Numbers.", "Archived from the original on September 1, 2016.", "Retrieved June 14, 2016.^ Porter, Rick (June 21, 2016).", "\"\"Sunday cable ratings: 'Game of Thrones' holds up opposite NBA Finals\"\".", "TV by the Numbers.", "Archived from the original on September 15, 2016.", "Retrieved June 21, 2016.^ Porter, Rick (June 28, 2016).", "\"\"Sunday cable ratings: 'Game of Thrones' scores series high with Season 6 finale\"\".", "TV by the Numbers.", "Archived from the original on September 1, 2016.", "Retrieved June 28, 2016.^ Porter, Rick (July 17, 2017).", "\"\"Sunday cable ratings: 'Game of Thrones' scores series-best audience with Season 7 premiere\"\".", "TV by the Numbers.", "Archived from the original on July 30, 2017.", "Retrieved July 18, 2017.^ Porter, Rick (July 25, 2017).", "\"\"Sunday cable ratings: 'Phelps vs. Shark' strong, 'Game of Thrones' boosts 'Ballers,' 'Insecure ' \"\".", "TV by the Numbers.", "Archived from the original on July 25, 2017.", "Retrieved July 25, 2017.^ Porter, Rick (August 1, 2017).", "\"\"Sunday cable ratings: 'Rick & Morty' returns strong, more highs for 'Insecure' and 'Ballers ' \"\".", "TV by the Numbers.", "Archived from the original on August 1, 2017.", "Retrieved August 1, 2017.^ Porter, Rick (August 8, 2017).", "\"\"Sunday cable ratings: 'Sharknado 5' lacks bite, 'Game of Thrones' hits total-viewer high\"\".", "TV by the Numbers.", "Archived from the original on August 8, 2017.", "Retrieved August 8, 2017.^ Porter, Rick (August 15, 2017).", "\"\"Sunday cable ratings: 'Game of Thrones' scores another series high\"\".", "TV by the Numbers.", "Archived from the original on August 15, 2017.", "Retrieved August 15, 2017.^ Porter, Rick (August 22, 2017).", "\"\"Sunday cable ratings: 'Survivor's Remorse' premiere steady, 'Game of Thrones' down a little\"\".", "TV by the Numbers.", "Archived from the original on August 22, 2017.", "Retrieved August 22, 2017.^ Porter, Rick (August 29, 2017).", "\"\"Sunday cable ratings: VMAs hit all-time low opposite 'Game of Thrones' finale\"\".", "TV by the Numbers.", "Archived from the original on August 29, 2017.", "Retrieved August 29, 2017.^ Hooton, Christopher (September 27, 2017).", "\"\"Game of Thrones season 8: Directors revealed for all episodes\"\".", "The Independent.", "Archived from the original on October 20, 2017.", "Retrieved October 20, 2017.^ Chitwood, Adam (December 15, 2017). \"\"", "' Justice League' DP Fabian Wagner on Zack Snyder's Cut, Superman's Black Suit & 'Game of Thrones ' \"\".", "Collider.", "Archived from the original on December 16, 2017.", "Retrieved December 18, 2017.^ Carson, Biz (March 12, 2017).", "\"\"The final season of 'Game of Thrones' will only be six episodes\"\".", "Business Insider.", "Archived from the original on April 12, 2017.", "Retrieved April 11, 2017.^ Lambert, David (December 5, 2011).", "\"\"Game of Thrones – HBO's Official Press Release with Full Details of The Complete 1st Season on DVD, Blu-ray\"\".", "TVShows On DVD.com.", "Archived from the original on September 1, 2016.", "Retrieved February 3, 2012.^ \"\"Game of Thrones - Season 1 [DVD] [2012]\"\".", "Amazon.co.uk.", "Archived from the original on June 19, 2016.", "Retrieved November 14, 2016.^ \"\"Game Of Thrones - Season 1\"\".", "jbhifi.com.au.", "Archived from the original on November 14, 2016.", "Retrieved November 14, 2016.^ Lambert, David (November 19, 2012).", "\"\"Game of Thrones – Winter is Coming, with The Complete 2nd Season: Date, Extras, Boxes!\"\".", "TVShows On DVD.com.", "Archived from the original on September 1, 2016.", "Retrieved November 20, 2012.^ \"\"Game of Thrones - Season 2 [DVD] [2013]\"\".", "Amazon.co.uk.", "Archived from the original on November 14, 2016.", "Retrieved November 14, 2016.^ \"\"Game Of Thrones - Season 2\"\".", "jbhifi.com.au.", "Archived from the original on November 14, 2016.", "Retrieved November 14, 2016.^ Lambert, David (June 24, 2013).", "\"\"Game of Thrones – 2014 Release Date, Package Art for The Complete 3rd Season, on DVD, Blu\"\".", "TVShows On DVD.com.", "Archived from the original on September 1, 2016.", "Retrieved June 25, 2013.^ \"\"Game of Thrones - Season 3 [DVD] [2014]\"\".", "Amazon.co.uk.", "Archived from the original on June 19, 2016.", "Retrieved November 14, 2016.^ \"\"Game Of Thrones - Season 3\"\".", "jbhifi.com.au.", "Archived from the original on May 27, 2015.", "Retrieved November 14, 2016.^ Lambert, David (July 16, 2014).", "\"\"Game of Thrones – 'The Complete 4th Season' Press Release: Date, Art, Cost, Extras\"\".", "TVShows On DVD.com.", "Archived from the original on September 1, 2016.", "Retrieved July 16, 2014.^ \"\"Game of Thrones - Season 4 [DVD] [2015]\"\".", "Amazon.co.uk.", "Archived from the original on August 18, 2016.", "Retrieved November 14, 2016.^ \"\"Game Of Thrones - Season 4\"\".", "jbhifi.com.au.", "Archived from the original on May 10, 2016.", "Retrieved November 14, 2016.^ \"\"Game of Thrones: Season 5 [Blu-ray + Digital HD]\"\".", "Amazon.com.", "Archived from the original on September 1, 2016.", "Retrieved October 18, 2015.^ \"\"Game of Thrones - Season 5 [DVD]\"\".", "Amazon.co.uk.", "Archived from the original on November 14, 2016.", "Retrieved November 14, 2016.^ \"\"Game Of Thrones - Season 5\"\".", "jbhifi.com.au.", "Archived from the original on May 16, 2016.", "Retrieved November 14, 2016.^ \"\"Game of Thrones: The Complete Sixth Season [Blu-ray]\"\".", "Amazon.com.", "Archived from the original on September 1, 2016.", "Retrieved July 19, 2016.^ \"\"Game of Thrones - Season 6 [DVD] [2016]\"\".", "Amazon.co.uk.", "Archived from the original on November 9, 2016.", "Retrieved November 14, 2016.^ \"\"Game Of Thrones - Season 6\"\".", "jbhifi.com.au.", "Archived from the original on November 14, 2016.", "Retrieved November 14, 2016.^ \"\"Game of Thrones - 'The Complete 7th Season' Already Planned for DVD and Blu-ray Disc\"\".", "TVShows On DVD.", "Archived from the original on July 26, 2017.", "Retrieved July 26, 2017.^ \"\"Game of Thrones - Season 7 [Blu-ray + Amazon Exclusive Bonus Disc] [2017]\"\".", "Amazon.co.uk.", "Retrieved September 4, 2017.^ \"\"Game of Thrones - Season 7\"\".", "jbhifi.com.au.", "Retrieved September 4, 2017.^ a b c \"\"Game of Thrones: Season Two Ratings\"\".", "TV Series Finale.", "June 11, 2012.", "Archived from the original on September 1, 2016.", "Retrieved April 18, 2016.^ a b \"\"Game of Thrones: Season Three Ratings\"\".", "TV Series Finale.", "June 12, 2013.", "Archived from the original on September 1, 2016.", "Retrieved April 18, 2016.^ a b \"\"Game of Thrones: Season Four Ratings\"\".", "TV Series Finale.", "June 18, 2014.", "Archived from the original on September 1, 2016.", "Retrieved April 18, 2016.^ a b \"\"Game of Thrones: Season Five Ratings\"\".", "TV Series Finale.", "June 16, 2015.", "Archived from the original on September 1, 2016.", "Retrieved April 18, 2016.^ a b \"\"Game of Thrones: Season Six Ratings\"\".", "TV Series Finale.", "June 28, 2016.", "Archived from the original on September 1, 2016.", "Retrieved April 24, 2016.^ a b \"\"Game of Thrones: Season Seven Ratings\"\".", "TV Series Finale.", "August 29, 2017.", "Archived from the original on September 16, 2017.", "Retrieved August 29, 2017.^ \"\"Updated: 'Game of Thrones' Ratings: Season One\"\".", "TV by the Numbers.", "June 19, 2011.", "Archived from the original on July 26, 2017.", "Retrieved July 26, 2017.", "External links [ edit]Official website Game of Thrones – The Viewers Guide on HBO.com Making Game of Thrones on HBO.com List of Game of Thrones episodes on IMDb List of Game of Thrones episodes at TV.com Game of Thrones at Rotten Tomatoes [ show]v t e George R. R. Martin 's A Song of Ice and Fire [ show]v t e Game of Thrones episodes Categories: Game of Thrones episodes Lists of American drama television series episodes Lists of fantasy television series episodes \"" ]
D52151
http://www.improvenet.com/r/costs-and-prices/concrete-patios
Concrete Patio Cost Guide
A concrete patio is a great addition for any home. Though some homeowners opt for poured concrete, others like the look of stamped concrete or concrete pavers. With so many options to choose from, picking the right option for a home often takes some thought. Homeowners need to think about the look you want, the size of the patio that you need and a variety of other factors. The type of concrete used in the patio, the overall design and the size of the finished patio all play a key role in how much you will pay for a new concrete patio. Once you review the prices below, check our patio portal to connect with local masons ready for your specific patio project!Table of Contents Cost of Concrete Patio Concrete Patio Cost Factors Types of Concrete Patios Concrete Uses Advantages of A Concrete Patio Disadvantages of A Concrete Patio Concrete Delivery Tips for Patio Installation How to Save Money On A Concrete Patio Find A Pro Cost of Concrete Patio Basic Concrete Patio Costs: $6 - $10/Sf Custom Concrete Patio Costs: $10 - $15/sf Advanced Or Complex Designs: $15/sf or more Average Patio Costs: $2,800 - $4,000See our concrete calculator here. Concrete Patio Cost Factors Besides material, there are other factors that can affect your total concrete patio price. Those factors include: Location Patio Size Patio Shape Thickness Patio Color Multiple Levels Purchaser Needless to say, the farther the concrete has to travel, the most expensive it will be. In fact, according to our concrete delivery cost guide, the national average is $3,800. Furthermore, the larger or more complex your patio design is, the more expensive it will be. Finally, any added color will increase your total patio price. Staining or using stamped concrete is more expensive than the traditional gray. Types of Concrete Patios The various types of concrete available for patios include: Poured Concrete Stamped Concrete Concrete Pavers Poured concrete and stamped concrete are similar options that begin with a foundation built on the ground. Using the design chosen by the homeowners, the contractor will build a wood frame that determines the layout of the finished patio. This wood frame will hold the concrete until it dries and cures. The contractor pours wet concrete into the frame and lets the concrete cure before removing the frame. Stamped concrete uses the same frame, but the contractor adds a finished design to the top while the concrete is still wet. Homeowners can choose a design that resembles natural stone or any other pattern they like. The contractor will place a pattern mold on top of the concrete, which presses the design into the wet mixture. Some homeowners also like the look of colored concrete. Contractors can add color to the concrete when it is still wet or apply a colored mixture to the surface before the concrete dries. Concrete pavers are another valid option. Pavers are small pieces of concrete that come in different colors and designs, and many pavers resemble other types of materials, including natural stone or wood. Contractors need to dig out a trench and sprinkle sand or another aggregate material on the ground to keep the pavers from slipping. A second layer of aggregate material, applied after installing the pavers, will fill in any gaps between the pieces. Concrete Uses In addition to patios, concrete has a number of other uses. Homeowners can use the concrete to connect two outdoor entertaining areas, including a patio placed around a swimming pool or a patio attached to a house. Concrete walkways are a popular option in various places across the country, and homeowners will find that they can use pavers to create a walkway that runs across their yards or from a patio in the backyard to the front of the house. Many homeowners add a walkway when adding a patio. Advantages of A Concrete Patio Concrete patios bring a wide range of advantages, especially compared to composite or wood deck. Some of those benefits include: Environmentally friendly Requires less maintenance than other types of patios Stronger and more durable Concrete is a durable material that can hold up well to environmental dangers, making it a good choice for areas that receive a lot of rain or snow. The excess moisture that builds up on the ground won't affect stamped or poured concrete. Contractors can add a sealant to the top of the concrete that prevents moisture from seeping inside. Sealant can also form a barrier between the concrete and any chemicals used in a swimming pool or on a lawn. Many people choose concrete because it is more affordable than wood and other materials. It can cost up to half as much as a similar patio made from wood. Those interested in going green will find that concrete is a better alternative. Some manufacturers create concrete from leftover and recycled materials. Homeowners will also find that concrete comes in a wide range of options to fit their needs. Disadvantages of A Concrete Patio Though concrete is a good choice for patios, it does come with a few problems. Concrete is durable, but it can develop cracks and chips after prolonged use. Repairing stamped concrete, colored concrete or a patio with a unique design is often expensive because the contractor must match the repair to the original design or color. With concrete pavers, some homeowners need to apply a weed killer or pesticide to prevent weeds from sprouting up between the pavers. Concrete pavers can also chip or crack more easily than poured concrete. Caring for concrete is generally easy, but homeowners will need to apply more sealant to the surface of the patio every few years. Certain chemicals, including those used to melt snow and ice quickly, can eat through the sealant and damage the concrete beneath. Those willing to take care of the concrete will have a patio that they can use for years to come. Concrete Delivery Chances are, most homeowners will not mix the concrete themselves. Likewise, some concrete companies have the concrete delivered themselves. Luckily, there are few different ways to deliver concrete: Mixer Truck Special Trailers Electric Concrete Mixer Ready-Mix Dry For bigger jobs, most companies will call in a mixer truck. These trucks carry up to 10 cubic yards of concrete but will still usually deliver just a yard or two. Special trailers and electric concrete mixers are used for smaller jobs, but still require professional assistance or DIY experience. Finally, for really small jobs, homeowners can purchase sacks of ready-mix dry concrete, which you mix with water in a wheelbarrow. Tips for Patio Installation Once you have determined concrete as your patio material of choice, you must jump into the design phase of your patio. Planning and preparation are both key for any patio installation. If you need help with design, there are landscape designers who specialize in patios. Next, if this is a new patio, you must check if permits are required. They most likely are, so before you buy anything, contact your local building department. Then, decide if you’re going to hire a pro to install your concrete patio. While this will certainly increase the overall price of your patio, it will ensure efficiency and quality. Once the project starts, it should be completed within a few days. This assumes no color is being added. For a detail list of the entire process, please see “Pouring A Slab” at DIY Tips for How to Build a Patio. How to Save Money on A Concrete Patio While materials do play the largest role in your overall patio investment, there are other ways to save on your patio installation. First off, if you plan to hire a pro, shop around and get multiple quotes. For any home remodeling project, you should always get multiple quotes. While the cheapest option may be tempting, you’re better off going with the middle price. The low-ball price will most likely not adhere to the quality you’re looking for. Furthermore, try to hire a pro during their downtime, which is winter or late fall. Another way to lower your concrete patio cost is by limiting extra accessories or expensive materials. While built-in benches, complex designs, covers or stamped concrete all look terrific, they all bring higher price tags. Finally, help out when you can. Whether its lugging concrete, applying for permits, leveling the surface or any patio installation step, lend a helping hand. Your wallet will thank you later on. Find A Pro Concrete patios cost $8/sf, but with the information above, you should have more than a few tricks up your sleeve to lower that price and still install a terrific looking patio. As always, if you need help, you can always use Improve Net to connect with a concrete pro. Get free estimates from local patio contractors Get Quotes Last updated on Jun 20, 2017
[ "A concrete patio is a great addition for any home.", "Though some homeowners opt for poured concrete, others like the look of stamped concrete or concrete pavers.", "With so many options to choose from, picking the right option for a home often takes some thought.", "Homeowners need to think about the look you want, the size of the patio that you need and a variety of other factors.", "The type of concrete used in the patio, the overall design and the size of the finished patio all play a key role in how much you will pay for a new concrete patio.", "Once you review the prices below, check our patio portal to connect with local masons ready for your specific patio project!Table of Contents Cost of Concrete Patio Concrete Patio Cost Factors Types of Concrete Patios Concrete Uses Advantages of A Concrete Patio Disadvantages of A Concrete Patio Concrete Delivery Tips for Patio Installation How to Save Money On A Concrete Patio Find A Pro Cost of Concrete Patio Basic Concrete Patio Costs: $6 - $10/Sf Custom Concrete Patio Costs: $10 - $15/sf Advanced Or Complex Designs: $15/sf or more Average Patio Costs: $2,800 - $4,000See our concrete calculator here.", "Concrete Patio Cost Factors Besides material, there are other factors that can affect your total concrete patio price.", "Those factors include: Location Patio Size Patio Shape Thickness Patio Color Multiple Levels Purchaser Needless to say, the farther the concrete has to travel, the most expensive it will be.", "In fact, according to our concrete delivery cost guide, the national average is $3,800.", "Furthermore, the larger or more complex your patio design is, the more expensive it will be.", "Finally, any added color will increase your total patio price.", "Staining or using stamped concrete is more expensive than the traditional gray.", "Types of Concrete Patios The various types of concrete available for patios include: Poured Concrete Stamped Concrete Concrete Pavers Poured concrete and stamped concrete are similar options that begin with a foundation built on the ground.", "Using the design chosen by the homeowners, the contractor will build a wood frame that determines the layout of the finished patio.", "This wood frame will hold the concrete until it dries and cures.", "The contractor pours wet concrete into the frame and lets the concrete cure before removing the frame.", "Stamped concrete uses the same frame, but the contractor adds a finished design to the top while the concrete is still wet.", "Homeowners can choose a design that resembles natural stone or any other pattern they like.", "The contractor will place a pattern mold on top of the concrete, which presses the design into the wet mixture.", "Some homeowners also like the look of colored concrete.", "Contractors can add color to the concrete when it is still wet or apply a colored mixture to the surface before the concrete dries.", "Concrete pavers are another valid option.", "Pavers are small pieces of concrete that come in different colors and designs, and many pavers resemble other types of materials, including natural stone or wood.", "Contractors need to dig out a trench and sprinkle sand or another aggregate material on the ground to keep the pavers from slipping.", "A second layer of aggregate material, applied after installing the pavers, will fill in any gaps between the pieces.", "Concrete Uses In addition to patios, concrete has a number of other uses.", "Homeowners can use the concrete to connect two outdoor entertaining areas, including a patio placed around a swimming pool or a patio attached to a house.", "Concrete walkways are a popular option in various places across the country, and homeowners will find that they can use pavers to create a walkway that runs across their yards or from a patio in the backyard to the front of the house.", "Many homeowners add a walkway when adding a patio.", "Advantages of A Concrete Patio Concrete patios bring a wide range of advantages, especially compared to composite or wood deck.", "Some of those benefits include: Environmentally friendly Requires less maintenance than other types of patios Stronger and more durable Concrete is a durable material that can hold up well to environmental dangers, making it a good choice for areas that receive a lot of rain or snow.", "The excess moisture that builds up on the ground won't affect stamped or poured concrete.", "Contractors can add a sealant to the top of the concrete that prevents moisture from seeping inside.", "Sealant can also form a barrier between the concrete and any chemicals used in a swimming pool or on a lawn.", "Many people choose concrete because it is more affordable than wood and other materials.", "It can cost up to half as much as a similar patio made from wood.", "Those interested in going green will find that concrete is a better alternative.", "Some manufacturers create concrete from leftover and recycled materials.", "Homeowners will also find that concrete comes in a wide range of options to fit their needs.", "Disadvantages of A Concrete Patio Though concrete is a good choice for patios, it does come with a few problems.", "Concrete is durable, but it can develop cracks and chips after prolonged use.", "Repairing stamped concrete, colored concrete or a patio with a unique design is often expensive because the contractor must match the repair to the original design or color.", "With concrete pavers, some homeowners need to apply a weed killer or pesticide to prevent weeds from sprouting up between the pavers.", "Concrete pavers can also chip or crack more easily than poured concrete.", "Caring for concrete is generally easy, but homeowners will need to apply more sealant to the surface of the patio every few years.", "Certain chemicals, including those used to melt snow and ice quickly, can eat through the sealant and damage the concrete beneath.", "Those willing to take care of the concrete will have a patio that they can use for years to come.", "Concrete Delivery Chances are, most homeowners will not mix the concrete themselves.", "Likewise, some concrete companies have the concrete delivered themselves.", "Luckily, there are few different ways to deliver concrete: Mixer Truck Special Trailers Electric Concrete Mixer Ready-Mix Dry For bigger jobs, most companies will call in a mixer truck.", "These trucks carry up to 10 cubic yards of concrete but will still usually deliver just a yard or two.", "Special trailers and electric concrete mixers are used for smaller jobs, but still require professional assistance or DIY experience.", "Finally, for really small jobs, homeowners can purchase sacks of ready-mix dry concrete, which you mix with water in a wheelbarrow.", "Tips for Patio Installation Once you have determined concrete as your patio material of choice, you must jump into the design phase of your patio.", "Planning and preparation are both key for any patio installation.", "If you need help with design, there are landscape designers who specialize in patios.", "Next, if this is a new patio, you must check if permits are required.", "They most likely are, so before you buy anything, contact your local building department.", "Then, decide if you’re going to hire a pro to install your concrete patio.", "While this will certainly increase the overall price of your patio, it will ensure efficiency and quality.", "Once the project starts, it should be completed within a few days.", "This assumes no color is being added.", "For a detail list of the entire process, please see “Pouring A Slab” at DIY Tips for How to Build a Patio.", "How to Save Money on A Concrete Patio While materials do play the largest role in your overall patio investment, there are other ways to save on your patio installation.", "First off, if you plan to hire a pro, shop around and get multiple quotes.", "For any home remodeling project, you should always get multiple quotes.", "While the cheapest option may be tempting, you’re better off going with the middle price.", "The low-ball price will most likely not adhere to the quality you’re looking for.", "Furthermore, try to hire a pro during their downtime, which is winter or late fall.", "Another way to lower your concrete patio cost is by limiting extra accessories or expensive materials.", "While built-in benches, complex designs, covers or stamped concrete all look terrific, they all bring higher price tags.", "Finally, help out when you can.", "Whether its lugging concrete, applying for permits, leveling the surface or any patio installation step, lend a helping hand.", "Your wallet will thank you later on.", "Find A Pro Concrete patios cost $8/sf, but with the information above, you should have more than a few tricks up your sleeve to lower that price and still install a terrific looking patio.", "As always, if you need help, you can always use Improve Net to connect with a concrete pro.", "Get free estimates from local patio contractors Get Quotes Last updated on Jun 20, 2017" ]
D77916
http://www.livescience.com/37247-dna.html
DNA: Definition, Structure & Discovery
"Live Science Health Reference: DNA: Definition, Structure & Discovery By Rachael Rettner, Senior Writer | December 7, 2017 09:30pm ETMOREThe structure of DNA and RNA. DNA is a double helix, while RNA is a single helix. Both have sets of nucleotides that contain genetic information. Credit: udaix Shutterstock Deoxyribonucleic acid or DNA is a molecule that contains the instructions an organism needs to develop, live and reproduce. These instructions are found inside every cell, and are passed down from parents to their children. DNA structure DNA is made up of molecules called nucleotides. Each nucleotide contains a phosphate group, a sugar group and a nitrogen base. The four types of nitrogen bases are adenine (A), thymine (T), guanine (G) and cytosine (C). The order of these bases is what determines DNA's instructions, or genetic code. Human DNA has around 3 billion bases, and more than 99 percent of those bases are the same in all people, according to the U. S. National Library of Medicine (NLM). Cool Science Experiment: Extract a strand of your DNACredit: Genetic Science Learning Center Similar to the way the order of letters in the alphabet can be used to form a word, the order of nitrogen bases in a DNA sequence forms genes, which in the language of the cell, tells cells how to make proteins. Another type of nucleic acid, ribonucleic acid, or RNA, translates genetic information from DNA into proteins. Nucleotides are attached together to form two long strands that spiral to create a structure called a double helix. If you think of the double helix structure as a ladder, the phosphate and sugar molecules would be the sides, while the bases would be the rungs. The bases on one strand pair with the bases on another strand: adenine pairs with thymine, and guanine pairs with cytosine. DNA molecules are long — so long, in fact, that they can't fit into cells without the right packaging. To fit inside cells, DNA is coiled tightly to form structures we call chromosomes. Each chromosome contains a single DNA molecule. Humans have 23 pairs of chromosomes, which are found inside the cell's nucleus. DNA discovery DNA was first observed by a German biochemist named Frederich Miescher in 1869. But for many years, researchers did not realize the importance of this molecule. It was not until 1953 that James Watson, Francis Crick, Maurice Wilkins and Rosalind Franklin figured out the structure of DNA — a double helix — which they realized could carry biological information. Watson, Crick and Wilkins were awarded the Nobel Prize in Medicine in 1962 ""for their discoveries concerning the molecular structure of nucleic acids and its significance for information transfer in living material."" Franklin was not included in the award, although her work was integral to the research. [Related: Unraveling the Human Genome: 6 Molecular Milestones]DNA sequencing DNA sequencing is technology that allows researchers to determine the order of bases in a DNA sequence. The technology can be used to determine the order of bases in genes, chromosomes, or an entire genome. In 2000, researchers completed the first full sequence of the human genome, according to a report by the National Human Genome Research Institute . UCBerkeleyprofessor,Jennifer Doudna,aprincipaldiscovererofthegene-editingtool CRISPR/Cas9,discussesthetechniquersquo;sfar-reachingpositivepotential,aswellastheneedforclosebioethicalconsiderationandagreementonhowitcanbeused. Doudnadrawsadistinctionbetweenalteringtraitsinindividualsandaffectingchangeswhichcanbepassedontooffspring. DNA testing A person's DNA contains information about their heritage, and can sometimes reveal whether they are at risk for certain diseases. DNA tests, or genetic tests, are used for a variety of reasons, including to diagnose genetic disorders, to determine whether a person is a carrier of a genetic mutation that they could pass on to their children, and to examine whether a person is at risk for a genetic disease. For instance, mutations in the BRCA1 and BRCA2 genes are known to increase the risk of breast and ovarian cancer, and analysis of these genes in a genetic test can reveal whether a person has these mutations. Genetic test results can have implications for a person's health, and the tests are often provided along with genetic counseling to help individuals understand the results and consequences of the test. There are now many at-home genetic testing kits, but some of them are unreliable. Also, NBC News reports that people should be careful with these kits, since the tests are essentially handing over a person's genetic code to a stranger. New research on DNADNA research has lead to some interesting, and important findings in the last few years. For example, a 2017 study published in the journal Science found that random mistakes in DNA, not heredity or environmental factors, accounts for two-thirds of cancer mutations in cells. Another 2017 breakthrough is the first sequencing of DNA from Egyptian mummies. ""We were excited to have at hand the first genome-wide data of ancient Egyptian mummies ,"" said Stephan Schiffels, leader of the Population Genetics Group at the Max Planck Institute for the Science of Human History, in Jena, Germany. The findings were published in the May 2017 issue of the journal Nature Communications. Movies were also encoded data to make a short video in the DNA molecules of bacteria in 2017. DNA was used as code for each pixel of the movie. The results were published in the July 2017 issue of Nature. ""The point is not to store videos in bacteria,"" said study co-author Seth Shipman, a postdoctoral fellow at Harvard Medical School in Boston. ""We want to turn cells into historians,"" Shipman said in a statement. ""We envision a biological memory system that's much smaller and more versatile than today's technologies, which will track many events nonintrusively over time."" [ How Scientists Stored a Movie Inside DNA]Additional reporting by Alina Bradford, Live Science contributor. Additional resources NLM: What is mitochondrial DNA? Florida State University: Mitochondria Washington University: Mitochondrial Disorders You'd Also Like What Are Mutations? Live Science What Is CRISPR? Live Science Francis Crick: Co-Discoverer of DNA's Double Helix Live Science Origin-of-Life Story May Have Found Its Missing Link Live Science Latest on DNA: Definition, Structure & Discovery | What Is DNA? 'Space Alien' Mummy Spurs DNA Debate This 4,000-Year-Old Mummy Just Solved a Century-Old Mystery No, It's Not an Alien — Here's What That Tiny, Pointy-Headed Skeleton Really Is Here's Why Cockroaches Can Survive Just About Anything Scott Kelly's Year in Space Changed His Gene Expression Genes Can't Explain Why Men Are Less Empathetic Than Women More from Live Science After Death, Your Microbiome Could Still Help the Living If You Want Your Friend to Vaccinate Their Kids, Don't Try to Change Their Mind This Pouched Rat Can Sniff Out Tuberculosis in Kids Restroom Hand Dryers Are Blowing Bacteria Everywhere What Happens If You Get Injected with Embalming Fluid? A Man Ate the 'World's Hottest' Pepper. Then the 'Thunderclap' Headaches Started Deadly Pressure: Why These Two Men's Muscles 'Blew Up' From the Inside This Mysterious Marijuana Syndrome Is Relieved by Hot Showers Author Bio Rachael Rettner, Senior Writer Rachael has been with Live Science since 2010. She has a masters degree in journalism from New York University's Science, Health and Environmental Reporting Program. She also holds a Bachelor of Science in molecular biology and a Master of Science in biology from the University of California, San Diego. Rachael Rettner, Senior Writer on "
[ "\"Live Science Health Reference: DNA: Definition, Structure & Discovery By Rachael Rettner, Senior Writer | December 7, 2017 09:30pm ETMOREThe structure of DNA and RNA.", "DNA is a double helix, while RNA is a single helix.", "Both have sets of nucleotides that contain genetic information.", "Credit: udaix Shutterstock Deoxyribonucleic acid or DNA is a molecule that contains the instructions an organism needs to develop, live and reproduce.", "These instructions are found inside every cell, and are passed down from parents to their children.", "DNA structure DNA is made up of molecules called nucleotides.", "Each nucleotide contains a phosphate group, a sugar group and a nitrogen base.", "The four types of nitrogen bases are adenine (A), thymine (T), guanine (G) and cytosine (C).", "The order of these bases is what determines DNA's instructions, or genetic code.", "Human DNA has around 3 billion bases, and more than 99 percent of those bases are the same in all people, according to the U. S. National Library of Medicine (NLM).", "Cool Science Experiment: Extract a strand of your DNACredit: Genetic Science Learning Center Similar to the way the order of letters in the alphabet can be used to form a word, the order of nitrogen bases in a DNA sequence forms genes, which in the language of the cell, tells cells how to make proteins.", "Another type of nucleic acid, ribonucleic acid, or RNA, translates genetic information from DNA into proteins.", "Nucleotides are attached together to form two long strands that spiral to create a structure called a double helix.", "If you think of the double helix structure as a ladder, the phosphate and sugar molecules would be the sides, while the bases would be the rungs.", "The bases on one strand pair with the bases on another strand: adenine pairs with thymine, and guanine pairs with cytosine.", "DNA molecules are long — so long, in fact, that they can't fit into cells without the right packaging.", "To fit inside cells, DNA is coiled tightly to form structures we call chromosomes.", "Each chromosome contains a single DNA molecule.", "Humans have 23 pairs of chromosomes, which are found inside the cell's nucleus.", "DNA discovery DNA was first observed by a German biochemist named Frederich Miescher in 1869.", "But for many years, researchers did not realize the importance of this molecule.", "It was not until 1953 that James Watson, Francis Crick, Maurice Wilkins and Rosalind Franklin figured out the structure of DNA — a double helix — which they realized could carry biological information.", "Watson, Crick and Wilkins were awarded the Nobel Prize in Medicine in 1962 \"\"for their discoveries concerning the molecular structure of nucleic acids and its significance for information transfer in living material.\"\"", "Franklin was not included in the award, although her work was integral to the research.", "[Related: Unraveling the Human Genome: 6 Molecular Milestones]DNA sequencing DNA sequencing is technology that allows researchers to determine the order of bases in a DNA sequence.", "The technology can be used to determine the order of bases in genes, chromosomes, or an entire genome.", "In 2000, researchers completed the first full sequence of the human genome, according to a report by the National Human Genome Research Institute .", "UCBerkeleyprofessor,Jennifer Doudna,aprincipaldiscovererofthegene-editingtool CRISPR/Cas9,discussesthetechniquersquo;sfar-reachingpositivepotential,aswellastheneedforclosebioethicalconsiderationandagreementonhowitcanbeused.", "Doudnadrawsadistinctionbetweenalteringtraitsinindividualsandaffectingchangeswhichcanbepassedontooffspring.", "DNA testing A person's DNA contains information about their heritage, and can sometimes reveal whether they are at risk for certain diseases.", "DNA tests, or genetic tests, are used for a variety of reasons, including to diagnose genetic disorders, to determine whether a person is a carrier of a genetic mutation that they could pass on to their children, and to examine whether a person is at risk for a genetic disease.", "For instance, mutations in the BRCA1 and BRCA2 genes are known to increase the risk of breast and ovarian cancer, and analysis of these genes in a genetic test can reveal whether a person has these mutations.", "Genetic test results can have implications for a person's health, and the tests are often provided along with genetic counseling to help individuals understand the results and consequences of the test.", "There are now many at-home genetic testing kits, but some of them are unreliable.", "Also, NBC News reports that people should be careful with these kits, since the tests are essentially handing over a person's genetic code to a stranger.", "New research on DNADNA research has lead to some interesting, and important findings in the last few years.", "For example, a 2017 study published in the journal Science found that random mistakes in DNA, not heredity or environmental factors, accounts for two-thirds of cancer mutations in cells.", "Another 2017 breakthrough is the first sequencing of DNA from Egyptian mummies.", "\"\"We were excited to have at hand the first genome-wide data of ancient Egyptian mummies ,\"\" said Stephan Schiffels, leader of the Population Genetics Group at the Max Planck Institute for the Science of Human History, in Jena, Germany.", "The findings were published in the May 2017 issue of the journal Nature Communications.", "Movies were also encoded data to make a short video in the DNA molecules of bacteria in 2017.", "DNA was used as code for each pixel of the movie.", "The results were published in the July 2017 issue of Nature.", "\"\"The point is not to store videos in bacteria,\"\" said study co-author Seth Shipman, a postdoctoral fellow at Harvard Medical School in Boston.", "\"\"We want to turn cells into historians,\"\" Shipman said in a statement.", "\"\"We envision a biological memory system that's much smaller and more versatile than today's technologies, which will track many events nonintrusively over time.\"\"", "[ How Scientists Stored a Movie Inside DNA]Additional reporting by Alina Bradford, Live Science contributor.", "Additional resources NLM: What is mitochondrial DNA?", "Florida State University: Mitochondria Washington University: Mitochondrial Disorders You'd Also Like What Are Mutations?", "Live Science What Is CRISPR?", "Live Science Francis Crick: Co-Discoverer of DNA's Double Helix Live Science Origin-of-Life Story May Have Found Its Missing Link Live Science Latest on DNA: Definition, Structure & Discovery | What Is DNA?", "'Space Alien' Mummy Spurs DNA Debate This 4,000-Year-Old Mummy Just Solved a Century-Old Mystery No, It's Not an Alien — Here's What That Tiny, Pointy-Headed Skeleton Really Is Here's Why Cockroaches Can Survive Just About Anything Scott Kelly's Year in Space Changed His Gene Expression Genes Can't Explain Why Men Are Less Empathetic Than Women More from Live Science After Death, Your Microbiome Could Still Help the Living If You Want Your Friend to Vaccinate Their Kids, Don't Try to Change Their Mind This Pouched Rat Can Sniff Out Tuberculosis in Kids Restroom Hand Dryers Are Blowing Bacteria Everywhere What Happens If You Get Injected with Embalming Fluid?", "A Man Ate the 'World's Hottest' Pepper.", "Then the 'Thunderclap' Headaches Started Deadly Pressure: Why These Two Men's Muscles 'Blew Up' From the Inside This Mysterious Marijuana Syndrome Is Relieved by Hot Showers Author Bio Rachael Rettner, Senior Writer Rachael has been with Live Science since 2010.", "She has a masters degree in journalism from New York University's Science, Health and Environmental Reporting Program.", "She also holds a Bachelor of Science in molecular biology and a Master of Science in biology from the University of California, San Diego.", "Rachael Rettner, Senior Writer on \"" ]
D90845
http://health.howstuffworks.com/diseases-conditions/cold-flu/contagious.htm
When are colds and the flu the most contagious?
NEXT3d rendering of the influenza virus.© i Stockphoto.com /Eraxion Myths about contagion are a regular part of life. Remember when AIDS could be transmitted by a handshake? Most fictions regarding how you can catch diseases aren't quite that bizarre and off the mark -- they usually sound pretty reasonable, which is how a lot of them get passed through generations as unquestioned truths. Many of us understand that when it comes to a cold or the flu, we're most contagious before we start feeling sick; that by the time we've got a runny nose, sore throat and achy muscles, the damage to the people around us has already been done. In fact, many of us are completely wrong. If you think about how a virus works, it makes sense that we're most contagious when our symptoms are at their worst. Viruses like influenza and those that cause the common cold (there are a couple of hundred of them) have an incubation period once they get into your body. The virus gets into a group of healthy cells and then goes about requisitioning their survival apparatus from the inside. During this incubation period, while the virus is multiplying inside those infected cells, you have no symptoms -- no sore throat, no runny nose, no achy muscles -- and no virus spreading like wildfire throughout your body so that every drop of saliva or mucous you produce contains it. And that's how a virus spreads from one person to another: By a healthy person coming into contact with the bodily fluids of an infected person, whether those fluids are airborne (as from a sneeze) or left on a doorknob by a sick person who just wiped his nose. So if you have no symptoms yet, it's a lot less likely that you're going to spread the virus to another person. Once the cells that have been taken over by the virus start to die, that's when all hell breaks loose. Here's when you start having symptoms, and you start spreading it to everyone you know if you're not careful. Some of those symptoms are caused by the virus itself (runny nose and sore throat, for example), and others are caused by your immune system (fever and exhaustion, for instance). When the virus breaks out of those dead cells and starts infecting tons of other cells throughout your body, your immune system recognizes that something is wrong and begins its counterattack. All of this can take days to happen. With the flu in particular, the time between exposure and the onset of symptoms is usually between one and four days. So, when are you most contagious? Most experts agree that adults with a cold or the flu start being contagious about a day before they start experiencing symptoms. For the flu, the contagious period then lasts five to seven days into the illness. For children, the contagious period for the flu can last up to two weeks after they start feeling sick, even if they start feeling better before that. The contagious period for a cold lasts about three to four days into the illness. As a general rule, people with a cold are most contagious about three days after their initial exposure to the virus. For more information on colds, influenza and related topics, check out the links on the next page. When Are You Contagious When You're Sick? | Don't Be Dumb Your browser does not currently recognize any of the video formats available. Click here to visit our frequently asked questions about HTML5 video.0:00 / 3:20
[ "NEXT3d rendering of the influenza virus.© i Stockphoto.com /Eraxion Myths about contagion are a regular part of life.", "Remember when AIDS could be transmitted by a handshake?", "Most fictions regarding how you can catch diseases aren't quite that bizarre and off the mark -- they usually sound pretty reasonable, which is how a lot of them get passed through generations as unquestioned truths.", "Many of us understand that when it comes to a cold or the flu, we're most contagious before we start feeling sick; that by the time we've got a runny nose, sore throat and achy muscles, the damage to the people around us has already been done.", "In fact, many of us are completely wrong.", "If you think about how a virus works, it makes sense that we're most contagious when our symptoms are at their worst.", "Viruses like influenza and those that cause the common cold (there are a couple of hundred of them) have an incubation period once they get into your body.", "The virus gets into a group of healthy cells and then goes about requisitioning their survival apparatus from the inside.", "During this incubation period, while the virus is multiplying inside those infected cells, you have no symptoms -- no sore throat, no runny nose, no achy muscles -- and no virus spreading like wildfire throughout your body so that every drop of saliva or mucous you produce contains it.", "And that's how a virus spreads from one person to another: By a healthy person coming into contact with the bodily fluids of an infected person, whether those fluids are airborne (as from a sneeze) or left on a doorknob by a sick person who just wiped his nose.", "So if you have no symptoms yet, it's a lot less likely that you're going to spread the virus to another person.", "Once the cells that have been taken over by the virus start to die, that's when all hell breaks loose.", "Here's when you start having symptoms, and you start spreading it to everyone you know if you're not careful.", "Some of those symptoms are caused by the virus itself (runny nose and sore throat, for example), and others are caused by your immune system (fever and exhaustion, for instance).", "When the virus breaks out of those dead cells and starts infecting tons of other cells throughout your body, your immune system recognizes that something is wrong and begins its counterattack.", "All of this can take days to happen.", "With the flu in particular, the time between exposure and the onset of symptoms is usually between one and four days.", "So, when are you most contagious?", "Most experts agree that adults with a cold or the flu start being contagious about a day before they start experiencing symptoms.", "For the flu, the contagious period then lasts five to seven days into the illness.", "For children, the contagious period for the flu can last up to two weeks after they start feeling sick, even if they start feeling better before that.", "The contagious period for a cold lasts about three to four days into the illness.", "As a general rule, people with a cold are most contagious about three days after their initial exposure to the virus.", "For more information on colds, influenza and related topics, check out the links on the next page.", "When Are You Contagious When You're Sick?", "| Don't Be Dumb Your browser does not currently recognize any of the video formats available.", "Click here to visit our frequently asked questions about HTML5 video.0:00 / 3:20" ]
D57923
https://www.caring.com/questions/how-much-does-cremation-cost
How Much Does Cremation Cost?
"How Much Does Cremation Cost?21 answers | Last updated: Jan 19, 2017A fellow caregiver asked... How much does cremation cost? Expert Answers Barbara Repa, a Caring.com senior editor, is an attorney, a journalist specializing in aging issues, and the author of Your Rights in the Workplace (Nolo), now in its 10th edition. The cost of cremation typically ranges from $2,000 to $4,000 if arranged through a funeral home and from $1,500 to $3,000 if arranged directly through a crematory. Although the cost of cremation differs depending on locale, it's almost always substantially less than the cost of a full body burial -- which is one of the reasons cited for cremation's growing acceptance and popularity. However, in addition to the cost of the basic cremation service -- processing a body into the ash-and-bones mixtures called ""cremains"" -- a number of other charges may be added for related paperwork, goods, and services, including: Getting an original death certificate and copies. Obtaining a certificate releasing the body for cremation, usually issued by a medical examiner or coroner. Transporting the body from the place of death to the place of cremation. Disposing of the cremains by burying or scattering them. Removing a pacemaker. Handling charges paid to funeral industry personnel (if involved). Purchasing or renting a casket or container. Although these incidental charges can add a few hundred to a few thousand dollars to the cost of cremation, the item that's potentially the priciest is a casket, which can range from $500 for a simple wooden version to $35,000 or more for an ornate style. Many people who choose cremation opt not to purchase a casket, but some prefer to have one during a funeral or memorial service at which the body will be present -- before cremation occurs. Community Answers Rebekah peoples answered... There is no set answer to this question due to the many factors involved. Most cremation plans fit into three main categories:having the body present for visiting hours and a funeral with cremation afterwardhaving the body cremated first with visiting hours and a funeral afterward (with or without the ""ashes"" present)having the body cremated first and then arranging for any services on your own. All of these need to be considered for many reasons, not just cost. You can get information on these ""packages"" and their prices from any reputable funeral director over the phone. Be careful though. Prices can vary a lot. For example, in some areas one of the above options is called ""direct cremation,"" meaning that the funeral home will have the body cremated without any arrangement for visiting hours or any type of service. Prices in many parts of the country can range from $495 at one funeral home to $2595 or higher at others. Be sure you're comparing apples with apples, but the most important thing is to ask what is included in the price you are given. Ask the person for details, not just prices. What is included in the $495 or the $2595 price? With such a big price difference, there is probably also a big difference in what you're getting. Notice not only if your question is answered, but the tone and the degree of helpfulness you receive. If the person with the low price tries to tell you that they do the same thing as the guy with the higher price, be careful. We've all heard ""if it sounds too good to be true, it probably is. ""Even if you choose to have visiting hours and services followed by cremation, it is still less expensive than burial for a couple of reasons:a casket will be necessary; however most funeral homes offer wooden caskets made specifically for cremation, which are less expensive than those used for burial. This is usually because there are no metal handles or other hardware (for obvious reasons) on the outside. Also almost all funeral homes offer a casket that you can rent, andthere are different costs depending on what will be done with the ""ashes"" or cremated remains. If they will be buried at a cemetery, the grave will cost less than for a full-size burial, the burial vault will also cost less and in many cases will not even be required. If they will not be buried, there will be no cemetery costs. Also, keep in mind when you arrange for any type of services with a funeral director, that not all of the charges involved are those of only the funeral home. Most funeral homes include the charges from outside vendors on their bill for your convenience so you won't be overwhelmed with getting a bill from each of them. This includes items like the crematory's fee, the newspaper notice, certified copies of the death certificate, and even flowers and the fee for a speaker, minister, or church. Most funeral directors will work with you to help you decide what kinds of services are appropriate and meaningful for you and your family, and the really good ones will work within your budget. A fellow caregiver answered... To be direct. Dad was $1240.00 for the entire cremation here in Salinas, CA. This was 240 more than her had thought. Her as well as us, felt it was still best to shop around. We took the lowest price. He felt once he passed it was just a body to dispose of. Bless you!Ed markin answered... In a survey of Cremation Costs last year, in a Texas community near Dallas, we found the charge for a direct cremation ranged from $710 to a high of $3820, depending on which funeral home one used. What makes these numbers even more amazing is; all these funeral homes use the SAME CREMATORY and pay the same fee!For the best price on cremations I suggest you contact the Funeral Consumers Alliance (www.funerals.org), get the number to your nearest chapter, and ask for the nearest CREMATION SOCIETY to you. Here in Virginia, for instance, a direct cremation ranges from a low of $1145 to a high of $2995 through a funeral home, but through our Cremation Society the co st is $595 and includes all the transport (within the city) and paperwork required. The ashes (called Cremains) are returned to the family for final disposition in a sealed bag inside a plastic box. Lifetime membership in the Society cost $25 for the entire family and, should one of us die elsewhere, many of the societies have reciprocal agreements. Ronjay answered...just needed to know if their is payment plans available prior to passing. This would aliminate others having financial responsibilities to deal with. Thanks for suggestions don't need a bunch of liberal get rich after I'm dead proposals, Thanks Rebekah peoples answered... Ronjay, Yes, any firm that offers cremation services will allow you to set up a payment program. If you want to use the services of one that for some reason does not, you can go to almost any bank and set up a ""funeral account"" for funds that will only be used for your final expenses. This account will allow you to put in a lump sum or start with a small amount and add to it as you desire. The funds can be withdrawn with a certified copy of t he death certificate when the need arises. Bhf.nyl answered... Ronjay- Yes, you can pay in advance for the cremation or burial. I actually help people do this. Please let me know if you'd like additional information. Good on you for having the foresight. A fellow caregiver answered... In Greensboro NC a direct cremation costs about $895www. Optima Cremation Service.com Threewe answered...$1000000Fisher girl answered... Anyone concerned about funeral expenses should visit the DFS Memorials network. They are all local, family-owned funeral businesses (Mom & Pop shops!) that can offer a simple direct cremation [dfsmemorials.com] at an affordable price. In Florida and Nevada the price for a direct cremation is very competitive - around $495. However, in most other main cities across the U. S. you can expect to pay between $700 and $1,000. There are some areas, where lack of competition means that a direct cremation may cost over $1,000, but you should definitely check around carefully, as you should not expect to pay much above $1,500 for a basic cremation with no service. Otherwise you are overpaying. A fellow caregiver answered... Final Arrangements That could be Chosen by You Range of Costs [See Disclaimer Below]What Can I do? Alternative Final Arrangements if Available Have A Tip or Idea? Email: Final Arrangements Mail @ Funeral Home Service Learn More$700 to $2,000 Have more than one Funeral Home to use and know what the charges are for services and goods you need before you need them. Look for Budget Funeral Services & Memorial Society Final Arrangements Preplanning Can Save You 50% of the Costs Finding that Funeral Home and Director to work with you regarding your final arrangements preplanning for funeral services is so Important. Move the Deceased Learn More$150 to $1,000 Will be part of services from whomever you choose Memorial Society Preparations of Deceased Learn More$300 to $600 Eliminate by choosing cremation where it should not be necessary to perform Memorial Society Cremation Service Learn More$600 to $1,000 Compare services and prices from several of these sources; Memorial Society, Cremation Society, Internet Companies, Local Cremation Company Cremation is becoming the predominant final arrangements choice at death in the US. Why Cremation Scattering services are becoming a more and more popular method of Memorialization for many Americans. Embalming Learn More$400 to $600 If you don't need it don't allow it Not Legally required except in cases where body is to move across state lines. Usually done by the funeral home to accommodate visitation and display of deceased or an extended period of time between death and burial. Funeral Home Visitations Learn More$600 to $1,200 Eliminate or reduce. Have a memorial service without body present at a church or private home rather than the funeral home Funeral Home Procession Services Learn More$600 to $2,000 Limit size of funeral home staff and automobiles used Cemetery; Lot, Crypt, Lawn Crypt, Mausoleum Crypt, Scatter Learn More$500 to $20,000 Purchase from Private owner To Buy Cemetery Property at a Really Good Price You Need to Find a Private Seller Cemetery Property For Sale on the Internet. It Could Save You 50% of the Cost!Cemetery and Burial Plots for Sale Funeral Flowers, Obituary, Registry and Cards Learn More$300 to $2,000 Buy directly and not through funeral home Eliminate or reduce any item Caskets & Urns Learn More$100 to $10,000 Choose and Purchase from one of the Alternatives listed here; Casket and Urn Retailer, Internet, Casket Kit, Private owner, The Cemetery Registry Caskets & Urns; Pay 50% to 70% less at a Casket Store Caskets for Sale ¥ Cremation Urns for Sale Burial Vaults Learn More$200 to $8,000 Choose and Purchase from one of the Alternatives listed here; Casket Retailer or Internet, The Cemetery Burial; Save thousands if you get the right Burial Vault. Marker, Memorial, Monument, Grave Stone Learn More$400 to $10,000 Don't rush into this purchase. You can better handle this after the funeral. Look for an Internet Retailer, Local Monument Shop, The Cemetery. Cemetery Memorial, Monument and Headstone for Final Arrangements Preplanning; Cemetery memorials, monuments and headstones information, help and advice when preplanning final arrangements. Grave Markers, Memorial, Monuments for Sale Grave Marker Base Learn More$200 to $1,000 Don't rush into this purchase. You can better handle this after the funeral Look for an Internet Retailer, Local Monument Shop, The Cemetery. Learn More about Grave Markers and Memorials Us funerals online answered... As Rebekah rightly points out ""there is no set answer"". However, consumers should be aware that a cremation CAN indeed be purchased for much less than the prices quoted by Barbara. It DOES all depend upon your locale, and whom you select as a service provider. You should be wary of many national companies that are now operating attempting to offer ""affordable"" cremations online. Many of these are just marketing companies attempting to sell cremation leads into the industry. Service Corporation International (SCI) are also heavily brand-marketing their 'Neptune Society' direct cremation brand at present, but they are by NO means the best value direct cremation offering. Ultimately you will find that there is a local family-owned funeral home and/or crematory that WILL offer an affordable cremation package. Direct cremation being by far the most affordable option (this is where there is no service). You can visit us at US FUNERALS ONLINE [us-funerals.com] and we will endeavor to direct you to your nearest family-owned funeral home that offers the best price cremation cost in the area. For over a year now we have been researching and compiling data on cremation costs across the U. S. Let us take all the stress and hard work out of the task of comparing cremation costs. In addition to connecting you with your local best value cremation company, we also have a wealth of useful information explaining everything you need to know legally about cremation, (state laws DO differ) and how best to save $$$ when arranging a cremation. We are advocates for transparency of ownership and price in the funeral industry. A fellow caregiver answered... Donate your body to science, it's cheaper (free). : DCrestwood cremation. answered... FYI In NY State and many others, crematories legally can't deal with the general public to arrange cremations. You must call a funeral home who will arrange for everything you wish. Lifespanlegal answered... Despite identical procedures, the costs of a cremation may differ by hundreds or thousands of dollars. In some cities, the same crematory serves several funeral homes, yet the total cost of the cremation may differ significantly among those funeral homes. In addition to practicing Elder Law, I once volunteered as president of our local chapter of the Funeral Consumers' Alliance (www.funerals.org) which is a non profit institution designed to educate consumers about funerals. In addition to visiting the local crematory to see how the cremation process works, we had the opportunity to survey the prices in our region. I now volunteer to teach a course sponsored by our local law library, where I educate other lawyers about the laws surrounding death and burial. The time to shop for funeral services if before the funeral. According to a Federal law known as the ""Funeral Rule"", a funeral director must give you a written price list if you ask in person. The price lists follow a form mandated by Federal Law to permit an easy comparison. Since everyone will incur the costs of a funeral, it might not be a bad idea to plan now. Remember though, the funeral home you choose today may be owned by somebody else at the time of your death, so plan for alternatives. I have been to clients and friends funerals that could have never taken place without the services of a skilled funeral director. If the funeral will be crowded, the services of a funeral director are well worth it. However, I have also been to funerals where only three or four people came because the person who died outlived all his/her friends and relatives. In that case the money spent on the funeral could have been used for other things. A fellow caregiver answered... Unfortunately, these cheap cremations you see online advertised are misleading to consumers. Again as someone has stated here, if it sounds too good to be true, it probably is. These cheap advertisements fail to let the consumer know about their additional fees. Refrigeration (sorry folks. Our loved one needs to be refrigerated and there's a cost attached to that). The removal fee. The crematory fee. The professional services fee (I've seen this range from $400-$500. The death certificate (s). And on and on. I think it's best to speak with the funeral homes, and pay attention to their emphasis on service to you as a family. I know that I will happily pay a little more for a cremation if I know that I am not walking that path of grief alone, instead of saving a few bucks and they will act like they don't know me in the future if I don't have a body and some cash to bring them. But this is just my thought. A fellow caregiver answered... There are actually low cost cremation providers who DO offer cheap cremations at an inclusive price. However, you do need ensure that you are dealing with a genuine cremation provider. There are companies out there that WILL add extras to a listed direct cremation price, but there are also Mom & Pop funeral homes that will offer a fair price. The DFS Memorials network of funeral homes all offer a complete direct cremation for the price listed...no added extras. The cost varies by area but range between $596 and $1,395. Lifespanlegal answered... I do not intend to be disrespectful, but the cremation process is not exactly ""rocket science."" The dying process is surrounded by an aura of mystery, and sometimes madness. I understand the feeling of sadness and loss, and I've lost close friends and relatives too. However, ponder for a moment the number of people who have died since the dawn of civilization. They are all here on this planet somewhere, and you and I be in the same place. When studying the cremation process, think pizza oven with a special smoke stack. That is pretty much exactly what it is, except the temperature goes well beyond 400 degrees, and the air that comes out of the chimney must be monitored for environmental reasons. Before cremation, any medical devices that might cause an explosion are removed, and after cremation the bone fragments are ground up into cremains. But think about 2-4 hours @ 1800 degrees. The employees at the cremation center will probably treat your loved one (or you) with the utmost respect, but the actual process is very basic. The placing of ""cremains"" is of religious or symbolic importance, and the remains of me an everyone else will join the others who have come before us since the dawn of civilization, all of whom left family and loved ones behind. A fellow caregiver answered... I would use a smaller family owned and operated funeral provider. I found that you get custom attention as well as save a lot of money over a large corporate owned funeral home. I would recommend checking out reviews on line to see what other people have used as reputable and good priced funeral services. This helped me find an exceptional funeral service in New York city area. Davethegeezer answered... I just purchased direct cremation from a local mausoleum for aprox $1600 including pick up. Also added 4 copies of death certificate for $80 and a glass cased double niche for about $3000. They added an opening/closing fee of $385. I had to pay 10% of the niche cost and then they financed the rest, 5 years at $100 a month, which is a high interest rate, but if I don't die in the first 2 years then they will pay the balance if I die before it is paid off. If I do die in the first 2 years then my relatives will have to come up with the cash. This mausoleum had single enclosed walled off niches starting at $950. For a long time I just wanted to have my ashes scattered somewhere like the beach, but what changed my mind is that for the last several years my family has gotten together for a day to visit our friends and relatives throughout the city. We have a great time, we tell stories about the deceased and enjoy the beautiful surroundings. Ivabrady answered... My sister recently lost her husband in Cadillac Mi the funeral home charged her$2600 for his cremation. When asked what the charges covered they told her they felt insulted she should ask such a question. She virtually has no income only SS. I felt this was predatory in a time of grief . What does one do under these circumstances? Add an answer READ THESE NEXT: How can I get financial assistance with cremation? What to wear to a memorial service How does a prepayment cremation work? What to expect when witnessing a loved one's death Assisted Living Costs Near You Compare pictures, pricing, options. Get Information "
[ "\"How Much Does Cremation Cost?21 answers | Last updated: Jan 19, 2017A fellow caregiver asked... How much does cremation cost?", "Expert Answers Barbara Repa, a Caring.com senior editor, is an attorney, a journalist specializing in aging issues, and the author of Your Rights in the Workplace (Nolo), now in its 10th edition.", "The cost of cremation typically ranges from $2,000 to $4,000 if arranged through a funeral home and from $1,500 to $3,000 if arranged directly through a crematory.", "Although the cost of cremation differs depending on locale, it's almost always substantially less than the cost of a full body burial -- which is one of the reasons cited for cremation's growing acceptance and popularity.", "However, in addition to the cost of the basic cremation service -- processing a body into the ash-and-bones mixtures called \"\"cremains\"\" -- a number of other charges may be added for related paperwork, goods, and services, including: Getting an original death certificate and copies.", "Obtaining a certificate releasing the body for cremation, usually issued by a medical examiner or coroner.", "Transporting the body from the place of death to the place of cremation.", "Disposing of the cremains by burying or scattering them.", "Removing a pacemaker.", "Handling charges paid to funeral industry personnel (if involved).", "Purchasing or renting a casket or container.", "Although these incidental charges can add a few hundred to a few thousand dollars to the cost of cremation, the item that's potentially the priciest is a casket, which can range from $500 for a simple wooden version to $35,000 or more for an ornate style.", "Many people who choose cremation opt not to purchase a casket, but some prefer to have one during a funeral or memorial service at which the body will be present -- before cremation occurs.", "Community Answers Rebekah peoples answered...", "There is no set answer to this question due to the many factors involved.", "Most cremation plans fit into three main categories:having the body present for visiting hours and a funeral with cremation afterwardhaving the body cremated first with visiting hours and a funeral afterward (with or without the \"\"ashes\"\" present)having the body cremated first and then arranging for any services on your own.", "All of these need to be considered for many reasons, not just cost.", "You can get information on these \"\"packages\"\" and their prices from any reputable funeral director over the phone.", "Be careful though.", "Prices can vary a lot.", "For example, in some areas one of the above options is called \"\"direct cremation,\"\" meaning that the funeral home will have the body cremated without any arrangement for visiting hours or any type of service.", "Prices in many parts of the country can range from $495 at one funeral home to $2595 or higher at others.", "Be sure you're comparing apples with apples, but the most important thing is to ask what is included in the price you are given.", "Ask the person for details, not just prices.", "What is included in the $495 or the $2595 price?", "With such a big price difference, there is probably also a big difference in what you're getting.", "Notice not only if your question is answered, but the tone and the degree of helpfulness you receive.", "If the person with the low price tries to tell you that they do the same thing as the guy with the higher price, be careful.", "We've all heard \"\"if it sounds too good to be true, it probably is.", "\"\"Even if you choose to have visiting hours and services followed by cremation, it is still less expensive than burial for a couple of reasons:a casket will be necessary; however most funeral homes offer wooden caskets made specifically for cremation, which are less expensive than those used for burial.", "This is usually because there are no metal handles or other hardware (for obvious reasons) on the outside.", "Also almost all funeral homes offer a casket that you can rent, andthere are different costs depending on what will be done with the \"\"ashes\"\" or cremated remains.", "If they will be buried at a cemetery, the grave will cost less than for a full-size burial, the burial vault will also cost less and in many cases will not even be required.", "If they will not be buried, there will be no cemetery costs.", "Also, keep in mind when you arrange for any type of services with a funeral director, that not all of the charges involved are those of only the funeral home.", "Most funeral homes include the charges from outside vendors on their bill for your convenience so you won't be overwhelmed with getting a bill from each of them.", "This includes items like the crematory's fee, the newspaper notice, certified copies of the death certificate, and even flowers and the fee for a speaker, minister, or church.", "Most funeral directors will work with you to help you decide what kinds of services are appropriate and meaningful for you and your family, and the really good ones will work within your budget.", "A fellow caregiver answered... To be direct.", "Dad was $1240.00 for the entire cremation here in Salinas, CA.", "This was 240 more than her had thought.", "Her as well as us, felt it was still best to shop around.", "We took the lowest price.", "He felt once he passed it was just a body to dispose of.", "Bless you!Ed markin answered...", "In a survey of Cremation Costs last year, in a Texas community near Dallas, we found the charge for a direct cremation ranged from $710 to a high of $3820, depending on which funeral home one used.", "What makes these numbers even more amazing is; all these funeral homes use the SAME CREMATORY and pay the same fee!For the best price on cremations I suggest you contact the Funeral Consumers Alliance (www.funerals.org), get the number to your nearest chapter, and ask for the nearest CREMATION SOCIETY to you.", "Here in Virginia, for instance, a direct cremation ranges from a low of $1145 to a high of $2995 through a funeral home, but through our Cremation Society the co st is $595 and includes all the transport (within the city) and paperwork required.", "The ashes (called Cremains) are returned to the family for final disposition in a sealed bag inside a plastic box.", "Lifetime membership in the Society cost $25 for the entire family and, should one of us die elsewhere, many of the societies have reciprocal agreements.", "Ronjay answered...just needed to know if their is payment plans available prior to passing.", "This would aliminate others having financial responsibilities to deal with.", "Thanks for suggestions don't need a bunch of liberal get rich after I'm dead proposals, Thanks Rebekah peoples answered... Ronjay, Yes, any firm that offers cremation services will allow you to set up a payment program.", "If you want to use the services of one that for some reason does not, you can go to almost any bank and set up a \"\"funeral account\"\" for funds that will only be used for your final expenses.", "This account will allow you to put in a lump sum or start with a small amount and add to it as you desire.", "The funds can be withdrawn with a certified copy of t he death certificate when the need arises.", "Bhf.nyl answered... Ronjay- Yes, you can pay in advance for the cremation or burial.", "I actually help people do this.", "Please let me know if you'd like additional information.", "Good on you for having the foresight.", "A fellow caregiver answered...", "In Greensboro NC a direct cremation costs about $895www.", "Optima Cremation Service.com Threewe answered...$1000000Fisher girl answered...", "Anyone concerned about funeral expenses should visit the DFS Memorials network.", "They are all local, family-owned funeral businesses (Mom & Pop shops!)", "that can offer a simple direct cremation [dfsmemorials.com] at an affordable price.", "In Florida and Nevada the price for a direct cremation is very competitive - around $495.", "However, in most other main cities across the U. S. you can expect to pay between $700 and $1,000.", "There are some areas, where lack of competition means that a direct cremation may cost over $1,000, but you should definitely check around carefully, as you should not expect to pay much above $1,500 for a basic cremation with no service.", "Otherwise you are overpaying.", "A fellow caregiver answered...", "Final Arrangements That could be Chosen by You Range of Costs [See Disclaimer Below]What Can I do?", "Alternative Final Arrangements if Available Have A Tip or Idea?", "Email: Final Arrangements Mail @ Funeral Home Service Learn More$700 to $2,000 Have more than one Funeral Home to use and know what the charges are for services and goods you need before you need them.", "Look for Budget Funeral Services & Memorial Society Final Arrangements Preplanning Can Save You 50% of the Costs Finding that Funeral Home and Director to work with you regarding your final arrangements preplanning for funeral services is so Important.", "Move the Deceased Learn More$150 to $1,000 Will be part of services from whomever you choose Memorial Society Preparations of Deceased Learn More$300 to $600 Eliminate by choosing cremation where it should not be necessary to perform Memorial Society Cremation Service Learn More$600 to $1,000 Compare services and prices from several of these sources; Memorial Society, Cremation Society, Internet Companies, Local Cremation Company Cremation is becoming the predominant final arrangements choice at death in the US.", "Why Cremation Scattering services are becoming a more and more popular method of Memorialization for many Americans.", "Embalming Learn More$400 to $600 If you don't need it don't allow it Not Legally required except in cases where body is to move across state lines.", "Usually done by the funeral home to accommodate visitation and display of deceased or an extended period of time between death and burial.", "Funeral Home Visitations Learn More$600 to $1,200 Eliminate or reduce.", "Have a memorial service without body present at a church or private home rather than the funeral home Funeral Home Procession Services Learn More$600 to $2,000 Limit size of funeral home staff and automobiles used Cemetery; Lot, Crypt, Lawn Crypt, Mausoleum Crypt, Scatter Learn More$500 to $20,000 Purchase from Private owner To Buy Cemetery Property at a Really Good Price You Need to Find a Private Seller Cemetery Property For Sale on the Internet.", "It Could Save You 50% of the Cost!Cemetery and Burial Plots for Sale Funeral Flowers, Obituary, Registry and Cards Learn More$300 to $2,000 Buy directly and not through funeral home Eliminate or reduce any item Caskets & Urns Learn More$100 to $10,000 Choose and Purchase from one of the Alternatives listed here; Casket and Urn Retailer, Internet, Casket Kit, Private owner, The Cemetery Registry Caskets & Urns; Pay 50% to 70% less at a Casket Store Caskets for Sale ¥ Cremation Urns for Sale Burial Vaults Learn More$200 to $8,000 Choose and Purchase from one of the Alternatives listed here; Casket Retailer or Internet, The Cemetery Burial; Save thousands if you get the right Burial Vault.", "Marker, Memorial, Monument, Grave Stone Learn More$400 to $10,000 Don't rush into this purchase.", "You can better handle this after the funeral.", "Look for an Internet Retailer, Local Monument Shop, The Cemetery.", "Cemetery Memorial, Monument and Headstone for Final Arrangements Preplanning; Cemetery memorials, monuments and headstones information, help and advice when preplanning final arrangements.", "Grave Markers, Memorial, Monuments for Sale Grave Marker Base Learn More$200 to $1,000 Don't rush into this purchase.", "You can better handle this after the funeral Look for an Internet Retailer, Local Monument Shop, The Cemetery.", "Learn More about Grave Markers and Memorials Us funerals online answered... As Rebekah rightly points out \"\"there is no set answer\"\".", "However, consumers should be aware that a cremation CAN indeed be purchased for much less than the prices quoted by Barbara.", "It DOES all depend upon your locale, and whom you select as a service provider.", "You should be wary of many national companies that are now operating attempting to offer \"\"affordable\"\" cremations online.", "Many of these are just marketing companies attempting to sell cremation leads into the industry.", "Service Corporation International (SCI) are also heavily brand-marketing their 'Neptune Society' direct cremation brand at present, but they are by NO means the best value direct cremation offering.", "Ultimately you will find that there is a local family-owned funeral home and/or crematory that WILL offer an affordable cremation package.", "Direct cremation being by far the most affordable option (this is where there is no service).", "You can visit us at US FUNERALS ONLINE [us-funerals.com] and we will endeavor to direct you to your nearest family-owned funeral home that offers the best price cremation cost in the area.", "For over a year now we have been researching and compiling data on cremation costs across the U. S. Let us take all the stress and hard work out of the task of comparing cremation costs.", "In addition to connecting you with your local best value cremation company, we also have a wealth of useful information explaining everything you need to know legally about cremation, (state laws DO differ) and how best to save $$$ when arranging a cremation.", "We are advocates for transparency of ownership and price in the funeral industry.", "A fellow caregiver answered...", "Donate your body to science, it's cheaper (free).", ": DCrestwood cremation.", "answered... FYI In NY State and many others, crematories legally can't deal with the general public to arrange cremations.", "You must call a funeral home who will arrange for everything you wish.", "Lifespanlegal answered...", "Despite identical procedures, the costs of a cremation may differ by hundreds or thousands of dollars.", "In some cities, the same crematory serves several funeral homes, yet the total cost of the cremation may differ significantly among those funeral homes.", "In addition to practicing Elder Law, I once volunteered as president of our local chapter of the Funeral Consumers' Alliance (www.funerals.org) which is a non profit institution designed to educate consumers about funerals.", "In addition to visiting the local crematory to see how the cremation process works, we had the opportunity to survey the prices in our region.", "I now volunteer to teach a course sponsored by our local law library, where I educate other lawyers about the laws surrounding death and burial.", "The time to shop for funeral services if before the funeral.", "According to a Federal law known as the \"\"Funeral Rule\"\", a funeral director must give you a written price list if you ask in person.", "The price lists follow a form mandated by Federal Law to permit an easy comparison.", "Since everyone will incur the costs of a funeral, it might not be a bad idea to plan now.", "Remember though, the funeral home you choose today may be owned by somebody else at the time of your death, so plan for alternatives.", "I have been to clients and friends funerals that could have never taken place without the services of a skilled funeral director.", "If the funeral will be crowded, the services of a funeral director are well worth it.", "However, I have also been to funerals where only three or four people came because the person who died outlived all his/her friends and relatives.", "In that case the money spent on the funeral could have been used for other things.", "A fellow caregiver answered...", "Unfortunately, these cheap cremations you see online advertised are misleading to consumers.", "Again as someone has stated here, if it sounds too good to be true, it probably is.", "These cheap advertisements fail to let the consumer know about their additional fees.", "Refrigeration (sorry folks.", "Our loved one needs to be refrigerated and there's a cost attached to that).", "The removal fee.", "The crematory fee.", "The professional services fee (I've seen this range from $400-$500.", "The death certificate (s).", "And on and on.", "I think it's best to speak with the funeral homes, and pay attention to their emphasis on service to you as a family.", "I know that I will happily pay a little more for a cremation if I know that I am not walking that path of grief alone, instead of saving a few bucks and they will act like they don't know me in the future if I don't have a body and some cash to bring them.", "But this is just my thought.", "A fellow caregiver answered...", "There are actually low cost cremation providers who DO offer cheap cremations at an inclusive price.", "However, you do need ensure that you are dealing with a genuine cremation provider.", "There are companies out there that WILL add extras to a listed direct cremation price, but there are also Mom & Pop funeral homes that will offer a fair price.", "The DFS Memorials network of funeral homes all offer a complete direct cremation for the price listed...no added extras.", "The cost varies by area but range between $596 and $1,395.", "Lifespanlegal answered...", "I do not intend to be disrespectful, but the cremation process is not exactly \"\"rocket science.\"\"", "The dying process is surrounded by an aura of mystery, and sometimes madness.", "I understand the feeling of sadness and loss, and I've lost close friends and relatives too.", "However, ponder for a moment the number of people who have died since the dawn of civilization.", "They are all here on this planet somewhere, and you and I be in the same place.", "When studying the cremation process, think pizza oven with a special smoke stack.", "That is pretty much exactly what it is, except the temperature goes well beyond 400 degrees, and the air that comes out of the chimney must be monitored for environmental reasons.", "Before cremation, any medical devices that might cause an explosion are removed, and after cremation the bone fragments are ground up into cremains.", "But think about 2-4 hours @ 1800 degrees.", "The employees at the cremation center will probably treat your loved one (or you) with the utmost respect, but the actual process is very basic.", "The placing of \"\"cremains\"\" is of religious or symbolic importance, and the remains of me an everyone else will join the others who have come before us since the dawn of civilization, all of whom left family and loved ones behind.", "A fellow caregiver answered...", "I would use a smaller family owned and operated funeral provider.", "I found that you get custom attention as well as save a lot of money over a large corporate owned funeral home.", "I would recommend checking out reviews on line to see what other people have used as reputable and good priced funeral services.", "This helped me find an exceptional funeral service in New York city area.", "Davethegeezer answered...", "I just purchased direct cremation from a local mausoleum for aprox $1600 including pick up.", "Also added 4 copies of death certificate for $80 and a glass cased double niche for about $3000.", "They added an opening/closing fee of $385.", "I had to pay 10% of the niche cost and then they financed the rest, 5 years at $100 a month, which is a high interest rate, but if I don't die in the first 2 years then they will pay the balance if I die before it is paid off.", "If I do die in the first 2 years then my relatives will have to come up with the cash.", "This mausoleum had single enclosed walled off niches starting at $950.", "For a long time I just wanted to have my ashes scattered somewhere like the beach, but what changed my mind is that for the last several years my family has gotten together for a day to visit our friends and relatives throughout the city.", "We have a great time, we tell stories about the deceased and enjoy the beautiful surroundings.", "Ivabrady answered... My sister recently lost her husband in Cadillac Mi the funeral home charged her$2600 for his cremation.", "When asked what the charges covered they told her they felt insulted she should ask such a question.", "She virtually has no income only SS.", "I felt this was predatory in a time of grief .", "What does one do under these circumstances?", "Add an answer READ THESE NEXT: How can I get financial assistance with cremation?", "What to wear to a memorial service How does a prepayment cremation work?", "What to expect when witnessing a loved one's death Assisted Living Costs Near You Compare pictures, pricing, options.", "Get Information \"" ]
D384271
http://blog.equifax.com/credit/how-long-does-information-stay-on-my-credit-report/
How Long Does Information Stay on My Credit Report
Written by EFXModerator_KB on September 3, 2013Posted on in Related Articles Information Security and Online Mortgages Buying a Home? Let’s Talk Data Security Internet Security and Online House Hunting The information contained in this blog post is designed to generally educate and inform visitors to the Equifax Finance Blog. The blog posts do not give, and should not be assumed to provide, personalized tax, investment, real estate, legal, retirement, credit, personal financial, or other professional advice. Before making any financial decision, you should always consult with the appropriate professionals who can explain your options, rights, and legal responsibilities, and advise you on any tax, legal, credit, or business implications that may result from those decisions. The views and opinions expressed by the authors of blog posts are their own views and may not be the views or opinions of Equifax, Inc. and/or its affiliates. Reader Interactions Equifax Finance Blog Blog Home Credit Identity Primary Sidebar
[ "Written by EFXModerator_KB on September 3, 2013Posted on in Related Articles Information Security and Online Mortgages Buying a Home?", "Let’s Talk Data Security Internet Security and Online House Hunting The information contained in this blog post is designed to generally educate and inform visitors to the Equifax Finance Blog.", "The blog posts do not give, and should not be assumed to provide, personalized tax, investment, real estate, legal, retirement, credit, personal financial, or other professional advice.", "Before making any financial decision, you should always consult with the appropriate professionals who can explain your options, rights, and legal responsibilities, and advise you on any tax, legal, credit, or business implications that may result from those decisions.", "The views and opinions expressed by the authors of blog posts are their own views and may not be the views or opinions of Equifax, Inc. and/or its affiliates.", "Reader Interactions Equifax Finance Blog Blog Home Credit Identity Primary Sidebar" ]
D19397
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Muscle
Muscle
"From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedianavigation search For other uses, see Muscle (disambiguation). Muscle A top-down view of skeletal muscle Details Precursor Mesoderm System Musculoskeletal system Identifiers Latin musculus Me SH D009132TA A04.0.00.000FMA 32558Anatomical terminology [ edit on Wikidata]Muscle is a soft tissue found in most animals. Muscle cells contain protein filaments of actin and myosin that slide past one another, producing a contraction that changes both the length and the shape of the cell. Muscles function to produce force and motion. They are primarily responsible for maintaining and changing posture, locomotion, as well as movement of internal organs, such as the contraction of the heart and the movement of food through the digestive system via peristalsis. Muscle tissues are derived from the mesodermal layer of embryonic germ cells in a process known as myogenesis. There are three types of muscle, skeletal or striated, cardiac, and smooth. Muscle action can be classified as being either voluntary or involuntary. Cardiac and smooth muscles contract without conscious thought and are termed involuntary, whereas the skeletal muscles contract upon command. [1] Skeletal muscles in turn can be divided into fast and slow twitch fibers. Muscles are predominantly powered by the oxidation of fats and carbohydrates, but anaerobic chemical reactions are also used, particularly by fast twitch fibers. These chemical reactions produce adenosine triphosphate (ATP) molecules that are used to power the movement of the myosin heads. [2]The term muscle is derived from the Latin musculus meaning ""little mouse"" perhaps because of the shape of certain muscles or because contracting muscles look like mice moving under the skin. [3] [4]Contents [ hide ]1 Structure1.1 Types1.2 Microanatomy1.3 Gross anatomy1.4 Muscular system1.5 Development2 Physiology2.1 Contraction2.2 Nervous control2.3 Energy consumption2.4 Strength3 Exercise3.1 Health4 Clinical significance4.1 Hypertrophy4.2 Atrophy4.3 Disease5 Evolution6 See also7 References8 External links Structure The anatomy of muscles includes gross anatomy, which comprises all the muscles of an organism, and microanatomy, which comprises the structures of a single muscle. Types Main article: Muscle tissue The body contains three types of muscle tissue: (a) skeletal muscle, (b) smooth muscle, and (c) cardiac muscle. (Same magnification)Muscle tissue is a soft tissue, and is one of the four fundamental types of tissue present in animals. There are three types of muscle tissue recognized in vertebrates: Skeletal muscle or ""voluntary muscle"" is anchored by tendons (or by aponeuroses at a few places) to bone and is used to effect skeletal movement such as locomotion and in maintaining posture. Though this postural control is generally maintained as an unconscious reflex, the muscles responsible react to conscious control like non-postural muscles. An average adult male is made up of 42% of skeletal muscle and an average adult female is made up of 36% (as a percentage of body mass). [5]Smooth muscle or ""involuntary muscle"" is found within the walls of organs and structures such as the esophagus, stomach, intestines, bronchi, uterus, urethra, bladder, blood vessels, and the arrector pili in the skin (in which it controls erection of body hair). Unlike skeletal muscle, smooth muscle is not under conscious control. Cardiac muscle (myocardium), is also an ""involuntary muscle"" but is more akin in structure to skeletal muscle, and is found only in the heart. Cardiac and skeletal muscles are ""striated"" in that they contain sarcomeres that are packed into highly regular arrangements of bundles; the myofibrils of smooth muscle cells are not arranged in sarcomeres and so are not striated. While the sarcomeres in skeletal muscles are arranged in regular, parallel bundles, cardiac muscle sarcomeres connect at branching, irregular angles (called intercalated discs). Striated muscle contracts and relaxes in short, intense bursts, whereas smooth muscle sustains longer or even near-permanent contractions. Skeletal (voluntary) muscle is further divided into two broad types: slow twitch and fast twitch: Type I, slow twitch, or ""red"" muscle, is dense with capillaries and is rich in mitochondria and myoglobin, giving the muscle tissue its characteristic red color. It can carry more oxygen and sustain aerobic activity using fats or carbohydrates as fuel. [6] Slow twitch fibers contract for long periods of time but with little force. Type II, fast twitch muscle, has three major subtypes (IIa, IIx, and IIb) that vary in both contractile speed [7] and force generated. [6] Fast twitch fibers contract quickly and powerfully but fatigue very rapidly, sustaining only short, anaerobic bursts of activity before muscle contraction becomes painful. They contribute most to muscle strength and have greater potential for increase in mass. Type IIb is anaerobic, glycolytic, ""white"" muscle that is least dense in mitochondria and myoglobin. In small animals (e.g., rodents) this is the major fast muscle type, explaining the pale color of their flesh. The density of mammalian skeletal muscle tissue is about 1.06 kg/liter. [8] This can be contrasted with the density of adipose tissue (fat), which is 0.9196 kg/liter. [9] This makes muscle tissue approximately 15% denser than fat tissue. Microanatomy Main articles: Myocyte and Sarcomere A skeletal muscle fiber is surrounded by a plasma membrane called the sarcolemma, which contains sarcoplasm, the cytoplasm of muscle cells. A muscle fiber is composed of many fibrils, which give the cell its striated appearance. Skeletal muscles are sheathed by a tough layer of connective tissue called the epimysium. The epimysium anchors muscle tissue to tendons at each end, where the epimysium becomes thicker and collagenous. It also protects muscles from friction against other muscles and bones. Within the epimysium are multiple bundles called fascicles, each of which contains 10 to 100 or more muscle fibers collectively sheathed by a perimysium. Besides surrounding each fascicle, the perimysium is a pathway for nerves and the flow of blood within the muscle. The threadlike muscle fibers are the individual muscle cells ( myocytes ), and each cell is encased within its own endomysium of collagen fibers. Thus, the overall muscle consists of fibers (cells) that are bundled into fascicles, which are themselves grouped together to form muscles. At each level of bundling, a collagenous membrane surrounds the bundle, and these membranes support muscle function both by resisting passive stretching of the tissue and by distributing forces applied to the muscle. [10] Scattered throughout the muscles are muscle spindles that provide sensory feedback information to the central nervous system. (This grouping structure is analogous to the organization of nerves which uses epineurium, perineurium, and endoneurium ). This same bundles-within-bundles structure is replicated within the muscle cells. Within the cells of the muscle are myofibrils, which themselves are bundles of protein filaments. The term ""myofibril"" should not be confused with ""myofiber"", which is a simply another name for a muscle cell. Myofibrils are complex strands of several kinds of protein filaments organized together into repeating units called sarcomeres. The striated appearance of both skeletal and cardiac muscle results from the regular pattern of sarcomeres within their cells. Although both of these types of muscle contain sarcomeres, the fibers in cardiac muscle are typically branched to form a network. Cardiac muscle fibers are interconnected by intercalated discs, [11] giving that tissue the appearance of a syncytium. The filaments in a sarcomere are composed of actin and myosin. Gross anatomy See also: List of muscles of the human body Bundles of muscle fibers, called fascicles, are covered by the perimysium. Muscle fibers are covered by the endomysium. The gross anatomy of a muscle is the most important indicator of its role in the body. There is an important distinction seen between pennate muscles and other muscles. In most muscles, all the fibers are oriented in the same direction, running in a line from the origin to the insertion. However, In pennate muscles, the individual fibers are oriented at an angle relative to the line of action, attaching to the origin and insertion tendons at each end. Because the contracting fibers are pulling at an angle to the overall action of the muscle, the change in length is smaller, but this same orientation allows for more fibers (thus more force) in a muscle of a given size. Pennate muscles are usually found where their length change is less important than maximum force, such as the rectus femoris. Skeletal muscle is arranged in discrete muscles, an example of which is the biceps brachii (biceps). The tough, fibrous epimysium of skeletal muscle is both connected to and continuous with the tendons. In turn, the tendons connect to the periosteum layer surrounding the bones, permitting the transfer of force from the muscles to the skeleton. Together, these fibrous layers, along with tendons and ligaments, constitute the deep fascia of the body. Muscular system Main article: Muscular system On the anterior and posterior views of the muscular system above, superficial muscles (those at the surface) are shown on the right side of the body while deep muscles (those underneath the superficial muscles) are shown on the left half of the body. For the legs, superficial muscles are shown in the anterior view while the posterior view shows both superficial and deep muscles. The muscular system consists of all the muscles present in a single body. There are approximately 650 skeletal muscles in the human body, [12] but an exact number is difficult to define. The difficulty lies partly in the fact that different sources group the muscles differently and partly in that some muscles, such as palmaris longus, are not always present. A muscular slip is a narrow length of muscle that acts to augment a larger muscle or muscles. The muscular system is one component of the musculoskeletal system, which includes not only the muscles but also the bones, joints, tendons, and other structures that permit movement. Development Main article: Myogenesis A chicken embryo, showing the paraxial mesoderm on both sides of the neural fold. The anterior (forward) portion has begun to form somites (labeled ""primitive segments""). All muscles are derived from paraxial mesoderm. The paraxial mesoderm is divided along the embryo 's length into somites, corresponding to the segmentation of the body (most obviously seen in the vertebral column. [13] Each somite has 3 divisions, sclerotome (which forms vertebrae ), dermatome (which forms skin), and myotome (which forms muscle). The myotome is divided into two sections, the epimere and hypomere, which form epaxial and hypaxial muscles, respectively. The only epaxial muscles in humans are the erector spinae and small intervertebral muscles, and are innervated by the dorsal rami of the spinal nerves. All other muscles, including those of the limbs are hypaxial, and inervated by the ventral rami of the spinal nerves. [13]During development, myoblasts (muscle progenitor cells) either remain in the somite to form muscles associated with the vertebral column or migrate out into the body to form all other muscles. Myoblast migration is preceded by the formation of connective tissue frameworks, usually formed from the somatic lateral plate mesoderm. Myoblasts follow chemical signals to the appropriate locations, where they fuse into elongate skeletal muscle cells. [13]Physiology Contraction Main article: muscle contraction The three types of muscle (skeletal, cardiac and smooth) have significant differences. However, all three use the movement of actin against myosin to create contraction. In skeletal muscle, contraction is stimulated by electrical impulses transmitted by the nerves, the motoneurons (motor nerves) in particular. Cardiac and smooth muscle contractions are stimulated by internal pacemaker cells which regularly contract, and propagate contractions to other muscle cells they are in contact with. All skeletal muscle and many smooth muscle contractions are facilitated by the neurotransmitter acetylcholine. When a sarcomere contracts, the Z lines move closer together, and the I band becomes smaller. The A band stays the same width. At full contraction, the thin and thick filaments overlap. The action a muscle generates is determined by the origin and insertion locations. The cross-sectional area of a muscle (rather than volume or length) determines the amount of force it can generate by defining the number of ""sarcomeres"" which can operate in parallel. Each skeletal muscle contains long units called myofibrils, and each myofibril is a chain of sarcomeres. Since contraction occurs at the same time for all connected sarcomeres in a muscles cell, these chains of sarcomeres shorten together, thus shortening the muscle fiber, resulting in overall length change. [14] The amount of force applied to the external environment is determined by lever mechanics, specifically the ratio of in-lever to out-lever. For example, moving the insertion point of the biceps more distally on the radius (farther from the joint of rotation) would increase the force generated during flexion (and, as a result, the maximum weight lifted in this movement), but decrease the maximum speed of flexion. Moving the insertion point proximally (closer to the joint of rotation) would result in decreased force but increased velocity. This can be most easily seen by comparing the limb of a mole to a horse - in the former, the insertion point is positioned to maximize force (for digging), while in the latter, the insertion point is positioned to maximize speed (for running). Nervous control Simplified schema of basic nervous system function. Signals are picked up by sensory receptors and sent to the spinal cord and brain via the afferent leg of the peripheral nervous system, whereupon processing occurs that results in signals sent back to the spinal cord and then out to motor neurons via the efferent leg. Muscle movement The efferent leg of the peripheral nervous system is responsible for conveying commands to the muscles and glands, and is ultimately responsible for voluntary movement. Nerves move muscles in response to voluntary and autonomic (involuntary) signals from the brain. Deep muscles, superficial muscles, muscles of the face and internal muscles all correspond with dedicated regions in the primary motor cortex of the brain, directly anterior to the central sulcus that divides the frontal and parietal lobes. In addition, muscles react to reflexive nerve stimuli that do not always send signals all the way to the brain. In this case, the signal from the afferent fiber does not reach the brain, but produces the reflexive movement by direct connections with the efferent nerves in the spine. However, the majority of muscle activity is volitional, and the result of complex interactions between various areas of the brain. Nerves that control skeletal muscles in mammals correspond with neuron groups along the primary motor cortex of the brain's cerebral cortex. Commands are routed though the basal ganglia and are modified by input from the cerebellum before being relayed through the pyramidal tract to the spinal cord and from there to the motor end plate at the muscles. Along the way, feedback, such as that of the extrapyramidal system contribute signals to influence muscle tone and response. Deeper muscles such as those involved in posture often are controlled from nuclei in the brain stem and basal ganglia. Proprioception Main article: Proprioception In skeletal muscles, muscle spindles convey information about the degree of muscle length and stretch to the central nervous system to assist in maintaining posture and joint position. The sense of where our bodies are in space is called proprioception, the perception of body awareness, the ""unconscious"" awareness of where the various regions of the body are located at any one time. Several areas in the brain coordinate movement and position with the feedback information gained from proprioception. The cerebellum and red nucleus in particular continuously sample position against movement and make minor corrections to assure smooth motion. [ citation needed]Energy consumption Main article: Bioenergetic systems (a) Some ATP is stored in a resting muscle. As contraction starts, it is used up in seconds. More ATP is generated from creatine phosphate for about 15 seconds. (b) Each glucose molecule produces two ATP and two molecules of pyruvic acid, which can be used in aerobic respiration or converted to lactic acid. If oxygen is not available, pyruvic acid is converted to lactic acid, which may contribute to muscle fatigue. This occurs during strenuous exercise when high amounts of energy are needed but oxygen cannot be sufficiently delivered to muscle. (c) Aerobic respiration is the breakdown of glucose in the presence of oxygen (O2) to produce carbon dioxide, water, and ATP. Approximately 95 percent of the ATP required for resting or moderately active muscles is provided by aerobic respiration, which takes place in mitochondria. Muscular activity accounts for much of the body's energy consumption. All muscle cells produce adenosine triphosphate (ATP) molecules which are used to power the movement of the myosin heads. Muscles have a short-term store of energy in the form of creatine phosphate which is generated from ATP and can regenerate ATP when needed with creatine kinase. Muscles also keep a storage form of glucose in the form of glycogen. Glycogen can be rapidly converted to glucose when energy is required for sustained, powerful contractions. Within the voluntary skeletal muscles, the glucose molecule can be metabolized anaerobically in a process called glycolysis which produces two ATP and two lactic acid molecules in the process (note that in aerobic conditions, lactate is not formed; instead pyruvate is formed and transmitted through the citric acid cycle ). Muscle cells also contain globules of fat, which are used for energy during aerobic exercise. The aerobic energy systems take longer to produce the ATP and reach peak efficiency, and requires many more biochemical steps, but produces significantly more ATP than anaerobic glycolysis. Cardiac muscle on the other hand, can readily consume any of the three macronutrients (protein, glucose and fat) aerobically without a 'warm up' period and always extracts the maximum ATP yield from any molecule involved. The heart, liver and red blood cells will also consume lactic acid produced and excreted by skeletal muscles during exercise. At rest, skeletal muscle consumes 54.4 k J/kg (13.0 kcal/kg) per day. This is larger than adipose tissue (fat) at 18.8 k J/kg (4.5 kcal/kg), and bone at 9.6 k J/kg (2.3 kcal/kg). [15]Efficiency The efficiency of human muscle has been measured (in the context of rowing and cycling) at 18% to 26%. The efficiency is defined as the ratio of mechanical work output to the total metabolic cost, as can be calculated from oxygen consumption. This low efficiency is the result of about 40% efficiency of generating ATP from food energy, losses in converting energy from ATP into mechanical work inside the muscle, and mechanical losses inside the body. The latter two losses are dependent on the type of exercise and the type of muscle fibers being used (fast-twitch or slow-twitch). For an overall efficiency of 20 percent, one watt of mechanical power is equivalent to 4.3 kcal per hour. For example, one manufacturer of rowing equipment calibrates its rowing ergometer to count burned calories as equal to four times the actual mechanical work, plus 300 kcal per hour, [16] this amounts to about 20 percent efficiency at 250 watts of mechanical output. The mechanical energy output of a cyclic contraction can depend upon many factors, including activation timing, muscle strain trajectory, and rates of force rise & decay. These can be synthesized experimentally using work loop analysis. Strength Muscle is a result of three factors that overlap: physiological strength (muscle size, cross sectional area, available crossbridging, responses to training), neurological strength (how strong or weak is the signal that tells the muscle to contract), and mechanical strength (muscle's force angle on the lever, moment arm length, joint capabilities). [ citation needed]Physiological strength Main article: Physical strength Grading of muscle strength Grade 0 No contraction Grade 1 Trace of contraction, but no movement at the joint Grade 2 Movement at the joint with gravity eliminated Grade 3 Movement against gravity, but not against added resistance Grade 4 Movement against external resistance, but less than normal Grade 5 Normal strength Vertebrate muscle typically produces approximately 25–33 N (5.6–7.4 lb f) of force per square centimeter of muscle cross-sectional area when isometric and at optimal length. [17] Some invertebrate muscles, such as in crab claws, have much longer sarcomeres than vertebrates, resulting in many more sites for actin and myosin to bind and thus much greater force per square centimeter at the cost of much slower speed. The force generated by a contraction can be measured non-invasively using either mechanomyography or phonomyography, be measured in vivo using tendon strain (if a prominent tendon is present), or be measured directly using more invasive methods. The strength of any given muscle, in terms of force exerted on the skeleton, depends upon length, shortening speed, cross sectional area, pennation, sarcomere length, myosin isoforms, and neural activation of motor units. Significant reductions in muscle strength can indicate underlying pathology, with the chart at right used as a guide. The ""strongest"" human muscle This section needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (March 2016) ( Learn how and when to remove this template message)Since three factors affect muscular strength simultaneously and muscles never work individually, it is misleading to compare strength in individual muscles, and state that one is the ""strongest"". But below are several muscles whose strength is noteworthy for different reasons. In ordinary parlance, muscular ""strength"" usually refers to the ability to exert a force on an external object—for example, lifting a weight. By this definition, the masseter or jaw muscle is the strongest. The 1992 Guinness Book of Records records the achievement of a bite strength of 4,337 N (975 lb f) for 2 seconds. What distinguishes the masseter is not anything special about the muscle itself, but its advantage in working against a much shorter lever arm than other muscles. If ""strength"" refers to the force exerted by the muscle itself, e.g., on the place where it inserts into a bone, then the strongest muscles are those with the largest cross-sectional area. This is because the tension exerted by an individual skeletal muscle fiber does not vary much. Each fiber can exert a force on the order of 0.3 micronewton. By this definition, the strongest muscle of the body is usually said to be the quadriceps femoris or the gluteus maximus. Because muscle strength is determined by cross-sectional area, a shorter muscle will be stronger ""pound for pound"" (i.e., by weight) than a longer muscle of the same cross-sectional area. The myometrial layer of the uterus may be the strongest muscle by weight in the female human body. At the time when an infant is delivered, the entire human uterus weighs about 1.1 kg (40 oz). During childbirth, the uterus exerts 100 to 400 N (25 to 100 lbf) of downward force with each contraction. The external muscles of the eye are conspicuously large and strong in relation to the small size and weight of the eyeball. It is frequently said that they are ""the strongest muscles for the job they have to do"" and are sometimes claimed to be ""100 times stronger than they need to be."" However, eye movements (particularly saccades used on facial scanning and reading) do require high speed movements, and eye muscles are exercised nightly during rapid eye movement sleep. The statement that ""the tongue is the strongest muscle in the body"" appears frequently in lists of surprising facts, but it is difficult to find any definition of ""strength"" that would make this statement true. Note that the tongue consists of eight muscles, not one. The heart has a claim to being the muscle that performs the largest quantity of physical work in the course of a lifetime. Estimates of the power output of the human heart range from 1 to 5 watts. This is much less than the maximum power output of other muscles; for example, the quadriceps can produce over 100 watts, but only for a few minutes. The heart does its work continuously over an entire lifetime without pause, and thus does ""outwork"" other muscles. An output of one watt continuously for eighty years yields a total work output of two and a half gigajoules. [18]Exercise Main article: Physical exercise Exercise is often recommended as a means of improving motor skills, fitness, muscle and bone strength, and joint function. Exercise has several effects upon muscles, connective tissue, bone, and the nerves that stimulate the muscles. One such effect is muscle hypertrophy, an increase in size. This is used in bodybuilding. Various exercises require a predominance of certain muscle fiber utilization over another. Aerobic exercise involves long, low levels of exertion in which the muscles are used at well below their maximal contraction strength for long periods of time (the most classic example being the marathon ). Aerobic events, which rely primarily on the aerobic (with oxygen) system, use a higher percentage of Type I (or slow-twitch) muscle fibers, consume a mixture of fat, protein and carbohydrates for energy, consume large amounts of oxygen and produce little lactic acid. Anaerobic exercise involves short bursts of higher intensity contractions at a much greater percentage of their maximum contraction strength. Examples of anaerobic exercise include sprinting and weight lifting. The anaerobic energy delivery system uses predominantly Type II or fast-twitch muscle fibers, relies mainly on ATP or glucose for fuel, consumes relatively little oxygen, protein and fat, produces large amounts of lactic acid and can not be sustained for as long a period as aerobic exercise. Many exercises are partially aerobic and partially anaerobic; for example, soccer and rock climbing involve a combination of both. The presence of lactic acid has an inhibitory effect on ATP generation within the muscle; though not producing fatigue, it can inhibit or even stop performance if the intracellular concentration becomes too high. However, long-term training causes neovascularization within the muscle, increasing the ability to move waste products out of the muscles and maintain contraction. Once moved out of muscles with high concentrations within the sarcomere, lactic acid can be used by other muscles or body tissues as a source of energy, or transported to the liver where it is converted back to pyruvate. In addition to increasing the level of lactic acid, strenuous exercise causes the loss of potassium ions in muscle and causing an increase in potassium ion concentrations close to the muscle fibres, in the interstitium. Acidification by lactic acid may allow recovery of force so that acidosis may protect against fatigue rather than being a cause of fatigue. [19]Delayed onset muscle soreness is pain or discomfort that may be felt one to three days after exercising and generally subsides two to three days later. Once thought to be caused by lactic acid build-up, a more recent theory is that it is caused by tiny tears in the muscle fibers caused by eccentric contraction, or unaccustomed training levels. Since lactic acid disperses fairly rapidly, it could not explain pain experienced days after exercise. [20]Health Jogging is one form of aerobic exercise. Humans are genetically predisposed with a larger percentage of one type of muscle group over another. An individual born with a greater percentage of Type I muscle fibers would theoretically be more suited to endurance events, such as triathlons, distance running, and long cycling events, whereas a human born with a greater percentage of Type II muscle fibers would be more likely to excel at sprinting events such as 100 meter dash. [ citation needed]Clinical significance Hypertrophy Main article: Muscle hypertrophy Independent of strength and performance measures, muscles can be induced to grow larger by a number of factors, including hormone signaling, developmental factors, strength training, and disease. Contrary to popular belief, the number of muscle fibres cannot be increased through exercise. Instead, muscles grow larger through a combination of muscle cell growth as new protein filaments are added along with additional mass provided by undifferentiated satellite cells alongside the existing muscle cells. [12]Biological factors such as age and hormone levels can affect muscle hypertrophy. During puberty in males, hypertrophy occurs at an accelerated rate as the levels of growth-stimulating hormones produced by the body increase. Natural hypertrophy normally stops at full growth in the late teens. As testosterone is one of the body's major growth hormones, on average, men find hypertrophy much easier to achieve than women. Taking additional testosterone or other anabolic steroids will increase muscular hypertrophy. Muscular, spinal and neural factors all affect muscle building. Sometimes a person may notice an increase in strength in a given muscle even though only its opposite has been subject to exercise, such as when a bodybuilder finds her left biceps stronger after completing a regimen focusing only on the right biceps. This phenomenon is called cross education. [ citation needed]Atrophy Main article: Muscle atrophy Prisoner of war exhibiting muscle loss as a result of malnutrition. Muscles may atrophy as a result of malnutrition, physical inactivity, aging, or disease. Inactivity and starvation in mammals lead to atrophy of skeletal muscle, a decrease in muscle mass that may be accompanied by a smaller number and size of the muscle cells as well as lower protein content. [21] Muscle atrophy may also result from the natural aging process or from disease. In humans, prolonged periods of immobilization, as in the cases of bed rest or astronauts flying in space, are known to result in muscle weakening and atrophy. Atrophy is of particular interest to the manned spaceflight community, because the weightlessness experienced in spaceflight results is a loss of as much as 30% of mass in some muscles. [22] [23] Such consequences are also noted in small hibernating mammals like the golden-mantled ground squirrels and brown bats. [24]During aging, there is a gradual decrease in the ability to maintain skeletal muscle function and mass, known as sarcopenia. The exact cause of sarcopenia is unknown, but it may be due to a combination of the gradual failure in the ""satellite cells"" that help to regenerate skeletal muscle fibers, and a decrease in sensitivity to or the availability of critical secreted growth factors that are necessary to maintain muscle mass and satellite cell survival. Sarcopenia is a normal aspect of aging, and is not actually a disease state yet can be linked to many injuries in the elderly population as well as decreasing quality of life. [25]There are also many diseases and conditions that cause muscle atrophy. Examples include cancer and AIDS, which induce a body wasting syndrome called cachexia. Other syndromes or conditions that can induce skeletal muscle atrophy are congestive heart disease and some diseases of the liver. Disease Main article: Neuromuscular disease In muscular dystrophy, the affected tissues become disorganized and the concentration of dystrophin (green) is greatly reduced. Neuromuscular diseases are those that affect the muscles and/or their nervous control. In general, problems with nervous control can cause spasticity or paralysis, depending on the location and nature of the problem. A large proportion of neurological disorders, ranging from cerebrovascular accident (stroke) and Parkinson's disease to Creutzfeldt–Jakob disease, can lead to problems with movement or motor coordination. Symptoms of muscle diseases may include weakness, spasticity, myoclonus and myalgia. Diagnostic procedures that may reveal muscular disorders include testing creatine kinase levels in the blood and electromyography (measuring electrical activity in muscles). In some cases, muscle biopsy may be done to identify a myopathy, as well as genetic testing to identify DNA abnormalities associated with specific myopathies and dystrophies. A non-invasive elastography technique that measures muscle noise is undergoing experimentation to provide a way of monitoring neuromuscular disease. The sound produced by a muscle comes from the shortening of actomyosin filaments along the axis of the muscle. During contraction, the muscle shortens along its longitudinal axis and expands across the transverse axis, producing vibrations at the surface. [26]Evolution The evolutionary origin of muscle cells in metazoans is a highly debated topic. In one line of thought scientists have believed that muscle cells evolved once and thus all animals with muscles cells have a single common ancestor. In the other line of thought, scientists believe muscles cells evolved more than once and any morphological or structural similarities are due to convergent evolution and genes that predate the evolution of muscle and even the mesoderm - the germ layer from which many scientists believe true muscle cells derive. Schmid and Seipel argue that the origin of muscle cells is a monophyletic trait that occurred concurrently with the development of the digestive and nervous systems of all animals and that this origin can be traced to a single metazoan ancestor in which muscle cells are present. They argue that molecular and morphological similarities between the muscles cells in cnidaria and ctenophora are similar enough to those of bilaterians that there would be one ancestor in metazoans from which muscle cells derive. In this case, Schmid and Seipel argue that the last common ancestor of bilateria, ctenophora, and cnidaria was a triploblast or an organism with three germ layers and that diploblasty, meaning an organism with two germ layers, evolved secondarily due to their observation of the lack of mesoderm or muscle found in most cnidarians and ctenophores. By comparing the morphology of cnidarians and ctenophores to bilaterians, Schmid and Seipel were able to conclude that there were myoblast -like structures in the tentacles and gut of some species of cnidarians and in the tentacles of ctenophores. Since this is a structure unique to muscle cells, these scientists determined based on the data collected by their peers that this is a marker for striated muscles similar to that observed in bilaterians. The authors also remark that the muscle cells found in cnidarians and ctenophores are often contests due to the origin of these muscle cells being the ectoderm rather than the mesoderm or mesendoderm. The origin of true muscles cells is argued by others to be the endoderm portion of the mesoderm and the endoderm. However, Schmid and Seipel counter this skepticism about whether or not the muscle cells found in ctenophores and cnidarians are true muscle cells by considering that cnidarians develop through a medusa stage and polyp stage. They observe that in the hydrozoan medusa stage there is a layer of cells that separate from the distal side of the ectoderm to form the striated muscle cells in a way that seems similar to that of the mesoderm and call this third separated layer of cells the ectocodon. They also argue that not all muscle cells are derived from the mesendoderm in bilaterians with key examples being that in both the eye muscles of vertebrates and the muscles of spiralians these cells derive from the ectodermal mesoderm rather than the endodermal mesoderm. Furthermore, Schmid and Seipel argue that since myogenesis does occur in cnidarians with the help of molecular regulatory elements found in the specification of muscles cells in bilaterians that there is evidence for a single origin for striated muscle. [27]In contrast to this argument for a single origin of muscle cells, Steinmetz et al. argue that molecular markers such as the myosin II protein used to determine this single origin of striated muscle actually predate the formation of muscle cells. This author uses an example of the contractile elements present in the porifera or sponges that do truly lack this striated muscle containing this protein. Furthermore, Steinmetz et al. present evidence for a polyphyletic origin of striated muscle cell development through their analysis of morphological and molecular markers that are present in bilaterians and absent in cnidarians, ctenophores, and bilaterians. Steimetz et al. showed that the traditional morphological and regulatory markers such as actin, the ability to couple myosin side chains phosphorylation to higher concentrations of the positive concentrations of calcium, and other My HC elements are present in all metazoans not just the organisms that have been shown to have muscle cells. Thus, the usage of any of these structural or regulatory elements in determining whether or not the muscle cells of the cnidarians and ctenophores are similar enough to the muscle cells of the bilaterians to confirm a single lineage is questionable according to Steinmetz et al. Furthermore, Steinmetz et al. explain that the orthologues of the My Hc genes that have been used to hypothesize the origin of striated muscle occurred through a gene duplication event that predates the first true muscle cells (meaning striated muscle), and they show that the My Hc genes are present in the sponges that have contractile elements but no true muscle cells. Furthermore, Steinmetz et all showed that the localization of this duplicated set of genes that serve both the function of facilitating the formation of striated muscle genes and cell regulation and movement genes were already separated into striated myhc and non-muscle myhc. This separation of the duplicated set of genes is shown through the localization of the striated myhc to the contractile vacuole in sponges while the non-muscle myhc was more diffusely expressed during developmental cell shape and change. Steinmetz et al. found a similar pattern of localization in cnidarians with except with the cnidarian N. vectensis having this striated muscle marker present in the smooth muscle of the digestive track. Thus, Steinmetz et al. argue that the pleisiomorphic trait of the separated orthologues of myhc cannot be used to determine the monophylogeny of muscle, and additionally argue that the presence of a striated muscle marker in the smooth muscle of this cnidarian shows a fundamentally different mechanism of muscle cell development and structure in cnidarians. [28]Steinmetz et al. continue to argue for multiple origins of striated muscle in the metazoans by explaining that a key set of genes used to form the troponin complex for muscle regulation and formation in bilaterians is missing from the cnidarians and ctenophores, and of 47 structural and regulatory proteins observed, Steinmetz et al. were not able to find even on unique striated muscle cell protein that was expressed in both cnidarians and bilaterians. Furthermore, the Z-disc seemed to have evolved differently even within bilaterians and there is a great deal diversity of proteins developed even between this clade, showing a large degree of radiation for muscle cells. Through this divergence of the Z-disc, Steimetz et al. argue that there are only four common protein components that were present in all bilaterians muscle ancestors and that of these for necessary Z-disc components only an actin protein that they have already argued is an uninformative marker through its pleisiomorphic state is present in cnidarians. Through further molecular marker testing, Steinmetz et al. observe that non-bilaterians lack many regulatory and structural components necessary for bilaterians muscle formation and do not find any unique set of proteins to both bilaterians and cnidarians and ctenophores that are not present in earlier, more primitive animals such as the sponges and amoebozoans. Through this analysis the authors conclude that due to the lack of elements that bilaterians muscles are dependent on for structure and usage, nonbilaterian muscles must be of a different origin with a different set regulatory and structural proteins. [28]In another take on the argument, Andrikou and Arnone use the newly available data on gene regulatory networks to look at how the hierarchy of genes and morphogens and other mechanism of tissue specification diverge and are similar among early deuterostomes and protostomes. By understanding not only what genes are present in all bilaterians but also the time and place of deployment of these genes, Andrikou and Arnone discuss a deeper understanding of the evolution of myogenesis. [29]In their paper Andrikou and Arnone argue that to truly understand the evolution of muscle cells the function of transcriptional regulators must be understood in the context of other external and internal interactions. Through their analysis, Andrikou and Arnone found that there were conserved orthologues of the gene regulatory network in both invertebrate bilaterians and in cnidarians. They argue that having this common, general regulatory circuit allowed for a high degree of divergence from a single well functioning network. Andrikou and Arnone found that the orthologues of genes found in vertebrates had been changed through different types of structural mutations in the invertebrate deuterostomes and protostomes, and they argue that these structural changes in the genes allowed for a large divergence of muscle function and muscle formation in these species. Andrikou and Arnone were able to recognize not only any difference due to mutation in the genes found in vertebrates and invertebrates but also the integration of species specific genes that could also cause divergence from the original gene regulatory network function. Thus, although a common muscle patterning system has been determined, they argue that this could be due to a more ancestral gene regulatory network being coopted several times across lineages with additional genes and mutations causing very divergent development of muscles. Thus it seems that myogenic patterning framework may be an ancestral trait. However, Andrikou and Arnone explain that the basic muscle patterning structure must also be considered in combination with the cis regulatory elements present at different times during development. In contrast with the high level of gene family apparatuses structure, Andrikou and Arnone found that the cis regulatory elements were not well conserved both in time and place in the network which could show a large degree of divergence in the formation of muscle cells. Through this analysis, it seems that the myogenic GRN is an ancestral GRN with actual changes in myogenic function and structure possibly being linked to later coopts of genes at different times and places. [29]Evolutionarily, specialized forms of skeletal and cardiac muscles predated the divergence of the vertebrate / arthropod evolutionary line. [30] This indicates that these types of muscle developed in a common ancestor sometime before 700 million years ago (mya). Vertebrate smooth muscle was found to have evolved independently from the skeletal and cardiac muscle types. See also Electroactive polymers —materials that behave like muscles, used in robotics research Hand strength Meat Muscle memory Myotomy Preflexes Rohmert's law —pertaining to muscle fatigue References^ Mackenzie, Colin (1918). The Action of Muscles: Including Muscle Rest and Muscle Re-education. England: Paul B. Hoeber. p. 1. Retrieved 18 April 2015.^ Brainard, Jean; Gray-Wilson, Niamh; Harwood, Jessica; Karasov, Corliss; Kraus, Dors; Willan, Jane (2011). CK-12 Life Science Honors for Middle School. CK-12 Foundation. p. 451. Retrieved 18 April 2015.^ Alfred Carey Carpenter (2007). ""Muscle"". Anatomy Words. Retrieved 3 October 2012.^ Douglas Harper (2012). ""Muscle"". Online Etymology Dictionary. Retrieved 3 October 2012.^ Marieb, EN; Hoehn, Katja (2010). Human Anatomy & Physiology (8th ed.). San Francisco: Benjamin Cummings. p. 312. ISBN 978-0-8053-9569-3.^ a b Mc Cloud, Aaron (30 November 2011). ""Build Fast Twitch Muscle Fibers"". Complete Strength Training. Retrieved 30 November 2011.^ Larsson, L; Edström, L; Lindegren, B; Gorza, L; Schiaffino, S (July 1991). ""MHC composition and enzyme-histochemical and physiological properties of a novel fast-twitch motor unit type"". The American Journal of Physiology. 261 (1 pt 1): C93–101. PMID 1858863. 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ISBN 9780736079662.^ Muslumova, Irada (2003). ""Power of a Human Heart"". The Physics Factbook.^ Nielsen, OB; Paoli, F; Overgaard, K (2001). ""Protective effects of lactic acid on force production in rat skeletal muscle"". Journal of Physiology. 536 (1): 161–6. doi: 10.1111/j.1469-7793.2001.t01-1-00161.x. PMC 2278832. PMID 11579166.^ Robergs, R; Ghiasvand, F; Parker, D (2004). ""Biochemistry of exercise-induced metabolic acidosis"". Am J Physiol Regul Integr Comp Physiol. 287 (3): R502–16. doi: 10.1152/ajpregu.00114.2004. PMID 15308499.^ Fuster, G; Busquets, S; Almendro, V; López-Soriano, FJ; Argilés, JM (2007). ""Antiproteolytic effects of plasma from hibernating bears: a new approach for muscle wasting therapy?"". Clin Nutr. 26 (5): 658–61. doi: 10.1016/j.clnu.2007.07.003. PMID 17904252.^ Roy, RR; Baldwin, KM; Edgerton, VR (1996). ""Response of the neuromuscular unit to spaceflight: What has been learned from the rat model"". Exerc. Sport Sci. Rev. 24: 399–425. doi: 10.1249/00003677-199600240-00015. PMID 8744257.^ ""NASA Muscle Atrophy Research (MARES) Website"". Archived from the original on 4 May 2010.^ Lohuis, TD; Harlow, HJ; Beck, TD (2007). ""Hibernating black bears ( Ursus americanus) experience skeletal muscle protein balance during winter anorexia"". Comp. Biochem. Physiol. B, Biochem. Mol. Biol. 147 (1): 20–28. doi: 10.1016/j.cbpb.2006.12.020. PMID 17307375.^ Roche, Alex F. (1994). ""Sarcopenia: A critical review of its measurements and health-related significance in the middle-aged and elderly"". American Journal of Human Biology. 6 (1): 33–42. doi: 10.1002/ajhb.1310060107. PMID 28548430.^ Dumé, Belle (18 May 2007). "" ' Muscle noise' could reveal diseases' progression"". New Scientist.com news service.^ Seipel, Katja; Schmid, Volker (2005-06-01). ""Evolution of striated muscle: Jellyfish and the origin of triploblasty"". Developmental Biology. 282 (1): 14–26. doi: 10.1016/j.ydbio.2005.03.032. PMID 15936326.^ a b Steinmetz, Patrick R. H.; Kraus, Johanna E. M.; Larroux, Claire; Hammel, Jörg U.; Amon-Hassenzahl, Annette; Houliston, Evelyn; Wörheide, Gert; Nickel, Michael; Degnan, Bernard M. (2012). ""Independent evolution of striated muscles in cnidarians and bilaterians"". Nature. 487 (7406): 231–234. doi: 10.1038/nature11180. PMC 3398149. PMID 22763458.^ a b Andrikou, Carmen; Arnone, Maria Ina (2015-05-01). ""Too many ways to make a muscle: Evolution of GRNs governing myogenesis"". Zoologischer Anzeiger. Special Issue: Proceedings of the 3rd International Congress on Invertebrate Morphology. 256: 2–13. doi: 10.1016/j.jcz.2015.03.005.^ OOta, S.; Saitou, N. (1999). ""Phylogenetic relationship of muscle tissues deduced from superimposition of gene trees"". Molecular Biology and Evolution. 16 (6): 856–867. doi: 10.1093/oxfordjournals.molbev.a026170. ISSN 0737-4038. External links Look up muscle in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. Media related to muscles at Wikimedia Commons University of Dundee article on performing neurological examinations (Quadriceps ""strongest"")Muscle efficiency in rowing Muscle Physiology and Modeling Scholarpedia Tsianos and Loeb (2013)Human Muscle Tutorial (clear pictures of main human muscles and their Latin names, good for orientation)Microscopic stains of skeletal and cardiac muscular fibers to show striations. Note the differences in myofibrilar arrangements. [ show]v t e Biological tissues [ show]v t e Muscular system [ show]v t e Muscle tissue [ show]v t e Muscles of the head [ show]v t e Muscles of the neck [ show]v t e Muscles of the thorax and back [ show]v t e Muscles and ligaments of abdomen and pelvis [ show]v t e Muscles of the arm [ show]v t e Muscles of the hip and human leg Authority control NDL: 00565842Categories: Exercise physiology Muscular system Soft tissue Tissues (biology) "
[ "\"From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedianavigation search For other uses, see Muscle (disambiguation).", "Muscle A top-down view of skeletal muscle Details Precursor Mesoderm System Musculoskeletal system Identifiers Latin musculus Me SH D009132TA A04.0.00.000FMA 32558Anatomical terminology [ edit on Wikidata]Muscle is a soft tissue found in most animals.", "Muscle cells contain protein filaments of actin and myosin that slide past one another, producing a contraction that changes both the length and the shape of the cell.", "Muscles function to produce force and motion.", "They are primarily responsible for maintaining and changing posture, locomotion, as well as movement of internal organs, such as the contraction of the heart and the movement of food through the digestive system via peristalsis.", "Muscle tissues are derived from the mesodermal layer of embryonic germ cells in a process known as myogenesis.", "There are three types of muscle, skeletal or striated, cardiac, and smooth.", "Muscle action can be classified as being either voluntary or involuntary.", "Cardiac and smooth muscles contract without conscious thought and are termed involuntary, whereas the skeletal muscles contract upon command.", "[1] Skeletal muscles in turn can be divided into fast and slow twitch fibers.", "Muscles are predominantly powered by the oxidation of fats and carbohydrates, but anaerobic chemical reactions are also used, particularly by fast twitch fibers.", "These chemical reactions produce adenosine triphosphate (ATP) molecules that are used to power the movement of the myosin heads.", "[2]The term muscle is derived from the Latin musculus meaning \"\"little mouse\"\" perhaps because of the shape of certain muscles or because contracting muscles look like mice moving under the skin.", "[3] [4]Contents [ hide ]1 Structure1.1 Types1.2 Microanatomy1.3 Gross anatomy1.4 Muscular system1.5 Development2 Physiology2.1 Contraction2.2 Nervous control2.3 Energy consumption2.4 Strength3 Exercise3.1 Health4 Clinical significance4.1 Hypertrophy4.2 Atrophy4.3 Disease5 Evolution6 See also7 References8 External links Structure The anatomy of muscles includes gross anatomy, which comprises all the muscles of an organism, and microanatomy, which comprises the structures of a single muscle.", "Types Main article: Muscle tissue The body contains three types of muscle tissue: (a) skeletal muscle, (b) smooth muscle, and (c) cardiac muscle.", "(Same magnification)Muscle tissue is a soft tissue, and is one of the four fundamental types of tissue present in animals.", "There are three types of muscle tissue recognized in vertebrates: Skeletal muscle or \"\"voluntary muscle\"\" is anchored by tendons (or by aponeuroses at a few places) to bone and is used to effect skeletal movement such as locomotion and in maintaining posture.", "Though this postural control is generally maintained as an unconscious reflex, the muscles responsible react to conscious control like non-postural muscles.", "An average adult male is made up of 42% of skeletal muscle and an average adult female is made up of 36% (as a percentage of body mass).", "[5]Smooth muscle or \"\"involuntary muscle\"\" is found within the walls of organs and structures such as the esophagus, stomach, intestines, bronchi, uterus, urethra, bladder, blood vessels, and the arrector pili in the skin (in which it controls erection of body hair).", "Unlike skeletal muscle, smooth muscle is not under conscious control.", "Cardiac muscle (myocardium), is also an \"\"involuntary muscle\"\" but is more akin in structure to skeletal muscle, and is found only in the heart.", "Cardiac and skeletal muscles are \"\"striated\"\" in that they contain sarcomeres that are packed into highly regular arrangements of bundles; the myofibrils of smooth muscle cells are not arranged in sarcomeres and so are not striated.", "While the sarcomeres in skeletal muscles are arranged in regular, parallel bundles, cardiac muscle sarcomeres connect at branching, irregular angles (called intercalated discs).", "Striated muscle contracts and relaxes in short, intense bursts, whereas smooth muscle sustains longer or even near-permanent contractions.", "Skeletal (voluntary) muscle is further divided into two broad types: slow twitch and fast twitch: Type I, slow twitch, or \"\"red\"\" muscle, is dense with capillaries and is rich in mitochondria and myoglobin, giving the muscle tissue its characteristic red color.", "It can carry more oxygen and sustain aerobic activity using fats or carbohydrates as fuel.", "[6] Slow twitch fibers contract for long periods of time but with little force.", "Type II, fast twitch muscle, has three major subtypes (IIa, IIx, and IIb) that vary in both contractile speed [7] and force generated.", "[6] Fast twitch fibers contract quickly and powerfully but fatigue very rapidly, sustaining only short, anaerobic bursts of activity before muscle contraction becomes painful.", "They contribute most to muscle strength and have greater potential for increase in mass.", "Type IIb is anaerobic, glycolytic, \"\"white\"\" muscle that is least dense in mitochondria and myoglobin.", "In small animals (e.g., rodents) this is the major fast muscle type, explaining the pale color of their flesh.", "The density of mammalian skeletal muscle tissue is about 1.06 kg/liter.", "[8] This can be contrasted with the density of adipose tissue (fat), which is 0.9196 kg/liter.", "[9] This makes muscle tissue approximately 15% denser than fat tissue.", "Microanatomy Main articles: Myocyte and Sarcomere A skeletal muscle fiber is surrounded by a plasma membrane called the sarcolemma, which contains sarcoplasm, the cytoplasm of muscle cells.", "A muscle fiber is composed of many fibrils, which give the cell its striated appearance.", "Skeletal muscles are sheathed by a tough layer of connective tissue called the epimysium.", "The epimysium anchors muscle tissue to tendons at each end, where the epimysium becomes thicker and collagenous.", "It also protects muscles from friction against other muscles and bones.", "Within the epimysium are multiple bundles called fascicles, each of which contains 10 to 100 or more muscle fibers collectively sheathed by a perimysium.", "Besides surrounding each fascicle, the perimysium is a pathway for nerves and the flow of blood within the muscle.", "The threadlike muscle fibers are the individual muscle cells ( myocytes ), and each cell is encased within its own endomysium of collagen fibers.", "Thus, the overall muscle consists of fibers (cells) that are bundled into fascicles, which are themselves grouped together to form muscles.", "At each level of bundling, a collagenous membrane surrounds the bundle, and these membranes support muscle function both by resisting passive stretching of the tissue and by distributing forces applied to the muscle.", "[10] Scattered throughout the muscles are muscle spindles that provide sensory feedback information to the central nervous system.", "(This grouping structure is analogous to the organization of nerves which uses epineurium, perineurium, and endoneurium ).", "This same bundles-within-bundles structure is replicated within the muscle cells.", "Within the cells of the muscle are myofibrils, which themselves are bundles of protein filaments.", "The term \"\"myofibril\"\" should not be confused with \"\"myofiber\"\", which is a simply another name for a muscle cell.", "Myofibrils are complex strands of several kinds of protein filaments organized together into repeating units called sarcomeres.", "The striated appearance of both skeletal and cardiac muscle results from the regular pattern of sarcomeres within their cells.", "Although both of these types of muscle contain sarcomeres, the fibers in cardiac muscle are typically branched to form a network.", "Cardiac muscle fibers are interconnected by intercalated discs, [11] giving that tissue the appearance of a syncytium.", "The filaments in a sarcomere are composed of actin and myosin.", "Gross anatomy See also: List of muscles of the human body Bundles of muscle fibers, called fascicles, are covered by the perimysium.", "Muscle fibers are covered by the endomysium.", "The gross anatomy of a muscle is the most important indicator of its role in the body.", "There is an important distinction seen between pennate muscles and other muscles.", "In most muscles, all the fibers are oriented in the same direction, running in a line from the origin to the insertion.", "However, In pennate muscles, the individual fibers are oriented at an angle relative to the line of action, attaching to the origin and insertion tendons at each end.", "Because the contracting fibers are pulling at an angle to the overall action of the muscle, the change in length is smaller, but this same orientation allows for more fibers (thus more force) in a muscle of a given size.", "Pennate muscles are usually found where their length change is less important than maximum force, such as the rectus femoris.", "Skeletal muscle is arranged in discrete muscles, an example of which is the biceps brachii (biceps).", "The tough, fibrous epimysium of skeletal muscle is both connected to and continuous with the tendons.", "In turn, the tendons connect to the periosteum layer surrounding the bones, permitting the transfer of force from the muscles to the skeleton.", "Together, these fibrous layers, along with tendons and ligaments, constitute the deep fascia of the body.", "Muscular system Main article: Muscular system On the anterior and posterior views of the muscular system above, superficial muscles (those at the surface) are shown on the right side of the body while deep muscles (those underneath the superficial muscles) are shown on the left half of the body.", "For the legs, superficial muscles are shown in the anterior view while the posterior view shows both superficial and deep muscles.", "The muscular system consists of all the muscles present in a single body.", "There are approximately 650 skeletal muscles in the human body, [12] but an exact number is difficult to define.", "The difficulty lies partly in the fact that different sources group the muscles differently and partly in that some muscles, such as palmaris longus, are not always present.", "A muscular slip is a narrow length of muscle that acts to augment a larger muscle or muscles.", "The muscular system is one component of the musculoskeletal system, which includes not only the muscles but also the bones, joints, tendons, and other structures that permit movement.", "Development Main article: Myogenesis A chicken embryo, showing the paraxial mesoderm on both sides of the neural fold.", "The anterior (forward) portion has begun to form somites (labeled \"\"primitive segments\"\").", "All muscles are derived from paraxial mesoderm.", "The paraxial mesoderm is divided along the embryo 's length into somites, corresponding to the segmentation of the body (most obviously seen in the vertebral column.", "[13] Each somite has 3 divisions, sclerotome (which forms vertebrae ), dermatome (which forms skin), and myotome (which forms muscle).", "The myotome is divided into two sections, the epimere and hypomere, which form epaxial and hypaxial muscles, respectively.", "The only epaxial muscles in humans are the erector spinae and small intervertebral muscles, and are innervated by the dorsal rami of the spinal nerves.", "All other muscles, including those of the limbs are hypaxial, and inervated by the ventral rami of the spinal nerves.", "[13]During development, myoblasts (muscle progenitor cells) either remain in the somite to form muscles associated with the vertebral column or migrate out into the body to form all other muscles.", "Myoblast migration is preceded by the formation of connective tissue frameworks, usually formed from the somatic lateral plate mesoderm.", "Myoblasts follow chemical signals to the appropriate locations, where they fuse into elongate skeletal muscle cells.", "[13]Physiology Contraction Main article: muscle contraction The three types of muscle (skeletal, cardiac and smooth) have significant differences.", "However, all three use the movement of actin against myosin to create contraction.", "In skeletal muscle, contraction is stimulated by electrical impulses transmitted by the nerves, the motoneurons (motor nerves) in particular.", "Cardiac and smooth muscle contractions are stimulated by internal pacemaker cells which regularly contract, and propagate contractions to other muscle cells they are in contact with.", "All skeletal muscle and many smooth muscle contractions are facilitated by the neurotransmitter acetylcholine.", "When a sarcomere contracts, the Z lines move closer together, and the I band becomes smaller.", "The A band stays the same width.", "At full contraction, the thin and thick filaments overlap.", "The action a muscle generates is determined by the origin and insertion locations.", "The cross-sectional area of a muscle (rather than volume or length) determines the amount of force it can generate by defining the number of \"\"sarcomeres\"\" which can operate in parallel.", "Each skeletal muscle contains long units called myofibrils, and each myofibril is a chain of sarcomeres.", "Since contraction occurs at the same time for all connected sarcomeres in a muscles cell, these chains of sarcomeres shorten together, thus shortening the muscle fiber, resulting in overall length change.", "[14] The amount of force applied to the external environment is determined by lever mechanics, specifically the ratio of in-lever to out-lever.", "For example, moving the insertion point of the biceps more distally on the radius (farther from the joint of rotation) would increase the force generated during flexion (and, as a result, the maximum weight lifted in this movement), but decrease the maximum speed of flexion.", "Moving the insertion point proximally (closer to the joint of rotation) would result in decreased force but increased velocity.", "This can be most easily seen by comparing the limb of a mole to a horse - in the former, the insertion point is positioned to maximize force (for digging), while in the latter, the insertion point is positioned to maximize speed (for running).", "Nervous control Simplified schema of basic nervous system function.", "Signals are picked up by sensory receptors and sent to the spinal cord and brain via the afferent leg of the peripheral nervous system, whereupon processing occurs that results in signals sent back to the spinal cord and then out to motor neurons via the efferent leg.", "Muscle movement The efferent leg of the peripheral nervous system is responsible for conveying commands to the muscles and glands, and is ultimately responsible for voluntary movement.", "Nerves move muscles in response to voluntary and autonomic (involuntary) signals from the brain.", "Deep muscles, superficial muscles, muscles of the face and internal muscles all correspond with dedicated regions in the primary motor cortex of the brain, directly anterior to the central sulcus that divides the frontal and parietal lobes.", "In addition, muscles react to reflexive nerve stimuli that do not always send signals all the way to the brain.", "In this case, the signal from the afferent fiber does not reach the brain, but produces the reflexive movement by direct connections with the efferent nerves in the spine.", "However, the majority of muscle activity is volitional, and the result of complex interactions between various areas of the brain.", "Nerves that control skeletal muscles in mammals correspond with neuron groups along the primary motor cortex of the brain's cerebral cortex.", "Commands are routed though the basal ganglia and are modified by input from the cerebellum before being relayed through the pyramidal tract to the spinal cord and from there to the motor end plate at the muscles.", "Along the way, feedback, such as that of the extrapyramidal system contribute signals to influence muscle tone and response.", "Deeper muscles such as those involved in posture often are controlled from nuclei in the brain stem and basal ganglia.", "Proprioception Main article: Proprioception In skeletal muscles, muscle spindles convey information about the degree of muscle length and stretch to the central nervous system to assist in maintaining posture and joint position.", "The sense of where our bodies are in space is called proprioception, the perception of body awareness, the \"\"unconscious\"\" awareness of where the various regions of the body are located at any one time.", "Several areas in the brain coordinate movement and position with the feedback information gained from proprioception.", "The cerebellum and red nucleus in particular continuously sample position against movement and make minor corrections to assure smooth motion.", "[ citation needed]Energy consumption Main article: Bioenergetic systems (a) Some ATP is stored in a resting muscle.", "As contraction starts, it is used up in seconds.", "More ATP is generated from creatine phosphate for about 15 seconds.", "(b) Each glucose molecule produces two ATP and two molecules of pyruvic acid, which can be used in aerobic respiration or converted to lactic acid.", "If oxygen is not available, pyruvic acid is converted to lactic acid, which may contribute to muscle fatigue.", "This occurs during strenuous exercise when high amounts of energy are needed but oxygen cannot be sufficiently delivered to muscle.", "(c) Aerobic respiration is the breakdown of glucose in the presence of oxygen (O2) to produce carbon dioxide, water, and ATP.", "Approximately 95 percent of the ATP required for resting or moderately active muscles is provided by aerobic respiration, which takes place in mitochondria.", "Muscular activity accounts for much of the body's energy consumption.", "All muscle cells produce adenosine triphosphate (ATP) molecules which are used to power the movement of the myosin heads.", "Muscles have a short-term store of energy in the form of creatine phosphate which is generated from ATP and can regenerate ATP when needed with creatine kinase.", "Muscles also keep a storage form of glucose in the form of glycogen.", "Glycogen can be rapidly converted to glucose when energy is required for sustained, powerful contractions.", "Within the voluntary skeletal muscles, the glucose molecule can be metabolized anaerobically in a process called glycolysis which produces two ATP and two lactic acid molecules in the process (note that in aerobic conditions, lactate is not formed; instead pyruvate is formed and transmitted through the citric acid cycle ).", "Muscle cells also contain globules of fat, which are used for energy during aerobic exercise.", "The aerobic energy systems take longer to produce the ATP and reach peak efficiency, and requires many more biochemical steps, but produces significantly more ATP than anaerobic glycolysis.", "Cardiac muscle on the other hand, can readily consume any of the three macronutrients (protein, glucose and fat) aerobically without a 'warm up' period and always extracts the maximum ATP yield from any molecule involved.", "The heart, liver and red blood cells will also consume lactic acid produced and excreted by skeletal muscles during exercise.", "At rest, skeletal muscle consumes 54.4 k J/kg (13.0 kcal/kg) per day.", "This is larger than adipose tissue (fat) at 18.8 k J/kg (4.5 kcal/kg), and bone at 9.6 k J/kg (2.3 kcal/kg).", "[15]Efficiency The efficiency of human muscle has been measured (in the context of rowing and cycling) at 18% to 26%.", "The efficiency is defined as the ratio of mechanical work output to the total metabolic cost, as can be calculated from oxygen consumption.", "This low efficiency is the result of about 40% efficiency of generating ATP from food energy, losses in converting energy from ATP into mechanical work inside the muscle, and mechanical losses inside the body.", "The latter two losses are dependent on the type of exercise and the type of muscle fibers being used (fast-twitch or slow-twitch).", "For an overall efficiency of 20 percent, one watt of mechanical power is equivalent to 4.3 kcal per hour.", "For example, one manufacturer of rowing equipment calibrates its rowing ergometer to count burned calories as equal to four times the actual mechanical work, plus 300 kcal per hour, [16] this amounts to about 20 percent efficiency at 250 watts of mechanical output.", "The mechanical energy output of a cyclic contraction can depend upon many factors, including activation timing, muscle strain trajectory, and rates of force rise & decay.", "These can be synthesized experimentally using work loop analysis.", "Strength Muscle is a result of three factors that overlap: physiological strength (muscle size, cross sectional area, available crossbridging, responses to training), neurological strength (how strong or weak is the signal that tells the muscle to contract), and mechanical strength (muscle's force angle on the lever, moment arm length, joint capabilities).", "[ citation needed]Physiological strength Main article: Physical strength Grading of muscle strength Grade 0 No contraction Grade 1 Trace of contraction, but no movement at the joint Grade 2 Movement at the joint with gravity eliminated Grade 3 Movement against gravity, but not against added resistance Grade 4 Movement against external resistance, but less than normal Grade 5 Normal strength Vertebrate muscle typically produces approximately 25–33 N (5.6–7.4 lb f) of force per square centimeter of muscle cross-sectional area when isometric and at optimal length.", "[17] Some invertebrate muscles, such as in crab claws, have much longer sarcomeres than vertebrates, resulting in many more sites for actin and myosin to bind and thus much greater force per square centimeter at the cost of much slower speed.", "The force generated by a contraction can be measured non-invasively using either mechanomyography or phonomyography, be measured in vivo using tendon strain (if a prominent tendon is present), or be measured directly using more invasive methods.", "The strength of any given muscle, in terms of force exerted on the skeleton, depends upon length, shortening speed, cross sectional area, pennation, sarcomere length, myosin isoforms, and neural activation of motor units.", "Significant reductions in muscle strength can indicate underlying pathology, with the chart at right used as a guide.", "The \"\"strongest\"\" human muscle This section needs additional citations for verification.", "Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources.", "Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.", "(March 2016) ( Learn how and when to remove this template message)Since three factors affect muscular strength simultaneously and muscles never work individually, it is misleading to compare strength in individual muscles, and state that one is the \"\"strongest\"\".", "But below are several muscles whose strength is noteworthy for different reasons.", "In ordinary parlance, muscular \"\"strength\"\" usually refers to the ability to exert a force on an external object—for example, lifting a weight.", "By this definition, the masseter or jaw muscle is the strongest.", "The 1992 Guinness Book of Records records the achievement of a bite strength of 4,337 N (975 lb f) for 2 seconds.", "What distinguishes the masseter is not anything special about the muscle itself, but its advantage in working against a much shorter lever arm than other muscles.", "If \"\"strength\"\" refers to the force exerted by the muscle itself, e.g., on the place where it inserts into a bone, then the strongest muscles are those with the largest cross-sectional area.", "This is because the tension exerted by an individual skeletal muscle fiber does not vary much.", "Each fiber can exert a force on the order of 0.3 micronewton.", "By this definition, the strongest muscle of the body is usually said to be the quadriceps femoris or the gluteus maximus.", "Because muscle strength is determined by cross-sectional area, a shorter muscle will be stronger \"\"pound for pound\"\" (i.e., by weight) than a longer muscle of the same cross-sectional area.", "The myometrial layer of the uterus may be the strongest muscle by weight in the female human body.", "At the time when an infant is delivered, the entire human uterus weighs about 1.1 kg (40 oz).", "During childbirth, the uterus exerts 100 to 400 N (25 to 100 lbf) of downward force with each contraction.", "The external muscles of the eye are conspicuously large and strong in relation to the small size and weight of the eyeball.", "It is frequently said that they are \"\"the strongest muscles for the job they have to do\"\" and are sometimes claimed to be \"\"100 times stronger than they need to be.\"\"", "However, eye movements (particularly saccades used on facial scanning and reading) do require high speed movements, and eye muscles are exercised nightly during rapid eye movement sleep.", "The statement that \"\"the tongue is the strongest muscle in the body\"\" appears frequently in lists of surprising facts, but it is difficult to find any definition of \"\"strength\"\" that would make this statement true.", "Note that the tongue consists of eight muscles, not one.", "The heart has a claim to being the muscle that performs the largest quantity of physical work in the course of a lifetime.", "Estimates of the power output of the human heart range from 1 to 5 watts.", "This is much less than the maximum power output of other muscles; for example, the quadriceps can produce over 100 watts, but only for a few minutes.", "The heart does its work continuously over an entire lifetime without pause, and thus does \"\"outwork\"\" other muscles.", "An output of one watt continuously for eighty years yields a total work output of two and a half gigajoules.", "[18]Exercise Main article: Physical exercise Exercise is often recommended as a means of improving motor skills, fitness, muscle and bone strength, and joint function.", "Exercise has several effects upon muscles, connective tissue, bone, and the nerves that stimulate the muscles.", "One such effect is muscle hypertrophy, an increase in size.", "This is used in bodybuilding.", "Various exercises require a predominance of certain muscle fiber utilization over another.", "Aerobic exercise involves long, low levels of exertion in which the muscles are used at well below their maximal contraction strength for long periods of time (the most classic example being the marathon ).", "Aerobic events, which rely primarily on the aerobic (with oxygen) system, use a higher percentage of Type I (or slow-twitch) muscle fibers, consume a mixture of fat, protein and carbohydrates for energy, consume large amounts of oxygen and produce little lactic acid.", "Anaerobic exercise involves short bursts of higher intensity contractions at a much greater percentage of their maximum contraction strength.", "Examples of anaerobic exercise include sprinting and weight lifting.", "The anaerobic energy delivery system uses predominantly Type II or fast-twitch muscle fibers, relies mainly on ATP or glucose for fuel, consumes relatively little oxygen, protein and fat, produces large amounts of lactic acid and can not be sustained for as long a period as aerobic exercise.", "Many exercises are partially aerobic and partially anaerobic; for example, soccer and rock climbing involve a combination of both.", "The presence of lactic acid has an inhibitory effect on ATP generation within the muscle; though not producing fatigue, it can inhibit or even stop performance if the intracellular concentration becomes too high.", "However, long-term training causes neovascularization within the muscle, increasing the ability to move waste products out of the muscles and maintain contraction.", "Once moved out of muscles with high concentrations within the sarcomere, lactic acid can be used by other muscles or body tissues as a source of energy, or transported to the liver where it is converted back to pyruvate.", "In addition to increasing the level of lactic acid, strenuous exercise causes the loss of potassium ions in muscle and causing an increase in potassium ion concentrations close to the muscle fibres, in the interstitium.", "Acidification by lactic acid may allow recovery of force so that acidosis may protect against fatigue rather than being a cause of fatigue.", "[19]Delayed onset muscle soreness is pain or discomfort that may be felt one to three days after exercising and generally subsides two to three days later.", "Once thought to be caused by lactic acid build-up, a more recent theory is that it is caused by tiny tears in the muscle fibers caused by eccentric contraction, or unaccustomed training levels.", "Since lactic acid disperses fairly rapidly, it could not explain pain experienced days after exercise.", "[20]Health Jogging is one form of aerobic exercise.", "Humans are genetically predisposed with a larger percentage of one type of muscle group over another.", "An individual born with a greater percentage of Type I muscle fibers would theoretically be more suited to endurance events, such as triathlons, distance running, and long cycling events, whereas a human born with a greater percentage of Type II muscle fibers would be more likely to excel at sprinting events such as 100 meter dash.", "[ citation needed]Clinical significance Hypertrophy Main article: Muscle hypertrophy Independent of strength and performance measures, muscles can be induced to grow larger by a number of factors, including hormone signaling, developmental factors, strength training, and disease.", "Contrary to popular belief, the number of muscle fibres cannot be increased through exercise.", "Instead, muscles grow larger through a combination of muscle cell growth as new protein filaments are added along with additional mass provided by undifferentiated satellite cells alongside the existing muscle cells.", "[12]Biological factors such as age and hormone levels can affect muscle hypertrophy.", "During puberty in males, hypertrophy occurs at an accelerated rate as the levels of growth-stimulating hormones produced by the body increase.", "Natural hypertrophy normally stops at full growth in the late teens.", "As testosterone is one of the body's major growth hormones, on average, men find hypertrophy much easier to achieve than women.", "Taking additional testosterone or other anabolic steroids will increase muscular hypertrophy.", "Muscular, spinal and neural factors all affect muscle building.", "Sometimes a person may notice an increase in strength in a given muscle even though only its opposite has been subject to exercise, such as when a bodybuilder finds her left biceps stronger after completing a regimen focusing only on the right biceps.", "This phenomenon is called cross education.", "[ citation needed]Atrophy Main article: Muscle atrophy Prisoner of war exhibiting muscle loss as a result of malnutrition.", "Muscles may atrophy as a result of malnutrition, physical inactivity, aging, or disease.", "Inactivity and starvation in mammals lead to atrophy of skeletal muscle, a decrease in muscle mass that may be accompanied by a smaller number and size of the muscle cells as well as lower protein content.", "[21] Muscle atrophy may also result from the natural aging process or from disease.", "In humans, prolonged periods of immobilization, as in the cases of bed rest or astronauts flying in space, are known to result in muscle weakening and atrophy.", "Atrophy is of particular interest to the manned spaceflight community, because the weightlessness experienced in spaceflight results is a loss of as much as 30% of mass in some muscles.", "[22] [23] Such consequences are also noted in small hibernating mammals like the golden-mantled ground squirrels and brown bats.", "[24]During aging, there is a gradual decrease in the ability to maintain skeletal muscle function and mass, known as sarcopenia.", "The exact cause of sarcopenia is unknown, but it may be due to a combination of the gradual failure in the \"\"satellite cells\"\" that help to regenerate skeletal muscle fibers, and a decrease in sensitivity to or the availability of critical secreted growth factors that are necessary to maintain muscle mass and satellite cell survival.", "Sarcopenia is a normal aspect of aging, and is not actually a disease state yet can be linked to many injuries in the elderly population as well as decreasing quality of life.", "[25]There are also many diseases and conditions that cause muscle atrophy.", "Examples include cancer and AIDS, which induce a body wasting syndrome called cachexia.", "Other syndromes or conditions that can induce skeletal muscle atrophy are congestive heart disease and some diseases of the liver.", "Disease Main article: Neuromuscular disease In muscular dystrophy, the affected tissues become disorganized and the concentration of dystrophin (green) is greatly reduced.", "Neuromuscular diseases are those that affect the muscles and/or their nervous control.", "In general, problems with nervous control can cause spasticity or paralysis, depending on the location and nature of the problem.", "A large proportion of neurological disorders, ranging from cerebrovascular accident (stroke) and Parkinson's disease to Creutzfeldt–Jakob disease, can lead to problems with movement or motor coordination.", "Symptoms of muscle diseases may include weakness, spasticity, myoclonus and myalgia.", "Diagnostic procedures that may reveal muscular disorders include testing creatine kinase levels in the blood and electromyography (measuring electrical activity in muscles).", "In some cases, muscle biopsy may be done to identify a myopathy, as well as genetic testing to identify DNA abnormalities associated with specific myopathies and dystrophies.", "A non-invasive elastography technique that measures muscle noise is undergoing experimentation to provide a way of monitoring neuromuscular disease.", "The sound produced by a muscle comes from the shortening of actomyosin filaments along the axis of the muscle.", "During contraction, the muscle shortens along its longitudinal axis and expands across the transverse axis, producing vibrations at the surface.", "[26]Evolution The evolutionary origin of muscle cells in metazoans is a highly debated topic.", "In one line of thought scientists have believed that muscle cells evolved once and thus all animals with muscles cells have a single common ancestor.", "In the other line of thought, scientists believe muscles cells evolved more than once and any morphological or structural similarities are due to convergent evolution and genes that predate the evolution of muscle and even the mesoderm - the germ layer from which many scientists believe true muscle cells derive.", "Schmid and Seipel argue that the origin of muscle cells is a monophyletic trait that occurred concurrently with the development of the digestive and nervous systems of all animals and that this origin can be traced to a single metazoan ancestor in which muscle cells are present.", "They argue that molecular and morphological similarities between the muscles cells in cnidaria and ctenophora are similar enough to those of bilaterians that there would be one ancestor in metazoans from which muscle cells derive.", "In this case, Schmid and Seipel argue that the last common ancestor of bilateria, ctenophora, and cnidaria was a triploblast or an organism with three germ layers and that diploblasty, meaning an organism with two germ layers, evolved secondarily due to their observation of the lack of mesoderm or muscle found in most cnidarians and ctenophores.", "By comparing the morphology of cnidarians and ctenophores to bilaterians, Schmid and Seipel were able to conclude that there were myoblast -like structures in the tentacles and gut of some species of cnidarians and in the tentacles of ctenophores.", "Since this is a structure unique to muscle cells, these scientists determined based on the data collected by their peers that this is a marker for striated muscles similar to that observed in bilaterians.", "The authors also remark that the muscle cells found in cnidarians and ctenophores are often contests due to the origin of these muscle cells being the ectoderm rather than the mesoderm or mesendoderm.", "The origin of true muscles cells is argued by others to be the endoderm portion of the mesoderm and the endoderm.", "However, Schmid and Seipel counter this skepticism about whether or not the muscle cells found in ctenophores and cnidarians are true muscle cells by considering that cnidarians develop through a medusa stage and polyp stage.", "They observe that in the hydrozoan medusa stage there is a layer of cells that separate from the distal side of the ectoderm to form the striated muscle cells in a way that seems similar to that of the mesoderm and call this third separated layer of cells the ectocodon.", "They also argue that not all muscle cells are derived from the mesendoderm in bilaterians with key examples being that in both the eye muscles of vertebrates and the muscles of spiralians these cells derive from the ectodermal mesoderm rather than the endodermal mesoderm.", "Furthermore, Schmid and Seipel argue that since myogenesis does occur in cnidarians with the help of molecular regulatory elements found in the specification of muscles cells in bilaterians that there is evidence for a single origin for striated muscle.", "[27]In contrast to this argument for a single origin of muscle cells, Steinmetz et al.", "argue that molecular markers such as the myosin II protein used to determine this single origin of striated muscle actually predate the formation of muscle cells.", "This author uses an example of the contractile elements present in the porifera or sponges that do truly lack this striated muscle containing this protein.", "Furthermore, Steinmetz et al.", "present evidence for a polyphyletic origin of striated muscle cell development through their analysis of morphological and molecular markers that are present in bilaterians and absent in cnidarians, ctenophores, and bilaterians.", "Steimetz et al.", "showed that the traditional morphological and regulatory markers such as actin, the ability to couple myosin side chains phosphorylation to higher concentrations of the positive concentrations of calcium, and other My HC elements are present in all metazoans not just the organisms that have been shown to have muscle cells.", "Thus, the usage of any of these structural or regulatory elements in determining whether or not the muscle cells of the cnidarians and ctenophores are similar enough to the muscle cells of the bilaterians to confirm a single lineage is questionable according to Steinmetz et al.", "Furthermore, Steinmetz et al.", "explain that the orthologues of the My Hc genes that have been used to hypothesize the origin of striated muscle occurred through a gene duplication event that predates the first true muscle cells (meaning striated muscle), and they show that the My Hc genes are present in the sponges that have contractile elements but no true muscle cells.", "Furthermore, Steinmetz et all showed that the localization of this duplicated set of genes that serve both the function of facilitating the formation of striated muscle genes and cell regulation and movement genes were already separated into striated myhc and non-muscle myhc.", "This separation of the duplicated set of genes is shown through the localization of the striated myhc to the contractile vacuole in sponges while the non-muscle myhc was more diffusely expressed during developmental cell shape and change.", "Steinmetz et al.", "found a similar pattern of localization in cnidarians with except with the cnidarian N. vectensis having this striated muscle marker present in the smooth muscle of the digestive track.", "Thus, Steinmetz et al.", "argue that the pleisiomorphic trait of the separated orthologues of myhc cannot be used to determine the monophylogeny of muscle, and additionally argue that the presence of a striated muscle marker in the smooth muscle of this cnidarian shows a fundamentally different mechanism of muscle cell development and structure in cnidarians.", "[28]Steinmetz et al.", "continue to argue for multiple origins of striated muscle in the metazoans by explaining that a key set of genes used to form the troponin complex for muscle regulation and formation in bilaterians is missing from the cnidarians and ctenophores, and of 47 structural and regulatory proteins observed, Steinmetz et al.", "were not able to find even on unique striated muscle cell protein that was expressed in both cnidarians and bilaterians.", "Furthermore, the Z-disc seemed to have evolved differently even within bilaterians and there is a great deal diversity of proteins developed even between this clade, showing a large degree of radiation for muscle cells.", "Through this divergence of the Z-disc, Steimetz et al.", "argue that there are only four common protein components that were present in all bilaterians muscle ancestors and that of these for necessary Z-disc components only an actin protein that they have already argued is an uninformative marker through its pleisiomorphic state is present in cnidarians.", "Through further molecular marker testing, Steinmetz et al.", "observe that non-bilaterians lack many regulatory and structural components necessary for bilaterians muscle formation and do not find any unique set of proteins to both bilaterians and cnidarians and ctenophores that are not present in earlier, more primitive animals such as the sponges and amoebozoans.", "Through this analysis the authors conclude that due to the lack of elements that bilaterians muscles are dependent on for structure and usage, nonbilaterian muscles must be of a different origin with a different set regulatory and structural proteins.", "[28]In another take on the argument, Andrikou and Arnone use the newly available data on gene regulatory networks to look at how the hierarchy of genes and morphogens and other mechanism of tissue specification diverge and are similar among early deuterostomes and protostomes.", "By understanding not only what genes are present in all bilaterians but also the time and place of deployment of these genes, Andrikou and Arnone discuss a deeper understanding of the evolution of myogenesis.", "[29]In their paper Andrikou and Arnone argue that to truly understand the evolution of muscle cells the function of transcriptional regulators must be understood in the context of other external and internal interactions.", "Through their analysis, Andrikou and Arnone found that there were conserved orthologues of the gene regulatory network in both invertebrate bilaterians and in cnidarians.", "They argue that having this common, general regulatory circuit allowed for a high degree of divergence from a single well functioning network.", "Andrikou and Arnone found that the orthologues of genes found in vertebrates had been changed through different types of structural mutations in the invertebrate deuterostomes and protostomes, and they argue that these structural changes in the genes allowed for a large divergence of muscle function and muscle formation in these species.", "Andrikou and Arnone were able to recognize not only any difference due to mutation in the genes found in vertebrates and invertebrates but also the integration of species specific genes that could also cause divergence from the original gene regulatory network function.", "Thus, although a common muscle patterning system has been determined, they argue that this could be due to a more ancestral gene regulatory network being coopted several times across lineages with additional genes and mutations causing very divergent development of muscles.", "Thus it seems that myogenic patterning framework may be an ancestral trait.", "However, Andrikou and Arnone explain that the basic muscle patterning structure must also be considered in combination with the cis regulatory elements present at different times during development.", "In contrast with the high level of gene family apparatuses structure, Andrikou and Arnone found that the cis regulatory elements were not well conserved both in time and place in the network which could show a large degree of divergence in the formation of muscle cells.", "Through this analysis, it seems that the myogenic GRN is an ancestral GRN with actual changes in myogenic function and structure possibly being linked to later coopts of genes at different times and places.", "[29]Evolutionarily, specialized forms of skeletal and cardiac muscles predated the divergence of the vertebrate / arthropod evolutionary line.", "[30] This indicates that these types of muscle developed in a common ancestor sometime before 700 million years ago (mya).", "Vertebrate smooth muscle was found to have evolved independently from the skeletal and cardiac muscle types.", "See also Electroactive polymers —materials that behave like muscles, used in robotics research Hand strength Meat Muscle memory Myotomy Preflexes Rohmert's law —pertaining to muscle fatigue References^ Mackenzie, Colin (1918).", "The Action of Muscles: Including Muscle Rest and Muscle Re-education.", "England: Paul B. Hoeber.", "p. 1.", "Retrieved 18 April 2015.^ Brainard, Jean; Gray-Wilson, Niamh; Harwood, Jessica; Karasov, Corliss; Kraus, Dors; Willan, Jane (2011).", "CK-12 Life Science Honors for Middle School.", "CK-12 Foundation.", "p. 451.", "Retrieved 18 April 2015.^ Alfred Carey Carpenter (2007).", "\"\"Muscle\"\".", "Anatomy Words.", "Retrieved 3 October 2012.^ Douglas Harper (2012).", "\"\"Muscle\"\".", "Online Etymology Dictionary.", "Retrieved 3 October 2012.^ Marieb, EN; Hoehn, Katja (2010).", "Human Anatomy & Physiology (8th ed.).", "San Francisco: Benjamin Cummings.", "p. 312.", "ISBN 978-0-8053-9569-3.^ a b Mc Cloud, Aaron (30 November 2011).", "\"\"Build Fast Twitch Muscle Fibers\"\".", "Complete Strength Training.", "Retrieved 30 November 2011.^ Larsson, L; Edström, L; Lindegren, B; Gorza, L; Schiaffino, S (July 1991).", "\"\"MHC composition and enzyme-histochemical and physiological properties of a novel fast-twitch motor unit type\"\".", "The American Journal of Physiology.", "261 (1 pt 1): C93–101.", "PMID 1858863.", "Retrieved 2006-06-11.^ Urbancheka, M; Picken, E; Kalliainen, L; Kuzon, W (2001).", "\"\"Specific Force Deficit in Skeletal Muscles of Old Rats Is Partially Explained by the Existence of Denervated Muscle Fibers\"\".", "The Journals of Gerontology Series A: Biological Sciences and Medical Sciences.", "56 (5): B191–B197.", "doi: 10.1093/gerona/56.5.", "B191.", "PMID 11320099.^ Farvid, MS; Ng, TW; Chan, DC; Barrett, PH; Watts, GF (2005).", "\"\"Association of adiponectin and resistin with adipose tissue compartments, insulin resistance and dyslipidaemia\"\".", "Diabetes, obesity & metabolism.", "7 (4): 406–13.", "doi: 10.1111/j.1463-1326.2004.00410.x.", "PMID 15955127.^ Mac Intosh, BR; Gardiner, PF; Mc Comas, AJ (2006).", "\"\"1.", "Muscle Architecture and Muscle Fiber Anatomy\"\".", "Skeletal Muscle: Form and Function (2nd ed.).", "Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics.", "pp.", "3–21.", "ISBN 0-7360-4517-1.^ Kent, George C (1987).", "\"\"11.", "Muscles\"\".", "Comparative Anatomy of the Vertebrates (7th ed.).", "Dubuque, Iowa, USA: Wm.", "C. Brown Publishers.", "pp.", "326–374.", "ISBN 0-697-23486-X.^ a b Poole, RM, ed.", "(1986).", "The Incredible Machine.", "Washington, DC: National Geographic Society.", "pp.", "307–311.", "ISBN 0-87044-621-5.^ a b c Sweeney, Lauren (1997).", "Basic Concepts in Embryology: A Student's Survival Guide (1st Paperback ed.).", "Mc Graw-Hill Professional.^ Kardong, Kenneth (2015).", "Vertebrates: Comparative Anatomy, Function, Evolution.", "New York, NY: Mc Graw Hill Education.", "pp.", "374–377.", "ISBN 978-1-259-25375-1.^ Heymsfield, SB; Gallagher, D; Kotler, DP; Wang, Z; Allison, DB; Heshka, S (2002).", "\"\"Body-size dependence of resting energy expenditure can be attributed to nonenergetic homogeneity of fat-free mass\"\".", "American Journal of Physiology.", "Endocrinology and Metabolism.", "282 (1): E132–E138.", "doi: 10.1152/ajpendo.2002.282.1.e132.", "PMID 11739093.^ \"\"Concept II Rowing Ergometer, user manual\"\" (PDF).", "1993.", "Archived from the original (PDF) on 26 December 2010.^ Mc Ginnis, Peter M. (2013).", "Biomechanics of Sport and Exercise (3rd ed.).", "Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics.", "ISBN 9780736079662.^ Muslumova, Irada (2003).", "\"\"Power of a Human Heart\"\".", "The Physics Factbook.^ Nielsen, OB; Paoli, F; Overgaard, K (2001).", "\"\"Protective effects of lactic acid on force production in rat skeletal muscle\"\".", "Journal of Physiology.", "536 (1): 161–6.", "doi: 10.1111/j.1469-7793.2001.t01-1-00161.x.", "PMC 2278832.", "PMID 11579166.^ Robergs, R; Ghiasvand, F; Parker, D (2004).", "\"\"Biochemistry of exercise-induced metabolic acidosis\"\".", "Am J Physiol Regul Integr Comp Physiol.", "287 (3): R502–16.", "doi: 10.1152/ajpregu.00114.2004.", "PMID 15308499.^ Fuster, G; Busquets, S; Almendro, V; López-Soriano, FJ; Argilés, JM (2007).", "\"\"Antiproteolytic effects of plasma from hibernating bears: a new approach for muscle wasting therapy?\"\".", "Clin Nutr.", "26 (5): 658–61.", "doi: 10.1016/j.clnu.2007.07.003.", "PMID 17904252.^ Roy, RR; Baldwin, KM; Edgerton, VR (1996).", "\"\"Response of the neuromuscular unit to spaceflight: What has been learned from the rat model\"\".", "Exerc.", "Sport Sci.", "Rev.", "24: 399–425.", "doi: 10.1249/00003677-199600240-00015.", "PMID 8744257.^ \"\"NASA Muscle Atrophy Research (MARES) Website\"\".", "Archived from the original on 4 May 2010.^ Lohuis, TD; Harlow, HJ; Beck, TD (2007).", "\"\"Hibernating black bears ( Ursus americanus) experience skeletal muscle protein balance during winter anorexia\"\".", "Comp.", "Biochem.", "Physiol.", "B, Biochem.", "Mol.", "Biol.", "147 (1): 20–28.", "doi: 10.1016/j.cbpb.2006.12.020.", "PMID 17307375.^ Roche, Alex F. (1994).", "\"\"Sarcopenia: A critical review of its measurements and health-related significance in the middle-aged and elderly\"\".", "American Journal of Human Biology.", "6 (1): 33–42.", "doi: 10.1002/ajhb.1310060107.", "PMID 28548430.^ Dumé, Belle (18 May 2007). \"\"", "' Muscle noise' could reveal diseases' progression\"\".", "New Scientist.com news service.^ Seipel, Katja; Schmid, Volker (2005-06-01).", "\"\"Evolution of striated muscle: Jellyfish and the origin of triploblasty\"\".", "Developmental Biology.", "282 (1): 14–26.", "doi: 10.1016/j.ydbio.2005.03.032.", "PMID 15936326.^ a b Steinmetz, Patrick R. H.; Kraus, Johanna E. M.; Larroux, Claire; Hammel, Jörg U.; Amon-Hassenzahl, Annette; Houliston, Evelyn; Wörheide, Gert; Nickel, Michael; Degnan, Bernard M. (2012).", "\"\"Independent evolution of striated muscles in cnidarians and bilaterians\"\".", "Nature.", "487 (7406): 231–234.", "doi: 10.1038/nature11180.", "PMC 3398149.", "PMID 22763458.^ a b Andrikou, Carmen; Arnone, Maria Ina (2015-05-01).", "\"\"Too many ways to make a muscle: Evolution of GRNs governing myogenesis\"\".", "Zoologischer Anzeiger.", "Special Issue: Proceedings of the 3rd International Congress on Invertebrate Morphology.", "256: 2–13.", "doi: 10.1016/j.jcz.2015.03.005.^ OOta, S.; Saitou, N. (1999).", "\"\"Phylogenetic relationship of muscle tissues deduced from superimposition of gene trees\"\".", "Molecular Biology and Evolution.", "16 (6): 856–867.", "doi: 10.1093/oxfordjournals.molbev.a026170.", "ISSN 0737-4038.", "External links Look up muscle in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.", "Media related to muscles at Wikimedia Commons University of Dundee article on performing neurological examinations (Quadriceps \"\"strongest\"\")Muscle efficiency in rowing Muscle Physiology and Modeling Scholarpedia Tsianos and Loeb (2013)Human Muscle Tutorial (clear pictures of main human muscles and their Latin names, good for orientation)Microscopic stains of skeletal and cardiac muscular fibers to show striations.", "Note the differences in myofibrilar arrangements.", "[ show]v t e Biological tissues [ show]v t e Muscular system [ show]v t e Muscle tissue [ show]v t e Muscles of the head [ show]v t e Muscles of the neck [ show]v t e Muscles of the thorax and back [ show]v t e Muscles and ligaments of abdomen and pelvis [ show]v t e Muscles of the arm [ show]v t e Muscles of the hip and human leg Authority control NDL: 00565842Categories: Exercise physiology Muscular system Soft tissue Tissues (biology) \"" ]
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http://home.costhelper.com/septic-system.html
Septic System Cost
"Medium: Averages $2,000-$5,000; Runs $4,000-$12,000 in Higher Cost Areas Enhanced System: $10,000-$20,000+E-mail Post Tweet Comments (24)For homes that aren't connected to a municipal sewer plant, a septic is an on-site system that collects, treats and disposes of household wastewater by slowly filtering it through underground soil. Typically there are two main parts, a septic tank and a soil absorption system (also called a drainfield, leachfield or disposal field). These are located underground and connected to the house by sewage pipes. Typical costs: Installing/replacing a conventional septic system [ 1] (including the tank) averages $2,000-$5,000 in the Midwest, but can be $4,000-$12,000 or more in areas where materials and labor rates are higher. Enhanced, engineered or alternative septic systems that use mounds [ 2] , sand/peat filters [ 3] , aerobic systems and/or constructed wetlands [ 4] can cost $10,000-$20,000 or more, according to the Rhode Island Regional Water Quality Program [ 5] . These alternative septic systems work better than the conventional approach for sites with high groundwater or slowly/rapidly percolating soil, or near drinking water supplies, wetlands, coastal ponds or other water resources. The cost of a septic tank alone runs about $500-$1,800 depending on size (ranging from 300-1,000 gallons) and type. Piping and other needed items adds another $100-$200 to the total cost of materials. New Mexico State University provides an introduction to installing a septic tank [ 6] . However, many regions require a septic system to be designed and installed by trained and licensed professionals; contact your local or state sanitation department for details. Related articles: Septic Tank Cleaning, Sewer Line Replacement, Replacing Copper Pipes What should be included: Septic systems are used when sewage treatment plants are not accessible, which usually means rural or suburban homes on large lots. The septic tanks itself is a large, underground, watertight container made of concrete, fiberglass or plastic (polyethylene). The North Carolina State University Ag Extension explains how septic systems work and where they can be used [ 7] . It can take several days to a week or more to install/replace a septic system. The process involves extensive digging, often with heavy earth-moving equipment. Additional costs: Most counties and states require a building permit for installing or replacing a septic system, at a cost of $250-$1,000 or more depending on the location and the complexity of the project. Check with your local building/planning department for details. Installing a septic system usually involves extensive digging and damage to the landscaping; replacement turf and other plantings can run $100-$1,000 or more. Discounts: In a cluster septic system, each house has its own underground septic tank but they all feed into one drainfield/leachfield/soil absorption system. Typically installed by developers, a cluster septic system splits the cost of the drainfield installation and maintenance among many houses. Shopping for a septic system: Check with your local sanitation department to see if they maintain a list of licensed septic installation contractors. Referrals to septic contractors [ 8] are available through the National Onsite Wastewater Recycling Association. Ask about training and experience. Check that the company is properly bonded, insured and licensed in your state [ 9] ; and see if there are any complaints with the Better Business Bureau [ 10] . E-mail Post Tweet Comments (24)Cost Helper News7 Ways to Stretch Your Reduced Food Budget End of the year budgets are tight for everyone, especially in this economy. It's especially hard for the millions of Americans who depend on government programs like food stamps to help make ends meet. || Posted November 11 20137 Lesser-Known Discounts for the 50+ Crowd As they age, members of the Baby Boomer generation don't like to admit that they're senior citizens, but they love getting discounts. It's kind of a quandary, because some of the best deals available are reduced prices for older folks.|| Posted October 21 2013‣ All Cost Helper Blog Posts What People Are Paying - Recent Comments Widow cheated Amount: $13,119.00Posted by: Lucie in Akron, NY. Posted: November 10th, 2017 09:11AMType: Septic tank & landscaping Sold 4 bedroom home w/1000 gal. septic tank in working order to couple w/4 children. Because money from sale of house was held in escrow, they listed the house as 5 bedroom and ordered 1500 gal. septic tank and paid extra 2,000 for landscaping. Cheaters will be cheaters, but they complained on Facebook. God'll get 'em! !Was this post helpful to you? yes no Report prohibited or spam3 Bedroom House Amount: $5,000.00Posted by: Sfr Development LLC in Boone, NC. Posted: August 11th, 2017 12:08PMType: Conventional 2 Foot Chambers1000 gallon tank. In Mountains Boone NC. Have 30 inches to 48 inches of soil. 3 - 60 Feet 2 foot chamber lines Was this post helpful to you? yes no Report prohibited or spamneed septic system for 900 sq ft house- 1 bath and a kitchen-starter home. Amount: $0.00Posted by: rrrr in berlin, NJ. Posted: July 12th, 2017 02:07PMType: septiclocation-south jersey-sandy soil approx cost please? looking for economy and conformity. Was this post helpful to you? yes no Report prohibited or spam Spec House Amount: $0.00Posted by: Any Help Appreciated in Charleston, SC. Posted: May 12th, 2017 08:05AMGetting ready to purchase a piece of land that requires a septic system in order to build. From soup to nuts, (permits, materials, installation) what should I be looking at for total cost? This house will be built very close to water (Charleston, SC less than .5 miles) How long does the process typically take? Any and all help truly appreciated Was this post helpful to you? yes no Report prohibited or spam Perc testing and septic systems in North Virginia and Maryland Amount: $2,000.00Posted by: Ken Carbaugh in Leesburg, VA. Posted: June 20th, 2016 06:06PMType: conventional to alternative systems A perc or perk test in Northern Va from a licensed consultant will cost between 1200-2500 dollars depending the district and county fees. Fairfax County costs are 2-4x as much due to local health dept bureaucracy and redtape requiring a surveyor and engineer to be used for any certification or permitting. Real costs of conventional systems (3-4 bedrooms) are from 14-25k depending on the soil percolation results and whether or not a pump is required. If the system is an alternative (BAT in MD) the design costs add 1000-2500 in costs and the installation of the specialized equipment adds costs that can total 20-35,000 easily. Some above grade sand or drip systems will cost as much as $45,000 in areas with expectional poor soils. Your property is the most valuable asset you will own so be careful with the land you contract to purchase and beware not all property is equal in value for development. Was this post helpful to you? yes no Report prohibited or spam New conventional septic system/leach field Amount: $5,500.00Posted by: Bob42 in High rolls, NM. Posted: March 25th, 2016 12:03PMType: Concrete tank, leachfield$5500 was the total cost for everything including permits and inspection certificate, tank, pipes, new leachfield etc. I live rurally in a mountainous region with sloping land so more work was required to remediate the land for the leach field to be level. Took about a week from contract signing to completion. Was this post helpful to you? yes no Report prohibited or spamleach field treatment Amount: $1,150.00Posted by: Susana in cumming, GA. Posted: August 24th, 2015 04:08PMType: treating the leach field I had a septic company come to do a septic tank pump for $150 but they said I needed a more expensive leach field treatment at a cost of over $2500 even thought there is no back up or smell anywhere. They wind up doing an enxyme one leaving me with 6 gallons of liquid enzyme I am suppose to pour down the toiled once a month. My son says I was ripped off. Is he right? Was this post helpful to you? yes no Report prohibited or spam Pocono Pump and electric line replacement Amount: $2,010.00Posted by: payed too much? in Effort, PA. Posted: August 2nd, 2015 11:08PMType: dual tank w mound Had Pump replaced as well as wire to house, dug up yard, to replace line, replaced pump, didn't take garbage, didn't clean up landscape, pump both tanks included in price , found truck parts in driveway and tanks not pumped, claim truck broke be back to pump....was this a lot , I had to rake out landscape and driveway, clean wires, boxes and garbage left behind, .. I hope they pump the tanks soon. Was this post helpful to you? yes no Report prohibited or spam Septic estimates. Amount: $5,000.00Posted by: Daytrp in Eldersburg, MD. Posted: July 17th, 2015 08:07PMType: Repair - new construction Repair permit: $130-450 depending on county. New construction permits: $250-550. New septic $16-22k for advanced treatment, $8-10k conventional Perc test for repair: $850-$1,400 takes 2-6 hours. Done with county sanatarian onsite. A common septic repair: (installation of 2 - 60' long x 3' wide x 8' deep with 4' of stone below pipe invert) runs about $6,500. Trench dimensions are determined by number of bedrooms (occupancy) and percolation rates from perc test. price varies depending on Trench size. Bigger means more. Septic tank add $2,500-3,500 Pump chamber, pump and controls add $4,000-5,000. Advanced treatment unit add $10k- $13k to price of permit and trenches. Some states Have programs to help upgrade your septic tank. Check with your county health department. I bid these jobs and this is my basic start point. Specailty jobs, difficulty of access, heavy rock, all add to the bid price Was this post helpful to you? yes no Report prohibited or spam Septic System Installation Amount: $15,650.00Posted by: ABMCCAA in Bakersfield, CA. Posted: June 26th, 2015 05:06PMNew 1500 Gallon Tank, Engineering, 60' of Leach Field with Rock base drainage system. 50 ton of 3/4"" rock, new 4"" main line to house, soils testing and permits. Took 3 days total. Was this post helpful to you? yes no Report prohibited or spamgrandmother taken advantage of with ultra high price? Amount: $10.00Posted by: andrewbasil in hemet, CA. Posted: March 23rd, 2015 06:03AMType: simple leach line replacement75 feet of leach line were dug up and replaced the. attached up to original fifteen hundred gallon 1973 concrete septic tank and re buried .. they had to knock down two fruit trees and by accident sheared off a water tap. (Having not repaired the water line it has now become a 5 foot stream shooting straight up in air.) I do feel grandmother was taken advantage and charged double of not more for services that ... and this is the worst part ... a permit nor independent inspection was never done for this job. And even though these men work for a major plumbing company they insisted on cash only. Is this right? Help me out here what do I do? This was 3 days ago. Was this post helpful to you? yes no Report prohibited or spamseptic install and repair Amount: $25.00Posted by: ltodd kinsey in cda, ID. Posted: February 26th, 2015 11:02PMType: all If properly maintained a working system should never need pumped Was this post helpful to you? yes no Report prohibited or spam SEPTIC SYSTEM REPLACEMENTAmount: $0.00Posted by: M. IRIARTE in STROUDSBUR, PA. Posted: February 4th, 2015 05:02AMType: SEPTICANYONE IN THE POCONOS HAS HAD THEIR SEPTIC SYSTEM REPLACE. WHAT WAS THE COST OF REPLACEMENT. WOULD LIKE TO GET FEEDBACKWas this post helpful to you? yes no Report prohibited or spam Lift Pump Amount: $2,700.00Posted by: Lift pump last minute $2700 addition in Sarasota, FL. Posted: February 3rd, 2015 09:02AMType: septicwe needed a new drain field as slow draining. county said we need a lift pump as due to high water table septic tank is not low enough. We already spent 5000 on drain field. Is this too much? We are in Florida Was this post helpful to you? yes no Report prohibited or spam Leach Field Amount: $13,000.00Posted by: El Jeje in Andover, CT. Posted: January 8th, 2015 07:01PMType: Infiltrators Quick 4 infiltrators, leach field and landscaping only. Tank was recently replaced. For a 4 bedroom home with excellent soil. Was this post helpful to you? yes no Report prohibited or spam Tank and 250ft Infiltrator leaching system Amount: $4,500.00Posted by: a user in Dalton, GA. Posted: September 18th, 2013 06:09PMType: concrete GA- for a 3bdrm house. By North Georgia Backhoe. Took about 6hrs Was this post helpful to you? yes no Report prohibited or spamjust price a new system 3 bedrooms Amount: $2,800.00Posted by: no name in harrison, MI. Posted: April 22nd, 2013 05:04PMType: convertional system That was the cost for everything Was this post helpful to you? yes no Report prohibited or spam New cement 61 by 103 lid, new mortar at outlet Amount: $1,300.00Posted by: a user in North Port, FL. Posted: April 11th, 2013 09:04AMType: Lid Seems we had gasses that formed a hole, maybe 10 inch wide, 6-10 feet deep. They replaced the cement lid 61 by103 inches. 3 men, trucks and a backhoe. Also ne mortar around the outlet. Total cost $1,300. Too much? Took about 2 hours. I think they did a great job. We will see! Tank is 24 years old. The load lid,2 inch thick concrete, the new one is 3 inch. Was this post helpful to you? yes no Report prohibited or spamlambchops,,,question Amount: $0.00Posted by: rm in goldsboro, NC. Posted: February 26th, 2013 04:02AMType: lift system Lambchops,,,I am in goldsboro also and may need a lift system. can you shoot me an email at rmaccuswellatyahoo.com have some questions for you Was this post helpful to you? yes no Report prohibited or spam Hoot 600 System Amount: $41,000.00Posted by: lje33437 in Princeton, NJ. Posted: February 15th, 2013 05:02AMType: Pump/Drip System Got a perk, that was the good news. Had to put in expensive Hoot 600 for a 5 bedroom house. 1,500 gallon tank, Hoot 600 and field with mound because of the soil conditions. Lots of shale in area. Was this post helpful to you? yes no Report prohibited or spam Septic system with lift pump and leach field Amount: $4,500.00Posted by: Lambchops in Goldsboro, NC. Posted: September 7th, 2012 07:09AMType: Lift System I just got out the Air Force and Sub Contracted my own home, I had to have a lift site for my septic tank, or put in the mound system, Well I couldn't see this hump of dirt in my yard so I chose the lift site which was a 1000ft away. I know that sounds a long way away but 2 inch pipe is really not that expensive bottom line I did a little research and got a few estimates which in 2000 was really high. there were 3 bids for over $6500.00 And one for $4800, but I did my landscaping and septic system for $4500. Not bad for a guy just using good ole common sense and you can too. Was this post helpful to you? yes no Report prohibited or spam Septic system with lift pump and leach field Amount: $12,000.00Posted by: Will Marcinko in Mc Henry, IL. Posted: August 30th, 2011 09:08AMEngineering survey, ground feasability survey plus permits. We had a 1000 gallon septic tank, 750 gallon lift tank, 233 feet of trench line, 240 feet of leach pipe and a Hydromatic SW33M1 effluent pump installed. He also reseeded and landscaped the damages done by the excavating. My question is, ""Did we spend too much? ""Was this post helpful to you? yes no Report prohibited or spam Septic Mound System Amount: $22,892.00Posted by: bobswife in Egg Harbor Twp, NJ. Posted: July 30th, 2010 05:07AMType: Mound System Extreme flooding forced new system after old leach system failed. Installed new 44.5 by 18.5, 12.5 deep, engineered designed mound system, added additional 1000 gallon tank with pump to mound system. Installed automatic tank alarm. Approx 12 trees were removed in process. Was this post helpful to you? yes no Report prohibited or spam Repair Amount: $7.70Posted by: Gail1 in Pennington, NJ. Posted: February 11th, 2010 05:02AMType: Tank We had slow drainage. The company came out on a Thursday and tried to clear the clog. Afterwards, didn't hear the proper flow into the tank. Friday, brought camera and said pipes were old and damaged by roots, etc. Brought in small backhoe. Dug up pipe to tank, jackhammered a 12 foot section of our bedroom leading to bathroom, replaced pipe for use. (Sat. and Sun. off) Monday, came to fill trench with some gravel and filled dirt back into trench. Put some gravel in small section in our bedroom, poured concrete at connecting point. My husband poured the finishing concrete in our bedroom. This seems excessive in price to me. They said our drain field may need some attention (leading from tank, but that's not their job). Was this post helpful to you? yes no Report prohibited or spam Comment On Your Experience With a Septic System Subject: *Amount Spent: *Type: Comments: Purchased: Year: City: * State: *Information about you: Email: * Email addresses are not displayed. Name: This is the name we'll display with your post. Remember me on this computer*=required field. External Resources:twri.tamu.edu/reports/1999/l5234.pdfohioline.osu.edu/aex-fact/0744.htmlwww.extension.umn.edu/distribution/naturalresources/DD7570.htmlwww.extension.umn.edu/distribution/naturalresources/DD7671.htmlwww.uri.edu/ce/wq/OWT/Factsheets/FAQ.pdfwww.youtube.com/watch?v=b L0_UDGW-Howww.soil.ncsu.edu/publications/Soilfacts/AG-439-13/www.nowra.org/www.contractors-license.org/search.bbb.org/More Home and Garden Topics Check Out All Costs for Home and Garden How Much Does a Kitchen Remodeling Cost? How Much Does a Propane Tank Cost? How Much Does a Plumber Cost? Search Thousands of Topics on Cost Helper.com How much does cost? "
[ "\"Medium: Averages $2,000-$5,000; Runs $4,000-$12,000 in Higher Cost Areas Enhanced System: $10,000-$20,000+E-mail Post Tweet Comments (24)For homes that aren't connected to a municipal sewer plant, a septic is an on-site system that collects, treats and disposes of household wastewater by slowly filtering it through underground soil.", "Typically there are two main parts, a septic tank and a soil absorption system (also called a drainfield, leachfield or disposal field).", "These are located underground and connected to the house by sewage pipes.", "Typical costs: Installing/replacing a conventional septic system [ 1] (including the tank) averages $2,000-$5,000 in the Midwest, but can be $4,000-$12,000 or more in areas where materials and labor rates are higher.", "Enhanced, engineered or alternative septic systems that use mounds [ 2] , sand/peat filters [ 3] , aerobic systems and/or constructed wetlands [ 4] can cost $10,000-$20,000 or more, according to the Rhode Island Regional Water Quality Program [ 5] .", "These alternative septic systems work better than the conventional approach for sites with high groundwater or slowly/rapidly percolating soil, or near drinking water supplies, wetlands, coastal ponds or other water resources.", "The cost of a septic tank alone runs about $500-$1,800 depending on size (ranging from 300-1,000 gallons) and type.", "Piping and other needed items adds another $100-$200 to the total cost of materials.", "New Mexico State University provides an introduction to installing a septic tank [ 6] .", "However, many regions require a septic system to be designed and installed by trained and licensed professionals; contact your local or state sanitation department for details.", "Related articles: Septic Tank Cleaning, Sewer Line Replacement, Replacing Copper Pipes What should be included: Septic systems are used when sewage treatment plants are not accessible, which usually means rural or suburban homes on large lots.", "The septic tanks itself is a large, underground, watertight container made of concrete, fiberglass or plastic (polyethylene).", "The North Carolina State University Ag Extension explains how septic systems work and where they can be used [ 7] .", "It can take several days to a week or more to install/replace a septic system.", "The process involves extensive digging, often with heavy earth-moving equipment.", "Additional costs: Most counties and states require a building permit for installing or replacing a septic system, at a cost of $250-$1,000 or more depending on the location and the complexity of the project.", "Check with your local building/planning department for details.", "Installing a septic system usually involves extensive digging and damage to the landscaping; replacement turf and other plantings can run $100-$1,000 or more.", "Discounts: In a cluster septic system, each house has its own underground septic tank but they all feed into one drainfield/leachfield/soil absorption system.", "Typically installed by developers, a cluster septic system splits the cost of the drainfield installation and maintenance among many houses.", "Shopping for a septic system: Check with your local sanitation department to see if they maintain a list of licensed septic installation contractors.", "Referrals to septic contractors [ 8] are available through the National Onsite Wastewater Recycling Association.", "Ask about training and experience.", "Check that the company is properly bonded, insured and licensed in your state [ 9] ; and see if there are any complaints with the Better Business Bureau [ 10] .", "E-mail Post Tweet Comments (24)Cost Helper News7 Ways to Stretch Your Reduced Food Budget End of the year budgets are tight for everyone, especially in this economy.", "It's especially hard for the millions of Americans who depend on government programs like food stamps to help make ends meet.", "|| Posted November 11 20137 Lesser-Known Discounts for the 50+ Crowd As they age, members of the Baby Boomer generation don't like to admit that they're senior citizens, but they love getting discounts.", "It's kind of a quandary, because some of the best deals available are reduced prices for older folks.|| Posted October 21 2013‣ All Cost Helper Blog Posts What People Are Paying - Recent Comments Widow cheated Amount: $13,119.00Posted by: Lucie in Akron, NY.", "Posted: November 10th, 2017 09:11AMType: Septic tank & landscaping Sold 4 bedroom home w/1000 gal.", "septic tank in working order to couple w/4 children.", "Because money from sale of house was held in escrow, they listed the house as 5 bedroom and ordered 1500 gal.", "septic tank and paid extra 2,000 for landscaping.", "Cheaters will be cheaters, but they complained on Facebook.", "God'll get 'em!", "!Was this post helpful to you?", "yes no Report prohibited or spam3 Bedroom House Amount: $5,000.00Posted by: Sfr Development LLC in Boone, NC.", "Posted: August 11th, 2017 12:08PMType: Conventional 2 Foot Chambers1000 gallon tank.", "In Mountains Boone NC.", "Have 30 inches to 48 inches of soil.", "3 - 60 Feet 2 foot chamber lines Was this post helpful to you?", "yes no Report prohibited or spamneed septic system for 900 sq ft house- 1 bath and a kitchen-starter home.", "Amount: $0.00Posted by: rrrr in berlin, NJ.", "Posted: July 12th, 2017 02:07PMType: septiclocation-south jersey-sandy soil approx cost please?", "looking for economy and conformity.", "Was this post helpful to you?", "yes no Report prohibited or spam Spec House Amount: $0.00Posted by: Any Help Appreciated in Charleston, SC.", "Posted: May 12th, 2017 08:05AMGetting ready to purchase a piece of land that requires a septic system in order to build.", "From soup to nuts, (permits, materials, installation) what should I be looking at for total cost?", "This house will be built very close to water (Charleston, SC less than .5 miles) How long does the process typically take?", "Any and all help truly appreciated Was this post helpful to you?", "yes no Report prohibited or spam Perc testing and septic systems in North Virginia and Maryland Amount: $2,000.00Posted by: Ken Carbaugh in Leesburg, VA. Posted: June 20th, 2016 06:06PMType: conventional to alternative systems A perc or perk test in Northern Va from a licensed consultant will cost between 1200-2500 dollars depending the district and county fees.", "Fairfax County costs are 2-4x as much due to local health dept bureaucracy and redtape requiring a surveyor and engineer to be used for any certification or permitting.", "Real costs of conventional systems (3-4 bedrooms) are from 14-25k depending on the soil percolation results and whether or not a pump is required.", "If the system is an alternative (BAT in MD) the design costs add 1000-2500 in costs and the installation of the specialized equipment adds costs that can total 20-35,000 easily.", "Some above grade sand or drip systems will cost as much as $45,000 in areas with expectional poor soils.", "Your property is the most valuable asset you will own so be careful with the land you contract to purchase and beware not all property is equal in value for development.", "Was this post helpful to you?", "yes no Report prohibited or spam New conventional septic system/leach field Amount: $5,500.00Posted by: Bob42 in High rolls, NM.", "Posted: March 25th, 2016 12:03PMType: Concrete tank, leachfield$5500 was the total cost for everything including permits and inspection certificate, tank, pipes, new leachfield etc.", "I live rurally in a mountainous region with sloping land so more work was required to remediate the land for the leach field to be level.", "Took about a week from contract signing to completion.", "Was this post helpful to you?", "yes no Report prohibited or spamleach field treatment Amount: $1,150.00Posted by: Susana in cumming, GA. Posted: August 24th, 2015 04:08PMType: treating the leach field I had a septic company come to do a septic tank pump for $150 but they said I needed a more expensive leach field treatment at a cost of over $2500 even thought there is no back up or smell anywhere.", "They wind up doing an enxyme one leaving me with 6 gallons of liquid enzyme I am suppose to pour down the toiled once a month.", "My son says I was ripped off.", "Is he right?", "Was this post helpful to you?", "yes no Report prohibited or spam Pocono Pump and electric line replacement Amount: $2,010.00Posted by: payed too much?", "in Effort, PA. Posted: August 2nd, 2015 11:08PMType: dual tank w mound Had Pump replaced as well as wire to house, dug up yard, to replace line, replaced pump, didn't take garbage, didn't clean up landscape, pump both tanks included in price , found truck parts in driveway and tanks not pumped, claim truck broke be back to pump....was this a lot , I had to rake out landscape and driveway, clean wires, boxes and garbage left behind, ..", "I hope they pump the tanks soon.", "Was this post helpful to you?", "yes no Report prohibited or spam Septic estimates.", "Amount: $5,000.00Posted by: Daytrp in Eldersburg, MD.", "Posted: July 17th, 2015 08:07PMType: Repair - new construction Repair permit: $130-450 depending on county.", "New construction permits: $250-550.", "New septic $16-22k for advanced treatment, $8-10k conventional Perc test for repair: $850-$1,400 takes 2-6 hours.", "Done with county sanatarian onsite.", "A common septic repair: (installation of 2 - 60' long x 3' wide x 8' deep with 4' of stone below pipe invert) runs about $6,500.", "Trench dimensions are determined by number of bedrooms (occupancy) and percolation rates from perc test.", "price varies depending on Trench size.", "Bigger means more.", "Septic tank add $2,500-3,500 Pump chamber, pump and controls add $4,000-5,000.", "Advanced treatment unit add $10k- $13k to price of permit and trenches.", "Some states Have programs to help upgrade your septic tank.", "Check with your county health department.", "I bid these jobs and this is my basic start point.", "Specailty jobs, difficulty of access, heavy rock, all add to the bid price Was this post helpful to you?", "yes no Report prohibited or spam Septic System Installation Amount: $15,650.00Posted by: ABMCCAA in Bakersfield, CA.", "Posted: June 26th, 2015 05:06PMNew 1500 Gallon Tank, Engineering, 60' of Leach Field with Rock base drainage system.", "50 ton of 3/4\"\" rock, new 4\"\" main line to house, soils testing and permits.", "Took 3 days total.", "Was this post helpful to you?", "yes no Report prohibited or spamgrandmother taken advantage of with ultra high price?", "Amount: $10.00Posted by: andrewbasil in hemet, CA.", "Posted: March 23rd, 2015 06:03AMType: simple leach line replacement75 feet of leach line were dug up and replaced the.", "attached up to original fifteen hundred gallon 1973 concrete septic tank and re buried .. they had to knock down two fruit trees and by accident sheared off a water tap.", "(Having not repaired the water line it has now become a 5 foot stream shooting straight up in air.)", "I do feel grandmother was taken advantage and charged double of not more for services that ... and this is the worst part ... a permit nor independent inspection was never done for this job.", "And even though these men work for a major plumbing company they insisted on cash only.", "Is this right?", "Help me out here what do I do?", "This was 3 days ago.", "Was this post helpful to you?", "yes no Report prohibited or spamseptic install and repair Amount: $25.00Posted by: ltodd kinsey in cda, ID.", "Posted: February 26th, 2015 11:02PMType: all If properly maintained a working system should never need pumped Was this post helpful to you?", "yes no Report prohibited or spam SEPTIC SYSTEM REPLACEMENTAmount: $0.00Posted by: M. IRIARTE in STROUDSBUR, PA. Posted: February 4th, 2015 05:02AMType: SEPTICANYONE IN THE POCONOS HAS HAD THEIR SEPTIC SYSTEM REPLACE.", "WHAT WAS THE COST OF REPLACEMENT.", "WOULD LIKE TO GET FEEDBACKWas this post helpful to you?", "yes no Report prohibited or spam Lift Pump Amount: $2,700.00Posted by: Lift pump last minute $2700 addition in Sarasota, FL.", "Posted: February 3rd, 2015 09:02AMType: septicwe needed a new drain field as slow draining.", "county said we need a lift pump as due to high water table septic tank is not low enough.", "We already spent 5000 on drain field.", "Is this too much?", "We are in Florida Was this post helpful to you?", "yes no Report prohibited or spam Leach Field Amount: $13,000.00Posted by: El Jeje in Andover, CT. Posted: January 8th, 2015 07:01PMType: Infiltrators Quick 4 infiltrators, leach field and landscaping only.", "Tank was recently replaced.", "For a 4 bedroom home with excellent soil.", "Was this post helpful to you?", "yes no Report prohibited or spam Tank and 250ft Infiltrator leaching system Amount: $4,500.00Posted by: a user in Dalton, GA. Posted: September 18th, 2013 06:09PMType: concrete GA- for a 3bdrm house.", "By North Georgia Backhoe.", "Took about 6hrs Was this post helpful to you?", "yes no Report prohibited or spamjust price a new system 3 bedrooms Amount: $2,800.00Posted by: no name in harrison, MI.", "Posted: April 22nd, 2013 05:04PMType: convertional system That was the cost for everything Was this post helpful to you?", "yes no Report prohibited or spam New cement 61 by 103 lid, new mortar at outlet Amount: $1,300.00Posted by: a user in North Port, FL.", "Posted: April 11th, 2013 09:04AMType: Lid Seems we had gasses that formed a hole, maybe 10 inch wide, 6-10 feet deep.", "They replaced the cement lid 61 by103 inches.", "3 men, trucks and a backhoe.", "Also ne mortar around the outlet.", "Total cost $1,300.", "Too much?", "Took about 2 hours.", "I think they did a great job.", "We will see!", "Tank is 24 years old.", "The load lid,2 inch thick concrete, the new one is 3 inch.", "Was this post helpful to you?", "yes no Report prohibited or spamlambchops,,,question Amount: $0.00Posted by: rm in goldsboro, NC.", "Posted: February 26th, 2013 04:02AMType: lift system Lambchops,,,I am in goldsboro also and may need a lift system.", "can you shoot me an email at rmaccuswellatyahoo.com have some questions for you Was this post helpful to you?", "yes no Report prohibited or spam Hoot 600 System Amount: $41,000.00Posted by: lje33437 in Princeton, NJ.", "Posted: February 15th, 2013 05:02AMType: Pump/Drip System Got a perk, that was the good news.", "Had to put in expensive Hoot 600 for a 5 bedroom house.", "1,500 gallon tank, Hoot 600 and field with mound because of the soil conditions.", "Lots of shale in area.", "Was this post helpful to you?", "yes no Report prohibited or spam Septic system with lift pump and leach field Amount: $4,500.00Posted by: Lambchops in Goldsboro, NC.", "Posted: September 7th, 2012 07:09AMType: Lift System I just got out the Air Force and Sub Contracted my own home, I had to have a lift site for my septic tank, or put in the mound system, Well I couldn't see this hump of dirt in my yard so I chose the lift site which was a 1000ft away.", "I know that sounds a long way away but 2 inch pipe is really not that expensive bottom line I did a little research and got a few estimates which in 2000 was really high.", "there were 3 bids for over $6500.00 And one for $4800, but I did my landscaping and septic system for $4500.", "Not bad for a guy just using good ole common sense and you can too.", "Was this post helpful to you?", "yes no Report prohibited or spam Septic system with lift pump and leach field Amount: $12,000.00Posted by: Will Marcinko in Mc Henry, IL.", "Posted: August 30th, 2011 09:08AMEngineering survey, ground feasability survey plus permits.", "We had a 1000 gallon septic tank, 750 gallon lift tank, 233 feet of trench line, 240 feet of leach pipe and a Hydromatic SW33M1 effluent pump installed.", "He also reseeded and landscaped the damages done by the excavating.", "My question is, \"\"Did we spend too much?", "\"\"Was this post helpful to you?", "yes no Report prohibited or spam Septic Mound System Amount: $22,892.00Posted by: bobswife in Egg Harbor Twp, NJ.", "Posted: July 30th, 2010 05:07AMType: Mound System Extreme flooding forced new system after old leach system failed.", "Installed new 44.5 by 18.5, 12.5 deep, engineered designed mound system, added additional 1000 gallon tank with pump to mound system.", "Installed automatic tank alarm.", "Approx 12 trees were removed in process.", "Was this post helpful to you?", "yes no Report prohibited or spam Repair Amount: $7.70Posted by: Gail1 in Pennington, NJ.", "Posted: February 11th, 2010 05:02AMType: Tank We had slow drainage.", "The company came out on a Thursday and tried to clear the clog.", "Afterwards, didn't hear the proper flow into the tank.", "Friday, brought camera and said pipes were old and damaged by roots, etc.", "Brought in small backhoe.", "Dug up pipe to tank, jackhammered a 12 foot section of our bedroom leading to bathroom, replaced pipe for use.", "(Sat.", "and Sun.", "off) Monday, came to fill trench with some gravel and filled dirt back into trench.", "Put some gravel in small section in our bedroom, poured concrete at connecting point.", "My husband poured the finishing concrete in our bedroom.", "This seems excessive in price to me.", "They said our drain field may need some attention (leading from tank, but that's not their job).", "Was this post helpful to you?", "yes no Report prohibited or spam Comment On Your Experience With a Septic System Subject: *Amount Spent: *Type: Comments: Purchased: Year: City: * State: *Information about you: Email: * Email addresses are not displayed.", "Name: This is the name we'll display with your post.", "Remember me on this computer*=required field.", "External Resources:twri.tamu.edu/reports/1999/l5234.pdfohioline.osu.edu/aex-fact/0744.htmlwww.extension.umn.edu/distribution/naturalresources/DD7570.htmlwww.extension.umn.edu/distribution/naturalresources/DD7671.htmlwww.uri.edu/ce/wq/OWT/Factsheets/FAQ.pdfwww.youtube.com/watch?v=b L0_UDGW-Howww.soil.ncsu.edu/publications/Soilfacts/AG-439-13/www.nowra.org/www.contractors-license.org/search.bbb.org/More Home and Garden Topics Check Out All Costs for Home and Garden How Much Does a Kitchen Remodeling Cost?", "How Much Does a Propane Tank Cost?", "How Much Does a Plumber Cost?", "Search Thousands of Topics on Cost Helper.com How much does cost? \"" ]
D13675
http://health.costhelper.com/wisdom-teeth-removal.html
Wisdom Teeth Removal Cost
"Simple Extraction: $75-$200 per tooth Single Impacted Tooth: $225-$600 Four Impacted Wisdom Teeth: $1,000-$3,000E-mail Post Tweet Comments (49)Also called third molars, wisdom teeth are the third and last set of teeth to appear in a person's mouth, usually between ages 17 and 25. There are typically four wisdom teeth, two on top and two on the bottom. Teeth that come in at an angle or fail to erupt through the gums are called impacted, and may need to be extracted. Many dentists do relatively straightforward extractions but may refer the removal of an impacted tooth to a specialist called an oral and maxillofacial surgeon. Typical costs: A simple wisdom tooth extraction (where the tooth is fully erupted from the gums and has simple roots) using a local anesthetic costs about $75-$200 per tooth, or $300-$800 to have all four wisdom teeth removed as simple, non-surgical extractions. For an impacted tooth, extraction using a local anesthetic can cost $225-$600 per tooth. The use of nitrous oxide to relax the patient typically adds $40-$90; or general anesthetic can add $250-$800 to the total cost. The type of impaction affects the price. Typically, a soft tissue impaction (the tooth is partially erupted through the gum) is the least expensive impaction to remove; a partial bony impaction (some of the tooth that should be above the gum line is encased in the jawbone) is typically more expensive; and a full bony impaction (the wisdom tooth is totally encased in the jawbone) costs the most to extract. Dental insurance might cover 15%-50% of wisdom tooth removal if the procedure is considered medically necessary, and some dental plans only pay an annual maximum of $1,000-$1,500. Cost Helper readers without insurance report total costs of $250-$750 for extracting a single impacted wisdom tooth. Cost Helper readers with dental insurance report out-of-pocket expenses of $132-$800 for a single impacted tooth, or an average of $416. Many dentists or oral surgeons offer a package deal for extracting all four wisdom teeth at once. In lower-cost regions the total for four extractions plus sedation can be $1,000-$1,650, but nationwide the average cost for removing four wisdom teeth using general anesthetic runs around $1,500-$2,300, and it can be $2,500-$3,000 for extremely complex cases in high-cost regions, with oral surgeons typically charging higher fees than general dentists. Cost Helper readers without dental insurance reported paying $720-$2,735 to have all four wisdom teeth removed at once, for an average cost of $1,616. Cost Helper readers with dental insurance report out-of-pocket expenses of $190-$994 or an average cost of $641 for extracting all four wisdom teeth. Related articles: Cavity Filling, Braces, Dental Crown, Fixing a Teeth Gap, Retainers, Tooth Extraction What should be included: Wisdom teeth may become impacted if there isn't enough room for them on the jaw. Impacted teeth can get recurring infections, cavities, gum disease or (more rarely) cysts and tumors. The American Association of Oral and Maxillofacial Surgeons provides an overview of wisdom teeth [ 1] . Typically wisdom teeth will be removed in an office, but in some cases the procedure might be done in a hospital (for example, when extracting four extremely impacted teeth or if there is a high risk of complications). Typically the quoted price includes a follow-up office visit to check healing or remove sutures. After numbing the area around the tooth or administering general anesthetic, the oral surgeon or dentist opens the gum tissue above the wisdom tooth and removes any bone covering the tooth; separates the tissue connecting the tooth to the bone; and removes the tooth. The area is closed with stitches, which may dissolve over time or need to be removed after a few days. The patient will need to eat liquid or soft foods for several days. An animated video [ 2] illustrates the process and Web MD.com provides an overview [ 3] of the process. Additional costs: A panoramic X-ray ($60-$150) is typically required before a wisdom tooth is extracted, and in some cases a cone beam CT scan ($250-$600) may be needed. There might also be a separate charge for an initial exam ($50-$350 ). Ask in advance if these costs are included in the quoted price. Discounts: Dental school clinics [ 4] typically offer services by supervised students or faculty at reduced rates. The National Institute of Dental and Craniofacial Research provides tips for finding low-cost dental care [ 5] . Shopping for wisdom teeth removal:. Wed MD lists things to consider when choosing a dentist [ 6] . If the patient has dental insurance, the insurance company will provide a list of approved dentists and oral surgeons. Or, search for local members of the American Dental Association [ 7] or the American Association of Oral and Maxillofacial Surgeons [ 8] . Material on this page is for informational purposes only and should not be construed as medical advice. Always consult your physician or pharmacist regarding medications or medical procedures. E-mail Post Tweet Comments (49)Cost Helper News7 Ways to Stretch Your Reduced Food Budget End of the year budgets are tight for everyone, especially in this economy. It's especially hard for the millions of Americans who depend on government programs like food stamps to help make ends meet. || Posted November 11 20137 Lesser-Known Discounts for the 50+ Crowd As they age, members of the Baby Boomer generation don't like to admit that they're senior citizens, but they love getting discounts. It's kind of a quandary, because some of the best deals available are reduced prices for older folks.|| Posted October 21 2013‣ All Cost Helper Blog Posts What People Are Paying - Recent Comments Page 2 of 2 - << Previous 1 2Wisdom Teeth Amount: $6,200.00Posted by: JPJ in Marshfield, WI. Posted: March 7th, 2018 10:03AMWhich tooth/teeth: 4 Impacted Wisdom Teeth Oral surgery is now done in an ambulatory surgery center. What was previously done in the office for $2,800 was now quoted at $6,200. Me thinks they know the insurance will pay, so they extract more than just teeth. This is absurd. Was this post helpful to you? yes no Report prohibited or spam Wisdom Teeth Removal - 2 Normal, 2 Impacted Amount: $523.40Posted by: Douglas Crawshaw Jr. in Ottawa, KS. Posted: November 4th, 2017 12:11PMWhich tooth/teeth: All four wisdom teeth I had to get all four wisdom teeth pulled, because at least two of them were impacted. The other two were fine, but the dentist suggested getting them pulled also because intact teeth still grow. Here's a breakdown of the price of everything, including what I paid for OOP (Out of Pocket): 1. Panoramic X-Ray at a small dentist's office: $120 OOP, I had no insurance at the time. 2. Consultation at an oral surgeon: $94 OOP, Insurance didn't cover it 3. Prescription drugs: around $10 OOP, not sure what Insurance paid for there 4. 3 Rounds of Anesthesia: $690 5. 2 Regular Extractions: $512 6. 2 Partial Bony Extractions: $826 What I paid OOP for 4-6: $299.40 Actual Retail Price of Everything: $2,252 What I actually paid for OOP: $523.40 It's not cheap by far, but thank God that my job has good Dental Insurance. If you can get Dental, get Dental. If not, try a discount card. It's more expensive up-front, but you still get decent savings on procedures. Was this post helpful to you? yes no Report prohibited or spam Wisdom Teeth Extraction Cost Amount: $0.00Posted by: Rusty Barnes in El Paso, IL. Posted: November 3rd, 2017 10:11AMWhich tooth/teeth: Wisdom teeth Good ole US Army paid for my Extraction Was this post helpful to you? yes no Report prohibited or spam Wisdom teeth extraction Amount: $722.00Posted by: Holyshizbatman in Chattanooga, TN. Posted: November 2nd, 2017 09:11PMWhich tooth/teeth: All 4Had all four removed with general anesthesia. Painless procedure and my dental insurance covered around 65%. Took about an hour at an oral surgery center. Very pleased. Total out of my pocket was $722.00 but will end up getting some back as it wasn’t quite as bad as anticipated. Was this post helpful to you? yes no Report prohibited or spam Wisdom Teeth Removal Cost Amount: $272.00Posted by: RAR in Saint Paul, MN. Posted: May 4th, 2017 04:05PMWhich tooth/teeth: 4 wisdom teeth fully erupted Went to an oral surgeon and received IV sedation for the removal of 4 wisdom teeth. The total cost before insurance was $1590; 30 minutes of IV sedation for $440, the two upper teeth at $205 each and the two lower at $370 each. Insurance covered a large portion including the IV sedation so I only paid $272 for everything. Was this post helpful to you? yes no Report prohibited or spam Extracted Amount: $580.00Posted by: LSig in Grand Prairie, TX. Posted: March 16th, 2017 11:03AMWhich tooth/teeth: two bottom Had one chipped and went ahead and got both bottom done, will go back for the top in a couple of months ($340). I dont have dental insurance just Cigna savings dental card ($100) for a one year subscription. Was this post helpful to you? yes no Report prohibited or spam2 Simple Extraction Wisdom Teeth Amount: $117.20Posted by: Melodee in Boise, ID. Posted: December 14th, 2016 12:12PMWhich tooth/teeth: 2 Upper Wisdom Teeth Local anesthetic with nitrous. Standard fee before insurance was $229/ tooth plus $50 nitrous. Was this post helpful to you? yes no Report prohibited or spam Removal Amount: $1,450.00Posted by: hasy in Garden Grove, CA. Posted: October 14th, 2016 12:10PMWhich tooth/teeth: 1 + 3One of them popped out and a normal dentist removed them for about $100. Then I had to go back to remove the remaining 3 and it WAS SO expensive. Though it's partially my fault for getting the PPO and got the HMO instead. Was this post helpful to you? yes no Report prohibited or spam All Four wisdom teeth removal Amount: $1,080.00Posted by: Diana R in Exton, PA. Posted: September 27th, 2016 12:09PMWhich tooth/teeth: 1,16,17,32Consultation and x-ray they didn't charge me,they price was $1,909.00 (1220.00 surgical extraction and $689.00 for anesthesia/IV sedation),My dental Allows $1,080.00 Max ( in my dental coverage I reached my max limit 3 month ago with crowns and root canal done) So I need pay fool amount what they are asking : (Was this post helpful to you? yes no Report prohibited or spam4 wisdom teeth extracted Amount: $428.00Posted by: a user in New Orleans, LA. Posted: July 14th, 2016 01:07PMInsurance covered 80%Was this post helpful to you? yes no Report prohibited or spam Wisdom tooth extraction Amount: $900.00Posted by: Firstteam427 in Sayville, NY. Posted: May 20th, 2016 07:05PMWhich tooth/teeth: 2 impactions I had one tooth that was sideways and the other was a basic impaction. I only had a dental plan and paid what Aetna pays. The $900 also included x-rays,funny gas, and local anesthetic. Was this post helpful to you? yes no Report prohibited or spam My visit Amount: $690.00Posted by: Tabatha in brooklyn, NY. Posted: March 12th, 2016 05:03AMI had to pay for an examination. Xrays were necessary as well. The doctor looked at the xray and there was a cyst attached to the tooth I wanted to be pulled. He said it was common and not to worry. The numbing was fast and whole thing painless. Was this post helpful to you? yes no Report prohibited or spam Wisdom teeth removal Amount: $1,650.00Posted by: ny patient in queens, NY. Posted: January 28th, 2016 11:01AMWhich tooth/teeth: 4 wisdom teethcost breakdown: $1300 for removal of 4 wisdom teeth, two normal, two partially impacted. $350 for ct scan for two of the wisdom teeth to rule out possible nerve damage Was this post helpful to you? yes no Report prohibited or spamdefinitely overcharged!!!!!!!!!! !Amount: $2,625.00Posted by: Sandra S in Syracuse, NY. Posted: January 4th, 2016 01:01PMWhich tooth/teeth: 4 wisdom teeth I was referred to the oral surgeon by my dentist. We told them 2 months ago that we did not have dental insurance. We never informed of the cost until we came and even though I explained that I had a Health Savings Account for medical costs, they would not start the surgery until I went home and came back with a check and paid them on the spot. The cost was never mentioned before my arrival, or any discussion of payment arrangements. Who shows up with $2,625 cash available? I highly recommend you think twice before going to the Syracuse Oral & Maxillofacial Surgery with Dr. Cunningham Was this post helpful to you? yes no Report prohibited or spampending teeth extraction Amount: $4,015.00Posted by: Arcie Huntsman in Indianapolis, IN. Posted: September 17th, 2015 02:09PMWhich tooth/teeth: all eleven teeth in my mouth It seems a might high to me,but im going to be receiving IVsedation.he said it will take 2 hours. Was this post helpful to you? yes no Report prohibited or spam Wisdom Teeth Extraction Amount: $1,570.00Posted by: Sam KAllen in Worcester, MA. Posted: September 9th, 2015 01:09PMWhich tooth/teeth: #1,#16,#17,#32First visit cost for oral exam cost $130 and panoramic film x-ray cost $155. The total cost of 4 teeth removal (2 were impacted and 2 erupted) was $1570 including IV for 45 minutes and a follow-up visit. My dental insurance covers 80%, so I paid $317. Was this post helpful to you? yes no Report prohibited or spam Wisdom Teeth removal Amount: $636.00Posted by: Ava in UNC, NC. Posted: June 22nd, 2015 12:06PMWhich tooth/teeth: All four I do not have insurance but go to one of the top dental schools in the country for routine work and my dentist (resident) referred me to their surgery dept. I had two wisdom teeth removed one week and the other two removed 3 weeks from that. Total bill was $636.00. I saved hundreds, even thousands of money in the end!Was this post helpful to you? yes no Report prohibited or spam Wisdom Teeth Extraction Amount: $2,779.00Posted by: Daniel Moore in North Andover, MA. Posted: May 18th, 2015 01:05PMWhich tooth/teeth: Remove 4 Teeth Remove Complete Bony Impaction #1,#16,#17,#32 $690 each=$2,760 $655 for 45 minutes of Anesthesia Total: #3,415-$635 left of 2015 Insurance Is this a fair price? Was this post helpful to you? yes no Report prohibited or spamwisdom tooth removal Amount: $850.00Posted by: amy80 in East prov, RI. Posted: April 11th, 2015 05:04PMWhich tooth/teeth: one bottom It was 80 consultation fee. My dental insurance covered the tooth removal 100%. An my medical picked up the bill for getting put to sleep. Was this post helpful to you? yes no Report prohibited or spamwisdom teeth Amount: $2,000.00Posted by: a user in New Bedford, MA. Posted: March 31st, 2015 11:03AMWhich tooth/teeth: all4Receptionist and Dr..both informed me I had owed nothing. Sent me a bill for 2,000.00 My lawyer told me unless you taped the conversation or have it in written ,its my word against there's. He told me to write to dentist saying I would pay 20 a month until balance was paid. I had also seen another surgeon in same area wanted 2000.00 up front. Was this post helpful to you? yes no Report prohibited or spamwisdom teeth removed Amount: $2,349.00Posted by: sg in Dubuque, IA. Posted: February 24th, 2015 02:02AMWhich tooth/teeth: 4 wisdom All 4 wisdom teeth, one impacted 3 poking through. IV sedation for $427 at oral surgeon. No insurance and have to also pay $320 for consultation and exam. Needed paid half down day of procedure or save 5% if paid in full. Was this post helpful to you? yes no Report prohibited or spam Wisdom teeth extraction Amount: $3,100.00Posted by: a user in Antoch, CA. Posted: February 13th, 2015 06:02AMWhich tooth/teeth: 4 teeth 2 are impacted Liked the Oral Surgeon, but dang! How do people afford it? Was this post helpful to you? yes no Report prohibited or spam Wisdom Teeth Removal Cost Amount: $1,800.00Posted by: JT 101 in Columbus, OH. Posted: January 25th, 2015 05:01PMWhich tooth/teeth: All four were completely impacted. General Anesthesia cost $200, and it was $400 per tooth. Was this post helpful to you? yes no Report prohibited or spam Wisdom teeth removal Amount: $241.00Posted by: Morgan223 in Atlanta, GA. Posted: January 24th, 2015 11:01AMWhich tooth/teeth: All four I have great dental insurance right now but unfortunately does not cover sedation. I chose laughing gas bc it was $75 vs $500 for an IV. Laughing gas does not help with awareness. It was the worst experience of my life. However, I knew I was lucky because my dental insurance paid nearly $1000 for the procedure. Was this post helpful to you? yes no Report prohibited or spam Wisdom teeth extraction 2015Amount: $1,300.00Posted by: a user in Blackstone, MA. Posted: January 22nd, 2015 06:01AMWhich tooth/teeth: All four Two erupted, two partial bone impactions with local anesthetic. X-rays were done at General dentist for $150. Total for the procedure was 1300 no insurance. Was this post helpful to you? yes no Report prohibited or spam Wisdom teeth removal Amount: $2,150.00Posted by: Bellamy in Bethseda, MD. Posted: January 14th, 2015 06:01PMWhich tooth/teeth: All No dental insurance, had all four wisdom teeth removed with general anesthetic. I was told If I didn't go under that I would have been $1,600. Had it done with a plastic surgery surgeon. Was this post helpful to you? yes no Report prohibited or spamall wisdom teeth removed Amount: $752.00Posted by: Milodora in San Antonio, TX. Posted: January 6th, 2015 12:01AMWhich tooth/teeth: All wisdom teeth Paid for the consultation and xrays ($111) and paid half of the total cost of removal (insurance paid the other half including half of the general anesthetic and IV) Felt it was a fair price. Was this post helpful to you? yes no Report prohibited or spam Great mexican doctor Amount: $600.00Posted by: Adrianne in Tijuana, Mexico, Other. Posted: December 17th, 2014 09:12PMWhich tooth/teeth: 4 wisdom Two impacted, two erupted. local anesthetic. $150 per tooth. My dentist was an American dentist practicing in Tijuana, Mexico. He used my plasma and injected it into the holes for healing. I have felt great, healing is great. They also gave me two shots for pain, supposed to work for 12 hours. They definitely did help. Overall i think the flu is worse than getting my wisdom teeth out. Do your research and you can find good medical and dental in Mexico. Especially if the Doctors/Dentists are from the U. S. Was this post helpful to you? yes no Report prohibited or spam Wisdom tooth removal cost Amount: $60.00Posted by: Canadian Contributor in London, Ontario Canada, Other. Posted: November 24th, 2014 10:11PMWhich tooth/teeth: bottom right ""third molar""I simply can't afford a regular dentist and so I went to the Dental School at our local university when my Wisdom Tooth broke and became VERY painful. The extraction was $40 and the x-ray, ""inspection,"" and ""freezing"" needles were $20. Two senior students did the work under the watchful gaze of the presiding Dentist/Teacher and even though it turned out to be more work than initially anticipated (the tooth cracked and it had 3 ""stubborn"" roots,) the final bill was $60. If you need this kind of special work done, I advise you to look for a Dental School to see if they have a similar program. Was this post helpful to you? yes no Report prohibited or spam Page 2 of 2 - << Previous 1 2Comment On Your Experience With Wisdom Teeth Removal Subject: *Amount Spent: *Which tooth/teeth: Comments: Purchased: Year: City: * State: *Information about you: Email: * Email addresses are not displayed. Name: This is the name we'll display with your post. Remember me on this computer*=required field. External Resources:www.aaoms.org/wisdom_teeth.phpwww.youtube.com/watch?v=0uc VJk Io TIEwww.webmd.com/oral-health/wisdom-tooth-extractionwww.ada.org/267.aspxwww.nidcr.nih.gov/oralhealth/popularpublications/findinglowcostdentalcare/www.webmd.com/oral-health/guide/finding-dentistwww.mouthhealthy.org/en/find-a-dentist.aspxwww.aaoms.org/findoms.php More Health & Personal Care Topics Check Out All Costs for Health & Personal Care How Much Does Teeth Cleaning Cost? How Much Does an Ambulance Cost? How Much Does an Albuterol Inhaler Cost? Search Thousands of Topics on Cost Helper.com How much does cost? "
[ "\"Simple Extraction: $75-$200 per tooth Single Impacted Tooth: $225-$600 Four Impacted Wisdom Teeth: $1,000-$3,000E-mail Post Tweet Comments (49)Also called third molars, wisdom teeth are the third and last set of teeth to appear in a person's mouth, usually between ages 17 and 25.", "There are typically four wisdom teeth, two on top and two on the bottom.", "Teeth that come in at an angle or fail to erupt through the gums are called impacted, and may need to be extracted.", "Many dentists do relatively straightforward extractions but may refer the removal of an impacted tooth to a specialist called an oral and maxillofacial surgeon.", "Typical costs: A simple wisdom tooth extraction (where the tooth is fully erupted from the gums and has simple roots) using a local anesthetic costs about $75-$200 per tooth, or $300-$800 to have all four wisdom teeth removed as simple, non-surgical extractions.", "For an impacted tooth, extraction using a local anesthetic can cost $225-$600 per tooth.", "The use of nitrous oxide to relax the patient typically adds $40-$90; or general anesthetic can add $250-$800 to the total cost.", "The type of impaction affects the price.", "Typically, a soft tissue impaction (the tooth is partially erupted through the gum) is the least expensive impaction to remove; a partial bony impaction (some of the tooth that should be above the gum line is encased in the jawbone) is typically more expensive; and a full bony impaction (the wisdom tooth is totally encased in the jawbone) costs the most to extract.", "Dental insurance might cover 15%-50% of wisdom tooth removal if the procedure is considered medically necessary, and some dental plans only pay an annual maximum of $1,000-$1,500.", "Cost Helper readers without insurance report total costs of $250-$750 for extracting a single impacted wisdom tooth.", "Cost Helper readers with dental insurance report out-of-pocket expenses of $132-$800 for a single impacted tooth, or an average of $416.", "Many dentists or oral surgeons offer a package deal for extracting all four wisdom teeth at once.", "In lower-cost regions the total for four extractions plus sedation can be $1,000-$1,650, but nationwide the average cost for removing four wisdom teeth using general anesthetic runs around $1,500-$2,300, and it can be $2,500-$3,000 for extremely complex cases in high-cost regions, with oral surgeons typically charging higher fees than general dentists.", "Cost Helper readers without dental insurance reported paying $720-$2,735 to have all four wisdom teeth removed at once, for an average cost of $1,616.", "Cost Helper readers with dental insurance report out-of-pocket expenses of $190-$994 or an average cost of $641 for extracting all four wisdom teeth.", "Related articles: Cavity Filling, Braces, Dental Crown, Fixing a Teeth Gap, Retainers, Tooth Extraction What should be included: Wisdom teeth may become impacted if there isn't enough room for them on the jaw.", "Impacted teeth can get recurring infections, cavities, gum disease or (more rarely) cysts and tumors.", "The American Association of Oral and Maxillofacial Surgeons provides an overview of wisdom teeth [ 1] .", "Typically wisdom teeth will be removed in an office, but in some cases the procedure might be done in a hospital (for example, when extracting four extremely impacted teeth or if there is a high risk of complications).", "Typically the quoted price includes a follow-up office visit to check healing or remove sutures.", "After numbing the area around the tooth or administering general anesthetic, the oral surgeon or dentist opens the gum tissue above the wisdom tooth and removes any bone covering the tooth; separates the tissue connecting the tooth to the bone; and removes the tooth.", "The area is closed with stitches, which may dissolve over time or need to be removed after a few days.", "The patient will need to eat liquid or soft foods for several days.", "An animated video [ 2] illustrates the process and Web MD.com provides an overview [ 3] of the process.", "Additional costs: A panoramic X-ray ($60-$150) is typically required before a wisdom tooth is extracted, and in some cases a cone beam CT scan ($250-$600) may be needed.", "There might also be a separate charge for an initial exam ($50-$350 ).", "Ask in advance if these costs are included in the quoted price.", "Discounts: Dental school clinics [ 4] typically offer services by supervised students or faculty at reduced rates.", "The National Institute of Dental and Craniofacial Research provides tips for finding low-cost dental care [ 5] .", "Shopping for wisdom teeth removal:.", "Wed MD lists things to consider when choosing a dentist [ 6] .", "If the patient has dental insurance, the insurance company will provide a list of approved dentists and oral surgeons.", "Or, search for local members of the American Dental Association [ 7] or the American Association of Oral and Maxillofacial Surgeons [ 8] .", "Material on this page is for informational purposes only and should not be construed as medical advice.", "Always consult your physician or pharmacist regarding medications or medical procedures.", "E-mail Post Tweet Comments (49)Cost Helper News7 Ways to Stretch Your Reduced Food Budget End of the year budgets are tight for everyone, especially in this economy.", "It's especially hard for the millions of Americans who depend on government programs like food stamps to help make ends meet.", "|| Posted November 11 20137 Lesser-Known Discounts for the 50+ Crowd As they age, members of the Baby Boomer generation don't like to admit that they're senior citizens, but they love getting discounts.", "It's kind of a quandary, because some of the best deals available are reduced prices for older folks.|| Posted October 21 2013‣ All Cost Helper Blog Posts What People Are Paying - Recent Comments Page 2 of 2 - << Previous 1 2Wisdom Teeth Amount: $6,200.00Posted by: JPJ in Marshfield, WI.", "Posted: March 7th, 2018 10:03AMWhich tooth/teeth: 4 Impacted Wisdom Teeth Oral surgery is now done in an ambulatory surgery center.", "What was previously done in the office for $2,800 was now quoted at $6,200.", "Me thinks they know the insurance will pay, so they extract more than just teeth.", "This is absurd.", "Was this post helpful to you?", "yes no Report prohibited or spam Wisdom Teeth Removal - 2 Normal, 2 Impacted Amount: $523.40Posted by: Douglas Crawshaw Jr. in Ottawa, KS.", "Posted: November 4th, 2017 12:11PMWhich tooth/teeth: All four wisdom teeth I had to get all four wisdom teeth pulled, because at least two of them were impacted.", "The other two were fine, but the dentist suggested getting them pulled also because intact teeth still grow.", "Here's a breakdown of the price of everything, including what I paid for OOP (Out of Pocket): 1.", "Panoramic X-Ray at a small dentist's office: $120 OOP, I had no insurance at the time.", "2.", "Consultation at an oral surgeon: $94 OOP, Insurance didn't cover it 3.", "Prescription drugs: around $10 OOP, not sure what Insurance paid for there 4.", "3 Rounds of Anesthesia: $690 5.", "2 Regular Extractions: $512 6.", "2 Partial Bony Extractions: $826 What I paid OOP for 4-6: $299.40 Actual Retail Price of Everything: $2,252 What I actually paid for OOP: $523.40 It's not cheap by far, but thank God that my job has good Dental Insurance.", "If you can get Dental, get Dental.", "If not, try a discount card.", "It's more expensive up-front, but you still get decent savings on procedures.", "Was this post helpful to you?", "yes no Report prohibited or spam Wisdom Teeth Extraction Cost Amount: $0.00Posted by: Rusty Barnes in El Paso, IL.", "Posted: November 3rd, 2017 10:11AMWhich tooth/teeth: Wisdom teeth Good ole US Army paid for my Extraction Was this post helpful to you?", "yes no Report prohibited or spam Wisdom teeth extraction Amount: $722.00Posted by: Holyshizbatman in Chattanooga, TN.", "Posted: November 2nd, 2017 09:11PMWhich tooth/teeth: All 4Had all four removed with general anesthesia.", "Painless procedure and my dental insurance covered around 65%.", "Took about an hour at an oral surgery center.", "Very pleased.", "Total out of my pocket was $722.00 but will end up getting some back as it wasn’t quite as bad as anticipated.", "Was this post helpful to you?", "yes no Report prohibited or spam Wisdom Teeth Removal Cost Amount: $272.00Posted by: RAR in Saint Paul, MN.", "Posted: May 4th, 2017 04:05PMWhich tooth/teeth: 4 wisdom teeth fully erupted Went to an oral surgeon and received IV sedation for the removal of 4 wisdom teeth.", "The total cost before insurance was $1590; 30 minutes of IV sedation for $440, the two upper teeth at $205 each and the two lower at $370 each.", "Insurance covered a large portion including the IV sedation so I only paid $272 for everything.", "Was this post helpful to you?", "yes no Report prohibited or spam Extracted Amount: $580.00Posted by: LSig in Grand Prairie, TX.", "Posted: March 16th, 2017 11:03AMWhich tooth/teeth: two bottom Had one chipped and went ahead and got both bottom done, will go back for the top in a couple of months ($340).", "I dont have dental insurance just Cigna savings dental card ($100) for a one year subscription.", "Was this post helpful to you?", "yes no Report prohibited or spam2 Simple Extraction Wisdom Teeth Amount: $117.20Posted by: Melodee in Boise, ID.", "Posted: December 14th, 2016 12:12PMWhich tooth/teeth: 2 Upper Wisdom Teeth Local anesthetic with nitrous.", "Standard fee before insurance was $229/ tooth plus $50 nitrous.", "Was this post helpful to you?", "yes no Report prohibited or spam Removal Amount: $1,450.00Posted by: hasy in Garden Grove, CA.", "Posted: October 14th, 2016 12:10PMWhich tooth/teeth: 1 + 3One of them popped out and a normal dentist removed them for about $100.", "Then I had to go back to remove the remaining 3 and it WAS SO expensive.", "Though it's partially my fault for getting the PPO and got the HMO instead.", "Was this post helpful to you?", "yes no Report prohibited or spam All Four wisdom teeth removal Amount: $1,080.00Posted by: Diana R in Exton, PA. Posted: September 27th, 2016 12:09PMWhich tooth/teeth: 1,16,17,32Consultation and x-ray they didn't charge me,they price was $1,909.00 (1220.00 surgical extraction and $689.00 for anesthesia/IV sedation),My dental Allows $1,080.00 Max ( in my dental coverage I reached my max limit 3 month ago with crowns and root canal done) So I need pay fool amount what they are asking : (Was this post helpful to you?", "yes no Report prohibited or spam4 wisdom teeth extracted Amount: $428.00Posted by: a user in New Orleans, LA.", "Posted: July 14th, 2016 01:07PMInsurance covered 80%Was this post helpful to you?", "yes no Report prohibited or spam Wisdom tooth extraction Amount: $900.00Posted by: Firstteam427 in Sayville, NY.", "Posted: May 20th, 2016 07:05PMWhich tooth/teeth: 2 impactions I had one tooth that was sideways and the other was a basic impaction.", "I only had a dental plan and paid what Aetna pays.", "The $900 also included x-rays,funny gas, and local anesthetic.", "Was this post helpful to you?", "yes no Report prohibited or spam My visit Amount: $690.00Posted by: Tabatha in brooklyn, NY.", "Posted: March 12th, 2016 05:03AMI had to pay for an examination.", "Xrays were necessary as well.", "The doctor looked at the xray and there was a cyst attached to the tooth I wanted to be pulled.", "He said it was common and not to worry.", "The numbing was fast and whole thing painless.", "Was this post helpful to you?", "yes no Report prohibited or spam Wisdom teeth removal Amount: $1,650.00Posted by: ny patient in queens, NY.", "Posted: January 28th, 2016 11:01AMWhich tooth/teeth: 4 wisdom teethcost breakdown: $1300 for removal of 4 wisdom teeth, two normal, two partially impacted.", "$350 for ct scan for two of the wisdom teeth to rule out possible nerve damage Was this post helpful to you?", "yes no Report prohibited or spamdefinitely overcharged!!!!!!!!!!", "!Amount: $2,625.00Posted by: Sandra S in Syracuse, NY.", "Posted: January 4th, 2016 01:01PMWhich tooth/teeth: 4 wisdom teeth I was referred to the oral surgeon by my dentist.", "We told them 2 months ago that we did not have dental insurance.", "We never informed of the cost until we came and even though I explained that I had a Health Savings Account for medical costs, they would not start the surgery until I went home and came back with a check and paid them on the spot.", "The cost was never mentioned before my arrival, or any discussion of payment arrangements.", "Who shows up with $2,625 cash available?", "I highly recommend you think twice before going to the Syracuse Oral & Maxillofacial Surgery with Dr. Cunningham Was this post helpful to you?", "yes no Report prohibited or spampending teeth extraction Amount: $4,015.00Posted by: Arcie Huntsman in Indianapolis, IN.", "Posted: September 17th, 2015 02:09PMWhich tooth/teeth: all eleven teeth in my mouth It seems a might high to me,but im going to be receiving IVsedation.he said it will take 2 hours.", "Was this post helpful to you?", "yes no Report prohibited or spam Wisdom Teeth Extraction Amount: $1,570.00Posted by: Sam KAllen in Worcester, MA.", "Posted: September 9th, 2015 01:09PMWhich tooth/teeth: #1,#16,#17,#32First visit cost for oral exam cost $130 and panoramic film x-ray cost $155.", "The total cost of 4 teeth removal (2 were impacted and 2 erupted) was $1570 including IV for 45 minutes and a follow-up visit.", "My dental insurance covers 80%, so I paid $317.", "Was this post helpful to you?", "yes no Report prohibited or spam Wisdom Teeth removal Amount: $636.00Posted by: Ava in UNC, NC.", "Posted: June 22nd, 2015 12:06PMWhich tooth/teeth: All four I do not have insurance but go to one of the top dental schools in the country for routine work and my dentist (resident) referred me to their surgery dept.", "I had two wisdom teeth removed one week and the other two removed 3 weeks from that.", "Total bill was $636.00.", "I saved hundreds, even thousands of money in the end!Was this post helpful to you?", "yes no Report prohibited or spam Wisdom Teeth Extraction Amount: $2,779.00Posted by: Daniel Moore in North Andover, MA.", "Posted: May 18th, 2015 01:05PMWhich tooth/teeth: Remove 4 Teeth Remove Complete Bony Impaction #1,#16,#17,#32 $690 each=$2,760 $655 for 45 minutes of Anesthesia Total: #3,415-$635 left of 2015 Insurance Is this a fair price?", "Was this post helpful to you?", "yes no Report prohibited or spamwisdom tooth removal Amount: $850.00Posted by: amy80 in East prov, RI.", "Posted: April 11th, 2015 05:04PMWhich tooth/teeth: one bottom It was 80 consultation fee.", "My dental insurance covered the tooth removal 100%.", "An my medical picked up the bill for getting put to sleep.", "Was this post helpful to you?", "yes no Report prohibited or spamwisdom teeth Amount: $2,000.00Posted by: a user in New Bedford, MA.", "Posted: March 31st, 2015 11:03AMWhich tooth/teeth: all4Receptionist and Dr..both informed me I had owed nothing.", "Sent me a bill for 2,000.00 My lawyer told me unless you taped the conversation or have it in written ,its my word against there's.", "He told me to write to dentist saying I would pay 20 a month until balance was paid.", "I had also seen another surgeon in same area wanted 2000.00 up front.", "Was this post helpful to you?", "yes no Report prohibited or spamwisdom teeth removed Amount: $2,349.00Posted by: sg in Dubuque, IA.", "Posted: February 24th, 2015 02:02AMWhich tooth/teeth: 4 wisdom All 4 wisdom teeth, one impacted 3 poking through.", "IV sedation for $427 at oral surgeon.", "No insurance and have to also pay $320 for consultation and exam.", "Needed paid half down day of procedure or save 5% if paid in full.", "Was this post helpful to you?", "yes no Report prohibited or spam Wisdom teeth extraction Amount: $3,100.00Posted by: a user in Antoch, CA.", "Posted: February 13th, 2015 06:02AMWhich tooth/teeth: 4 teeth 2 are impacted Liked the Oral Surgeon, but dang!", "How do people afford it?", "Was this post helpful to you?", "yes no Report prohibited or spam Wisdom Teeth Removal Cost Amount: $1,800.00Posted by: JT 101 in Columbus, OH.", "Posted: January 25th, 2015 05:01PMWhich tooth/teeth: All four were completely impacted.", "General Anesthesia cost $200, and it was $400 per tooth.", "Was this post helpful to you?", "yes no Report prohibited or spam Wisdom teeth removal Amount: $241.00Posted by: Morgan223 in Atlanta, GA. Posted: January 24th, 2015 11:01AMWhich tooth/teeth: All four I have great dental insurance right now but unfortunately does not cover sedation.", "I chose laughing gas bc it was $75 vs $500 for an IV.", "Laughing gas does not help with awareness.", "It was the worst experience of my life.", "However, I knew I was lucky because my dental insurance paid nearly $1000 for the procedure.", "Was this post helpful to you?", "yes no Report prohibited or spam Wisdom teeth extraction 2015Amount: $1,300.00Posted by: a user in Blackstone, MA.", "Posted: January 22nd, 2015 06:01AMWhich tooth/teeth: All four Two erupted, two partial bone impactions with local anesthetic.", "X-rays were done at General dentist for $150.", "Total for the procedure was 1300 no insurance.", "Was this post helpful to you?", "yes no Report prohibited or spam Wisdom teeth removal Amount: $2,150.00Posted by: Bellamy in Bethseda, MD.", "Posted: January 14th, 2015 06:01PMWhich tooth/teeth: All No dental insurance, had all four wisdom teeth removed with general anesthetic.", "I was told If I didn't go under that I would have been $1,600.", "Had it done with a plastic surgery surgeon.", "Was this post helpful to you?", "yes no Report prohibited or spamall wisdom teeth removed Amount: $752.00Posted by: Milodora in San Antonio, TX.", "Posted: January 6th, 2015 12:01AMWhich tooth/teeth: All wisdom teeth Paid for the consultation and xrays ($111) and paid half of the total cost of removal (insurance paid the other half including half of the general anesthetic and IV) Felt it was a fair price.", "Was this post helpful to you?", "yes no Report prohibited or spam Great mexican doctor Amount: $600.00Posted by: Adrianne in Tijuana, Mexico, Other.", "Posted: December 17th, 2014 09:12PMWhich tooth/teeth: 4 wisdom Two impacted, two erupted.", "local anesthetic.", "$150 per tooth.", "My dentist was an American dentist practicing in Tijuana, Mexico.", "He used my plasma and injected it into the holes for healing.", "I have felt great, healing is great.", "They also gave me two shots for pain, supposed to work for 12 hours.", "They definitely did help.", "Overall i think the flu is worse than getting my wisdom teeth out.", "Do your research and you can find good medical and dental in Mexico.", "Especially if the Doctors/Dentists are from the U. S. Was this post helpful to you?", "yes no Report prohibited or spam Wisdom tooth removal cost Amount: $60.00Posted by: Canadian Contributor in London, Ontario Canada, Other.", "Posted: November 24th, 2014 10:11PMWhich tooth/teeth: bottom right \"\"third molar\"\"I simply can't afford a regular dentist and so I went to the Dental School at our local university when my Wisdom Tooth broke and became VERY painful.", "The extraction was $40 and the x-ray, \"\"inspection,\"\" and \"\"freezing\"\" needles were $20.", "Two senior students did the work under the watchful gaze of the presiding Dentist/Teacher and even though it turned out to be more work than initially anticipated (the tooth cracked and it had 3 \"\"stubborn\"\" roots,) the final bill was $60.", "If you need this kind of special work done, I advise you to look for a Dental School to see if they have a similar program.", "Was this post helpful to you?", "yes no Report prohibited or spam Page 2 of 2 - << Previous 1 2Comment On Your Experience With Wisdom Teeth Removal Subject: *Amount Spent: *Which tooth/teeth: Comments: Purchased: Year: City: * State: *Information about you: Email: * Email addresses are not displayed.", "Name: This is the name we'll display with your post.", "Remember me on this computer*=required field.", "External Resources:www.aaoms.org/wisdom_teeth.phpwww.youtube.com/watch?v=0uc VJk Io TIEwww.webmd.com/oral-health/wisdom-tooth-extractionwww.ada.org/267.aspxwww.nidcr.nih.gov/oralhealth/popularpublications/findinglowcostdentalcare/www.webmd.com/oral-health/guide/finding-dentistwww.mouthhealthy.org/en/find-a-dentist.aspxwww.aaoms.org/findoms.php More Health & Personal Care Topics Check Out All Costs for Health & Personal Care How Much Does Teeth Cleaning Cost?", "How Much Does an Ambulance Cost?", "How Much Does an Albuterol Inhaler Cost?", "Search Thousands of Topics on Cost Helper.com How much does cost? \"" ]
D37792
http://www.webmd.com/lung/picture-of-the-lungs
Picture of the Lungs
Picture of the Lungs Human Anatomy By Matthew Hoffman, MD© 2014 Web MD, LLC. All rights reserved. Prev Next Continue Reading Below The lungs are a pair of spongy, air-filled organs located on either side of the chest (thorax). The trachea (windpipe) conducts inhaled air into the lungs through its tubular branches, called bronchi. The bronchi then divide into smaller and smaller branches (bronchioles), finally becoming microscopic. The bronchioles eventually end in clusters of microscopic air sacs called alveoli. In the alveoli, oxygen from the air is absorbed into the blood. Carbon dioxide, a waste product of metabolism, travels from the blood to the alveoli, where it can be exhaled. Between the alveoli is a thin layer of cells called the interstitium, which contains blood vessels and cells that help support the alveoli. The lungs are covered by a thin tissue layer called the pleura. The same kind of thin tissue lines the inside of the chest cavity -- also called pleura. A thin layer of fluid acts as a lubricant allowing the lungs to slip smoothly as they expand and contract with each breath. Lung Conditions Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease ( COPD ): Damage to the lungs results in difficulty blowing air out, causing shortness of breath. Smoking is by far the most common cause of COPD. Emphysema: A form of COPD usually caused by smoking. The fragile walls between the lungs' air sacs (alveoli) are damaged, trapping air in the lungs and making breathing difficult. Chronic bronchitis: Repeated, frequent episodes of productive cough, usually caused by smoking. Breathing also becomes difficult in this form of COPD. Pneumonia: Infection in one or both lungs. Bacteria, especially Streptococcus pneumoniae, are the most common cause. Asthma: The lungs' airways (bronchi) become inflamed and can spasm, causing shortness of breath and wheezing. Allergies, viral infections, or air pollution often trigger asthma symptoms. Acute bronchitis: An infection of the lungs' large airways (bronchi), usually caused by a virus. Cough is the main symptom of acute bronchitis. Pulmonary fibrosis: A form of interstitial lung disease. The interstitium (walls between air sacs) become scarred, making the lungs stiff and causing shortness of breath. Sarcoidosis: Tiny areas of inflammation can affect all organs in the body, with the lungs involved most of the time. The symptoms are usually mild; sarcoidosis is usually found when X-rays are done for other reasons. Obesity hypoventilation syndrome: Extra weight makes it difficult to expand the chest when breathing. This can lead to long-term breathing problems. Pleural effusion: Fluid builds up in the normally tiny space between the lung and the inside of the chest wall (the pleural space). If large, pleural effusions can cause problems with breathing. Pleurisy: Inflammation of the lining of the lung (pleura), which often causes pain when breathing in. Autoimmune conditions, infections, or a pulmonary embolism may cause pleurisy. Bronchiectasis: The airways (bronchi) become inflamed and expand abnormally, usually after repeated infections. Coughing, with large amounts of mucus, is the main symptom of bronchiectasis. Lymphangioleiomyomatosis ( LAM ): A rare condition in which cysts form throughout the lungs, causing breathing problems similar to emphysema. LAM occurs almost exclusively in women of childbearing age. Cystic fibrosis: A genetic condition in which mucus does not clear easily from the airways. The excess mucus causes repeated episodes of bronchitis and pneumonia throughout life. Interstitial lung disease: A collection of conditions in which the interstitium (lining between the air sacs) becomes diseased. Fibrosis (scarring) of the interstitium eventually results, if the process can't be stopped. Lung cancer: Cancer may affect almost any part of the lung. Most lung cancer is caused by smoking. Tuberculosis: A slowly progressive pneumonia caused by the bacteria Mycobacterium tuberculosis. Chronic cough, fever, weight loss, and night sweats are common symptoms of tuberculosis. Acute respiratory distress syndrome ( ARDS ): Severe, sudden injury to the lungs caused by a serious illness. Life support with mechanical ventilation is usually needed to survive until the lungs recover. Coccidioidomycosis: A pneumonia caused by Coccidioides, a fungus found in the soil in the southwestern U. S. Most people experience no symptoms, or a flu-like illness with complete recovery. Histoplasmosis: An infection caused by inhaling Histoplasma capsulatum, a fungus found in the soil in the eastern and central U. S. Most Histoplasma pneumonias are mild, causing only a short-lived cough and flu-like symptoms. Hypersensitivity pneumonitis (allergic alveolitis): Inhaled dust causes an allergic reaction in the lungs. Usually this occurs in farmers or others who work with dried, dusty plant material. Influenza (flu): An infection by one or more flu viruses causes fever, body aches, and coughing lasting a week or more. Influenza can progress to life-threatening pneumonia, especially in older people with medical problems. Mesothelioma: A rare form of cancer that forms from the cells lining various organs of the body with the lungs being the most common. Mesothelioma tends to emerge several decades after asbestos exposure. Pertussis ( whooping cough ): A highly contagious infection of the airways (bronchi) by Bordetella pertussis, causing persistent cough. A booster vaccine (Tdap) is recommended for adolescents and adults to prevent pertussis. Pulmonary hypertension: Many conditions can lead to high blood pressure in the arteries leading from the heart to the lungs. If no cause can be identified, the condition is called idiopathic pulmonary arterial hypertension. Pulmonary embolism: A blood clot (usually from a vein in the leg) may break off and travel to the heart, which pumps the clot (embolus) into the lungs. Sudden shortness of breath is the most common symptom of a pulmonary embolism. Severe acute respiratory syndrome ( SARS ): A severe pneumonia caused by a specific virus first discovered in Asia in 2002. Worldwide prevention measures seem to have controlled SARS, which has caused no deaths in the U. S. Pneumothorax: Air in the chest; it occurs when air enters the area around the lung (the pleural space) abnormally. Pneumothorax can be caused by an injury or may happen spontaneously.1 2 3 View All
[ "Picture of the Lungs Human Anatomy By Matthew Hoffman, MD© 2014 Web MD, LLC.", "All rights reserved.", "Prev Next Continue Reading Below The lungs are a pair of spongy, air-filled organs located on either side of the chest (thorax).", "The trachea (windpipe) conducts inhaled air into the lungs through its tubular branches, called bronchi.", "The bronchi then divide into smaller and smaller branches (bronchioles), finally becoming microscopic.", "The bronchioles eventually end in clusters of microscopic air sacs called alveoli.", "In the alveoli, oxygen from the air is absorbed into the blood.", "Carbon dioxide, a waste product of metabolism, travels from the blood to the alveoli, where it can be exhaled.", "Between the alveoli is a thin layer of cells called the interstitium, which contains blood vessels and cells that help support the alveoli.", "The lungs are covered by a thin tissue layer called the pleura.", "The same kind of thin tissue lines the inside of the chest cavity -- also called pleura.", "A thin layer of fluid acts as a lubricant allowing the lungs to slip smoothly as they expand and contract with each breath.", "Lung Conditions Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease ( COPD ): Damage to the lungs results in difficulty blowing air out, causing shortness of breath.", "Smoking is by far the most common cause of COPD.", "Emphysema: A form of COPD usually caused by smoking.", "The fragile walls between the lungs' air sacs (alveoli) are damaged, trapping air in the lungs and making breathing difficult.", "Chronic bronchitis: Repeated, frequent episodes of productive cough, usually caused by smoking.", "Breathing also becomes difficult in this form of COPD.", "Pneumonia: Infection in one or both lungs.", "Bacteria, especially Streptococcus pneumoniae, are the most common cause.", "Asthma: The lungs' airways (bronchi) become inflamed and can spasm, causing shortness of breath and wheezing.", "Allergies, viral infections, or air pollution often trigger asthma symptoms.", "Acute bronchitis: An infection of the lungs' large airways (bronchi), usually caused by a virus.", "Cough is the main symptom of acute bronchitis.", "Pulmonary fibrosis: A form of interstitial lung disease.", "The interstitium (walls between air sacs) become scarred, making the lungs stiff and causing shortness of breath.", "Sarcoidosis: Tiny areas of inflammation can affect all organs in the body, with the lungs involved most of the time.", "The symptoms are usually mild; sarcoidosis is usually found when X-rays are done for other reasons.", "Obesity hypoventilation syndrome: Extra weight makes it difficult to expand the chest when breathing.", "This can lead to long-term breathing problems.", "Pleural effusion: Fluid builds up in the normally tiny space between the lung and the inside of the chest wall (the pleural space).", "If large, pleural effusions can cause problems with breathing.", "Pleurisy: Inflammation of the lining of the lung (pleura), which often causes pain when breathing in.", "Autoimmune conditions, infections, or a pulmonary embolism may cause pleurisy.", "Bronchiectasis: The airways (bronchi) become inflamed and expand abnormally, usually after repeated infections.", "Coughing, with large amounts of mucus, is the main symptom of bronchiectasis.", "Lymphangioleiomyomatosis ( LAM ): A rare condition in which cysts form throughout the lungs, causing breathing problems similar to emphysema.", "LAM occurs almost exclusively in women of childbearing age.", "Cystic fibrosis: A genetic condition in which mucus does not clear easily from the airways.", "The excess mucus causes repeated episodes of bronchitis and pneumonia throughout life.", "Interstitial lung disease: A collection of conditions in which the interstitium (lining between the air sacs) becomes diseased.", "Fibrosis (scarring) of the interstitium eventually results, if the process can't be stopped.", "Lung cancer: Cancer may affect almost any part of the lung.", "Most lung cancer is caused by smoking.", "Tuberculosis: A slowly progressive pneumonia caused by the bacteria Mycobacterium tuberculosis.", "Chronic cough, fever, weight loss, and night sweats are common symptoms of tuberculosis.", "Acute respiratory distress syndrome ( ARDS ): Severe, sudden injury to the lungs caused by a serious illness.", "Life support with mechanical ventilation is usually needed to survive until the lungs recover.", "Coccidioidomycosis: A pneumonia caused by Coccidioides, a fungus found in the soil in the southwestern U. S. Most people experience no symptoms, or a flu-like illness with complete recovery.", "Histoplasmosis: An infection caused by inhaling Histoplasma capsulatum, a fungus found in the soil in the eastern and central U. S. Most Histoplasma pneumonias are mild, causing only a short-lived cough and flu-like symptoms.", "Hypersensitivity pneumonitis (allergic alveolitis): Inhaled dust causes an allergic reaction in the lungs.", "Usually this occurs in farmers or others who work with dried, dusty plant material.", "Influenza (flu): An infection by one or more flu viruses causes fever, body aches, and coughing lasting a week or more.", "Influenza can progress to life-threatening pneumonia, especially in older people with medical problems.", "Mesothelioma: A rare form of cancer that forms from the cells lining various organs of the body with the lungs being the most common.", "Mesothelioma tends to emerge several decades after asbestos exposure.", "Pertussis ( whooping cough ): A highly contagious infection of the airways (bronchi) by Bordetella pertussis, causing persistent cough.", "A booster vaccine (Tdap) is recommended for adolescents and adults to prevent pertussis.", "Pulmonary hypertension: Many conditions can lead to high blood pressure in the arteries leading from the heart to the lungs.", "If no cause can be identified, the condition is called idiopathic pulmonary arterial hypertension.", "Pulmonary embolism: A blood clot (usually from a vein in the leg) may break off and travel to the heart, which pumps the clot (embolus) into the lungs.", "Sudden shortness of breath is the most common symptom of a pulmonary embolism.", "Severe acute respiratory syndrome ( SARS ): A severe pneumonia caused by a specific virus first discovered in Asia in 2002.", "Worldwide prevention measures seem to have controlled SARS, which has caused no deaths in the U. S. Pneumothorax: Air in the chest; it occurs when air enters the area around the lung (the pleural space) abnormally.", "Pneumothorax can be caused by an injury or may happen spontaneously.1 2 3 View All" ]
D109363
http://www.mayoclinic.org/symptoms/night-leg-cramps/basics/causes/SYM-20050813
Night leg cramps
Appointments at Mayo Clinic Mayo Clinic offers appointments in Arizona, Florida and Minnesota and at Mayo Clinic Health System locations. Request Appointment Symptoms Night leg cramps Print Basics Resources Definition Causes When to see a doctor Products and services Free E-newsletter Subscribe to Housecall Our general interest e-newsletter keeps you up to date on a wide variety of health topics. Sign up now Causes By Mayo Clinic Staff Most of the time, no apparent cause for night leg cramps can be identified. In general, night leg cramps are likely to be related to muscle fatigue and nerve problems. The risk of having night leg cramps increases with age. Pregnant women also have a higher likelihood of having night leg cramps. Several conditions, such as kidney failure and diabetic nerve damage, are known to cause night leg cramps. But if you have one of these, you're most likely aware of it and have symptoms other than night leg cramps. People who are taking certain medications, such as certain diuretics, might be more likely to have night leg cramps, although it's not known if there's a direct connection. Restless legs syndrome (RLS) is sometimes confused with night leg cramps, but it's a separate condition. In general, pain is not a main feature of RLS, although some people describe their RLS as being painful. Other conditions that may sometimes be associated with night leg cramps may include: Structural disorders Peripheral artery disease Spinal stenosis Metabolic problems Acute kidney failure Addison's disease (adrenal insufficiency)Anemia Chronic kidney disease Cirrhosis (scarring of the liver)Hyperthyroidism (overactive thyroid)Hypothyroidism (underactive thyroid)Type 1 diabetes Type 2 diabetes Medications and procedures Blood pressure drugs Cholesterol-lowering drugs (statins)Dialysis Diuretics (water retention relievers)Oral contraceptives Other conditions Dehydration Diarrhea Muscle fatigue Nerve damage, as from cancer treatments Osteoarthritis (disease causing the breakdown of joints)Parkinson's disease Pregnancy Causes shown here are commonly associated with this symptom. Work with your doctor or other health care professional for an accurate diagnosis. Definition When to see a doctor Jan. 11, 2018References Products and Services Book: Mayo Clinic Guide to Pain Relief Newsletter: Mayo Clinic Health Letter Advertisement Mayo Clinic does not endorse companies or products. Advertising revenue supports our not-for-profit mission. Advertising & Sponsorship Policy Opportunities Ad Choices Mayo Clinic Marketplace Check out these best-sellers and special offers on books and newsletters from Mayo Clinic. FREE TRIAL – Mayo Clinic Health Letter Stop Osteoporosis in Its Tracks Improve Your Hearing and Balance Best Treatment Strategies for Arthritis The Mayo Clinic Diet Online Other Topics in Patient Care & Health Info Healthy Lifestyle Symptoms A-Z Diseases and Conditions A-Z Tests and Procedures A-ZDrugs and Supplements A-Z Appointments Patient and Visitor Guide Billing and Insurance Patient Online Services
[ "Appointments at Mayo Clinic Mayo Clinic offers appointments in Arizona, Florida and Minnesota and at Mayo Clinic Health System locations.", "Request Appointment Symptoms Night leg cramps Print Basics Resources Definition Causes When to see a doctor Products and services Free E-newsletter Subscribe to Housecall Our general interest e-newsletter keeps you up to date on a wide variety of health topics.", "Sign up now Causes By Mayo Clinic Staff Most of the time, no apparent cause for night leg cramps can be identified.", "In general, night leg cramps are likely to be related to muscle fatigue and nerve problems.", "The risk of having night leg cramps increases with age.", "Pregnant women also have a higher likelihood of having night leg cramps.", "Several conditions, such as kidney failure and diabetic nerve damage, are known to cause night leg cramps.", "But if you have one of these, you're most likely aware of it and have symptoms other than night leg cramps.", "People who are taking certain medications, such as certain diuretics, might be more likely to have night leg cramps, although it's not known if there's a direct connection.", "Restless legs syndrome (RLS) is sometimes confused with night leg cramps, but it's a separate condition.", "In general, pain is not a main feature of RLS, although some people describe their RLS as being painful.", "Other conditions that may sometimes be associated with night leg cramps may include: Structural disorders Peripheral artery disease Spinal stenosis Metabolic problems Acute kidney failure Addison's disease (adrenal insufficiency)Anemia Chronic kidney disease Cirrhosis (scarring of the liver)Hyperthyroidism (overactive thyroid)Hypothyroidism (underactive thyroid)Type 1 diabetes Type 2 diabetes Medications and procedures Blood pressure drugs Cholesterol-lowering drugs (statins)Dialysis Diuretics (water retention relievers)Oral contraceptives Other conditions Dehydration Diarrhea Muscle fatigue Nerve damage, as from cancer treatments Osteoarthritis (disease causing the breakdown of joints)Parkinson's disease Pregnancy Causes shown here are commonly associated with this symptom.", "Work with your doctor or other health care professional for an accurate diagnosis.", "Definition When to see a doctor Jan. 11, 2018References Products and Services Book: Mayo Clinic Guide to Pain Relief Newsletter: Mayo Clinic Health Letter Advertisement Mayo Clinic does not endorse companies or products.", "Advertising revenue supports our not-for-profit mission.", "Advertising & Sponsorship Policy Opportunities Ad Choices Mayo Clinic Marketplace Check out these best-sellers and special offers on books and newsletters from Mayo Clinic.", "FREE TRIAL – Mayo Clinic Health Letter Stop Osteoporosis in Its Tracks Improve Your Hearing and Balance Best Treatment Strategies for Arthritis The Mayo Clinic Diet Online Other Topics in Patient Care & Health Info Healthy Lifestyle Symptoms A-Z Diseases and Conditions A-Z Tests and Procedures A-ZDrugs and Supplements A-Z Appointments Patient and Visitor Guide Billing and Insurance Patient Online Services" ]
D132026
http://smallbusiness.chron.com/good-typing-speed-per-minute-71789.html
What Is a Good Typing Speed Per Minute?
Related Articles1How to Test WPM Typing Speed2What Is Data Entry 10-Key?35 Factors That Demonstrate a Strong Work Ethic4How to Write a Short Bio About Yourself Being able to type quickly is essential in today's computer-driven work environment. Good typing speed is relative to the job description. There are ways to both calculate typing speed and improve typing speed and accuracy for business owners to help improve office efficiency. The Fastest Speeds The fastest recorded typists in history have word-per-minute speeds recorded over 200. In 1946, Stella Pajunas hit a record 216 words per minute on an electric typewriter. This number seems untouchable, though Barbara Blackburn topped out at 212 words per minute in 2005, averaging over 150 words per minute. Considering average adult reading speeds are 270 words per minute, these numbers are impressive but not typical. Average and Accuracy There is a slight difference in average typing speeds between males and females. Males average approximately 44 words per minute, while females average 37 words per minute. The average of the two is 41 words per minute. Handwriting is estimated to reach slightly more than 30 words per minute, which shows that average typing is still faster than handwriting. Average typists usually make mistakes. The accuracy average is 92 percent—average typists make eight typographical errors per 100 words typed on a page. Professional Standards The job determines the typing speed required and the average for that profession. Although anyone can improve efficiency with faster and more accurate typing, some jobs require accurate and fast typing skills on the first day. Data-entry positions usually require at least 45 words per minute. Positions such as medical transcriptionists, paralegals and secretaries often require anywhere from 70 to 90 words per minutes on average. Improving Typing Skills Typing faster means nothing if accuracy is sacrificed. Improving typing skills requires working on both. Improving typing starts with focusing on touch typing and stopping the glances down at the keyboard. It also requires using the same keyboard to improve the fingers' muscle memory. There are many programs found online to help improve typing. Many are free and incorporate online competitions with leaderboards to inspire better results. Dictation Software Dictation software is becoming popular. People speak much faster than they read or type. While the faster speakers such as auctioneers spout out words at a rate over 400 words per minute, the average person can use dictation software to hit around 100 words per minute. For the average typist, this more than doubles results. Dictation software takes time to calibrate to the speaker's voice and is best used for long-form projects instead of data entry that needs to move from field to field quickly, often while the typist is on the phone. References (4)Resources (2)About the Author With more than 15 years of professional writing experience, Kimberlee finds it fun to take technical mumbo-jumbo and make it fun! Her first career was in financial services and insurance. Photo Credits Hemera Technologies/Able Stock.com/Getty Images Cite this Article
[ "Related Articles1How to Test WPM Typing Speed2What Is Data Entry 10-Key?35 Factors That Demonstrate a Strong Work Ethic4How to Write a Short Bio About Yourself Being able to type quickly is essential in today's computer-driven work environment.", "Good typing speed is relative to the job description.", "There are ways to both calculate typing speed and improve typing speed and accuracy for business owners to help improve office efficiency.", "The Fastest Speeds The fastest recorded typists in history have word-per-minute speeds recorded over 200.", "In 1946, Stella Pajunas hit a record 216 words per minute on an electric typewriter.", "This number seems untouchable, though Barbara Blackburn topped out at 212 words per minute in 2005, averaging over 150 words per minute.", "Considering average adult reading speeds are 270 words per minute, these numbers are impressive but not typical.", "Average and Accuracy There is a slight difference in average typing speeds between males and females.", "Males average approximately 44 words per minute, while females average 37 words per minute.", "The average of the two is 41 words per minute.", "Handwriting is estimated to reach slightly more than 30 words per minute, which shows that average typing is still faster than handwriting.", "Average typists usually make mistakes.", "The accuracy average is 92 percent—average typists make eight typographical errors per 100 words typed on a page.", "Professional Standards The job determines the typing speed required and the average for that profession.", "Although anyone can improve efficiency with faster and more accurate typing, some jobs require accurate and fast typing skills on the first day.", "Data-entry positions usually require at least 45 words per minute.", "Positions such as medical transcriptionists, paralegals and secretaries often require anywhere from 70 to 90 words per minutes on average.", "Improving Typing Skills Typing faster means nothing if accuracy is sacrificed.", "Improving typing skills requires working on both.", "Improving typing starts with focusing on touch typing and stopping the glances down at the keyboard.", "It also requires using the same keyboard to improve the fingers' muscle memory.", "There are many programs found online to help improve typing.", "Many are free and incorporate online competitions with leaderboards to inspire better results.", "Dictation Software Dictation software is becoming popular.", "People speak much faster than they read or type.", "While the faster speakers such as auctioneers spout out words at a rate over 400 words per minute, the average person can use dictation software to hit around 100 words per minute.", "For the average typist, this more than doubles results.", "Dictation software takes time to calibrate to the speaker's voice and is best used for long-form projects instead of data entry that needs to move from field to field quickly, often while the typist is on the phone.", "References (4)Resources (2)About the Author With more than 15 years of professional writing experience, Kimberlee finds it fun to take technical mumbo-jumbo and make it fun!", "Her first career was in financial services and insurance.", "Photo Credits Hemera Technologies/Able Stock.com/Getty Images Cite this Article" ]
D20817
http://howmuchdoesitcost.me/health-beauty/dental-crown-costs/
How Much Do Dental Crowns Cost?
How Much Do Dental Crowns Cost? Dec 23, 2013 by Patricia 7 Comments Posted under: Health & Beauty What’s on this page: Cost Summary The Procedure Costs With/Without Insurance Dental Implant Crown Costs Gold Crown Costs Cost Summary of Dental Crowns The prices for dental crowns range from $500 to $2,500 per crown and are dependent upon the materials used, location of tooth and geographic location. The average cost of a crown is $825, with or without dental insurance coverage. The cheapest cost of a dental crown is $500 for a simple metal crown. Dental crowns are specifically shaped shells that fit over damaged or broken teeth for either cosmetic or structural purposes. Crowns come in various forms, from basic gold crowns to all porcelain. Regardless of the reason, crowns can extend the life of natural teeth and improve both one’s smile and quality of life. Dental crowns, or caps as they used to be called, not only provide cosmetic benefits in the case of yellowed or chipped teeth, but they also can be used to improve bite function of the mouth and decrease the effects of TMJ (temporal mandibular joint syndrome). Given that every mouth is unique, each crown must be custom made to match the color and bite pattern of the surround teeth. The Procedure Generally, it takes two office visits to create and place a crown. During the first visit, which takes about an hour, the tooth is prepared. The dentist will remove any damaged or decayed areas of the tooth and some healthy sections so the crown can be placed. Then a mold of the tooth is made and sent to a dental laboratory to be custom made. The dentist then places a temporary crown made of stainless steel or an acrylic material over the tooth to protect it until the permanent crown is ready for placement. While the temporary crown is in place, patients must avoid sticky or chewy foods such as gum and caramel as well as hard, crunchy foods like hard candies or raw vegetables. These types of foods can cause the temporary crown to either dislodge or break. Care must also be taken while flossing since a downward motion must be used rather than a side to side to avoid moving the crown. Once the permanent crown is ready, the dentist will remove the temporary one and place the new crown on the existing tooth using a strong dental adhesive. Any rough spots that affect the bite or cause mouth irritation will be smoothed down. Patients must continue to avoid sticky foods even with a permanent crown and continue to floss from front to back, rather than up and down. With proper care, crowns can last 8 to 10 years or longer. Costs with and without Insurance Most dental insurance plans will cover a portion crown’s cost. Typically they have an annual limit of $1,000 to $1,500 annually. If more than one crown is needed, many people will schedule one for late in the plan year, and then have another put on early the next plan year to minimize time between procedures while maximizing their benefits. Insurance generally covers crowns at 50%. Metal crowns made of gold alloy or of base-metal alloys and generally cost $600 to $2,500 per tooth depending on the metal and the size of the tooth. People with insurance typically paid $520 – $1,140 out of pocket with an average of $882 per crown. Those without insurance generally paid between $830 and $2,465 per crown with an average cost of $1,350. Porcelain-fused–to-metal crowns are the most popular type of crown. Costs run from $500 to $1,500 or more per tooth. Patients with insurance generally had copays of $280 to $1,000 per crown with an average payment of $620. Those without coverage paid $875 to $1,400 per tooth with an average cost of nearly $1,100. All-porcelain crowns are the most delicate, most lifelike and most expensive and the cost reflects this. These types of crowns cost from $800 to over $3,000. Insurance copays for all-porcelain crowns range from $530 – $1,875, with an average out of pocket cost of $950 per crown. Those without insurance are generally charged $860 to $3,000 per crown with an average cost of $1,425. Dental Implant Crown Costs One alternative to false teeth or bridges is to undergo reconstruction with dental implants. These are also used in the event there is not enough of the natural tooth to place a standard crown. In this case, the tooth is removed and a small screw-like cylinder is implanted directly into the jaw bone under general anesthesia. The surgeon can either stitch over the screw to allow the area to heal or immediately place a crown over the post to give the appearance of a natural tooth. Because of the surgery involved, implant crowns are considerably more expensive. However, they can last a lifetime since they are permanently anchored into the jaw. Generally the cost for the implant alone is $1,000 to $3,000 given the location of the implant. The crown costs an additional $500 to $3,000, again dependent on the size and type of crown placed. The average cost for a single implant crown is $4,250. Gold Crown Costs Gold, or high-noble metal, crowns are generally used for molars although some individuals like the appearance of gold on visible teeth. Gold crowns are durable and require less of the natural tooth to be removed than other types of crowns. They are less expensive than all-porcelain crowns, but more than the porcelain-over-metal crowns. The average cost of a gold crown is $900, but the prices vary if the patient has insurance. In summary, dental crowns are an alternative to false teeth or bridges and can improve both the appearance of the smile as well as improving a patient’s bite and overall mouth health. Tags: featured
[ "How Much Do Dental Crowns Cost?", "Dec 23, 2013 by Patricia 7 Comments Posted under: Health & Beauty What’s on this page: Cost Summary The Procedure Costs With/Without Insurance Dental Implant Crown Costs Gold Crown Costs Cost Summary of Dental Crowns The prices for dental crowns range from $500 to $2,500 per crown and are dependent upon the materials used, location of tooth and geographic location.", "The average cost of a crown is $825, with or without dental insurance coverage.", "The cheapest cost of a dental crown is $500 for a simple metal crown.", "Dental crowns are specifically shaped shells that fit over damaged or broken teeth for either cosmetic or structural purposes.", "Crowns come in various forms, from basic gold crowns to all porcelain.", "Regardless of the reason, crowns can extend the life of natural teeth and improve both one’s smile and quality of life.", "Dental crowns, or caps as they used to be called, not only provide cosmetic benefits in the case of yellowed or chipped teeth, but they also can be used to improve bite function of the mouth and decrease the effects of TMJ (temporal mandibular joint syndrome).", "Given that every mouth is unique, each crown must be custom made to match the color and bite pattern of the surround teeth.", "The Procedure Generally, it takes two office visits to create and place a crown.", "During the first visit, which takes about an hour, the tooth is prepared.", "The dentist will remove any damaged or decayed areas of the tooth and some healthy sections so the crown can be placed.", "Then a mold of the tooth is made and sent to a dental laboratory to be custom made.", "The dentist then places a temporary crown made of stainless steel or an acrylic material over the tooth to protect it until the permanent crown is ready for placement.", "While the temporary crown is in place, patients must avoid sticky or chewy foods such as gum and caramel as well as hard, crunchy foods like hard candies or raw vegetables.", "These types of foods can cause the temporary crown to either dislodge or break.", "Care must also be taken while flossing since a downward motion must be used rather than a side to side to avoid moving the crown.", "Once the permanent crown is ready, the dentist will remove the temporary one and place the new crown on the existing tooth using a strong dental adhesive.", "Any rough spots that affect the bite or cause mouth irritation will be smoothed down.", "Patients must continue to avoid sticky foods even with a permanent crown and continue to floss from front to back, rather than up and down.", "With proper care, crowns can last 8 to 10 years or longer.", "Costs with and without Insurance Most dental insurance plans will cover a portion crown’s cost.", "Typically they have an annual limit of $1,000 to $1,500 annually.", "If more than one crown is needed, many people will schedule one for late in the plan year, and then have another put on early the next plan year to minimize time between procedures while maximizing their benefits.", "Insurance generally covers crowns at 50%.", "Metal crowns made of gold alloy or of base-metal alloys and generally cost $600 to $2,500 per tooth depending on the metal and the size of the tooth.", "People with insurance typically paid $520 – $1,140 out of pocket with an average of $882 per crown.", "Those without insurance generally paid between $830 and $2,465 per crown with an average cost of $1,350.", "Porcelain-fused–to-metal crowns are the most popular type of crown.", "Costs run from $500 to $1,500 or more per tooth.", "Patients with insurance generally had copays of $280 to $1,000 per crown with an average payment of $620.", "Those without coverage paid $875 to $1,400 per tooth with an average cost of nearly $1,100.", "All-porcelain crowns are the most delicate, most lifelike and most expensive and the cost reflects this.", "These types of crowns cost from $800 to over $3,000.", "Insurance copays for all-porcelain crowns range from $530 – $1,875, with an average out of pocket cost of $950 per crown.", "Those without insurance are generally charged $860 to $3,000 per crown with an average cost of $1,425.", "Dental Implant Crown Costs One alternative to false teeth or bridges is to undergo reconstruction with dental implants.", "These are also used in the event there is not enough of the natural tooth to place a standard crown.", "In this case, the tooth is removed and a small screw-like cylinder is implanted directly into the jaw bone under general anesthesia.", "The surgeon can either stitch over the screw to allow the area to heal or immediately place a crown over the post to give the appearance of a natural tooth.", "Because of the surgery involved, implant crowns are considerably more expensive.", "However, they can last a lifetime since they are permanently anchored into the jaw.", "Generally the cost for the implant alone is $1,000 to $3,000 given the location of the implant.", "The crown costs an additional $500 to $3,000, again dependent on the size and type of crown placed.", "The average cost for a single implant crown is $4,250.", "Gold Crown Costs Gold, or high-noble metal, crowns are generally used for molars although some individuals like the appearance of gold on visible teeth.", "Gold crowns are durable and require less of the natural tooth to be removed than other types of crowns.", "They are less expensive than all-porcelain crowns, but more than the porcelain-over-metal crowns.", "The average cost of a gold crown is $900, but the prices vary if the patient has insurance.", "In summary, dental crowns are an alternative to false teeth or bridges and can improve both the appearance of the smile as well as improving a patient’s bite and overall mouth health.", "Tags: featured" ]